Translation of Poetry

Home , Catch Bull at Four, Matthew and Son, Morning Has Broken, New Masters, Roadsinger

MASARYK UNIVERSITY IN BRNO

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

Department of English Language and Literature

Cat Stevens’ texts Translation and analysis Bachelor Thesis

Brno 2012

Supervisor: Mgr. Martin Němec Written by: Jitka Tomanová

Declaration

I hereby declare that this bachelor thesis was done by my own and I used only the materials that are stated in the literary sources. I agree with the placing of this bachelor thesis in the Masaryk University Brno in the library of the Department of English Language and Literature and with the access for studying purposes.

In Brno, 20th April ...... Jitka Tomanová

Acknowledgement

I would like to thank my supervisor Mgr. Martin Němec for his guidance, valuable advice and support. I appreciate his patient attitude, help and recommendation of literature.

3 Content

1 Introduction ...... 5 2 Cat Stevens ...... 6 3 Practical part ...... 8 4 Theoretical part ...... 26 4.1 Basic principles of translation ...... 27 4.2 The theory of equivalence ...... 27 4.3 Translation of poetry ...... 29 4.4 Verse ...... 31 4.4.1 Semantic centres ...... 32 4.4.2 Rhythm, tempo and metre ...... 33 4.4.3 Free verse ...... 36 4.4.4 The lines divide and enjambment ...... 37 4.5 The rhyme ...... 37 4.5.1 Grammatical rhyme ...... 38 4.5.2 Monosyllable , two syllables and dactylic rhyme ...... 38 4.5.3 The rich rhyme ...... 40 4.5.4 The half-rhyme, the eye rhyme and pararhyme ...... 41 4.5.5 Rhyme vocabulary ...... 42 4.6 Euphony ...... 43 4.6.1 Assonance ...... 45 4.6.2 Consonance ...... 46 4.6.3 Alliteration ...... 47 4.7 Figures and tropes ...... 47 4.7.1 Tropes ...... 48 4.7.1.1 Metaphor ...... 48 4.7.1.2 Simile ...... 49 4.7.1.3 Personification ...... 50 4.7.1.4 Synaesthesia ...... 50 4.7.1.5 Periphrasis ...... 51 4.7.1.6 Hyperbole and litotes ...... 51 4.7.2 Epithet ...... 52 4.7.3 Figures ...... 53 4.8 The graphic side of poems ...... 55 4.9 Translation of poems‟ titles ...... 56 4.10 Equivalence in translation of poetry ...... 56 4.10.1 Lexical equivalence ...... 57 4.10.1.1 Formal distinctions ...... 57 4.10.1.2 Differences in denotation ...... 58 4.10.1.3 Differences in connotation ...... 58 4.10.1.4 Pragmatic distinctions ...... 59 4.10.2 The absence of equivalents ...... 59 5 Conclusion ...... 61 Summary ...... 63 Resumé ...... 64 Works cited ...... 65

4 1 Introduction

For my bachelor thesis I have chosen a translation of poetry as I have always been interested in this kind of literature. Translation of poetry presents a challenge and I would like to discover whether I am able to deal with the difficulties of this type of literary work. Furthermore, translation requires a certain kind of level of creativity and language skills and I would like to achieve through experience of my own abilities and boundaries. I have chosen Cat Stevens‟ texts for several reasons. Firstly, I have always enjoyed reading them and listening to his texts. Secondly, I have known him since my childhood and I am familiar with his life and work. Therefore, I hope I have a good basis for interpretation of his poems. And lastly, I knew several translations of his texts which do not represent the original in an adequate way, and in my opinion the translations should be realized more carefully with higher attention to the source. Stevens‟ texts and topics underwent many changes and I would like to try express his findings in Czech. At the beginning of the thesis I would like to emphasize that Cat Stevens‟ texts are written as lyrics. With regard to my limited language skills and lack of academic experience with translation I have decided to deal with the texts as I would do with poetry. As a result, most of the texts are written in the free verse. I will refer to the texts as to poems. My intention is to present a modern translation, poetically and thoughtfully considering the original. Nowadays the main tendency in theories of translation is the equivalence theory. In the theoretical part I will work mainly with the ideas of Czech authors Jiří Levý and Dagmar Knittlová, particularly with opinions of Peter Newmark, Mona Baker and Milan Hrdlička. According to Jiří Levý translating of poetry offers an amount of problems because of the high number of invariant features of this literary kind (Levý 1963). Although the expressions in poems do not often demand the precious translations of denotative meanings, the attention must be given to the form and keeping the mood of the text appears as substantial. In order to reach the same effect it is needed to treat carefully the elements of poetry: rhythm, verse, rhyme and euphony. I will focus mainly on these components during my translation and then I will concentrate on problems connected with them in an analysis. The structure of bachelor thesis will be following. The brief introduction of the author will be followed by a practical part concerning the translations. The theoretical part will deal with problems of translation poetry based on the practical part and then the conclusion will be made.

5 2 Cat Stevens

Cat Stevens‟ original name is Stevens Demeter Georgiou. His father was Greek and his mother was Swedish, both were living in London. Stevens was born 21st July 1948. His father has a restaurant very near the West End and this neighbourhood with its inspiriting atmosphere influenced Stevens very much. “At night, musicals would echo from Drury Lane just across the road and drift up through his window; he would oftentimes be found hanging around in coffee bars, where the latest hit singles were continuously playing” (Biography)1. Stevens started to play music at the age of 15, when he got his first guitar. In that time he was also interested in painting. His talent and songs were discovered by Mike Hurts during Stevens‟ studies at Hammersmith Art College. Hurts recorded Stevens‟ first hits I Love My Dog and Portobello Road. These songs were successful and Stevens – now already known as Cat Stevens – was chosen by Decca Records to join the Dream Label. Steven Georgiou took this stage name Cat Stevens because his girlfriend had said his eyes are catlike and because he was sure that in England and America people like animals The next songs became to be the hits soon – Mathew and Son, I‟m Gonna Get Me a Gun, Here Comes My Baby, The First Cut Is the Deepest. The First Cut Is the Deepest was adapted by P.P. Arnold and several years later the song was performed by Rod Steward. Cat Stevens began to be a famous song-writer in sixties. His first album named Matthew and Son won No.7 in 1967. (Biography) Though some of Stevens‟ early songs are recorded with many different musical instruments, in the late sixties he already had changed his style. His main instrument was acoustic the guitar and the inspiration came from folk and blues music. Stevens was probably inspired by Paul Simon and other contemporary artists. “These were the early days of a new tradition that used folk idioms in melodic acoustic ballads, the roots of the seventies singer-songwriter movement, which would produce performers like James Taylor and Joni Mitchell. “ (Biography) From that time Cat Stevens started to be the vital part of this tradition. The important change in Cat Stevens‟ life was his illness at 1968. (Biography) He was diagnosed with tuberculosis and it forced him to stay at peace, no performances, only to cure his lungs. He spent this time by thinking and meditating and it let a relevant mark on his lyrics and music. The music started to be deeper, with the using of string instruments. Stevens expressed that in the old days the melody had been the most important, but later he thought

1 Refers to web page, see Works Cited, Web source.

6 more and more about the words and started to use them more. The sound changed from folk to rock as we can hear on album Mona Bone Jakon (in 1970). With single Lady D‟Arbanville he reached highest places in American charts. (Biography) Probably the most significant albums were Tea for the Tillerman (in 1970) and Teaser and the Firecat (in 1971). During those years another change was reproaching. Cat Stevens seemed to be attracted by Zen Budhism, vegetarianism, numerology and astrology. And it also had a strong influence on Stevens‟ music, especially on his lyrics. This period contains album as Catch Bull at Four (in 1972), Foreigner (in 1973), Buddha and the Chocolate Box (in 1974). (Biography) The next years brought new inspirations and new thoughts. Cat Stevens started to be interested in Islam. In his biography he summarized the western style of life as a happy one, but not satisfying. (Biography) Album Numbers (in 1975) was influenced by Stevens‟ searching; it has a unique sound based especially on leading melody Majik of Majiks. Perhaps the most visible change in Cat Steven‟s life and also in his work style came after he final turn to Islam, changed his name to Yusuf Islam and stopped working in the music business for a while (he made this decision after the experience of drowning and feeling the presence of death). He devoted his time to charity and also was interested in education. In 1995 Yusuf Islam returned to the music scene. His two latest albums are Another Cup (in 2006) and Roadsinger (in 2009). Now he is using the sound of Arabian instruments and in lyrics we can find marks of his belief, but even though the music is completely different from the music of Cat Stevens, it is worth hearing. Islam is a religion with a different cultural background and also the approach to the art is different for believers. And this difference could be seen in Stevens‟ approach to the music and especially to the lyrics.

7 3 Practical part

1. Mathew & Son 1. Mathew & Son

Up at eight, you can‟t be late V osm vstát, hlavně nezaspat, for Matthew & Son, he won‟t wait. v Mathew & Son se to nesmí stát.

Watch them run down to platform one Vlakem tam, stále stejný plán, And the eight-thirty train to Matthew & Son. v osm třicet pět směr Mathew & Son.

And they‟ve been working all day, all day, all day! Smíš si pět minut posedět,

There‟s a five minute break and that‟s all you take, jen studený kafe a rychle zpět. for a cup of cold coffee and a piece of cake.

Matthew & Son, the work‟s never done, there‟s Mathew & Son, vždy jsi zaměstnán, práce pořád víc. always something new. Vše přepočítat, nemůžeš spát, snad nespletl jsi nic. The files in your head, you take them to bed, you‟re Počítat celý den, celý den, celý den! never ever through. And they‟ve been working all day, all day, all day! Všichni se tady léta jenom marně snaží. He‟s got people who‟ve been working for fifty years Požádat o větší plat se nikdo neodváží. No one asks for more money „cause nobody dares A z čeho platit nájem až zase zdraží? Even though they‟re pretty low and their rent‟s in arrears Matthew & Son, Matthew & Son, Matthew & Son, Matthew & Son, Matthew & Son, Matthew & Son, Matthew & Son, Matthew & Son, počítat celý den, celý den, celý den! And they‟ve been working all day, all day, all day!

2. The First Cut Is The Deepest 2. První nejhlubší ránu

8 But if you want, I‟ll try to love again Však jestli chceš, tak zkusím milovat Baby I‟ll try to love again but I know Zkusím znovu milovat přestože vím

The first cut is the deepest, baby I know První nejhlubší ránu nezničí čas The first cut is the deepest První nejhlubší ránu „Cause when it comes to being lucky she‟s cursed Poprvé jsem kdysi usínal s ní When it comes to lovin‟ me she‟s worst Na ní čekal spoustu prázdných dní But when it comes to being loved, she‟s first Ona byla první, ne poslední That‟s how i know Jenže já vím The first cut is the deepest, baby I know První nejhlubší ránu nezničí čas The first cut is the deepest První nejhlubší ránu

I still want you by my side Vedle tebe bych se probouzel rád Just to help me dry the tears that I‟ve cried S tebou bych se zase naučil smát ‟Cause I‟m sure gonna give you a try Chci s tebou zkusit krásnou hru hrát And if you want, I‟ll try to love again A jestli chceš tak znovu milovat Baby, I‟ll try to love again, but I know Zkusím znovu milovat přestože vím

The first cut is the deepest, baby I know První nejhlubší ránu nezničí čas The first cut is the deepest První nejhlubší ránu „Cause when it comes to being lucky she‟s cursed Poprvé jsem kdysi usínal s ní When it comes to lovin‟ me she‟s worst Na ní čekal spoustu prázdných dní But when it comes to being loved, she‟s first Ona byla první, ne poslední That‟s how I know Jenže já vím The first cut is the deepest, baby I know První nejhlubší ránu nezničí čas The first cut is the deepest První nejhlubší ránu

3. Lady D'Arbanville 3. Lady D„Arbanville

My Lady d‟Arbanville, why do you sleep so still? Má lady D‟Arbanville, proč jen tak dlouho spíš? I‟ll wake you tomorrow Zítra všichni vstanou, And you will be my fill, yes, you will be my fill. ty budeš ke mně blíž, budeme k sobě blíž.

My Lady d‟Arbanville why does it grieve me so? Má lady D‟Arbanville, žal vstoupil do mých dní. But your heart seems so silent. Proč tvůj tep je tichý? Why do you breathe so low, why do you breathe so Proč dech tvůj slabě zní, proč dech tvůj slabě zní? low. Má lady D‟Arbanville, proč jen tak dlouho spíš? My Lady d‟Arbanville why do you sleep so still? Zítra všichni vstanou, I‟ll wake you tomorrow ty budeš ke mně blíž, budeme k sobě blíž.

9 And you will be my fill, yes, you will be my fill. Má lady D‟Arbanville, dnes neslyším tvůj smích. My Lady d‟Arbanville, you look so cold tonight. Tvé rty u mých chladnou. Your lips feel like winter, Tvá kůže - bílý sníh, tvá kůže – bílý sníh. your skin has turned to white, your skin has turned to white. Má lady D‟Arbanville, proč jen tak dlouho spíš? My Lady d‟Arbanville, why do you sleep so still? Zítra všichni vstanou, I‟ll wake you tomorrow Ty budeš ke mně blíž, budeme k sobě blíž. And you will be my fill, yes, you will be my fill. La la la la... La la la la la…. Má lady D‟Arbanville, žal vstoupil do mých dní. My Lady d‟Arbanville why does it grieve me so? Proč tvůj tep je tichý? But your heart seems so silent. Proč dech tvůj slabě zní, proč dech tvůj slabě zní? Why do you breathe so low, why do you breathe so low. Uvadla tvá růže. Má lady, odcházíš. Stále budeš se mnou. I loved you my lady, though in your grave you lie, Jednou se probudíš, u mě se probudíš. I‟ll always be with you Uvadla tvá růže. Má lady, odcházíš. This rose will never die, this rose will never die. Stále budeš se mnou. I loved you my lady, though in your grave you lie, Jednou se probudíš, u mě se probudíš. I‟ll always be with you This rose will never die, this rose will never die

4. I think I see tha light 4. Ve tmě se rozednívá

I used to trust nobody, trusting even less their words, Nevěřil jsem nikomu, slovům ještě méně. Until I found somebody, there was no one I preferred, Nestranil jsem jednomu, muži ani ženě. My heart was made of stone; my eyes saw only misty Srdce měl jsem z kamene, v očích vlčí mlhu. grey, V tom my dva se mineme. Náhle cítit mohu. Until you came into my life, I saw everyone that way. Until I found the one I needed at my side, Tebe vedle sebe potřebuji mít, I think I would have been a blind man all my life. jinak bych zas musel ve tmě živořit.

I think I see the light Ve tmě se rozednívá I think I see the light Ve tmě se rozednívá I think I see the light Ve tmě se rozednívá

I used to walk alone, every step seemed the same. Chodíval jsem samotný, stejné všechny kroky. This world was not my home, so there was nothing Beze smyslu žil jsem dny, měsíce a roky.

10 much to gain. Stát na zemi studené, slunce v šedém mračnu. Look up and see the clouds, look down and see the V tom my dva se mineme. Náhle cítit začnu. cold floor. Until you came into my life, I saw nothing, nothing more. Until I found the one I needed at my side, Tebe vedle sebe potřebuji mít, I think I would have been a blind man all my life. jinak bych zas musel ve tmě živořit.

I think I see the light Ve tmě se rozednívá I think I see the light Ve tmě se rozednívá I think I see the light Ve tmě se rozednívá I think I see the light Ve tmě se rozednívá

So shine, shine, shine, A září Shine, shine, shine, Víc víc víc Shine, shine, shine Víc víc víc

Until I found the one I needed at my side, Tebe vedle sebe potřebuji mít, I think I would have been a blind man all my life. jinak bych zas musel ve tmě živořit.

I think I see the light coming to me, Ve tmě se rozednívá, svítá mi Coming through me, Ve mně se rozednívá Giving me a second sight Má černá splývá s tvými barvami

So shine, shine, shine, A září Shine, shine, shine, Víc víc víc Shine, shine, shine Víc víc víc Shine, shine, shine Víc víc víc Shine, shine, shine Víc víc víc

5. Father and Son 5. Otec a syn

Father : Otec: It‟s not time to make a change, Není čas se rozejít, Just relax, take it easy zastav se, posečkej chvíli. You‟re still young, that‟s your fault, Mladý jsi, proč si lhát, There‟s so much you have to know ještě tolik toho musíš znát. Find a girl, settle down, Postav dům dívce své. If you want you can marry Chceš-li můžete se vzít. Look at me, I am old, but I‟m happy Podívej, už jsem stár a jak můžu šťastně žít.

11 I was once like you are now, and I know that it‟s not I mně bylo dvacet let a vím, jak se těžce brání, easy, když tě vábí k sobě svět divoký a cizí. To be calm when you‟ve found something going on But take your time, think a lot, Vše má svůj rub i svou líc. Why, think of everything you‟ve got Přemýšlej, co chtěl bys víc, For you will still be here tomorrow, but your dreams vždyť z tvých snů možná zítra zbude pouhé nic. may not

Son: Syn: How can I try to explain, when I do he turns away Vše bych vysvětlil mu rád, on však hluchého chce again. hrát, It‟s always been the same, same old story. pokaždé ten stále stejný scénář. From the moment I could talk I was ordered to listen Co vyrostl jsem z nemluvňat, musel jsem jen Now there‟s a way and I know that I have to go – poslouchat. away Teď vidím víc a taky vím, že musím odejít, I know, I have to go sám odejít.

Father : Otec: It‟s not time to make a change, Nepřišel čas odejít, Just sit down, take it slowly posaď se, pomalu zvaž to. You‟re still young, that‟s your fault, Jsi ještě mladý, nevíš nic There‟s so much you have to go through o tomhle světě. Dej si říct, Find a girl, settle down, přiveď si dívku, postav dům. if you want you can marry I já jsem se oženil, Look at me, I am old, but I‟m happy a podívej se, jak jsem šťastně žil.

Son: Syn: Away, away, away, I know Jít, jít jít, já vím I have to make this decision alone – no Rozhodnout se musím sám, jen já sám

All the times that I‟ve cried, keeping all the things I Celou věčnost utíkám, dusím všechny sny, co mám. knew inside, It‟s hard, but it‟s harder to ignore it Jít nechce se, však horší je zůstat. If they were right, I‟d agree, but it‟s them you know Třeba měli pravdu, snad. Chci i jiné pravdy znát. not me Teď můžu jít a taky vím, že musím odejít, Now there‟s a way and I know that I have to go – sám odejít. away I know, I have to go Otec: Klid, klid, klid, proč měl bys jít Father: A rozhodnout se sám?

12 Stay, stay, stay, why must you go and Make this decision alone? No

6. Into White 6. Mám dům

I built my house from barley rice Mám dům ze snopů slaměných Green pepper walls and water ice Z ledu a z paprik zelených Tables of paper wood, windows of light Z papíru stůl, v oknech zář přebývá And everything emptying into White A celý dům se v bílé nic ukrývá

A simple garden, with acres of sky V zahradě vítr se s oblaky pral A Brown-haired dogmouse Hnědavý mopslík rád by si hrál If one dropped by Mou zlatou Delanie spánek ovívá Yellow Delanie would sleep well at night A celý dům se v bílé nic ukrývá With everything emptying into White

A sad Blue eyed drummer rehearses outside Modrooký smutně bubnuje sám A Black spider dancing on top of his eye Pavouček tančí, má stříbrný chrám Red legged chicken stands ready to strike Rudá nožka slípky k bitvě vyzývá And everything emptying into White A celý dům se v bílé nic ukrývá

I built my house from barley rice Mám dům ze snopů slaměných Green pepper walls and water ice Z ledu a z paprik zelených And everything emptying into White A všechno se mi v bílé nic ukrývá

7. Moonshadow 7. Měsíční

Oh, I‟m being followed by a moonshadow, Když měsíc bdí mně v patách stín běží, Moonshadow, moonshadow nocí skáče si svěží. Leapin‟ and hoppin‟ on a moonshadow, Nešlápnout naň jde jenom stěží. Moonshadow, moonshadow Ten stín v patách mi běží.

And if I ever lose my hands, A kdybych ztratil ruce své, Lose my plough, lose my land, svůj pluh a pole zorané. Oh if I ever lose my hands – oh if… A kdybych ztratil ruce své – pak bych I won‟t have to work no more nepracoval nikdy víc.

And if I ever lose my eyes, A kdybych přišel o svůj zrak, If my colours all run dry, barvy by zakryl šedý mrak. Yes if I ever lose my eyes – oh if… A kdybych přišel o svůj zrak – pak bych

13 I won‟t have to cry no more nezaplakal nikdy víc.

I‟m being followed by a moonshadow, Když měsíc bdí mně v patách stín běží, Moonshadow, moonshadow nocí skáče si svěží. Leapin‟ and hoppin‟ on a moonshadow, Nešlápnout naň jde jenom stěží. Moonshadow, moonshadow Ten stín v patách mi běží.

And if I ever lose my legs, A kdyby mé nohy zmizely, I won‟t moan, and I won‟t beg, netruchlil bych v posteli. Yes if I ever lose my legs -oh if… A kdyby mé nohy zmizely – pak bych I won‟t have to walk no more nezabloudil nikdy víc.

And if I ever lose my mouth, A kdybych pozbyl ústa svá All my teeth, North and South, bez zubů prázdná, děravá. Yes if I ever lose my mouth -oh if… A kdybych pozbyl ústa svá – pak bych I won‟t have to talk… nepromluvil ...

Did it take long to find me? Zda hledalo jsi dlouho I asked the faithful light můj obrys v temnotách? Oh did it take long to find me? Ach, světlo, zůstaň chvilku pouhou, And are you gonna stay the night? prosviť noc a zažeň strach.

8. Nad světem svítá 8. Morning has broken Nad světem svítá jak kdysi dávno Morning has broken, like the first morning Kos slunce vítá, přichází den Blackbird has spoken, like the first bird Chválou zní vánek, chválou zní ráno Praise for the singing, praise for the morning Odplouvá spánek, probouzí zem Praise for them springing fresh from the world

Pár kapek deště na svěží trávě Sweet the rain‟s new fall, sunlit from heaven S rosou si ještě v zahradě hrál Like the first dewfall, on the first grass pak zářil ránem paprsek z ráje Praise for the sweetness of the wet garden Jaro je pánem, prochází dál Sprung in completeness where his feet pass

Mine is the sunlight, mine is the morning Prosvítá záře jak první ráno

14 Born of the one light, Eden saw play Ze spící tváře odnáší sen Praise with elation, praise every morning Příroda vstává jak kdysi dávno God‟s recreation of the new day Když Boží sláva otvírá den

9. Thinking 'Bout You 9. Myslím na Tebe

When I hold your hand, I could fly a zillion miles with Když dlaň Tvá drží moji, you tak sta bych ušel mílí. When I see your grace, I can see all God‟s words Když důstojnost Tvou vidím, come true má víra v Boha sílí. Every little bird above the haze, and fish beneath the I pták, co vzduchem pluje, waves, i rybka z vodní sluje Knows about you – wouldn‟t they do? zná slovo Tvé, jakpak by ne?

When I see your eyes, I can see rainbows in the sky Když spatřím oči jasné, Being with you, all who‟ve parted reunite tak krása duhy bledne. Every little pearl drop in the clouds and stones U Tebe nepřátelé beneath the ground jsou zas na lodi jedné. Are waiting for you – wouldn‟t they do? I kapka rosy, deště, i kámen na mé cestě čeká na Tebe. A jakpak by ne?

Whatever you say, lightens up the burden of the day Cokoliv řekneš nám Whatever you do makes us ever want to follow you nadlehčí tíhu dne. Whatever they say, whatever they do I‟ll always love Cokoliv uděláš – you za Tebou půjdeme. Ať řeknou cokoliv, kamkoliv ať si jdou, já půjdu vždy s Tebou.

Every burning comet that zooms, and angels too I hvězda, co tu sviští, Think about you – wouldn‟t they do? i anděl věcí příštích myslí na Tebe. A jakpak by ne?

Thinkin‟ bout you, I could climb a mountain in the Na Tebe myslím, vrchol dark i ve tmě zdolám hravě Listening to you, flowers dance in the park Když Tebe poslouchají, Whatever they say, whatever they do tak tančí květy v trávě. We‟ll always love you Ať řeknou cokoliv, kamkoliv ať si jdou, my půjdeme s Tebou

Veškerá slova Tvá The words that you say, lighten up the burdens of the nadlehčí tíhu dne. day Cokoliv uděláš – Whatever you do, makes us wanna follow you za Tebou půjdeme. Whatever they say, whatever they do Ať řeknou cokoliv, I‟ll always love you kamkoliv ať si jdou, já půjdu vždy s Tebou.

10. Roadsinger 10. Potulný zpěvák

Roadsinger came to town, long cape and hat, Potulný zpěvák do města přišel. People stood and stared, then closed their doors Každý se díval z okna či dveří, As he passed pak dovnitř vešel. He strolled the empty street, kids banged on tin cans Bloumal si městem sám, jen tak se díval. Then the panting dogs began to bark Zněl rámus dětí, začali psi vít, As the Roadsinger sang když nahlas zpíval:

Where do you go? Where do you go? Kam vydáš se? Kam vydáš se? When hearts are closed Když srdce zamknuta When a friend becomes a stranger, Když přítel cizincem Nobody wants to know. A lítost netknuta Where do you go? Oh, where do you go? Kam vydáš se? Kam vydáš se? When the world turns dark Když země zešedne And the light of truth is blown out Když pravda ztracena And the roads are blocked. A cesty bezedné

He stopped by a store, between the barrels and sacks, Postál u stánku, tu mezi soudky A child‟s face peeped out and gave a smile obličej koukl, zablýskl úsměv And ran back s bílými zoubky. Behind a misty glass, on a window pane, Na mlžném místě tabulky skelné A little finger drew a perfect heart nakreslil prstík bezchybné srdce

16 And her name uprostřed s jménem.

Where do you go? Where do you go? Kam schováš se, kam schováš se In a world filled with fright; Před strachem, bezmocí Only a song to warm you, Jen píseň zahřeje Through the night V té temné půlnoci Where do you go? Oh, where do you go? Kam schováš se, kam schováš se After lies are told, Když lsti už zrazené And the light of truth is blown out, Když pravda ztracena And the night is cold. A noci studené

Roadsinger rode on, to another land Odešel zpěvák do další země, Though the people spoke a different tongue, přestože mluvil v jazyce jiném, They‟d understand chápali stejně. They showed him how to share and took him by the Uviděl, jak si tu pomáhají. hand Vzali ho za ruku, cestou vyšli, Showed him the path to heaven vedla je k ráji. Through the desert sand

Where do you go? Where do you go? Kam vydáš se, kam vydáš se To find happiness, Na cestu pro štěstí In a world filled with hatred, Když lidská nenávist And tears. Je slzí předzvěstí Where do you go? Oh, where do you go? Kam vydáš se, kam vydáš se If no one cares Když zájem nemají And everybody‟s lost, Všichni jsou ztraceni Looking for theirs. Jen sebe hledají

11. All Kinds of Roses 11. Mnoho je

All kinds of roses, all kinds of roses Mnoho je růží, mnoho je růží, All kinds of roses grow in my garden mnoho je růží v mých zahradách All kinds of creatures, all kinds of creatures Mnoho je tvorů, mnoho je tvorů, All kinds of creatures run on my land mnoho je tvorů na pastvinách All kinds of children, all kinds of children Mnoho je dětí, mnoho je dětí, All kinds of children play in my yard mnoho je dětí tančících v hrách. So many feelings, so many feelings A tolik pochyb, a tolik pochyb Flow through my blood v mých myšlenkách

17 All kinds of people, all kinds of people Rozličné známé, rozličné známé, All kinds of people make up my life rozličné známé v paměti mám All kinds of faces, all kinds of faces A v jejich tvářích, a v jejich tvářích, All kinds of faces show me their love a v jejich tvářích smích potkávám. All kinds of lanterns, all kinds of lanterns Nesčetně světel, nesčetně světel, All kinds of lanterns light up the dark nesčetně světel tmu prosvětlí But there‟s only One God, only One God Ale jeden Bůh, jen jeden Bůh Has a place in my heart v mém srdci dlí

All kinds of roses, all kinds of roses Mnoho je růží, mnoho je růží, All kinds of roses grow in my garden mnoho je růží v mých zahradách.

12. Time 12. Čas

Time rise Čas narůstá Time fall A mizí pryč Time leaves you nothing, Nenechá ti nic nothing at all Vůbec nic

Words, just words don't know Slova, jen slova sama neví Words take you nowhere, Nedovedou tě nikam nowhere to go, to go. Nic pro tebe neobjeví

Back.... Zpět I'm going back. Vracím se nazpátek Ooo, going back. Vracím se zpět

13. Fill My Eyes 13. Naplň mě

And in the morning when you fill my eyes Srdce mé ráno když naplníš, I knew that day I couldn‟t do, vím, v ten den už nemohu Ah, no wrong, I couldn‟t do. zlého nic, už nemohu. And so my mind begins to memorise Vzpomínkám v paměti hledám skrýš. „Cause time will never seem the same, K nepoznání se mění Ah, no more, never again. svět můj, stejný už není.

I‟m just a coaster but my wheels won‟t go, Jak loď, když kolesa zadrhnou, My legs are weak; my heels are low. v nohách sláb, paty mé nízko jdou. I‟m just a coaster but my wheels won‟t roll. Loď, když se kormidlo netočí Can‟t make no headway on this road. v zátokách kotví u úbočí.

There‟s an empty space inside me now, Prázdno jen hluboko v sobě mám. A wasteland deep beneath the snow, Leží tu poušť ztichlá pod sněhem, So cold, nothing‟ll grow. chladná a zničená, smutná zem.

I‟m just a coaster but my wheels won‟t go, Jak loď, když kolesa zadrhnou, My legs are weak my heels are low. v nohách sláb, paty mé nízko jdou. I‟m just a coaster but my wheels won‟t roll. Loď, když se kormidlo netočí Can‟t make no headway on this road. What road? v zátokách kotví u úbočí.

And in the morning when you fill my eyes Srdce mé ráno když naplníš, I knew that day I couldn‟t do, vím, v ten den už nemohu Ah, no wrong, I couldn‟t do. zlého nic, už nemohu.

14. Where Do The Children Play? 14. Kam si půjdou děti hrát?

Well I think it‟s fine, building jumbo planes Není proč mít strach létat v letadlech Or taking a ride on a cosmic train Svištět v raketách výškou co bere dech Switch on summer from a slot machine Zimu na léto přepne automat Get what you want to if you want, „cause you can get Můžeš mít co chceš, stačí jen vybírat anything

I know we‟ve come a long way, Já vím, netřeba si lhát We‟re changing day to day, Došli jsme dál a nebudeme stát But tell me, where do the children play? Jenže - kam si půjdou děti hrát?

Well you roll on roads over fresh green grass Louky převážeš lesklou dálnicí For your lorry loads pumping petrol gas Pro tvé dodávky naftou se krmící And you make them long, and you make them tough Cesty prodloužíš, zpevnění provedeš But they just go on and on, and it seems that you can‟t Půjdou dál a výš, zastavit nesvedeš get off

Oh, I know we‟ve come a long way, Já vím, netřeba si lhát We‟re changing day to day, Došli jsme dál a nebudeme stát But tell me, where do the children play? Jenže - kam si půjdou děti hrát?

Well you‟ve cracked the sky, scrapers fill the air Mrakodrap necháš růst, oblohu poškrábat Will you keep on building higher, Svět jimi zaplníš, vzduch pak není kde brát „til there‟s no more room up there? Řekneš nám kdy se smát a kdy zaplakat Will you make us laugh, will you make us cry? Řekneš kdy je čas žít, kdy radši umírat

19 Will you tell us when to live; will you tell us when to die?

15. Miles From Nowhere ( 15. Daleké míle

Miles from nowhere, Daleké míle I guess I‟ll take my time dlouhou cestu mám. Oh yeah, to reach there Potrvá chvíli k cíli dojít sám. Look up at the mountain Vysoké vrchy I have to climb horstev sešplhám. Oh yeah, to reach there. Potrvá chvíli Lord, my body has been a good friend než tam dobloumám. But I won‟t need it when I reach the end Tělo mé, Pane, dobrý kamarád, Miles from nowhere, netřeba víc, až v cíli budem stát. Guess I‟ll take my time Daleké míle Oh yeah, to reach there dlouhou cestu mám. Potrvá chvíli k cíli dojít sám.

I creep through the valleys Prolezl jsem strží. And I grope through the woods Propletl se lesem. „cause I know when I find it my honey Lásko, sen mě drží, It‟s gonna make me feel good bez něj šťastný nejsem. I love everything Zbožňuji svět celý. So don‟t it make you feel sad Nebudeš snad plakat! „cause I‟ll drink to you, my baby Připiji na tebe! I‟ll think to that, I‟ll think to that Snažím se to chápat.

Miles from nowhere, Daleké míle, Not a soul in sight odnikud nikam. Oh yeah, but it‟s alright Živáčka není. I have my freedom Já nepospíchám. I can make my own rules Svobodu svojí

20 Oh yeah, the ones that I choose v pustině té mám Pravidla určím všechna sobě sám. Lord, my body has been a good friend Tělo mé, Pane, dobrý kamarád, But I won‟t need it when I reach the end netřeba víc, až v cíli budem stát. Miles from nowhere, Daleké míle Guess I‟ll take my time dlouhou cestu mám. Oh yeah, to reach there Potrvá chvíli k cíli dojít sám.

16. Hledám tvrdohlavou ženu 16. Hard Headed woman Hledám tvrdohlavou ženu, I‟m looking for a hard-headed woman, která bude o mě stát. One who will take me for myself, Když tu ženu si seženu And if I find my hard-headed woman, jiné ani nechci znát. I will need nobody else – no, no, no

Hledám tvrdohlavou ženu, I‟m looking for a hard-headed woman, co mě donutí prim hrát. One who will make me do my best, Když takovou si seženu, And if I find my hard-headed woman, není třeba víc se bát. I know the rest of my life will be blessed – yes, yes, yes

Vídám skvělé tanečníky, I know a lot of fancy dancers, hladce kloužou parketem. Yes, people who can glide you on a floor, Však nezodpoví otazníky: They move so smooth but have no answers „Pro co jste si přišli sem? When you ask them “What d‟you come here for?” A proč právě sem?“ “I don‟t know.”

“Why?”

Vídám pěkné kamarády. I know many fine feathered friends Kdy a s kým se přátelit, But their friendliness depends on how you do na to mají dobré rady. They know many sure fired ways, Přítel se má podělit, To find out the one who pays o vše podělit. And how you do

Hledám tvrdohlavou ženu, I‟m looking for a hard-headed woman, s kterou každému je líp. One who will make me feel so good, Když tu ženu si seženu, And if I find my hard-headed woman, pak vše bude, jak má být.

21 I know my life will be as it should – yes, yes, yes Hledám tvrdohlavou ženu, I‟m looking for a hard-headed woman, co mě donutí prim hrát. One who will make me do my best, Když takovou si seženu ... And if I find my hard-headed woman …

17. The Wind 17. Vítr

I listen to the wind Poslouchám větru svist To the wind of my soul jak letí mojí duší. Where I‟ll end up well I think, Kde skončím si nejsem jist, Only God really knows to snad jen Bůh tuší.

I‟ve sat upon the setting sun Pod červánky jsem sedával, But never, never, never, never však nikdy nikdy nikdy nikdy I never wanted water once o vodu jsem nežádal No, never, never, never Ne, nikdy nikdy nikdy.

I listen to my words Poslouchám slova svá, But they fall far below než se v nic rozplynou. I let my music take me A hudba vábivá Where my heart wants to go vede mě krajinou.

I‟ve swam upon the devil‟s lake Tůni vin jsem přeplaval But never, never, never, never a už bych nikdy nikdy nikdy I‟ll never make the same mistake Nerad stejně chyboval No, never, never, never Už nikdy nikdy nikdy nikdy.

18. Tuesday's Dead 18. Zítra zmizí úterý

If I make a mark in time, Byť označím jednu chvíli, I can‟t say the mark is mine ji vlastnit je nad mé síly, I‟m only the underline of the word jen popsal jsem papír bílý Yes, I‟m like him; just like you, barvou černou. I can‟t tell you what to do Jsem jako on, ty jsi jak já. Like everybody else I‟m searching through Sám nevím, co dělat se má. What I‟ve heard Co slyšel kdo, v tom si hledá Whoa, where do you go? radu věrnou. When you don‟t want no one to know, Řekni, kam ty by ses schovat šel, Who told tomorrow Tuesday‟s dead? aby o tom nikdo nevěděl?

22 Kdo dnes ví, že zítra nám zmizí úterý?

Oh preacher won‟t you paint my dream, Hej, Otče, zkus dát snům barvu Won‟t you show me where you‟ve been a ukaž mi, kde je najdu. Show me what I haven‟t seen Zda k místům v Tvém krásném albu To ease my mind cesta vede? Cause I will learn to understand, Rád pochopil bych Tvá slova. if I have a helping hand Kdo pomocnou ruku podá? I wouldn‟t make another demand Víc nežádal bych už znova All my life rad pro sebe. Whoa, where do you go? Řekni, kam ty by ses schovat šel, When you don‟t want no one to know … aby o tom nikdo nevěděl...

Now, what‟s my sex, what‟s my name? Kdo vlastně jsem, tělo moje? All in all it‟s all the same, Vím, vcelku jedno to je. Everybody plays a different game Vždyť každý si žije svoje, That is all hraje hru svou. Now, man may live, man may die Pro muže je život věda, Searching for the question, “Why?” „proč“ otázka spát mu nedá, But if he tries to rule the sky, he must fall jak ovládnout zemi hledá. Končí prohrou. Whoa, where do you go? Řekni, kam ty by ses schovat šel, When you don‟t want no one to know … aby o tom nikdo nevěděl...

Now every second on the nose, Teď vteřinou každou roste The humdrum of the city grows měst šedivost, jíž jsme hosté, Reaching out beyond the throes a přerůstá strachy prosté Of our time doby naší. But we must try to shake it down Tak zbavme se strachu předně. Do our best to break the ground To nejlepší dá nám země. Try to turn the world around Tak otočit jednou stejně One more time ať se stačí. Yes, we must try to shake it down Tak zbavme se strachu předně. do our best to break the ground To nejlepší dá nám země Try to turn the world around Tak otočit jednou stejně One more time ať se stačí. Whoa, where do you go? Řekni, kam ty by ses schovat šel, When you don‟t want no one to know … aby o tom nikdo nevěděl...

19. Be What You Must 19. Staň se sám sebou

I have journeyed endless miles Cestoval jsem stovky mil, Seen many harbours, v různých přístavech Where I took rest awhile na chvilku zakotvil. On this boat called „near & far‟, Se svou lodí jel jsem rád. To be what you must, Stát se tím, kým nejsi - You must give up what you are sám sebe se musíš vzdát.

Only on a wind of hope my heart sailed Na vlnách naděje mé srdce plulo Braving mystic oceans to arrive navzdory záhadným oceánům. Those who do not leave Ti, kteří raději And choose to stay… zůstali na břehu... Barely survive přežijí stěží.

Be you dust; or be you star Ať chudák jsi a nebo král, To be what you must staň se sám sebou. Just reach out for what you are Musíš vyrazit znovu a dál. And though you‟ve traveled many roads Přestože jsi prošel mnoho cest, There‟s but one way, and that‟s the one you chose vybral sis jeden směr, kterým se necháš vést.

20. The Rain (Roadsinger 2010) 20. Déšť

Everybody‟s thinking about the rain Každému deště šumí v obavách Everybody‟s thinking about the rain Každému deště šumí v obavách Wonder if the sun is gonna come again – oh Zda-li tu slunce vyjde, máme strach Things are looking bad Vyhlídky jsou zlé Everybody in the world, in the world‟s looking so sad A všechny oči, všechny oči tak smutné

Everybody‟s thinking about the storm Každému bouře duní v obavách Everybody‟s thinking about the storm Každému bouře duní v obavách Wonder where all the good weather‟s gone – oh Zda-li k nám jaro přijde, máme strach Things are looking bad Vyhlídky jsou zlé Everybody in the world, in the world‟s looking so sad A všechny oči, všechny oči tak smutné

Tell me if I gotta build a boat to carry us to sea Řekni, mám loď sestavit, jež nás ponese? Tell me what the shape of it will be Řekni, jaký tvar má mít, ať vše unese? Tell me if it‟s gonna be a home for every kind of beast Řekni, bude útulkem lidem, zvířatům? Tell me who the lucky ones will be Řekni, kteří vejít smí v ten plovoucí dům? Tell me if we gotta build a world Řekni, máme vystavět zcela nový svět? What that world will be

24 If we‟re gonna build it well enough for Thee Řekni, jak se bude zdát Tobě na pohled? Tell me if its gonna be a home for all humanity Řekni, bude domovem nám všem žijícím? Will there be believers with me? Oh. I mně bude domovem a všem věřícím?

Everybody‟s thinking about the flood Každému voda hučí v představách Everybody‟s thinking about the flood Každému voda hučí v představách Wonder if the water‟s gonna turn to blood – oh Zda-li v krev hned se změní, máme strach. Things are looking bad Vyhlídky jsou zlé. Everybody in the world, in the world‟s looking so sad A všechny oči, všechny oči tak smutné.

Everybody‟s thinking about the rain Každému deště šumí v představách Everybody‟s thinking about the rain Každému deště šumí v představách

21. World O' Darkness 21. Shamsia

In this world of darkness V té temné zemi, kde Evil rules by night, ďábel nocí vládne, But somewhere in the shadows tam kdosi skrytý ve stínech Someone‟s seeking light světlo spatřit prahne.

No one loves their neighbour here; Zde host vítán není, Nobody has the time, nikdo naň čas nemá. No one cares for any one else Zde nikdo není přítelem. In a world where the sun don‟t shine Jen čerň beze jména.

Shamsia, Shamsia Shamsia, Shamsia

Some sons dream of leaving Někteří sní o cestě, While they‟re young at heart když ještě mladí jsou. But few choose the path towards Jen málo z nich půjde do The land beyond the dark světa za temnotou. Who‟ll choose the path towards Kdo dokáže odejít do The land beyond the dark? světa za temnotou?

25 4 Theoretical part

I presented my translation of 21 Cat Stevens‟ texts selected from his albums from years 1967 – 2009 in the practical part. Now, I would like to introduce an analysis of the practical part. Since the field of artistic translation is broad and there exists many theories and possibilities, I was forced to focus only on several elements and mostly on one theory. I have decided to work with equivalent theory, which is nowadays the most known, used and modern and as such offers a good theoretical basis and source of knowledge for the practical translation. My main aim is to show the way how my translations were done, in other words partly to vindicate my methods and the final texts. The structure of theoretical part is the following. At the beginning I will introduce basic principles of translation and the theory of equivalence. Then the specifications of translation of poetry will be dealt with. In the next part I will concentrate on the analysis of several fields of poetry and difficulties connected with translation: verse, rhyme, euphony, figures and tropes. I will consider general rules and definitions and show the problem examples and problems appeared in the translations. I will deal also with the translation of the poem‟s titles. At the end I will focus on several problems connected with lexical equivalents, which appeared to me important with the connection of translation of poetry. I work mainly with the opinions of Jiří Levý and also with thoughts of Dagmar Knittlová, Peter Newmark and Milan Hrdlička. Jiří Levý concentrated on the artistic translation in many of his works; therefore he is my main source of ideas. “The intention of translator‟s work is to keep, represent, express the original piece, not to create a new one without a model; the aim of translation is reproduction.” (Levý 1963: 83; translated by J.T.) This quotation appears as one of the most important and influential ideas. In the artistic translation many problems can be dealt with from different views, theoretical works could present absolutely opposite opinions, but the aim of translation is always to reproduce the original poem and bring it to the new readers.

26 4.1 Basic principles of translation

There exist plentiful theories dealing with the translation from different points of view. The authors, translators and linguists are trying to present a complex translation theory in order to help their further colleagues. This tendency appeared as early as the first the translator started to analyse his work. This intention is worthy of attention; the translation seems to be a chaotic field of art. The rules and theories change quickly and they are usually focused only on selected problems. Therefore, the classification of translation itself is not easy. Jiří Levý refers to translation in following words: “Translation as a work is an artistic reproduction, translation as a process is a creation, and translation as a field of art is situated between reproductive art and creative art.” (Levý 1963: 83; translated by J.T.) The creativity is undoubtedly part of translation, but in comparison to the work of the author of the poems it is always limited. Although no theory of translation has the absolute prime position in contemporary literature, the respected basic principles of translation could be mentioned. According to Jiří Levý there are three basic rules which are common for theories of translation. The translator should be skilled in the foreign language he translates from (it will be referred to as to source language). The translator should be skilled also in his mother language or any language he translated into (target language). And finally the translator should understand the pragmatic content of the text he translates. Furthermore the translator has a right to present and interpret the text according to his comprehension, especially in prose and poetry. (Levý 1963) For translation of texts of different styles varied approaches have been used. Levý speaks about respecting the text‟s aspects and immediately divides those aspects into two groups: variable and invariable. (Levý 1963) For example the sound quality is variable in an academic style but in poetry it is invariable; in the second case the sound quality is an essential part of the text, it participates at the final effect which should motivate the translator to notice it closely and include it in his translation. The most influential theory in today‟s theoretical approach is the theory of equivalence.

4.2 The theory of equivalence

Contemporary basic principle of translation, as was already mentioned, is the theory of equivalence. This theory and connected problems have been discussed since the second half of the 20th century. The theory underwent many changes and several new opinions were

27 added. Basically the attention is given to the possibilities of finding equivalents between the source and target language in all text‟s levels. For instance Mona Baker brings a compact presentation of these levels; she speaks about equivalence on the word level, on the level of collocations, idioms and fixed expressions, also about grammatical, textual and pragmatic equivalence. (Baker) The higher level is discussed, the more problems appear. It is important to realize that “the perception of terms „equivalency‟ and „adequacy‟ are developing, they are not timeless elements, but on the contrary, their perception changes and is determined by the age and by the society”. (Hrdlička 1997: 19; translated by J.T.) I would like to mention several authors who deal with the equivalence theory. Their approaches are rather different. Peter Newmark (2001) compares semantic and communicative methods of translation, finding the communicative translation more suitable for expressing the message and the semantic for focusing on the meaning. In the semantic translation the proximity between original and translation is guaranteed, but it is not suitable to every kind of text. The communicative approach expresses the inner message but could be inappropriate in concrete notions. In our country Dagmar Knittlová (2000) brings the description of lexical equivalence on the basis of English and Czech. She states that the contemporary approach to the theory of translation is the functional equivalence based on the works of previous theoreticians, mainly on J. Catford. The functional equivalence expresses a new attitude towards translation saying that the linguistic means in the source language and target language do not have to be identical; only the same function must be kept. There are three aspects of the text which always should maintain in the target language: denotation, connotation and pragmatic aspect (Knittlová 2000). Another way is offered by Milan Hrdlička who speaks about an adequate translation compared with free and accurate approaches. “In case of adequate translation the translator tries to connect respect to the original and the approach to the new reader.” (Hrdlička 1997: 17; translated by J.T.) He concentrates on the relations between author, translator and reader especially of artistic texts. Hrdlička writes about the problematic attitude through the equivalent theory to the text meaning the intention searching for the equivalent to the complex work. Presenting a precise equivalent in most cases is not possible. “The new approach to the translation, more apt and less normative and exact, so called adequate translation is understood as optimal approximation of the original.” (Hrdlička 1997) The theory of equivalence can be applied also in the translation of poetry. Newmark says: “The translation of poetry is the field where most emphasis is normally put on the

28 creation of a new independent poem, and where literal translation is usually condemned.” (Newmark 2004: 70) A few lines further he basically denies this statement showing on the practical example the superiority of close translation over a relative free one. It is clear that in poetry through the simple lexical or grammatical equivalence it is not possible to reach a suitable translation. The poems must be perceived as a whole unit and equivalents must be found for each component. The attention must be given to the denotation, connotation and pragmatic aspect but sometimes the connotation becomes the most important element. The ambiguity and complexity of artistic literal work cause the possibility of different interpretations. “The researchers agree on the fact that the artistic translation is the interpretation of the original.” (Hrdlička 1997: 23; translated by J.T.) Substantial is to bear in mind the readers, their cultural surroundings, their literal level, their attitude to poetry etc. Although translator is forced to interpretation, he should never over simplify the text for the readers in order to gain their approval. I intended to create a modern translation, so I worked with contemporary theories of translation based on the theory of equivalence. I focused mainly on the books of Jiří Levý, because he devoted a number of his works to the translation of artistic texts and poetry. I helped myself with the opinions of Dagmar Knittlová, since her practical equivalence showed a concrete way for dealing with several difficulties. Also the opinions of Peter Newmark I consulted often.

4.3 Translation of poetry

Poetry is one of the three literary kinds and it has its own specific features and genres. Poetry is defined as a “language sung, chanted, spoken, or written according to some pattern of recurrence that emphasizes the relationships between words on the basis of sound as well as sense; this pattern is almost always a rhythm or metre, which may be supplemented by rhyme or alliteration or both”. (Baldick 2008: 262) This definition indicates one of the problems of translation of this literary kind. The connection between meaning and sound is close; we cannot separate those two features. Knowing the importance of both those components is essential for the translator in order to be able emphasize one of them. The decision has to be made because of differences among languages. The sound part can carry the main significance in poetry and the final result can be reached only by using the acoustic possibilities of speech, e.g. sound symbolism associating certain feelings. “Poetry is valued for combining pleasures of sound with freshness of ideas, whether these be solemn or

29 comical.” (Baldick 2008: 262) To keep at least part of this double freshness in the target language is for the translator crucial. The number and sort of difficulties connected with translation depends on the sort of poetry. “The three major categories of poetry are narrative, dramatic and lyric, the last being the most extensive.” (Baldick 2008: 198) In the narrative poetry translator should be concentrated on the plot of the story and he should also comprehend to the author‟s aims. The dramatic poetry is spoken by actors on the stage and due to it the special attention to the language style and other elements of the text is demanded. The lyric poetry has many subcategories but basically the attention must be given, basically as in the other two kinds of poetry, to the rhythm, rhyme and verse. During the process of translation the translator has the free will to choose and use any language and literary tools; he can change words, interpret thoughts and even omit devices used in the original. The object of poetry as such is to share experiences and mood and that is the reason why Otokar Fischer says: “For capturing the correct meaning the changing of singular words is not only allowed but simply needed.” (Levý 1996: 138; translated by J.T.) In any case the translator should always respect the author and try to present his work fully, be the different language material is used or not. The diversity between Czech and English language is widely visible in the translation of poetry and it is the origin of problems. In terms of linguistics English is an analytic language, it means that English expresses grammatical categories rather by using special words than other grammatical possibilities, e.g. inflection. Czech is a synthetic language which operates with the other tools. The translator has completely different instruments for expressing attributes, figures or tropes, and he must be aware of this fact. The diversity affects the format of poems. The possibilities of rhyme are also completely different in both languages. Both word‟s and sentence stresses play important roles in rhythm and the translator should be able to find out the importance of keeping or changing it in translated text. As for keeping the translated text as poetical as it is possible and needed, the translator has to have a different approach to the process of translation than translators of professional business articles or political speeches; he has to be creative. “Creativity at its most intense is in translating poetry, where there are so many important additional factors: words as images, metre, rhythm, sounds. Inevitably a good translation of a poem is as much a modest introduction to as a recreation of the original.” (Newmark 2001: 9) In any text where the translator is forced to use paraphrasing or any means of translation and with not exactly an accurate result (comparing to the original) it is possible to speak and doubt about creativity

30 and also about the truthfulness of translation. In similar cases the differentiation between important parts of the text which must be translated closely and the rest is required. Even though in the translation of the poetry “the most successful is the closest, the one that can convincingly transfer the most important components of the source into the target text.” (Newmark 2001: 9)

4.4 Verse

The basic attribute of poetry is the bounded language. Speaking about poetry it is necessary to deal with term verse. “The term is usually more neutral than „poetry‟, indicating that the technical requirements of rhythm and metre are present, while poetic merit may or may not be. It is almost always reserved for metrical compositions, the looser non-metrical category of free verse being a special case.” (Baldick 2008: 350) According to the Josef Hrabák the verse is an independent unit bearing a metrical impulse. (Hrabák 1978) Poem comprises of verses with similar metrical impulse. As it was said verse is a special unit, not necessarily a whole sentence, but this unit must be somehow connected and completed and it is mostly characterized by a certain rhythm. There exist four verse systems: quantitive verse, syllabic verse, accentual verse and accentual-syllabic verse. The accentual-syllabic verse considers a number of accents and also a number of syllables. Both English and Czech have the accentual-syllabic verse but there exists a considerable distinction. In Czech the stressed and unstressed syllables have the same time quantity. Conversely, in English the stressed syllables only have the same length but the unstressed syllables can have different duration. “In English the stressed syllables create the scaffold of the verse and the unstressed syllables cannot influence it.” (Levý 1963: 253; translated by J.T.) Because the verses in English and in Czech are based on a similar principle of counting syllables, there were sometimes no problems with keeping the proportion of the original, e.g. in Morning has broken, especially when the number of syllable is large enough for the Czech language.

Morning has broken, like the first morning - 10 Nad světem svítá jak kdysi dávno – 10 Blackbird has spoken, like the first bird - 9 Kos slunce vítá, přichází den – 9

31 Praise for the singing, praise for the morning- 10 Chválou zní vánek, chválou zní ráno -10 Praise for them springing fresh from the world-9 Odplouvá spánek, probouzí zem -9

The same pattern continues in the whole poem. The number of syllables is suitable even for the Czech translation here, although in Czech the feminine and masculine rhymes alternate at the end of lines and not in English. However, the problem with the small amount of syllables can occur very often, as in Miles From Nowhere:

Miles from nowhere, Daleké míle I guess I‟ll take my time dlouhou cestu mám. Oh yeah, to reach there Potrvá chvíli k cíli dojít sám.

Although the fact is not obvious because of the graphics of this stanza, having on the paper the whole poem one can clearly see that the words Oh yeah due to its length stands for one line in the rest. It is not necessary to translate it as one line, but in Czech the higher amount of syllables is suitable in order to have enough space for expressing. The shape of translated texts is affected by the fact that the regular number of syllables in Czech poems is needed for the perception of them as rhythmical. In my translation of Cat Stevens poetry the number of syllables in English often does not correspond with the number of syllables in Czech, since Czech language demands accuracy in counting syllables. For example in Where Do The Children Play? in the first stanza following numbers of syllables are used: 10, 10, 9, 15. If the translator does the same in Czech, the rhythm would be lost, so I decided to translate the poem in the pattern of 10, 11, 10, 11. In The Wind the main original pattern of syllables is 6, 6, 7, 6. Nevertheless, I used in Czech regular pattern only with 6 syllables. The one line with one extra syllable would interrupt the rhythm in Czech version.

4.4.1 Semantic centres

Levý speaks about an interesting term connected with the proportion of verse called semantic centres. “Different semantic density of the original language and Czech forces the translator to use semantic shortcuts or on the contrary to use padding – and it effects the final interpretation of the poem.” (Levý 1963: 232; translated by J.T.) English as the analytic language has usually more semantic centres in one line than it is possible to have in Czech.

32 The translator can use different tools to preserve the meanings. Probably the best solution is to condense the meanings into one or less words than it could be translated to. In the synthetic Czech language it is possible. For example in Into White there are five and four semantic centres in the English original, only the last line has three but in Czech there are only four and three centres.

I / built / my house / from barley / rice Mám / dům / ze snopů / slaměných, Green / pepper / walls / and water / ice z ledu / a z paprik / zelených, Tables / of paper wood, / windows / of light z papíru / stůl, / v oknech / zář přebývá And everything / emptying / into White A celý dům / se v bílé nic / ukrývá

As the attributes should not be omitted in the translation of this poem because they create the poetical picture, the shortening of the other parts is needed. In the first line the solution came quickly: I and built were shortened into mám. The semantic meaning was slightly changed in order to create a suitable space for the rest of expressions in the line; if I had translated it exactly as Postavil jsem I would not have enough syllables left. In the second line I reduced the words. Walls are already included in dům in the previous line, and so there is no need to repeat this meaning for reaching the final poetical effect; and I had to elide the translation of water because the denotative meaning is already included in z ledu on account of translating the important zelených. Similar problem occured, e.g. in The Wind.

I / ‟ve sat upon / the setting / sun Pod červánky / jsem sedával,

There seem to be four semantic centres in the English line but in Czech finally there are only two. Expression červánky contains the comparable denotation as setting sun. I’ve sat is translated only jsem sedával, the subject does not need to be expressed in Czech. The tense was changed with attention to the rhyme schema and it does not affect the main meaning of the line or stanza.

4.4.2 Rhythm, tempo and metre

Hrabák sees metre as a theoretical norm and rhythm as a realisation of metre in a concrete poem. (Hrabák 1978) Rhythm does not always fulfil the requirements of the norm, the poem is not always written in the strictly observed metre. Rhythm is created especially by

33 two components, number of syllables and words in line, meaning an emplacement of word and sentence stresses. The main difference between English and Czech was mentioned in the previous chapter and will be looked at in more detail now. English is the analytic language, hence there appears a great amount of one syllable words. The emplacement of word stress is not regular in English, each word is pronounced differently. Conversely, the synthetic Czech language owns many polysyllabic words. The main word stress is situated on the first syllable in the word and other stresses are on the odd syllables. Basically, the rhythm of both languages must be slightly different but they use the same prosodic system, accentual-syllabic. “The measure of strokes is syllable in Czech verse and tact in English verse (tact is a group of syllables surrounding one stressed syllable).” (Levý 1963: 262; translated by J.T. ) For achieving the rhythmical result keeping the precise number of syllables is more important than keeping the exact amount of stresses in Czech verse. Keeping the rhythm appears sometimes essential for grasping the mood of the poem. For example in Mathew & Son the quick rhythm corresponds with the topic (although the rhythm is hypothetical, based on the potential perception of the strokes).

Up at eight, you can‟t be late for Matthew & V osm vstát, hlavně nezaspat, Son, he won‟t wait. v Mathew & Son se to nesmí stát. Watch them run down to platform one Vlakem tam, stále stejný plán, And the eight-thirty train to Matthew & Son. v osm třicet pět směr Mathew & Son.

The number of strokes is similar in English and in Czech. In the first and second line there are four stresses ‘up, ‘eight, ’can’t, ‘late/ ‘Mathew, ‘Son, ‘he, ‘wait. I tried to do the same in Czech. In the first line the stresses are on the first syllables of the words, in the second line only se and to are without stress. In fourth and fifth line there are five stresses ‘watch, ‘run, ‘platform, ‘one/ ‘eight-‘thirty, ‘train, ‘Mathew, ‘Son. The number of words is the same in Czech again; in the second line only pět has no stress. The metric system offers different solutions to both languages considering their attributes and alternations of stressed syllables (marked as -) with unstressed ones (marked as u). The preferable meters in English are duple meters: iambic (u-) and trochaic (-u) and iambic is the most common one. Triple metres as dactyl (-uu) and anapaest (uu-) do not occur often in English. On the contrary the dactylic and trochaic metres are the most suitable feets for the Czech language.

34 I gave a higher attention to rhythm than to the metric schema in my translation. I often structured the Czech texts in free verse, hence the original sometimes also has no clear metric pattern. The rhythm affects the mood of the poem but it has a different effect in both languages.

When I hold your hand, Když dlaň Tvá drží moji, I could fly zillion miles with you. tak sta bych ušel mílí.

I tried to use iambic rhythm in this poem. If we use iambic metre, actually not exactly iambic metre but iambic rhythm (jambický spád), in Czech language, the poem seems to be slowed down, although iamb is usually consider as quick metrue Iamb has an increasing tendency because it starts with an unstressed syllable and the line should end with a stressed one but in Czech language is often ends by unstressed syllable too. The problem of application of this metre in Czech language is obvious. The stress is always put on the first syllable of the word, and so the iambic metre appears unnatural. Iambic rhythm is mostly realised by adding an unstressed one-syllable word at the beginning of lines but the lines principally end by an unstressed syllable. I used this iambic rhythm in Myslím na Tebe intentionally because the topic of glorifying the Prophet should be expressed seriously and iamb is percieved in certain poems as dignified metre. In English iamb is considered to be slow metre. The most natural and suitable metres are the trochaic and dactylic for the Czech language because of offering enough space to polysyllable Czech words. Although these metric types, especially dactylic, are considered to be accelerating in English, in Czech they have many possibilities. The slight decelerating impression can be created in Czech by using female endings at the final position in the line.

I used to trust nobody, trusting even less their Nevěřil jsem nikomu, slovům ještě words, méně. Until I found somebody, there was no one I Nestranil jsem jednomu, muži ani ženě. preferred, Srdce měl jsem z kamene, v očích vlčí My heart was made of stone; my eyes saw only mlhu. misty grey, V tom my dva se mineme. Náhle cítit Until you came into my life, I saw everyone that mohu. way.

35 I used trochaic metre in Ve tmě se rozednívá in order to formulate the text consisting of more information as fluently and naturally as I was able to. The tempo of poem is slightly slowed down by the female endings; on the other side it is better for the phonetic part of the poem. In a short chorus I used trochaic-dactylic metre.

Until I found the one I needed at my side, Tebe vedle sebe potřebuji mít, I think I would have been a blind man all my Jinak zas bych musel ve tmě živořit. life.

Hrabák and many others say that it is better to search for the functional equivalent in the target language than to translate exactly in the meter of original. (Hrabák 1978)

4.4.3 Free verse

Free verse is a particular type of verse with less technical requirements than bounded verses. Free verse is sometimes mistaken with a prose rewritten into special lines. According to Hrabák the distinction between free verse and rewritten prose reveals that poem in free verse offers a considerably higher amount of information than prose. (Hrabák 1978) The rhythm is liberalized and only hints of metric patterns appear in free verse. I chose the free verse for translation of Father and Son because the content is more important than the irregular rhythm of the original.

It‟s not time to make a change, Není čas se rozejít, Just relax, take it easy zastav se, posečkej chvíli. You‟re still young, that‟s your fault, Mladý jsi, proč si lhát, There‟s so much you have to know ještě tolik toho musíš znát.

The number of stresses is not regular in English here and so the number of syllables is not regular in Czech translation. The most important words are usually situated at the end of lines in Czech free verse; they are given special attention. There are emphasized rozejít, chvíli, lhát, znát in this stanza; these are verbs and noun, entirely words carrying the semantic meaning. Only five words at the end of lines are not verbs or nouns in this poem: své, víc, nic, to, sám.

36 4.4.4 The lines divide and enjambment

The enjambment is a term closely connected with meanings in poems and phonetic side of poetry. As was mentioned the important words are placed at the end of lines. Sometimes the one line is a whole sentence so there are no problems with translation, e.g. in Ve tmě se rozednívá:

I used to walk alone, every step seemed the Chodíval jsem samotný, stejné všechny same. kroky.

Often the sentence or the semantic unit is divided between two lines, e.g. in Kam si půjdou děti hrát?

Well you roll on roads over fresh green grass Louky převážeš lesklou dálnicí for your lorry loads pumping petrol gas Pro tvé dodávky naftou se krmící

In these cases the word order should be modulated (but not only deformed) according to the demands of the importance of the last word in the line. The enjambment should be respected while reciting; there should be a small pause in the Czech language.

4.5 The rhyme

The rhyme is one of the basic attributes of poetry because it contributes to the linking of verses and to the euphony. Jiří Levý predicates to the rhyme three functions: creating of meaningful connections between lines; supporting of rhythmical pattern of verse; helping to euphonic contrast in verses. (Levý 1963) Although creating of the meaningful connections between verses perhaps does not seem to be a function of rhyme, it is his most important role. The fact that Czech people usually remember precisely only the rhymes from poems can be considered as a proof. The quality of the rhyme is perceived differently in English and in Czech poetry and it is given mainly by the lexical and grammatical possibilities of both languages. Synthetic languages have more possibilities according to the rhyme because the endings of words are changing according to inflection or conjugation paradigm. The disadvantages of the analytical languages are obvious; their rhyme vocabulary is due to small changeability of words and is

37 relatively poor. The rhyme is defined in English literature by the following words: “Normally the last stresses vowel in the line and all sounds following it make up the rhyming element.” (Baldick 2008: 288) In Czech theory the rhyming element could involve the sounds preceding the last stressed vowel also.

4.5.1 Grammatical rhyme

In Czech poetry one comes across grammatical rhymes quite often and do not decline the artistic value of a poem too much but they cannot be used often. Grammatical rhyme, where the words of the same type with the same grammatical categories are rhymed, is easy to use in Czech poetry, e.g. as in Déšť.

Tell me if I gotta build a boat to carry us to Řekni, mám loď sestavit, jež nás ponese? sea Řekni, jaký tvar má mít, ať vše unese? Tell me what the shape of it will be

Nevertheless, sometimes this type of rhyme carries the special artistic value, e.g. in list of specific action or things at the end of verses. Regarding the artistic value, in Czech poetry the rhymes from different word categories are considered more aesthetical, for instance chvíli/bílý.

4.5.2 Monosyllable , two syllables and dactylic rhyme

The reasons for using different rhymes are usually hidden in the language system itself. One of them is a stress: languages with stresses on the last syllable uses monosyllable rhyme, while language with stresses on the last but one syllable use two syllables rhyme, and both types are possible in languages with the stress on first syllable. Moreover, monosyllable rhyme is more suitable in English because there appears a higher number of monosyllable words (it is also connected with the stress on the last syllable). In Czech the monosyllable rhyme has its place while at least one of rhyming words has only one syllable, e.g. in První nejhlubší ránu.

„Cause when it comes to being lucky she‟s Poprvé jsem kdysi usínal s ní cursed Na ní čekal spoustu prázdných dní

38 When it comes to lovin‟ me she‟s worst Ona byla první, ne poslední But when it comes to being loved, she‟s first

In these three lines the last two can be also named as echo rhyme because the first word is repeated in whole in the second one. As we can see even in this short example the monosyllable rhyme is common and natural in English. There occur three triple rhymed lines (as in the example) and all of them have monosyllable rhyme in this poem. I tried to keep the monosyllable rhyme in Lady D‟Arbanville because the rhymed words fit the original and make the long lines closed.

My Lady d‟Arbanville why does it grieve me Má lady D‟Arbanville, žal vstoupil do mých so? dní. But your heart seems so silent. Proč tvůj tep je tichý? Why do you breathe so low, why do you Proč dech tvůj slabě zní, proč dech tvůj slabě breathe so low. zní?

Actually, the absolute majority of rhymes in Cat Stevens‟ texts are done by monosyllable rhyme. The two syllables rhyme is scarce in the English original. There are rhymes like heaven/ garden in Morning has broken but rhymes like this one are not accurate. Another type of rhyme which could be considered as two syllable is my hands/ my lands, but it is not accurate again because the consonant in the middle is different in both lines. Conversely, the two syllables rhymes appear often in Czech poems because it is natural to use. Also the English one syllable rhyme was translated as two syllables into Czech in order to exploit the advantages of the Czech language. Jiří Levý says: “While translating from language with limited possibilities (e.g. English, Italian, Spanish) into language with wider range of choices, then there is no sense trying to keep the rhyme pattern of original.” (Levý 1963: 290; translated by J.T.) The two syllables rhyme is for Czech poetry the most natural one and trying to follow the monosyllable rhyme of the original would bind the fluency, e.g. in Ve tmě se rozednívá:

I used to walk alone, every step seemed the same. Chodíval jsem samotný, stejné všechny This world was not my home, so there was nothing kroky. much to gain. Beze smyslu žil jsem dny, měsíce a

39 Look up and see the clouds, look down and see the roky. cold floor. Stát na zemi studené, slunce v šedém Until you came into my life, I saw nothing, mračnu. nothing more. V tom my dva se mineme. Náhle cítit začnu.

The dactylic (triple-syllable) rhyme could not be found on any place in Cat Stevens‟s texts. The two syllables and three syllables are not suitable for English poetry also because of phonetic reasons, but this will be focused on later. In comparison the dactylic rhyme is not very common in Czech poetry also because it is difficult to keep it. Here is an attempt to use dactylic rhyme in Vítr:

The dactylic rhyme is not exact because the second consonant does not fit.

4.5.3 The rich rhyme

In the Czech language the rich rhyme is usually a type of two syllables rhyme with higher congruence of consonants. The rich rhyme is perceived phonetically more complex and euphonic than a simple rhyme. The better sound can be found in e.g. Myslím na Tebe:

Every little bird above the haze, I pták co vzduchem pluje, And fish beneath the waves, I rybka z vodní sluje,

In rich rhyme the previous consonants before the second vowel from the end are the same so in the Czech language the sound quality is higher. In English the rich rhyme is defined slightly differently than in Czech. In rich rhyme “the consonants preceding the rhyming element are also identical, even if the spellings and meanings of the words differ (made/maid).” (Baldick 2008: 288) Levý wrote that this type of rhyme seems to be without aesthetic value in English and in German poetry and it is not

40 perceived as euphonic. (Levý 1963) In translation of poetry it is necessary to accept this fact and do not adhere to it while translating into Czech. For example rhymes in the middle of lines in Morning has Broken.

Morning has broken, like the first morning Nad světem svítá jak kdysi dávno Blackbird has spoken, like the first bird Kos slunce vítá, přichází den

In English the consonant preceding –o are not the same. However, there is no problem to translate it as svítá/vítá because this rhyme‟s effect on the Czech reader is broader than it would be in the English original. The usage of rich rhyme in translation is not frequent as it is difficult to use it without repeating words with the same meanings.

4.5.4 The half-rhyme, the eye rhyme and pararhyme

On the contrary in English poetry different types of rhymes are considered as a rhyme and which are not perceived in the same way as in Czech or even do not exist in Czech. The half rhyme “when the vowel sounds do not match (love/have).” (Baldick 2008: 288) Examples from Cat Stevens‟ texts: years/dares; dark/blocked. They are mostly translated as normal monosyllable or two syllable rhyme in the Czech language. The type of rhyme in Czech poetry which could be better compared to English half-rhyme perhaps is rhyme with a different quantity of vowels, e.g. snaží/neodváží. The quality is the same, still the difference is apparent. Levý speaks about the underestimating of this distinction between long and short vowels in Czech poetry and translation. (Levý 1963) The difference is undoubtedly visible and partly it can affect the rhythm of the poem, in Czech only slightly, though. The problem is hidden is the rhyme vocabulary of Czech language. Although, it is much wider than English one and offers plentiful choice, it is not without limits. The translator sometimes has to use this kind of rhyme, in order to keep the meaning or rhythm. Nonetheless, high amount of this type of rhymes lowers the aesthetic value of the poem. The eye rhyme “in which the spellings of the rhyming elements match, but the sound do not (love/prove).” (Baldick 2008: 288) This rhyme has no similarity in Czech because while the spelling of two words is the same, the sounds are too. The pararhyme is “the half-rhyme with additional rich consonance (love/leave).” (Baldick 2008: 288)

41 Those two last mentioned categories do not affect the translation. They are mentioned mainly because they do occur in English poems and so the translator should be acknowledged with them.

4.5.5 Rhyme vocabulary

Each language has different possibilities in rhyming words. Moreover, each poet has his own style and special vocabulary. Many differences between English and Czech have been already mentioned. The main problem of English rhyme seems to be a very limited source of rhymes caused by a limited number of forms of one word. Most of the rhymes in Cat Stevens‟ text are the monosyllable rhymes. In the first poem Mathew & Son each from triple rhymes in 3 stanzas are monosyllabic and rhymes in chorus are the same quality. In translated text the order is interrupted only in the last stanza where the two syllable rhymes are used. The only noticeable extension in this tendency of using rhymes is the poem Morning has broken where two syllable rhymes are used. The differences between English and Czech vocabulary are visible also on the number of grammatical rhymes which is higher in English poems. Although it has not to be a rule, e.g. in Mathew & Son, the Czech translation has several grammatical rhymes. Not only smaller aesthetic effect but also bearing a smaller emphasis are the problems of grammatical rhymes in the Czech language. It is connected with the term original and common rhyme. Original rhyme brings an unexpected connection between words and so it has a higher potential in terms of meaning; the reader will more likely notice and remember it. While the rhyme is not original, so it is predictable as lie/die or run/one/son, its meaning usually cannot bring any surprise. To avoid this type of rhyme in translation seems to be sufficient, since using of common rhymes is not the author‟s intention because of aesthetical reasons or any other purpose. Using rhymes like vstát/spát/stát have one advantage in comparison with English common rhymes: they are not so predictable because of the high amount of similar and possible words in Czech language. Therefore rhymes like snaží/neodváží/zdraží have different effect than English years/dares/arrears. According to the potential of the Czech language the translator could increase higher the number of rhymes in stanzas; of course if it does not harm the meaning or the intention of author.

I used to walk alone, every step seemed the same. Chodíval jsem samotný, stejné

42 This world was not my home, so there was všechny kroky. nothing much to gain. Beze smyslu žil jsem dny, měsíce a Look up and see the clouds, look down and see the roky. cold floor. Stát na zemi studené, slunce v šedém Until you came into my life, I saw nothing, mračnu. nothing more. V tom my dva se mineme. Náhle cítit začnu.

In this stanza one rhyme in Czech is added because it helps to the euphony of the poem. From a certain point of view the Czech language is not so euphonious as English because the emphasis on stresses is much smaller and so the rhythmical impulse is potentially smaller to. Accordingly it is good to use those tools which make the poem more rhythmical and in the Czech language it is undoubtedly rhyme. It is possible to speak also about rhyme between the different lexical units which is more probably apprehended as original rhyming. It is good to use this type of rhyme in Czech as often as it is possible (with attention to the meaning). For example the comparable meaning and aesthetical effect have rhymes legs/beg and zmizely/v posteli, the Czech rhyme has lower phonetic value, though. The rhymes like dálnicí/krmící made from different word types appear more original and interesting than previously mentioned and also the English grass/gass.

4.6 Euphony

The euphony is created by many components. “The use of long vowels, liquid consonants (l, r), and semi-vowels (w,y) contributes to euphony, along with the avoidance of adjacent stresses; the meaning of the words, however, has an important effect too.” (Baldick 2008: 118) Regarding to the functional elements of the poems the euphony does not constitute the most difficult component but in translation it plays a significant role. The keeping of the approximate same level of euphony in the target language as in the source language appears fundamental for keeping a similar effect on the reader. In this thesis the euphony is mentioned only partially because the translated text were dealt as poems not as lyrics. In case they would be taken as lyrics, this part demands higher attention. Jiří Levý speaks about four levels of euphony. (Levý 1946) Zero level is simple the euphony typical for the certain language (the Czech language has its euphony, while the

43 English language has a different euphony etc.). First level is called euphony; the sound part of the text is the background but has no relevant meaning. For instance, using of the sound /ou/ in Czech language in order to create a softer sound without certain plan or order. Instrumentation is the name of second level expressing that the sound side becomes an essential part of the verse and corresponds with its semantic meanings, e.g. planned repeating of /á/. And the third level shows that euphony is one of the components of the poem‟s structure, e.g. the alliteration in Old English poetry. The last level does not exist in Czech modern poetry, but we often meet with the other three. The choice of vowels and consonants plays an important role in creating the appropriate background, actually in almost any poem. For example in the poem The First Cut Is The Deepest the choice of vowels in both languages is different but the euphonious background is resembling.

I would have given you all of my heart Víš, že celé srdce chtěl bych ti dát But there‟s someone who‟s torn it apart Jenže přišla ona, nechci ti lhát And she‟s taking almost all that I‟ve got Ona, která chtěla jen brát But if you want, I‟ll try to love again Však jestli chceš, tak zkusím milovat Baby I‟ll try to love again but I know Zkusím znovu milovat přestože vím

More than half the vowels in the English original are those pronounced with lips in a wide position and so as the majority of vowels in Czech translation. Also the number of vowels pronounced with closed jaw is high and in Czech translation it is higher. It is possible to say that the euphonious background has been kept, because consonants do not play a significant part in this stanza. Another example could be found in translation of Hard-Headed Woman. I have decided for the following version because of several and mainly euphonious reasons.

I‟m looking for a hard-headed woman, Hledám tvrdohlavou ženu, One who will take me for myself, která bude o mě stát. And if I find my hard-headed woman, Když tu ženu si seženu, I will need nobody else – no, no, no jiné ani nechci znát.

The hard-headed has been translated as tvrdohlavou because of the sound /r/, which associates the same meanings in both languages. Although there were different possibilities,

44 any of them did not consist both of the notion and the sound as well as trvdohlavá. In Czech the most open vowel /a/ is used more often than in English, nevertheless it has the similar effect as in English /ə/. Seženu in the third line can be seen as a rich rhyme to the ženu (it is also grammatical rhyme) but foremost it is euphonious equivalent to the rhyme woman- woman. Vowels have a stronger influence on the euphonic side of a verse in the Czech language than in English. Talking about sound vowels are more important than most of the consonants because they contain a tone and so they are more visible, while consonants mostly have just a vague sound. The difference between vowels in Czech and in English is given by the sound system, which contains more concrete vowels than the English one. On the contrary, English dispose by a higher number of diphthongs than Czech. At the end the number of vowels in texts is higher in English, but they are not expressive as in the Czech language. Another distinction between those two sound systems is hidden in the changing of sound through pronunciation in the different surrounding; English vowels are not as stable as Czech ones. “So vowels are more stable in Czech language and consonant are more stable in English.” (Levý 1946: 79; translated by J.T.) This distinction is worth attention in translation, in order to choose appropriate patterns and expressions in the target language.

4.6.1 Assonance

A great part of euphony is reached by using assonance. Assonance is “the repetition of identical or similar vowel sounds in the stressed syllables (and sometimes in the following unstressed syllables) of neighbouring words.” (Baldick 2008: 27) Assonance has a very strong influence in English poetry, probably stronger than in Czech. Czech poets do not use assonance so extensively but more intentionally. For example in The First Cut Is the Deepest the sound /i:/ plays an important role in the original and even in translation. In Czech language the /í/ feels to be a higher and more closed than the English variant. Repeating words with this sound produces an atmosphere of the poem.

The first cut is the deepest, baby I know První nejhlubší ránu nezničí čas The first cut is the deepest První nejhlubší ránu „Cause when it comes to being lucky she‟s Poprvé jsem kdysi usínal s ní cursed Na ní čekal spoustu prázdných dní

45 When it comes to lovin‟ me she‟s worst Ona byla první, ne poslední But when it comes to being loved, she‟s first Jenže já vím That‟s how i know První nejhlubší ránu nezničí čas The first cut is the deepest, baby I know První nejhlubší ránu The first cut is the deepest

The sound /í/ is not so euphonious as /á/, the pronunciation of it is more difficult and it creates a not very pleasant feeling which seems to be accurate for this poem. In the English original /i:/ is not so often repeated; it is completed by the sound /s/.

4.6.2 Consonance

Assonance is completed by consonance which is defined like assonance but the repeated sounds are consonants. Consonance has higher influence in English than in Czech. For example the sound /s/ associates a whizz of a wind in the poem The Wind and so it is advisable to exploit the similar possibility in Czech.

In Czech text the sound /ʃ/ is added. The difference between Czech emphasis on vowels and English on consonants can be seen for instance in Mathew & Son.

Mathew (and) Son, the work‟s never done, Mathew (and) Son, vždy jsi zaměstnán, práce there‟s always something new pořád víc

The presence of sounds /s/ and /n/ is more significant in the English version. They create the sound base of the verse. In the Czech version the most important sound is /á/. Another example:

46 Up at eight, you can‟t be late V osm vstát, hlavně nezaspat, For Mathew & Son, he won‟t wait V Mathew & Son se to nesmí stát

Although the number of the consonant /t/ in both versions is the same, in English their position is stronger since they are placed at the end of words. In Czech the most important is the changing between sounds /a/, /e/ and /o/.

4.6.3 Alliteration

Alliteration is “the repetition of the same sounds - usually initial consonants of words or of stressed syllables - in any sequence in neighbouring words.” (Baldick 2008: 6) Alliteration was an element of composition of the poem in Old English poetry, but it has different function nowadays. Due to this figure the final sound effect of the poem could be forced. Alliteration is used both in English and in Czech. For example in the poem Fill My Eyes the sound /m/ is used three times in a row.

And so my mind begins to memorise Vzpomínkám v paměti hledám skrýš

The Czech translation uses /m/ rather as consonance. In another example the alliteration is kept in Czech, only the sound is changed from /s/ to /t/:

But your heart seems so silent Proč tvůj tep je tichý?

4.7 Figures and tropes

According to the fact that the language of poetry is condensed it must be clear that poetry uses different expressive tools than are used in prose or in normal speech. An interesting part of poetic language considers figures and tropes. Figures are usually considered as expressions which are chained in the written (or spoken) words according to the same kind of pattern having the enhanced poetical effect on the reader. Remembering that the poetic language expects readers to read it with specific attention and sensibility for hidden notions, the translator has to bring those hints with the help of figures and tropes into the target language. The translator should be careful about the author‟s style, which sometimes

47 denies the usage of rich language figures, although the target language offers plenty of possibilities.

4.7.1 Tropes

Trope is “a figure of speech, especially one that uses words in senses beyond their literal meanings.” (Baldick 2008: 264) While translating the poetry the understanding of tropes in the source language is important.

4.7.1.1 Metaphor

Perhaps it is not accurate to speak about metaphors in terms of translation of poetry because the basics of poetry are built on metaphors, so it is obvious that the translator has to have a sense for metaphorical expressions. However, I look in more details on several types of metaphor, hence it is helpful for the understanding of to the texts. Tropes offer a great space to the translator‟s creativity. The metaphor is literally defined as a trope based on the inner similarity of expressions, e.g. in The Wind:

I‟ve swam upon the devil’s lake Tůni vin jsem přeplaval

The used words are expressive but the exact intention of the author is not clear. The devil‟s lake can be a bad experience or bad memory. I have decided for this translation regarding to the rest of the following stanza. As a similar example could be named I think I See the Light. This line is repeated many times in the poem which underlines its importance. The light symbolizes something good; the translation should pursue this intention, but the proper version can be different than my choice Ve tmě se rozednívá. I have decided for this variant because of the ending of the poem where it is possible to play with the vision of light and colours. In the I Think I See the Light the sense of metaphor is clear.

My heart was made of stone; my eyes saw Srdce měl jsem z kamene, v očích vlčí mlhu. only misty grey

The meaning of the original is translated into the target language, although the colloquial expression is used only in Czech.

48 Another example of metaphor used can be the title of one poem Tuesday’s Dead. This expression could be considered not only as a metaphoric but also as personification. In metaphorical sense the limitedness of existence is expressed. Human lives end as end the limited time of one single day. Today is Tuesday, but tomorrow there will not be this Tuesday anymore. With regard to the importance of expression the future aspect I decided for the expression Zítra zmizí úterý. Peter Newmark (2004) also deals with translation of the metaphors in his work. Although he does not concentrate on the artistic translation, his categories could help us to understand better to the term metaphor. He divides metaphors into six groups. First group presents “dead” metaphor, which are connected with universal terms, e.g. time leaves; this group is not interesting for our field of translation since they are clear. We can deal with them as with a different figure (time leaves can be consider as personification). Second group, cliché metaphors, contains mostly common words chains used in every day speech and often in written texts, e.g. you take them to bed meaning you are getting asleep and still think about them. Third category, stock and standard metaphors, brings words connected with a physical and a mental situation, usually in informal context. Those metaphors are used without any hesitation in normal communication, e.g. poker face, but usually not in poetry. Adapted metaphor, fourth category, consists of those, which are not literally translatable into different languages and need to be reduced somehow, e.g. I still want you by my side cannot be translated word by word, it need changes. Fifth category consist of new created connections called recent metaphors and these words again could be mainly found in the real dialogues not in written literature, therefore they are created recently and slowly getting to the used vocabulary. The last category contains mainly the written metaphors, original metaphors. Using this type of metaphor writer creates original text, which could be seen from a literal view and metaphors could be valuated by readers.

4.7.1.2 Simile

Translation of similes needs imagination. Generally it is possible to divide them into two groups: explicit and non-explicit. Examples of explicit ones:

I was once like you are now I mně bylo dvacet let

49 Since the explicit simile is not always the best solution for the translator, they are often changed.

Blackbird has spoken like the first bird Kos slunce vítá, přichází den

And example of the non-explicit simile used in Lady D‟Arbanville:

Your lips feel like winter Tvé rty u mých chladnou

The simile is changed here into the kind of personification (the inanimate thing is doing an uncommon activity). I have decided for this variation because of the sound side of the verse, I needed to have a sound /ou/ at the end, and with the intention to keep the closeness between the lady and the poets expressed in English word feel.

4.7.1.3 Personification

Personification can be explained as predication of animate abilities to inanimate items. The personification is often used in Czech poetical language, even on places where the original is written differently. The second example could be to consider as a synecdoche too.

Oh, I‟m being followed by the moonshadow Když měsíc bdí mně v patách stín běží

Red legged chicken stands ready to strike Rudá nožka slípky k bitvě vyzývá

A simple garden with acres of sky V zahradě vítr se s oblaky pral

It‟s not time to make a change Nepřišel čas odejít

4.7.1.4 Synaesthesia

Synaesthezia means “a blending or confusion of different kinds of sense impression.” (Baldick 2008: 254) This tool was mainly used in impressionist poetry and is used very often up to now. Diverse experiences are given together and create an original trop. In translation it

50 is sometimes difficult to keep the synaesthesia unchanged (the first example is only metaphor and personification).

If my colours all run dry Barvy by zakryl šedý mrak

A sad Blue eyed drummer rehearses outside Modrooký smutně bubnuje sám

4.7.1.5 Periphrasis

Using periphrasis requires, as was already mentioned, the understanding to the source language and precise knowledge of the target language and its usage. Periphrasis uses more words for expressing a single notion.

I still want you by my side Vedle tebe bych se probouzel rád. Just to help me dry the tears that I‟ve cried S tebou bych se zase naučil smát.

Periphrasis is slightly a problematic trope. In the example given one thought is expressed: he wants her to be with him. That‟s the reason why I consider it as a periphrasis and tried to make variations on this in Czech (in the whole stanza).

4.7.1.6 Hyperbole and litotes

Having the usage of language on the first place, the hyperbole and litotes are interesting for analysis.

The files in your head, you take them to bed, Vše přepočítat, nemůžeš spát, snad nespletl you‟re never ever through jsi nic.

Here, in Mathew & Son, the hyperbole is used. Never ever is not translated exactly but the mood of hyperbole is expressed by using the prefix ne- and pronoun nic. Litotes is perceived slightly differently in the Czech language than in the English language. In Czech it is mainly expressed by overuse of the preposition ne-, two negatives in Czech express positive meaning. There exist words with an implicit negative meaning in English.

51 So don‟t it make you feel sad Nebudeš snad plakat!

In Miles from Nowhere the litotes is expressed in the same way in both languages. We have one negative expressed grammatically (don’t, nebudeš) and one expressed by lexical word (snad, plakat). The precious translation should be Tak nebuď smutná!, but according to the rhyme schema the previous variation had been selected.

4.7.2 Epithet

One feature of the poetical language is the usage of epithets. Having no special structure or meaning, the epithet cannot be well included into the categories of tropes and figures, but usually it is referred to it as to the trope. Called “poetical attribute” (Petrů 2006: 113; translated by J.T.) it usually brings something new and surprising only through the one adjective connected to the ordinary substantive. There exist also epithets commonly used and bounded to one word, so called Homeric epithets (Baldick 2008), but their poetic function does not seem to be strong. For example in the text Lady D‟Arbanville the connection silent heart is substantial. The moment of silence goes through the whole texts and leads towards the revealing of the beloved‟s death. In cases like this it is important to preserve the connotation and denotation in appropriate ways. In Czech theory of literature epithet is considered in four groups: metaphorical, metonymical, epithet constans and epithet ornans. (Petrů 2006) First and second mentioned are based on the characteristics of metaphor and metonymy. Epithet constans is similar to the Homeric epithet, it expresses quality which is a priory associated with the described item, e.g. daleké míle – miles in meaning of journey are usually appreciated as long and never ending. Epithet ornans describes the item with higher aesthetic quality, e.g. lesklá dálnice. This quality is not a priory connected with the road but it reveals a new decorative view. Epithet is to the certain point the same as an attribute, more precisely the epithet is mostly expressed by an attribute. An attribute expresses a certain quality of a certain noun, whether epithet expressions has aesthetical function. The range of grammatical possibilities is in the Czech language and is broader than in English. The distinction between cooperative and non-cooperative attributes has its function only in the Czech language and not in English, because attributes do not change in analytical languages. (Knittlová 1990) In Czech poems there is no problem to use structure as přítel cizincem and the link between words are clear

52 while in English this type of attribute causes difficulties since the link and distinction between noun and attribute become unclear. Usually there is no problem with translation of attributes but there are problems connected with translation of epithets. The function given to the attribute in normal speech is widened by metaphorical or sensual connections. In the text Into White the associations connected with sensual perceptions are the most important. From barley rice was in the end translated as ze snopů slaměných, in order to keep connotations connected with barley. Perhaps using z ječmene would not evocate the adequate illustration for the poem.

4.7.3 Figures

In this category mainly the rhetorical figures will be dealt with. Figures help to emphasize notions and meanings in the verses and stanzas by the structural changes. The meaning can be emphasized or enliven by several ways. (Baldick 2008) The emphasized words can be situated on the beginning of the lines, and then it is called anaphora. It is used in All Kinds of Roses. Translation of this figure is not difficult but the attention must be given to the form. The words must be chosen carefully because of the repetition.

The Czech words mnoho je are not euphonious as in English all kinds of. Moreover, mnoho je do not offer the appropriate endings for the rest of the lines; that is why it is replaced by other variations in second stanza. The anaphora enforced the meaning of the repeated word.

Tell me if I gotta build a boat to carry us to sea Řekni, mám loď sestavit, jež nás Tell me what the shape of it will be ponese? Tell me if it‟s gonna be a home for every kind of Řekni, jaký tvar má mít, ať vše unese? beast Řekni, bude útulkem lidem, zvířatům? Tell me who the lucky ones will be Řekni, kteří vejít smí v ten plovoucí dům?

The urgent question is expressed through anaphora in The Rain. This figure can be also reconsidered as an apostrophe therefore an address of unreal or absent person. Anaphora is used in the following example slightly differently:

No one loves their neighbour here Zde host vítán není, Nobody has the time nikdo naň čas nemá. No one cares for anyone else Zde nikdo není přítelem.

The emphasized word is changed in Czech the stress is given on place since the poem expresses mainly the negative connotation connected with the mentioned place. In connection with anaphora a simple repetition could be mentioned. This figure is used by Cat Stevens very often in order to highlight the meaning and sound pattern. For example in The Rain each stanza begins with repeated line. Another figure, aposiopesis, is not difficult to be kept in translation, since it is a simple not finished statement. Sometimes it is better not to use each aposiopesis in order to save enough space for words. For example in Moonshadow only the second aposiopesis was translated as aposiopesis; the first one was skipped.

Yes if I ever lose my mouth -oh if… A kdybych pozbyl ústa svá – pak bych I won‟t have to talk… nepromluvil ...

There occur other figures but they won‟t be mentioned because their importance for translation is not so significant. Often used is the ellipsis meaning eliciting part of the text. The elicited words must be recoverable from the context. For example in the translation of Hard-Headed woman is written:

And if I find my hard-headed woman Když takovou si seženu

It is possible to use the ellipsis, because the identity or quality of the searched woman is clear from previous and following verses. A different type of figure typical for all kinds of literature is presented by a rhetorical question. The rhetorical question does not expect the answer, e.g. My Lady D’Arbanville, why

54 do you sleep so still? The structure should be kept in the translation even in poetry. Also theoretical answer could be mentioned, it is not often used, though. What is relatively often in poetry and is connected with personification is the apostrophe, addressing and asking of inanimate thing.

The inanimate thing is treated as the animate what should be reflected also in the grammatical structure.

4.8 The graphic side of poems

I would like to add only a short note about the graphic side of the poems. I inserted this chapter in this part of the thesis because the figures and tropes are in close connection with the graphic side. The graphical side of poems should be preserved, since the division of thoughts into verses is crucial for expressing the author‟s aims. There are certain styles, which present poems as pictures. These can be seen as extreme. However, the partial specialties can occur in so called normal kind so poetry. For example in the poem Into White the author emphasized the colors in order to stress the reception of sensual perceptions:

A sad Blue eyed drummer rehearses outside Modrooký smutně bubnuje sám A Black spider dancing on top of his eye Pavouček tančí, má stříbrný chrám

Having translated this poem in more free way, I have decided to omit the graphic side. In Czech language the nouns are usually not written with capital letters, only the proper nouns, so this kind of emphasis would not be probably functioning in the same way as in English. I would like to mention also the question of punctuation. As far as the punctuation in Stevens‟ texts is concerned, I did not find it substantial. Therefore, I worked with the punctuation freely and I use it compactly only in those texts, where it was necessary for the precious expression of thoughts, e.g. in Tomorrow‟s Dead.

55 4.9 Translation of poems’ titles

I would like to focus this short chapter on the translation of poem‟s titles. In spite of the fact the reader sees them as a first part of the text, they are often not considered as important. Levý speaks about following distinction of book titles: descriptive title and symbolic title. (Levý 1963) The first category is not common among poem‟s titles. I would say that both categories are usually mixed in poem‟s titles. There are nearly any prescriptive titles, there is not enough given space to prescription. Most of the titles are symbolic as Time – Čas or The Wind – Vítr. In many cases titles are already part of the poem due to creating the appropriate mood they prepare the reader to the poem. Some of them can be translated without changing as Father and Son – Otec a syn. Others need small changes, for instance Hard Headed Woman. If the translation is Tvrdohlavá žena, it would mislead readers and the effect would be different. Translation Hledám tvrdohlavou ženu feels like a slogan, like a title in newspapers and it corresponds with the poem. The translation of the title The First Cut Is the Deepest could have more solutions: První rána je nejhlubší, První nejhlubší rána, První nejhlubší ránu. In this case I preferred the last variant, thus the same part of sentence is used in the poem. A part of the text I used also in Into White translated as Mám dům, therefore as a title is the English part untranslatable so I decided to use a part from the first line, which also partly describes the poem. Untranslatable is also Moonshadow, which I will mention in the following chapter. Fill my eyes does not sound well in the Czech language Naplň mé oči, so it is necessary to select another variation. A slightly different situation is with the poem World O’Darkness. In the album Roadsinger this song is connected with only instrumental piece Shamsia. I have decided to adapt the name for this poem too, since both songs are written as one composition.

4.10 Equivalence in translation of poetry

In this chapter I would like to mention only several pieces of knowledge especially from the field lexical equivalence, which I found interesting for the poetry. I consider all chapters mentioned above more important for the translation of poetry, so this chapter should only foreshadow certain views on problems and the possible ways of considering them. It offers other possible perceptions of the poetical language, but the analysis based on rules of lexical equivalence cannot be applied on poetry in general. In translation of poetry the

56 creativity and imagination are often preferred between the literal translation in order to keep the main expression, mood and message of the poem. The language of poetry is language of images and images often cannot be analyses in the only one way but they demand free perspective.

4.10.1 Lexical equivalence

Dagmar Knittlová deals with lexical equivalence in detail. The equivalence theory is based on the differences between English, the analytic language, and Czech, the synthetic language; these differences were already mentioned. It deals with finding the appropriate equivalents in target language to lexical items from the source language. I would like to consider two elements: differences in denotation and connotation. My differentiation and usage of terms is based on the book of Dagmar Knittlová (2000). In general there exist 3 types of equivalents in foreign languages: absolute equivalents, partial equivalents and zero equivalents. (Knittlová 2000) The most numerous group are the partial equivalents; equivalents, which differ in several notion components. Absolute equivalents mostly can be coordinated to names of people, places, days, parts of the human body, animals etc. These lexical units have nearly the same denotative meaning in both languages. Some expression sometimes has no equivalent in the target language, which can be caused by many reasons, for instance the object named by the lexical unit is not known in the target culture. According to Knittlová (2000) there could be four types of distinction between partial equivalents: formal distinctions, differences in denotative meaning, differences in connotative meaning and pragmatic distinctions. Now, I will look closely at these categories.

4.10.1.1 Formal distinctions

English as an analytic language has to use more poly words expressions than in Czech. The richer semantic information is usually brought by the supplement and the central expression is semantically poorer, e.g. slot machine – automat, taking a ride - svištět. This distinction affects the proportions of verse. The poly words expression are often more explicit than the single words, e.g. cosmic train – raketa. The expression cosmic train contains more pieces of information than Czech raketa, although they mean the same.

57 4.10.1.2 Differences in denotation

The object, the reality, which is named divergently in both languages, remains the same. The relationship between the lexical item and the object is factual, objective. “The signed reality remains the same or at least has the same function in the text, thus the denotative information is without change.” (Knittlová 2000: 41; translated by J.T.) The changes happen on the level of language, of abstraction. In translation from English to Czech the specification of meaning is common, for example in The First Cut Is the Deepest:

But there‟s someone who‟s torn it apart Jenže přišla ona, nechci ti lhát

From neutral someone is made noun with emphasized female gender. The change is natural, because the poem deals with love, thus the opposite between genders tends to be expressed. In Czech translation the opposite is expressed earlier than in English poem, but the more precious translations as přišel někdo, někdo se objevil would not be suitable. Another example:

Where do you go? Where do you go? Kam vydáš se? Kam vydáš se?

Go feels to be neutral, it is the verb of movement, while more specific vydáš se expresses the action, which hasn‟t started yet. Another change in the semantic field could be generalization. The concrete expression is substituted by the words from higher abstract level (by hyperonym). In Czech translation of English text it is not so often as specification.

And if I ever lose my eyes A kdybych přišel o svůj zrak

The expression zrak contains the inner ability of seeing; eyes are concrete parts of body, which allow human to see.

4.10.1.3 Differences in connotation

Connotation express personal association connected with the lexical item. Connotations are basically divided into two groups: expressive and stylistic.

58 Speaking about expressive connotations, we have to mention that English expresses emotionality more analytical, by using lexical units, by combination of neutral units with those having function of emotional statement. (Knittlová 2000)

A little finger drew a perfect heart Nakreslil prstík bezchybné srdce

In the given example the expression with the same connotative meaning could be presented by one word in Czech language, while it has to have two (with an article three) words in English. It is common to express diminutives by modifier as little or old in English. Expressing this kind of emotional connotation is done by suffixes in the Czech language. Equivalents in Czech and in English are often perceived as units belonging to different stylistic level. In my opinion in Cat Stevens‟ texts it is not necessary to deal with this type of connotation because the poems are stylistically balanced and it depends only on the translator‟s decision of style and vocabulary, which he will use in translation of these texts.

4.10.1.4 Pragmatic distinctions

Distinctions on pragmatic level are made by different translator‟s experience with language but also with reality. The translator adds information or elicits concrete notions in order to make the expressions more comprehensible. (Knittlová 2000) For instance the eliciting information can be seen in this translation: morning has broken – svítá. It is not the best example, but the here also the several connotations are selected and deleted.

4.10.2 The absence of equivalents

The problem of zero equivalence can sometimes appear in translation of artistic literature. In poems it is possible to read new expression made by the authors playing with the language, a special example could be Dadaism or any other modern poetic stream. We can read new created words also in Cat Stevens‟ texts. Hrdlička, refers to the theory of Barchudarov and Latyšev, mentioned several ways how to deal with similar lexical items (Hrdlička 1995). I will show this methods on the expression roadsinger from text Roadsinger, which I tried to translate. First is transliteration means to use the foreign expression in target language (roadsinger – roadsinger). Although the alliteration is common, I do not consider it as a suitable method in this case, because the

59 denotation of this lexical item should be explained and it would interrupt the continuity of the Czech text. The second method is calque, the word to word translation (roadsinger – cestozpěvák, cestující zpěvák). This method has one disadvantage, according to the Barchudarov, calquing can change the meaning. The explaining translation is mentioned as a third method, which illustrates the meaning by giving the chain of words or a sentence with the meaning of the lexical item (roadsinger – zpěvák, který cestuje). The last method is the approximate translation, based on analogy, which is in reality searching for the most similar expression in the target language (roadsinger – minstrel, potulný zpěvák, bard, písničkář, poutník etc.) A subcategory of this method is the creation of neologisms, creation of new words on the basis of the source lexical item. Similar problem occurred with the word moonshadow. I have decided for calque, because there is no similar word in Czech, so analogy could not be used. I understood to this word as stín, který vytváří měsíc, stín od měsíce.

Oh, I‟m being followed by the moonshadow, Když měsíc bdí mně v patách stín běží, moonshadow, moonshadow. Nocí skáče si svěží.

In the stanza I divided it into měsíc and stín, it should be clear that the shadow is made because of the moon. In the title I elicited part of the expression and due to it I simplified the meaning by using the only adjectival noun Měsíční.

60 5 Conclusion

I dealt with translation of poetry and analysis of this translation with the usage of the knowledge from equivalence theory in this bachelor thesis. In practical part I presented 21 translated texts of Cat Stevens. They were translated as poetry, not as lyrics, form was relatively open and free verse was used. The following theoretical part offers my analysis of several elements of poetry and their roles in translation. My intention was to create a modern translation which would present Cat Stevens to the Czech readers and eventually listeners. During the translation I had to deal with several problems. As the most difficult field of translation of poetry I found the rhythm and rhythmical schema. Understanding the rhythm of the original demands a certain sense for language and knowledge of rhythmical patterns. As a result, I have decided to use mostly free verse. I acquainted myself with the distinctions between Czech and English verse and rhyme and I applied these pieces of knowledge into my translations. Regarding the fact that Stevens‟ texts were translated as poems, the field of euphony was slightly simplified. Therefore, I have decided to concentrate only on few euphonious problems in the analysis. Translation of tropes and figures was an interesting, creative and attractive part of the work, when one could use his language knowledge and abilities and imagination. The theoretical part offers a brief introduction of the equivalent theory. Consequently I focused on several mentioned elements of poetry and their problems in translation from the English language into Czech: verse, rhyme, euphony and metaphorical figures. At the end I added a short look into lexical analysis of the changes of meanings from the point of equivalence and into the problem of zero equivalence. In translation of poetry the cooperating with lexical equivalence must be careful. However, I add this chapter into the thesis in order to gain a slightly different look on the translation than is offered in previous chapters mainly based on works of Levý. In my work I was influenced especially by Jiří Levý, because he devoted several works to the translation of artistic literature and he focused on the translations of poems. I also often consulted another Czech author Josef Hrabák through cooperating with his Úvod do teorie verše, which includes a high amount of knowledge about the Czech verse. The last chapter was based mainly on opinions of Dagmar Knittlová and Milan Hrdlička. I consider the work done in this bachelor thesis unfinished because other elements could be compared and analysed, or the mentioned components could be seen from a different point of view. It is possible to continue in translation, to deeper analysis and wider range of

61 knowledge about the comparison of English and Czech verses. After having consulted works of Jiří Levý I would probably slightly change my methods during the translation and preparation of the materials. In category of verse the distinction between Czech and English could be described more closely. The analysis from the point of view of lexical equivalence also could be widened and the analysis could be focused more on the potential help of lexical equivalence in translation of poetry. The texts could be treated as lyrics and so the emphasis would be put on slightly different problems. The translation of poetry is very creative work. The translator should be skilled in source language so he can interpret the author‟s thoughts, also the translator should have a good knowledge of target language in order to be able to express those thoughts. Moreover, translation of poetry often demands a small touch of muse. It is what cannot be analysed on and what is so hard on making precious and natural translation.

62 Summary

The aim of the bachelor thesis is to bring translation of texts of a British singer and poet Cat Stevens and to deal with theoretical problems of translation of poetry. The first practical part of the thesis consists of 21 translated texts which are analysed in the second theoretical part. Dealing with the opinions of translators Jiří Levý, Dagmar Knittlová and others the theoretical part of analyses components of poetry as verse, rhyme, euphony, metaphorical language and problems connected with their translation.

63 Resumé

Bakalářská práce se zabývá překlady textů britského písničkáře a básníka Cata Stevense a teoretickými problémy překladu poezie. Praktická část přináší 21 přeložených textů, které jsou následně analyzovány v druhé části práce. Teoretická část při rozboru jednotlivých prvků básnického jazyka jako jsou verš, rým, eufonie, metaforická vyjádření a problémů s nimi spojených pracuje s názory překladatelů, především Jiřího Levého a Dagmar Knittlové.

64 Works cited

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Baldick, Chris. Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Print.

Hrabák, Josef. Úvod do teorie verše. Praha: Státní pedagogické nakladatelství, 1978. Print.

Hrdlička, Milan. Literární překlad a komunikace. Praha: Filozofická fakulta Univerzity Karlovy, 1997. Print.

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Stevens, Cat. Mathew & Son. Decca Record Company, 1967. CD.

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Web source

“Biography.” Yusuf Islam. Outside Line, 2008. Web. 2 April 2012. .