A COMPARATIVE STUDY of SIX STATES Professor Maurice Waters Department of Political Science Wayne State Univ

THE FOREIGN SERVICE: A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SIX STATES

Professor Maurice Waters Department of Political Science Wayne State University Detroit, Michigan USA

Prepared for delivery at the Caribbean Studies Association, St. Thomas, Virgin Islands, May 27-30, 1981. Copyright 01981, Maurice Waters. The history 04 diplonacy is probably as ancient as the history or politics and yet lte ~tudyha13 hardly explored the role of ito performero, men lees aomnoa arc studies of the Foreign Service oreanieatione that govarnzente have organized to carry out these perfomencet3r This study represents an initial effort to compare the Forsign Services of a number of states and, hopefully, to stimalete more intereat in analyzlcg the role of Foreigc Service organizatione. sacb a study must, perforce, start cautiously, beginning vith the obvious and hopefully evolving into a cozpnriscn which 11-111 illuminate the major values and concerns that undergird tne foreigc policies of those states examined, This paper represents tne initial step, but also an effort to chart a patb for even aorc fruitful studies, Unlike past publications which provided guidelinss for practice (Satow, Callieres, ~icholson)or biographies of pronine~t actoro (9raig acd Gilburt) or diploaatic perfoxzaoces (Kertcsz) ar relationehips to public policy (Becrd, Schelling), this paper pre- sents purely a coniparative study of instlt~tlon~.But as a atudy of institutions it rejects the notion that diplomat;? is merely an appendage of forelgn golicy, achowledging that while It takes itn marching orders frcin the policy zakers it also contribute8 signifi- cantly to the drum beat of those orders, When it is cot permitted to do so, the orders suffer accordingly, Initially the study wsa designed to examine the Foreign Services of a number of states so as to make possible a comparison of the -major powers, of ~romineatstates fron each continent, of states with oid and brief hiet~rfesa8 sovereigo statea, and of wzaitby and poorer thlrd world powers, fourteen countries were chosen; YI for various raasone have been drogped fron this phase of the study; one was added, leaving the total number of countriee reported to be -1%- The topic was divided Into four areas; recruitment, training progrzs, structure and personnel concerns,and objectives wore set for the overall reasearch: (1) to try to identify the slmilaritieo in epproacbing these fosr azeas, (2) to try to dircern the areas of dlfferencea and to explain both 1 and 2 in terns of the countries' need8 and problems, (3) to try to ascertain whether any one country's approach has becone a model for others, (4) to try to dete,mine whether any significant new trends are developing, and (5) to try to locate the lacunae In the howledge of Foreign Service crganizstlons studies and, without intruding into the areas of natio~aleocurity iseueo,to prepare an agenda for the further developmest of the fisld of study-

A brief word cn methodology. Such a atudy fron the outset yr:;- vidod a set of obstacles, First, there is hardly anything approxi- aatlng a respectable bib1io;raphy that oae could rely upon, and second, the few works that did exist were not only very dated but often the natlonal language of the country of the Foreign Service organization being studied. Even if the works had been recent, the probl.en of translating would have been formidzble. Hence, the decision uas n~deto rely on interviews of Foreign Service peraonnal in cabaslies and cocaulatea in the Uaited Staiss hnd three c0unr;it.s abroad. Forei~noffice8 were also written to, but in Bomo in&ta*-:i? thle did 230% plove to be too helpful due to lack of replle3. Tbo nature of the inforloation sought appeared to t,.eae ~rrlf-:r; to permit the Interview approach. Generally more than orle int.ezvlaust: ?er country use involved, which helped to enhance the raliabllity of tbo reeults. Also, on a nunber of occasions both authorv ol rhle paper sat together and thus were able to compare results. Finully, again to reduce the poesible scope of error, taping of thc in2axv:cws xae carried out where permitted. 4s the bibliography reveala, Borne official sourcea and publl6hed writings were a160 used where appropriate.

Beard, Charles A., The Idea of National Interest,(New York: Nac- millan) 1934.

I Callieres, Francois de. On The Manner of Neqotiatinq with Princes, (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin) 1919.

Craig, Gordon A. and Gilbert. Felix, eds.. The Diplomats, 1919-1939, (New York: Atheneum) 1963.

Kertesz, Stephen D.. The Quest for Peace Throuqh Diplomacy, (Englcwood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall) 1967.

Nicholson, Harold G., Diplomacy,(New York: Galaxy ~ooks)1964.

______-____-__The Evolution of the Diplomatic Method,(London: Constable) 1954.

Satow, Sir Ernest. The Guide to Diplomatic Practice, (London: Lonqmans Greer and Co.) 1957.

Schelling. Thomas G., The Strateqv of Conflict, New York: Galaxy Books) 1963. P Brief Historical B:~ck~round--3rzzll ,Brazil, an independent state for over a century and a half, has h numerous changes in its forn of government. Despite this and, perhaps, because of its size as the largest Latin American country, and its agr cultural and, more recently, induotrial growth it has played a major role in South American politics and to some extent in world affalro as well. Th~eit bas concentrated on building a well trained Toreign Ser- vice which ha3 been widely recognized for its structure and approach

R,eo~%i.men t 1-0 modes of entry are available to persons wishing to join the Brazilian Foreign Service. They are known as the airect entry ("dlrect method") and tbe indirect entry ("indirect method"). The former method requires an entrance exminetion and afterwards a five-nonth testing period in both written and oral form covering a multitude of subjects. This is followed by a nuzber of interviews spread over 3everal days, such oonvereations takirg place between the candidate and a Service official without involvement of any special board of examiners. This is cosaltded with a senicar lasting for about two ccutks, is wLickl principles and internal aspects of the Brazilizn systea of gove~men? are discussed. In this category of entry Engllsh, French and fortugaese are obligatory languages, Candidates chosen by the direct entry mode must hold a university degree; indlrect entry candidates must be in their second year of study at an eccredited uaiverslty. Coz?arativel~s~eaking, roore people join tke Foreicn Service -.--id the indirect mcttod. Cacdidatee of this cate~ory23roll In tZt Lip1~- EE~~CAcademy (Rlo Srnnco ~nstitute).The Acadeny is a departnent cf the foreign YAnistry run exclusively for the preparation 0:' diplozots. Cazdldstes attend the Academy for a two year 3overccent-bzsed study progrm. ~e/ehewill be tested in several languages acd In other subjects. fiere Baglish is a required language, whereas Freach is not ard other languages may be chosen in fulfillment of the second laaguage requirement. 6xrninations achisistered to Indirect method eotrsnts are less coz?rehenaive and less dexzling than in the other category. While attendlag tke Academy one is not -a member of the Foreign Service, but receives a governmeot gr81.t during that time to help wit1 expenEes. One becomes a nembez oi tke Service upon graduation. It is a legal point, howover, that after graduation the two years opent at the Imtitute are counted uben figurlng time for promotion. There are 20-25 graduates per year, The written exazinations for the Brazilian Foreign Service require of the applicant n nix of both broad and generalized knowledge as well as a portion of fairly specialized infomation. There exist conmcr axan- inations for all Civil Service personnel, but the Foreign Service examination Is basically different in that it places paat em~kasisupon laqjua~eskills. The Srazilisn Foreign Service avails Itself chiefly of examlrers outsi3e the Service; these are oostly university concected experts. There Is no minimum or maximum a@% for entering the Foreign Service. however, tba ciciau.~ai;c for tu~lngtoe Foreic:, Strvica e.>-:i~,::tit: r, lu 19 aad the m~xlnuaage for taking the exami~atlonis 30. Tor cacdidutf:~ jolnin~the Service via the direct method the mininun-~axlhu~aGe sprerd can bo from 21 to 33 years, Brazil. @TheService is open to all and sex discrimination does not exist, A11 potential recrulto must paos the same strict written examination, Bpproxlmutely 3014% of the students at the Rio Branco Institute aro women, although this increase in the number of wonen Is rather recent (during the last five years). Thero la no evidence that political party affiliation has any bearing either on admission to or promotion in tne career Foreign Service,

me Brazilian go-r~rmantpublicizsa Foreign Service open in^:; both in the nojor pTesu ordnus and on rraio. Slate the Eovsrsxc, . sponsora a dai+y one hour news pr0gra.A of its own, radio coverage Is available on a wide basis for parpo3es of recrultmcrt fur ti?: Service. The probatiorary period can last from six months (for direct method entrants) to one year (for indirect method candidates).

Trainln Pro~rams Boflowing probation the candidate is ready for assignment to a diplomatic post. In actual practice, however, the usual sequence of tl?ir?gs will be: first, a 2-3 year assignment at the Forsign Kinistry in Brasilia itself, followed by an overseas esSig~~e:it. Young diplomats entering the Sorvice will start at tke grade of 3rd Secretary, A goou deal of emphasie is placed upon the study of geography in Foreign Service training programs, a8 well as in both writtes and oral exanicstiono. Career Foreign Service personnel are neither expected nor required to became specialized in tkeir overseas work. Day to day assignments clearly vary a groat daal and particularly in smaller embassies officers are expected to perform a broad variety of jobs. Foreign Service personnel are givn rather wide opportunities and encouragement for pursui~gadditional studies abroed. If the officer's requeot is approved by the Boreign Ministry, ihe government will pay for the cost of euch special in-service training. It night be noted that a special budgot item is availsble to the Kinistry for financing such special training. Structure In order to become Chief of Miasion a Brazilian diplonat must attain the rank of ambaosador. The ambassador is, an a rule, a Einlster let Clas~,leas frequently a Minintor 2nd Class, Officers of the Foreign Service are rated frequently for pur9oses of promotion; ouch rating is done both by the officer's peers and his superior, An ovaluntion is also submitted by tho approprinto anbassador abroad, Brazil. promotions axe automatic only in tho lower ranks, e.g. from 3rd to 2nd secretary. Menbers of the Poreign Service vote for the promotion of their peers. At different stages of the officer's career, pronotionc will be contingent, among other things, on his presentation of special written papers which have to conform to certain rtlles as to length and fornat, For instance, in order to be promoted from 2nd secretary to 1st secretary an officer must follow a apecial course (by correspondence if he is abroad) and take writte~cx.izisa~lons on subjects dealing with Brazlllan affairs and international relations. If one wisheo to be promoted from Couzselcr to !,::ricter he/nte vrltes to the Foreign Office requesting to pzrtici~ateby corrc;yoAccnce in a ccurse for superior studies, (:;c clasoes cr? off2red for this ccsrcc, tlie rork 13 dcne ttlrox? ~CU~TB~^~;O~~'OCCB.)T?:e ~i'i'iceris rer;:rlrcd 20 present 6 thesis, ~nesubject and oiitllfie of which n-iet be approved, and is then called to 3razilia to defend it orally before a cpm- mittee organized by the Diplonatic Academy. Once an ofLicer has passed the qualific~Sioosfor pro mot lo^ at any level he is %hen eligible but may not be prozoted until a vacancy occurs. In general, promotions are achieved more ea~ilyzt hone than abroad. Iiorne duty seems to be of considerable importance for promotions, for It affords the offlccr a better chance to hnvc a voice in the dec1sio~-zaking process affecting his/he: prcrnotion. Foreign Service income is substantially lower at home thau abroad, owing to the absence of overseas allowances and other suppleaental pay in connection Hith service abroad, No distinction is made betwees diplc~aticand czz:':ii.-~r work, Thus career Foreign Service officer3 &re trsi~edfor ::;%?I ty~es of eervico and thcy ara likely to be called Jpon to ?o one or :hc other at various stages of their careers. 39~irpreferences, however, run clearly in the direction of dipl.ozatic work, No non-Foreign Service officers worx in cabncsies abroe-d. Only Foreign Service officers work in foreign e~banoieeexsept fox military attachds. No other Minist.ries have people abroad at the goverriment level, Representatives of private businesses and organizations abroad do not rep@rt to the Brazilian Chlof of Eisoion in the respective country, The Foreign Service is subject to the legislative overnight of the Connittee on Foreign Relat.ions of the Kouse of Reprosenta- tivee and the Committee on Foreign Relations of the Senate. It is subject to the usual budgetary restraints. Politlcnl nppolnteos are a rarity among ~razil'scareer dlplocnte; thcy tire cccasionally sent to certain malor fore1t;n capitalo (e.g. such a politicnl personage will be found at present in ?aria). This is, however, a rather lnfrcquent ocwrrence. Brazil. ' Personnel Ooncorna It is fairly unusual for a Foreign Service officer to remain longer than three years at any ono post , although ambaa~adorsdo stay under aircumatanoee for a8 long a8 six years.11uving served a three year stint overoeas, an officer will not ncccoaarily be as6ir;ned to hcne duty; nore often than not he/she will spend two three year tePPe abroad be.fore returning home. Promotion to a higher grade does not necessarily entai1 a change in asoignrnent or in overseas post, it is possible to stay on at the came emtsas or post following one's promotion. ~.c,c leave ~rith ";?alte1 r.x~:s3ca is grr-utcd crA'l;; to office28 at zr4acs~3or'sr~ak. 2k3 Lcc(;tk of le:,ve ic iinif~r-~:~ Other T~rclpScryicc ~:z:nnsl ar:. cititled t:, v;.cr.t:on tl;..e 3'; homo, howsver, t~avelcoats are torno by the of.fic?r hiuseif. The usual length of p~idvacation 18 038 nonth per year. Medical and life insurance programs are available to members of the Foreign Servic3; the cost is borno by e~zhindividual officer and such prograns remain in force regardless of place of assignment. Porolgn Service families receive overseao allowances, howeve?, no supplemental funds or allowances are granted for the education of their children. A summary of news is issued by the Foreign Service and is sent by Telex to diplonatio and consular personnel abroad. This dally news ahoet coatc~insinportant news from tcx::? 2nd news items of personal and aezerzil concern.

Unlike diplomatic services of other countries, tke Er~zilie.2 Foreign Service does not have an employees' u:::on. Yrsblxs related to personnel issues and working ccnditions arc ~;~lndlcdby the Adxiiniotrative Departnent of the Kinistry. TfAe7 do r,ciL handle salary issues since salaries are legisiato? k;; the gove:*a- nent. :'heytinay handle problem which relate to the qr.6. tlc;~rf an officer s sssignnen-t to one post or another. Srr t;.. ,r~.:llj- inv suits have been filed againct the Foreign Eln?str-: GL jrs~~!.=i:f persocal prsludice. Even though such a legal action ~y ~akea long time to be settlsd, casea are known where the grievin party received retroacttvc: zospernaticu that r!c:J. f,t.c:i denied him her earlier. 7

Once accepted iaCo the Service, the offlcer hzs R ~;\:sr:.-.L,ecc! career. His life is said to be more stabilized and secure thnu in other govarnnent jobs. In general, the 3snzilitin Foreign Service shows a rather high eegree of professionalism and the de?,ree of loyalty toward the Ser-lice disylcyed by its personnel co~~utltutc::, no doubt, one of its chief strengths.

The mandatory reti'rencnt age differs accoraiug tu tiio r':tnk of the,officer, i.e., nnhsssador-70; ciuistcr-65; co~~aeior-60; secretary-55. Every Foreizn Service offici?r nntitlcd ,o it:: tj .r~ after 35 years of service. Rstirement pay is in proportion to the nuckcr of renrs of scrlslce. An offlcrr rt.ce.lT;c3 C*~ll.rc.tlr~:rz~-.:~ ouly after 35 year:; ci' service. The Lrnzi1i:in ejovsrn~eutnalnt~ilas n r~thergood ret,ixcrr.r.at program srd rotircxcnc ScncTlt 2 :lrt! ::I!,: to be quite adequate. SOUROES

Byr3, Iratt. A took 2: Four Forel ,-n Services: 3r!~ril,h'egs Gemaf~y,Israel and :a;.nn. -nashtngton, Y.C. : Dapartnanr. --of aGate,) 1472. A Brief ~lfjtoricnlSackgrou~d -- Great Britain xns nlstory of Britain's Foreign Service represents probably the oldest record of syotematic organizational efforts by a major power toward creating a viable and ef~ectiveapparatus for dealing with it8 external sffalrs, While Britain e medieval monarchs took an active hand in the conduct of foreign affaira, regarding them a8 a ephere of activity ~ubjectto their complete supervision, as early aa in the 13th century Secretaries to the King began to asouxe re8ponaibillty for the manngenent of external matters--a practice that coatinued during the eneulng csnturlea. It was under Benry VIIInthat Po officlala uerc eiven responcibi1lt.y far the so-called "~orthern and Southern" de-,artacnto, Thla dlvlrjlon taea an early form f specialization and contin~ebfor pbout txo and a bale ccxturiesb Por~niizatfonof the tuo de>artrenta, ur_l:lt.r zvo Eecr~Wrlsnof Stfite, tock place in 16*,0 whec ti,o llorthern 33efiartscst ccj::~rioud ?rmce, Holland, Gcman;r rtd the 2altic state8, anti ths Southezn Zepartment took in Spain, Flanders, and Italy. Interestingly, affairs with the Ottozan pire were handled through a private corporation--the Levant Company. Tho Poreign Office, a6 it becme known in later , was established in 1782 when the two Degartments were aerged 8"'" In the early part of the 19th century the consular department was separated from the political departments of the Foreign Office, ond the lat er took ovor the direotion of relation8 with the Ottosiian kpire. b In the middle of tha 19th cectury t3e For~ignOffice nwed c?2ot;Z~,- stor toward it8 moders fon by ~cstftutinga3 e~ani~,:+ti~csystezi, itc acadercic substance belr.g, however, rather poor. ilec:?:i~ment i;.t:ll was based on favoritim. By 1871, finally, history and 1 nguages came into their own as prerequinites for joining the SenicedP By the last quarter of the 19th century the aritish Porelgn Service grew into the most extonsivo foreign affairs machinery in the world, even though it maintained fewer than thirty missions, The latter part of the 19th century ale0 aaw the introduction of service grades and promotion procedures in the Diplomatic Service, and a stiffeued system of competitive examinations became- an important component of the ~ervice'singroving quality (1880). However, pay ua8 still ioadcquate and Foreign Service officers had to draw on tholr private financial reoources, Finally, at the close of World War I, the Poreign Office in London and tho lonatio Service overseas were merged into a single Foreign Service The Diplcnatfc Sorvlae of the United Kingdom lo a separate oelf- contained service of the Crown; it provides the staff for service in the Porelgn and Cornonwealth Office and diplomatic micoions and cousular posts in fCrc.?jin and indcycudont Commonwealth countries. Great ~ritain. After a number of reorganizations and mergers at the time of World War 1 and World War 11, a unified Diplomatic Service was created in 1965 to take In the duties, personnel and posts of the former Foreign Service, Cotrimonwealth Service and Trade Commission Service. he Foreign Offioe and the Commonwealth Office (formed by the merger of the Oommonwealth Relations Office and the Coloaial Office in 1966) were amalgamated as the Foreign and Commonwealth Office in 1968 -- the form In which we know the department today.8 Recruitment There are three principal 1evel.v of entry to the administrative- class of the Diplomatic Service, In a broad sense, these routes of entry are relatdd to the academic achievements of (a) honours graduates, (b) 18 year old school-leavers, and (c) 16 year old school-leavers. The up?er age limit for recruitment to the categories (a) and (b) is 28, while no upper age limit exists for category (c), Progress through the grades is based on merit alone. A successful candidate from (a) comes into the Administrative (seni~r)~class of the Diplomatic Service as an "~dministrative Trainee ; For such outside candidates the basic qualifications are a degree with honours from a British (or equivalent foreign) university in any subject. The minimum level of Intellectual ability sought is broadly comparable to that indicated by a second class honours degree. Those who enter the Diplomatic Service by rank (b) or (c) above have the opportunity of moving into the administrative-class by periodic competitive and qualitative selection. Publicizing offerings In the Diplomatic Serviceo is conducted on a fairly wide basis, For one thing, all British universities will be aware of Service offerings, Foreign Service people will talk to undergraduates at universities, particularly when the nomal course of recruitment Is proceeding at too slow a pace. For another, new offerings are publicized in the press so that this kind of information is widely hown. School careers staff can also inform interested students at an earlier age. Candidates for the administrative trainee grade from outside the Service are choaen by the following selection procedure: a written qualifying examination lasting 1& days; 2 days of tests and interviews at the Selection Board (for those who are successful In the qualifying cxanication). The competitors compete against a certain stsndard as well as against each other. Finally, candidates who do sufficiently well at the Selection Board face an interview with the Finn1 Selection Board, This aonrd consists of a chairman (First Co~nissioneror his deputy), two members drawn from the Civil Service, and t,.o from outside the Civil Service, one of whom Is from o university. Selection at the other two main levels of entry is by examination, from which those with sufficient academic qualifications may be exespt, and an interview, Great ~ritain. Eighteen year olds will go as a rule to the "executive" class (grade 9) or the clerical (grade 10). atrance examinations for senior Foreign Service admission consist of a written and an oral segment. Though tailored to a future oareer in the Service, examination questions are fairly general in nature, Tests for Service offerings do not differ from the Civil Service to the Diplonatic. Extensive in-depth interviews are c~nductedaleo. At this point of selection, psychological as well as physioal aptitude testa have in'tha past been utilized. However, other tests have validated their findings making their use redundant, The basic probation period extends over two years at each grade level (lee. an officer will be on probation within his new grade on first appointoent and after each promotion). No final or terminal examination is required at the end of the probational period. Political party affiliation is of no concern In recruitment for the Diplomatic Service. This is on the theory that a public servant is expected to serve government loyally. Training Pro~rams Upon passing the entrance examination, the candidate proceeds Immediately to I1 in-house" training. If perceived as needed at any stage, a particular language course will be provided or paid for by the governnent. However, the co~2letionof special course(s) other than languages does not tring extra pay. Under certain circumstances, language courses may bring about the payment of a language allowance, e.g. for the study of hard languages allowances will be forthcoming from the start. On the whole, the learning of languages is strongly encouraged, particularly of the country to which one will be postedl since the absence of language skills limits materially an officer s utility as well as his pronotion chances. The British Foreign Service makes no distinction with respect to training given to diplomatic personnel used in diplomatic missions abroad, as against those assigned to international organizations. There are, to be sure, certain special skills required of technical experts assigned, for example, to the International Monetary Fund. (This may be a Treasury Secretary who reports directly to the Exchequer.) Conversely, a delegate to GATT may be a trained diplomat, or an officer of a Whitehall Department such as the Department of Trade, The Foreign Service has some training progrnics of its om. These xi11 be desigred to answer special needs of its employees, e.~.training courGes for commercial officers, for consular, pass- port and immigration officers, for administration officers, etc. These cre oriented towards the nature of work to be performed. Great Britain. A wide range of course8 IE offered by the Civil Service College, There are shorter courses, em&.for heads of chancery. (As a political function their job in a miasion is of utmost importance.) While Civil Service courses are free, the government will on occasion pay for specialized courses if advance approval has been sacured. Structsrg The promotion process Is based on yearly evaluations by the offlccr's sup5rior. ?he finzl evaluatlm repor: is disc2ased wit!- the person who i3 being evzluatcd. Zj- means ~f an intkrvlc.~Li.2 latter is given an opportunity to state his or her respon988 to the report. Eigher officers will be evaluafed by the ambassad.or, sometimes in consuJtation with an appropriate official outside the Service; e,g., a conaul-general is evaluated by the ambassador in consultation Kith the British Director of the trade mission in the couctry concerned. Promotion of a Diplomatic Service officer will usually entail assignment to a higher, more responsible position, an well as a move to another post. The British Diplomatio Service has a fairly extensive inspection system of both external and internal naturo. Inspection of a diplomatic or consular ?ost take^ place about every three years; the chief inspector will be a fairly high-ranking senior officer (~radeDS~). This kind of inspection seeks to evaluate the entire post, not iadividual officers; prircipal coccerns here Ere: cost-efficiency, housing, transport, etc, Individual posts are also required to subnit from tine to time self-inspection reports. Aside from evaluations done by certain departments of the foreign office with a view toward assessing the Service's evolution, effective- ness and needs, the Service also operates under the fiscal constraints of the British Treasury and of the Civil Service Department (this depzrtment being directly responsible to the Prime 31inister). In order to become chief of mission, a Foreign Service officer nust have attained at least the grade of counselor; the bulk of British chiefs of mission are Mtniste2s (DS~). The following is a table of Diplomatic Service grades and corresponding ranks: DS (Diplocatic Service 1 -- Ambassador and High Commissioner (can be also 3S 2 or 3 and so~sti~es4); DS2, D33 -- Xinistcr (only in large posts); DS4 -- Counselor, occnsiooaliy ;viiuictcr;.CS5, DS6 -- First Secretary (also a few consuls); DS7A, DS7E --.Second4Secrctary (vice- consul) ; DS8 =- Third Sccretnry. (h'ote: Head ' of ..~lssionin 3 Conmon~~calth post bears the title of III@ Comis~ioner.~) Career Foreign Service officers are trained not only for diplo- GLL~~Cur~d consular work ('3ritish subjects abroad). They are equipped to perform work also in such areas as: information, imni~ration, pn3~7~artwork (abrogd), etc. In this re~ard,the Forcip~Servico nny be said to be a "totally unified" Service.

41 ' Great Britain. In a broader sense, lines of work in the Foreign Service include political and economic work, commercial policy, trade promotion, administration and information. As Foreign Service officers become more senior, they may tend to speaialice In particular areas of the world, This specialization is usually linked to the officer's language skills.

Variou~opecialists acd advisers from home derartaent3 or the armed forces may serve at overseas posts on attachment to the ~iplobaticService, e,.g, a scienti~tin atomic physics on loan from the Iiome Civil Service. There are also'service attache's. All such personnel worhthrough the diplomqtic channels, i.e. the head of the Chancery, In such areas, for example, as aid to underdeveloped countries the Ministry of Overseas Development is apt to use its own people. Salary scales in the Diplomatic Service are identical with those in the Home Civil Service. It is possible to enter the Foreign Service'by tranaferring from another Ministry or department, This is likely to be done at the first or second secretary or counselor level. No examinations or special training is likely to be required. The very nature of the transferee 3 experience is what is likely to moke the transfer feasible, ~e'&ardlessof the Ministry or department for which they work, all governmental personnel assigned to overseas work are uoder the direct authority of the head of mission for that particular host country. They are expected to keep him totally informed. As for military missions, only general aspects of their operations will be coninunicated to the bead of mission, Few political appointees are ever assigned to represent the Znlted Kingdom in a diplomatic capacity -- there are some, to be sure. Politics1 appointees are more frequently found in British delegations to international organtzations, e.gm the former United Kingdon Permanent Represeotative to the United Nations, Mr. Ivor Richard. A British ambassador, who is political, appointed by one administration (e.g, ~onservative)may be retained when a new admiuistration (~abour)takes over, or the reverse. From time to time, a committee of review on oversoas ropre- sentation will be constituted (the Ylowden Report, 1964; the Duncan Report, 1969; the Bsrrlll Report, 1977). The often voluminous work of all such overeeers lo ultinately assessed by the so-called "Think-~ank" (the last time in 1976-77 by the Central Policy Review Staff) whose report in turn ia careful:) 8tudied by Parliament, It is at this juncture that control over the i)iplor:~tic Se~vlcilulti~~ttaly cones back to Par.lLr;+?ent. Great Britain, Personnel Concerns Policy regarding homo leave will depend upon the local condition~in the country where the officer is serving. This will vary from two years with a-break after one year at one end, and four years with a mid-term break after two years at the other end of the scaler There are also posts where tours are eighteen months. For example, ff the post is in Europe, home leave will likely be provided after two years, but the officer will be expected to return to the same post for two Gore years. If the officer is serving in certain countries in Africa, the home leave will come after ome year at post, tke officer will return to Africa and the procedure will repeat its2lf oace agzin. Thus, rotation to a now post occurs after approrinately two,three or four years abroad. The length of the leave will vary depending upon the nurcber of years of service of the officer, his or her grade and the nature of the post, After three or four tours abroad then a Foreign Service officer will be sent back to London for a tour (three or four years) in the Foreign Offico, Preference may be requested by the officer regarding the nature of his home posting and it is possible, but not neceasary, that tbis will be honored. Foreign Service families while abroad receive overseas allowances which include: cost-of-living, housing, entertainment plus suppleriiental pay for each child, except the first, up to the age of 18 and resident at the post. As for medical care, the officer and his family members are entitled to tha same kind of medical care at the same cost as would be available to then in the United Kingdom. The Diplomatic service's union, representing me~bersof the Adninistrative (senior) Class is known as the Diplomatic Service Assccistior. The uclcn plays a significant role ir the bargaining process relative to personnel questions and working conditions, uoile zatters of pay, allowances, etc. fall within the s2here of the liational Whitley Council. Diplomatic Service officers of the Executive Class are repreaented by the Society of Civil and Public Servants. The Diplomatic Service issues no special newspaper for its own personnel; there is, however, a monthly bulletin dealing with personnel matters, and Diplonatic Service branches of unions i~sue newsletters from time to time. The mandetory age for retirement is 60, although it is posoible to retire earlier, e.g. after twenty years ser~iceof which eight years has been spent overseas as a civil servant or on attalnicg the Ege of 50 and havlnc cca~letedat least ten years pensionable service. An officer witf; ter, gears service majr also be coripulsorily retired in the interests of the Service, e.g. sickness, inefficiency, :tc-eLploj--,cct cfter 60 is POL-ziblc,kow?vcr, t?~eofficrr is lizited i~ the mounts he m'ay caru and he must retire at 65, FOOTNOTES

@ F. T. Aston-Cwatkin, & Sritish Foreien Service (~yracuse,NeYes 1950), ?* 8.

$bid., pp. 9-10. @ i

@ Ibid.

@ The Brltieh Consular Senrice, initially independent of the Diplonatic Service In both pay and function, was placed on a modern footing comparable to the Dlplomntio Service in 1903, and later amalgamated with the Foreign Service. u.,pp. 10-12.

@ Ibid., p. 13. t @ me British Civil SerV1ce ond don 1974). pe 7. h Brief Historical Back~round-- India hlthough India has only been an independent sovereign state since 1950, like other parts of the old British Dominions, In- dians had been given an opportunity to train in the British Foreign Service for many years before independence. In fact India, as a m~mberbf the Leagde of Nations has had an opportunity to provide her own subjects with experience of a Foreign Service nature for over half a century. Her present Foreign Service, though aided in its formative years by Great Britain, and therefore l~gvitablyreflective of a British orientation to structure and training, has undergone changes indicative of the differunce in lave1 of repources available as well as the aspirations of the state, axpressed through its government8 since independence, Recruitnent ?he government provide& a combined competitive cxaaination for the Indian Administrative Service and the Central Service, tte latter subsuming the Foreign Service. The exanination 16 open to all citizen6 of In$ia, Nepal and Bhutan. Applicants are expected to be between 21 and 26 years of age, although some relaxation of the age requirements are possible, e.g., for amy officers who fosght in wsrs. Earlier restrictions permitted women to continue in the Foreign Service only If they remained single. These were later modified. Today the examination is open to men and wonen aqvally, and wcmen may remain regardless of their marital stat~ls. Party affiliation has no bearing on the candidacy for the Foreign Service, although one is not expected to be a party leader or active member. Three general subjects ore compulsory on the entrunco examination, English grammar, English composition and genercl knowledge -- history, international relations, current affairs, etc. The general knowledge section will not cover the subject in depth and may be done in any Indian language. Therc are also three optional papers to be passed on a level roughlv equivalent to a achel lor's Degree (3-4 years past high school), and two papers requir$xig an advanced knowledge equivalent to a aster's Degree level, These could include language examinations. The written examination is offered in the fall and is spread over three weeks. For those who pass the next step is an oral exarication offered in the spring. An independent body known as The U:~ion Public Service Commission tests the candidates. Passage requires the highest marks, There is also an intarview which lasts about one-half hour and the applicant must wrjte n summary of it. About one-fifth of the total score is allocated to the oral. This is considered very important because the bomd ia attempting to coae to oomo judgment regarding the applicant's pcrsonolity, attitude toward life nod the Service. India. ~lthoughone of the optional papers oan be a foreign language paper, it may not be En~lish,mastery of a foreian lan~usgeis not required at the time of the examination. But the written papers may be done in any of several Indian languages, includln~the official language, Hindi. The rule reuarding the use of Indian lanauages is a chan~efrom the past 30 years when only En~lishwas permitted to answer all tko papera. 'I'his more democratic positiorl was adopted to overcome the earlier bias in favor of children from urban, upper and middle class families. Once the applicant has been accepted for training in the ForeiEn Servic'e he or she is on probation for a two year period.

The train in^ provided for the prospective Foreign Service off lcer is very comprehensive. Althou~hit is not intended to train spqcialists, it is a very broad-~au~edproRram, containing both an academic and e field component.

he train in^ program begin6 immediat,el after the applicent has been accepted. (Within ten days of notificaI ion of acceptance, the candidate must decide which Service he or she chooses. 'l'he higher the scores, the areater the prospects of influencing the ~overnmer~t'sde- cision regerding the ~ssignrnent.)All government trainees are sent to the Administrative Academy at Mussoorie. Those preparing for the Foreim Service stay four months and study, from a peneralist's viewpoint, international law, international politics anti Indian constitu- tion~llaw. Exeminations are required at the conclusion of these courses. Upon completion of the Administrative Academy program, the candidate Roes back to Delhi to the School of International Studies for three months, to the Institute of Forei~Trade for eiqht weeks and t,o the Inst,itute for Mass Communicatfon for six weeks. 'then one will be sent to do fielii work for ei~htmonths -- district train in^ as ar. Administr~tiveOfficer. Durin~this period the trainee is expected to lesrn more about qovernmental propams and the countj-y in general. l'raining in stete corporstions, work in the Ninistry of Foreign Affairs in a ~eo~raphicaldivision, assianment to a military detatch- ment and a co-mtry wide tour to famili~rizethe trainee with governmental projects all follow over the two years succeedinq the passing of the Foreinn Service examinations. One is also expected to take a local lanqusre examination and another in accounts, as well as start the preparation in a foreign language during this period. Upon the successful completion of these assi~nmentsone can be expected to be posted as a third secretary in some foreign post. Passinfi a foreign lan~ua~eexamination within three years of ndmission to train in^ is required, but the lsn~ua~eis nssi~nedand the study wlll nenerslly continue durln~the first year of nn overseas assimment. 'i'he choice of the language is decided upon t?y the needs of the Service at that time. Promotion to second secretary is not possible until the lennua~eex~min~tion has been passed. On1 one foreign lnnaua~~eis required althoujqh incentive pay is prov fded if an officer* learns the lan~un~eof the host country. 'That incentive remains only durin~th~t post in^. India.

Training given duriw the probationary period i3 intended to prepare one for particular assignments that will come to those officers sometime during their career, e.g. admini~trationFind accounts will be important in providing the knowledge required for being he3d of chancery. Hut on the other hand, training is not generally of a speci~lizedre~ional or functionnl nature. Any person who doe0 ~pecializedoes so because of personal interest which the Ministry then may take advantage of, Once the prob~tionaryperiod is compl-eted, training programs are not regularly available. hot trainina may be available at home or abroad, but the individual will have to make a special request to get approval to take one if he or she wants the expenses to be met by the ~overnnent.And that will be determined by whether the Ministry concludes it has utility from it8 percpective. The ambassador will be asked for a recommendation. 'l'here is also a !i~tionalDefence College for those of senior standing -- 13 to 15 years of service. This is mostly for the military but Forei~nService officers are also eligible. One can, therefore, conclude that train in^ during service is not regularized and will primarily take the form of practical training on the job.

St,ructu~e When a Foreim Service officer from India receives the first assi~nmentabroad it is with the rank of a third secretary. He or &he is generally posted to the country where the lancquace being studied Is the native language. Promotion to second secretary can only'come after tbt languaqe examination has been passed. Promotions throu~hjunior and senior ranks are based upon evnlu- ations and the number of openinqs that become availzSle, ;;enernlly due to promotions, death, retirement, disability or, occesionally, resirnation. Althouch the Poreim Service consists of an A Branch and a E Branch, only the former is considered here bec~useit is they who perform the substantive diplomatic work and in the main become the senior officens. (3 Branch people, archivists, typists, clerks, etc., can sometimes move into the A Brench, Approxinately 25% can move in any one year based on reports of their work, which are examinefi by a Departmental Promotion Committee. The Committee looks at the recctr-ds of those U people who are in the promotion (eligibility) zone for a five year period. All persons in the zone are ~radedevery year and if vacancies occur, those with the highest evaluations are moved to the A cateaory.)

Every year A cntesory people are evaluated by those who are work in^ with them at the end of the yeer.These reports are then reviewed by their superiors. If the superior does not fiKree with the conclusions of the report, the person beink reviewed is told and the ~radeis altered. These report.^ then KO to the Ministry, are put in the personnel file of the: officer RTI~then consulted at. the time he or she is being considered for promot.ion. India. Officere are not ohown their ovnluationa unless there is a stricture against them. But if this occurs it is expected that such a person will have been warned in advance, for the preference is not to put an adveroe comment into a porson'a record until. he or she is warned, with the expectation that the warning will be heeded, obviating the neceaaity of entering it in tho file. The office? nay raapond to the stricture, which reply then goes to the Ministry. The Ministry nay expunge the re~arkif a deciaion 1s reached that the judqient was unwarranted. The ranks uoed In the Indian Foreign Service are the tradi- .tional~$nes,from third secretcry to anbassador, arid at home under- secretary, dep~tysecretary, joint ~ocretary,additional secretary and secretary. Those are all in the sgnior scale of pay. The poat abroad will detomine the rank, but at hoae it will be deternlned by the individual-'s years of service and the grade. Members of the Foreign Service are expected sometlae during their career to porfom consular work. Political and consular work are not under separate servicoo, And persons perfomiug diplomatic and co~aularwork will generally have frequent contact with the public and various noa-official organizations in the host country. In fact, this is encouraged. A chief of mission is at least a director, a grade four. Occa- sionally someone a step lower will serve in that capacity. All persona represeating the government abroad are under the authority of the chief of nlssion and will send all reports to him. But this does not mean that such an officer if sent by another Miniotry will not report to his or her own Ministry as uell, In the Latter case reports to the home Ministry are copied to the chiof of mission to keep hin informed. Any difference8 that night exist would be expected to be cleared up before the report is issued. Fron experience and inforaed staff meetings or discussione, one is expected to know what needs to be reported in detail or when mattero need to be cleared. With regard to International organizations, representatives, including those at conferences, etc., may or may not come from the Foreign Service, This is decided whene;er a new government is formed when the prize minister and the cnSlnef secretary decide the ItRules of Businessi'. Througb this device the various subjects are a~si~aedto particular P:inistries. Thus, if thc matter relates to forelen countries but is not being carried out under the juriodiction of the Kinistry of External Affairs, the latter will not send its representatives to tbe organization but will be kept inforrccd about any policy natters, The Indian Parliament has no special committee overseeing foreigc affalr~.There are xjry few standing committees of Parliament cnd %hey are not specialized. There is s Consultative Committee on External Affairs which meets every six #asks under the ex-officio chnimanship of the Foreign Minister. The Committee membership is selected by the Speaker of the House based on a proportional roprcsentatlon of the parties, plus others who might have a strong interest in foreign ~ffairs.Zhe Committee is free to raise general foroigu policy questions India. or questions with regard to a particular mission, or even the Minifltry itself. But it scrves as a forum for discueoloa. Questions raisbd may be answered later but there is no binding character to the discueoion.. Lateral sbtry is rarely permitted into the Indian Foreign Scr- vice. Borne people are seconded from other Ministries, for cxempie an official from the economic^ Ministry nay be attached to a 1~issic2 such aa the one in Washington. Although such persone report to the ambaasador, it would be very unusual for that person to move into the Foroign Service. The Foreign ServLce Association will keep a sharp eye out, for this because such entries reduce the prospects for promotion for those in the Foreign Service by filling operings from outside. Eolitical appointnents are made under special circumstances, The prime minister will decide whom he wishes to send to posts of great importance to India, e.g. United Kingdom, Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United States, Generally a political appointee does not go to the United Nations, but rather a very senior career minister is sent, Personnel Concerns Rotation occurs every three yeare. Generally the pattsrn is of two posting8 abroad and one at hoke. Home leave is provided on the basis of one day's leave for every eleven days work--one rnonth and two days per year. The 'officer and his family are provided tourist class accomodatiors. Generally the leave is fron one to three montho, and a maxinun ~ccumuletion up to six months is permitted. With economy drives on recently it is possible to use home leave without actually going home, thereby saving tranoportation costs. Egch post has a list of approved doctors and hospitals. Tne fiead of riission or Administrative Officer approves the bills for medical care and the officer is reimbursed, yrovidod it is wlthin the preucrib3d list of covered items and charges. The faally of the officer is likewise coverod, No additional amounts are paid for dependents, except for the wife, but a very small stipend is provided for education. The Indian Foreign Service lo not representative of the natlon. It is drawn largely froiu the educated, urban, middle and upper income families. Women have been ndmitted into the service since its inception but ara stil.1 comparatively few in number, around 10%.

There is n Foreign Service A~nociationbut it does not generally perform as a union protecting the rights of an. individual menber i~ho -map have a grievance. Such a request might possibly come froa a junior officer but it is not likely that eonlor officers will approach it for such purposes, or if they do it will bo in a conciliatory frame. India. Generally personnel problems come to the Administration Division. (However, there is a separate Association for i3 Branch officers. Members of this branch are more like1 to use their Association to push for positions they have adopted. 3 There ia no newspaper put out by the Foreign Service, although e~chAssociatian has its own mimeographed sheet. Mandatory retirement is age 58, but the government could force retirement earlier at nKe 55. Anyone with 20 years of service can retire' voluntarily. . . BARBADOS, JAMAICA, and TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

A Brief Historical Backqround - Barbados, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago Because that portion of the colonial history of Barbados, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago leading to the establishment of independence that is relevant to this paper is so closely related, it will be treated in one introductory statement. Each government's Foreign Service will then be dealt with separately.

British rule over these island-nations dates respectively from 1652 for Barbados, 1655 for Jamaica (legal possession began 1670), 1802 for Trinidad,and Tobago,l814. Although Barbados had from the beginning a cjreatdr measure of local autonomy, all the islands had royal governors and similar legal arrangements with regard to commerce and contacts with other nations. As colonies, variations in internal rule existed, but foreign and defense policy was a British prerogative.

In the 1930's with bad economic conditions prevailing in the western world Britain paid little attention to the seriously de- clining economic conditions in these islands leading to increasing domestic unrest and violence. Finally, the British government, after the Moyne Commission investigation and report in 1938-9, decided to establish a federation of the islands after World War 11. Later it was decided that independence might be possible in 1962. It was essentially a British idea designed to reduce British expenses stemming from the administration and defense of the islands, although the latter had essentially become an American concern as a part of the Caribbean Defense Command set up during and after World War I. (British naval defense strategy was based on concen- trating the fleet in the North Atlantic since approximately 1904.) The support for federation from West Indians came primarily from those in the islands of the Eastern Caribbean, and from civil servants, university faculty and students and leading members of the PNP in Jamaica.

The Federation of the West Indies was established in 1958, but still the primary focus was on such internal constitutional issues as representation, taxation, and the status and housing of the officials and staff of the Federation government, rather than regarding foreign policy and diplomatic service. Of course, this latter omission can be explained by the fact :hat independence was not an inunediate issue, but on the other hand, since its authorization was expected to be only a few years away one might have expected that a greater degree of preparation could have been considered. Certainly with the Jamaican referendum of September 1961 the Federation's end was in sight. ~aribbeanHistorical Background.

Let us look at how Britain proceeded to aid the three major islands to obtain trained personnel who would serve as Foreign Service officers of an independent country.

Island party and government leaders were permitted to join with United Kingdom delegates to attend particular international conferences and missions, e.g. GATT and trade missions. Offices were set up in London on West Indian migration and trade, and Barbadians were permitted to serve in these offices. The same involvement was arranged regarding a labour office in Washington, D.C. and a trade office in Montreal. An agricultural labour program with private contractors was negotiated directly by Barbadians in Washington as well as with Dutch authorities in the West Indies. Similar arrangements were established with Canada regarding the hiring of domestic workers and for the establishment of an air base in Barbados for the Canadian Air Force. Jamaicans were operating along similar lines in direct contacts with United Nations officials to obtain consultants regarding economic projects, and with the United States to obtain water and housing consultants. A Household-Help program was negotiated with Canada by Jamaican officials. Trinidad, likewise, was permitted to perform along these lines by sending some oZ its officials to international conferences and to travel to Venezuela to try to work out fishing and surtax problems that were straining relations between the two nations. In effect, then, a kind of on-the-job training was gradually beginning to emerge for middle level and above bureaucrats for all three nations.

In addition to this approach to training, special academic programs were likewise established under the auspices of the Ford Foundation and the Carnegie Corporation. The recipients from the three West Indian Islands, chosen by a committee of West Indians, enrolled in these programs at the London School of ~conomics,Ox- ford, Cambridge, McGill, Johns Hopkins, Geneva, and columbia Univer- sities. These courses (the Devonshire courses in Britain were the most popular) varied but had a common core designed to prepare administrative personnel for roles they would have to learn to fill in independent states. The British Colonial Secretariat had begun to think along these lines but in no sense did the university courses or the field experience represent a comprehensive training program or full fledged approach to the establishment of a Foreign Service. Only a limited number of specific tasks for the middle echelon of personnel was involved. This was so despite the fact that not only did independence for some of the islands seem imminent after Sep- tember 1961, but also that political voices in each of the three . large islands expressed a concern about the East-West cold war and the spill over into the Caribbean as a result of Castrots rise to power some two years earlier, that still others were arguing for a Caribbean Historical Background. non-alignment position, that harsh criticism was directed at South Africa's inhuman apartheid system, that interests in closer economic and cultural contacts with Africa and South America were being widely expressed, etc. And in conformity with Britain's lack of interest in preparing the newly emerging nations to formulate sensible policies on these issues, was a concommitant lack of attention in each of the three islands. Only in Trinidad was there any deviation from this position when the prime minister's office set up a study group in March 1962 to concentrate on foreign policy issues and ministerial requirements.

In each of the islands, with the advent of independence, Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago in 1962, Barbados in 1967, parliamentary forms of government very similar to the British system were established, with a Ministry of External Relations as one of the key ministries. This required the appointment of a Permanent Secretary whose job would be to serve the Minister by preparinq his papers for use in Cabinet meetings or to answer questions in Parliament,and to supervise the bureaucratic operations of the Foreign Service. The Minister who constitutionally would be in charge of the general direction and control of the department, would exercise this through the supervision of the Permanent Secretary. The latter in turn would be appointed by the Governor-General on the recommendation of the Public Service Commission which in turn would be in contact with the prime minister's office.

In the very first days of each of these governments, moves were taken to open diplomatic missions in London, and upon official recognition of the new states, in Washington, D.C. Application for membership in the United Nations also began, and subsequently a3 exchange of diplomats took place with other Commonwealth countries, in particular Canada and West European states. The shortage of adequately trained diplomats was serious in each instance and required that these Missions be set up slowly. The Institute of International Relations of the University of the West Indies in St. Augustine was particularly helpful in training the lower and middle level officers to take up their duties.

Within a year of independence Barbados established three diplomatic missions (United Nations, Washington, London) and now have seven diplomatic missions of a commercial and political nature. Jamaica established three diplomatic missions (London, United States, Canada) upon independence. Currently they have twenty including consulate offices. Trinidad and Tobago began with four diplomatic missions and the number has now increased to fifteen. Recruitment There is no formal method utilized by the government to advertise or make the public aware when openings exist in the Foreign Service. It is felt thzt. because a position in diplomacy is considered to be so attractive it is unnecessary to provide public announcenents,and that a "word of mouth" approach is sufficient to bring forth an adequate number of applicants. Historically this has been the case,and in fact a back list of names is generally available. No minimum age is established by law for admission to the Service, but requirements for ad~issionwould normally preclude anyone from being accepted under the age of twenty. dhile no entrance examination exists, minimum educational requirements do. This would be a first degree from a recognized university in such subjects as politics or economics. U Latin based language would also be considered valuable. The course in diplomacy given at the International Relations Institute at St. kuaustine, Trinidad and Tobago, is commonly done as preparation for application, but specia.1 trainin? programs in Australia and in Englandl (Oxford University) are also done with the expectatjon that these will provide an adequate training in the opinion of those in charge of recruitment in the Ninistry of External kf fairs. However, the necessary educational training will not in itself guarantee admission. The PuSlic Service, which includes the r'oreign Service, will cond-uct the first interview,and then the Ministry for External Affairs will hold an interview for approximately one-half hour. Here the objective is to size up the applicant as an iniiividual who, if accepted, would 3e representing his country abroad. It is possible, if approved, to go into the Public Service and then at a later date transfer into the Foreign Service, but more often candizates apply directly to External Affairs. Occasion- ally soneone who goes into the Public Service may be asked by the Ministry of 3xternal Affairs to transfer to the ministry because of an established academic record, or some other reason which will make such a person appear attractive to the minister. Such a reason could be a special ability in a foreign language of countries of particular importance to the government. Although no language test is used, particular ability in a foreign language will be noted and be useful to the applicant's prospects of being accepted. It is not that foreign language skill is a requirement, but it is considered an asset. Those who would be accepted because of other qualifications, e,g. good economic training, despite a Pack of foreign language competency, would be encouraged to do a foreign languape later . Barbados. Final selection of candidates is always made by the Ministry with no consideration given to political party affiliation, but when for other reasons political consideration enters, it does so on a higher level, idhen an appointment is made it is made for a period of two years by the Governor-General on the advice of the Public Service Commission. Traininp Pro~rams beither the Public Service nor the Ministry of External Affairs provides any foreign affairs training programs. However, members of the Service sometimes do a special program at the International Helations Institute at St. Auqustine, or it is possible to do special courses while posted abroad if, in the Government's opinion there is special merit to it. Under such circumstances a study leave would be arranged. But this is not very often done, and one of the main reasons for this is that a generalist orientation to foreign service work is preferred over specialization, including specialization in international organization, Thus, one's duties are likely to vary considerably over time. The reason for this is the size of the Foreign Service. The Bqrbadian Service is too small to encourage specialization, Nevertheless, if one does special training, as for example in a particular geo- graphic region, it could be assumed that such an officer would gravitate toward assignments that would utilize this training and this would not be resisted, provided there was a need for such capabilities in the Service. The same attitude applies to consular work. There is no permanent Consular Service, but those officers who have a particular liking and talent for such duties may stay in this field. Again, hovrever, this tends to be the exception rather than the rule. No changes or new approaches to the question of traininq programs or specialization are presently being contemplated. Structure The Ministry follows the traditional Foreign Service ranks, except that there is no Foreign Service Officer Three (350-3) classification. Anyone below the PSO-1 (First Secretary) or -2 level (Second Secretary) would be an attach&, probably doing consular work. Thus, most new recruits into the Service will start at the FSO-2 level. Above the Secretaries are Senior Foreign Service Officers (or consuls) , Deputy Permanent Representative (Minister Consular) , then Ambassador, or within the British Commonwealth, High Commissioner. The latter have Permanent Secretary level status. Promotions are not automatic. Evaluations of each officer are mafle annually and promotions would have to be based on such evaluations as well as the existence of vacancies. Thus, it is possible for an officer to remain at the same level nL1adefor some time. The judgments reearding the performance of officers is made by the chief of mission who in turn will be assisted by the head of the section of the officer being evaluated. These reports go to the Ministry and then to the Public Service Commission. Promotions when provided do not require a change in post. Barbados. The report is made available to the officer who signs it. Thus, he or she will know if there is an adverse character to the evaluation. It would be possible for the officer to respond but this is done very rarely. Evaluations may also be done of the heads of mission, but these would most likely be political in nature. Foreign Service salaries and grades are tied to those of the Civil service. Yecause of this relationship, except for special subsidies for overseas posts, salaries will rise together. It is quite possible, therefore, for persons in the other-ministries to transfer into the Foreign Service, and the latter will not resist s~ch~lateraltransfers. The Foreign Service is expected to be in charge of representing the government abroad. Yhus, if a special mission is sent abroad from an~therministry, the mission will be expected to report to the Ministry of External Affairs, and if there is barbadian diplomatic representation in that country hosting the special mission, the latter will have assigned to it one or more Foreign Service officers to work with those specialists working in that mission. The Ministry itself provides oversight of its missions abroad. However, there is a move underway to establish a Parliamentary Select Committee on Foreign Affairs. The objective is to assure that there is no political influence on the operation of the Foreign Service and to provide a heightened awareness in Parliament of what is happening in the Service and what its needs truly are. Political appointments do exist in aarbados' diplomatic .corps but only at the hi~hestlevels. Usually they exist at the ministerial level. This is particularly likely with regard to appointments to Barbados missions to the United Kations and to the High Conmission offices in London and Ottawa. If a minister is not chosen, then a former proainent party member may be appointed. dut all such arrangements are the exception,for nost of those diplomatic representatives of 3arbados are Foreign Service officers. Those who hold the position of chief of mission are by and large of Ambcssadorial rank. This rank will be held even if reassigned to another mission. Although all Ambassadors will be of equal rank, their pay will not necessarily be equal for those of greater seniority will be paid more. Personnel Concerns Normally retirement from the Public Service is mandatory at age 60. However, service beyond that age is possible if the government makes such a request and the Foreign Service officer agrees. Xarlier retirement is also possible for good cause. A new effort is underway to allow those who retire and who then go into private industry to . return to serve in the Foreign Service ,if one's age is not a bar,and if openings exist. Barbados. Normally one is posted abroad for a three to four year stay and it is possible for one to receive a second assignment without returning home between pastings.It is even possible that an overseas assignment may be further extended in 1enqth.But one can usually expect to return home after the second tour is completed. A return home after the second tour will generally entail an assi~nmentto work in the Kinistry of External Affairs for a period of two years. However, it is also possible to be assigned to or to request worlc with a different ministry during this period. The purDose is two fold -- to avoid the possible effects of staying abr6a3 too long and thereby losing touch with one's country and the views that are current within the society on major issues, and to develop increased knowledge about the operations of the government ministries. 3ut no special use is made of the returning officer with regard to training others, especially newcomers to government service. Home leave is available but there is no set requirement as to how often it must be provided. At one time an officer could expect leave after two years ' service abrozd. Then the frequency was de- creased to every three years abroad. fiowever, it is possible today that one will not get home leave even after three years. The availability of travel funds and the needs of the Service will be the controlling factors. The latter will be decided by the Persomel Officer, -the Chief of Mission and the Ministry. If leave is ~ranted,travel expenses for the officer and his family are provided but it is expected that an appreciable amount of leave time will actually be spent in Bsrbados. The length of the leave tends to be about four weeks but depends upon the length of time the officer hss served. Special perquisites for the Foreign Service officer include an overseas allowance for housing, entertainment, travel, medical needs,c$othinn and education. The medical coverage is.cornplete but the officer does contribute a small sum to the cost. On the other hand. the ~rovisionto cover the costs for education for an officer's children does not require any contribution by members of the Service, but does cover all levels of educati.jn, including a university first degree. The Foreign Service provides no newspper as such to its members, but there is a paper which provides information regarding activities at the Ministry headquarters. Zach mission does have a newsletter which contains information regarding events at the mission. There is no association or union of Foreign Service officers, a all but union of public- service employees exjsts, which includes the Foreign Servicc. Barbados. As to the representative character of the Foreign Service, the Barbados Service is typical of that of other countries in that there is an excess of males over females, which is opposite of the sex ratio of the ~opulation.And there is no doubt that there is a higher than average level of academic achievement than would be found in the general population. The sex imbalance i.s the result of the difference in level of interest in a Foreign Service career between men and women, and is further ag~ravatedby the tendency for more women to voluntarily drop out of the Service. The result has been that the Ministry of External Affairs has decided to strengthen its efforts to get qualified women to apply. So far the results have not greatly altered the ratio of males to females in the Service, however, and at the present no woman holds the rank of Ambassador. Recruitment To enter the Jamaican Foreign Service it is necessary to pass an examination, but it is not a Foreign Service oriented test. The examination is a general one required of all those who would enter the Public Service. Hence there is no epecial section on foreign affairs, nor a portion which must be passed by those who would enter the ~oreignServioe. There generally are no advertisements placed regarding openings in the Poreign Service, although occasionally this has been a method used'when a candidate with special qualifications is needed or a post is vacant and a candidate is not readily available. Usually, however, personnel needs are taken up by a goverg~arrrtreoruiting agency, the chief of which is the General Public Service Commission. The Chief Personnel Officer generally is responsible for recruitment, and it is he to whom those seeking a position would normally make known their interests, The Ministry will also paes on word of openings by word of mouth. Occasionally other methods might also be employed as a means of entrg~to the Service. One might enter through the foreign language school -- the Language Training Centre and Services Commission, which lo a part of the Ministry of Public Service, And kt is possible to enter from another government service or from the administrative or even clerical side of the Service. However, most of the time entrance is straight formrd and one applies directly to do diplomatic work, The age level for entrde is not set and may vary depending upon whether one is applying for diplomatic status, to join the executive staff or to do clerical work. If it is tbe first category one is interested in,a first degree with high marks would most likely be held. Knowledge of a foreign language, while an asset, is not required for entrance, French, Spanish and German are the languages most in demand by the Poreign Service, Political party affiliation is not required for entrance, nor does it have any bearing on promotion. Trainin Th2se newly recruited into the Service generally are required to serve an apprenticeship first at home, During this period they are trained in the procedures and practices of the Service. There is an Administrative Staff College which provides general government service courses. One would have to pass such a course and demonstrate an awareness of th~basics covered before being given an assignment, but thia doea not entail a final examination, Graduates of suah a course do not necessarily go into the Foreign Service. Jamaica. There is also a language training centre where one may be sent if one is interested in acquiring knowledge of another language, usually West European languages..E5astery of a foreign language is not required to remain in the Service and promotion does not depend upon it. The entire question of the extent and nature of training before assignment to a diplomatic post hae been the subject of discussion within the governaent for many yeare, but no final policy position has been as yet adopted. But what has been approved and implemented for many hears are arrangements to allow officers to do post graduate work abroad. While the officer does this on his or her own, the Ministry willingly agrees to this and they may get extra Leave time or other arrangements may be made to assist in making this training possible, e.g. delaying a transfer that is due. There are specialists within missions but the Ministry does not require specialization. Generally both work together but the needs of the Mission at any one moment will determine the assignment of any officer. Officers,therefore,must be sufficiently broadly trained to take on any reasonable assignment :hioh might confront the Mission. This is not to say that a person s particular interests or proclivities will be ignored, but these requests must be judged within the context of the ini is try's needs. The emphasis on generalization applies to memberships in international organizations. One may be assigned to a mission representing Jamaiaa at the United Nations, the Organization of American States, or any other multilateral organiaation,and then the next assignment could be once again to a post in a foreign country of a traditional bilateral nature. Movement back and forth is quite common at all ranks. The assignments are more likely to be based on who is available than the notion that a special skill is needed and therefore one must assign X. Where specialization is absolutely essential, such as working on a particualr committee of tbe FA0 (Pood and Agriculture ~rgznization),a person to take on this tem- porary assignment would not bs a Foreign Service officer. Structure The traditional diplomatic grades are used by the Jamaican Foreign Service beginning with Third Secretary and rising through the grades of Second and First Secretary, Counselor, Minister- Counselor and Ambassador. Sometimes the poaition of deputy permanent representative exists just under the rank of Ambassador. One nay proceed through the ranks by promotion, and in theory one could even be promoted from the clerical grade in the Ministry to the grade of permanent secretary. A11 promotions are based on performance and not on examination, 2erformance is evaluated on an annual basis and if an officer is reassigned during the year the evaluation must be made just prior to the move. Whenever the report is prepared it will be prepared by the Chief of Mission, although some assistance and judgments nay be solicited from the officer's inmediate superior. Jamaica. If any negative assessment is included in the evaluation the officer has a right to be so informed. Thie is a more forthright position than one that held previously which stated that the officer shall be infomed only when the problem is of such a nature that he can take remedial steps. But this was considered too un- certain and the negative judgments now must be nade known, But the person being evaluated may not rebut or argue against the alleged shortcomings, However, he or she nay ask that any consequent action be reconsidered. And this is quite possible inasmuch as the report is not acted upon immediately. This allows time for reflection and also makes possible a request that those who need to utilize the review for future assignments should take heed of any particular points that could have a bearing on the judgments made. Grades in the Foreign Service are comparable to grades in the Uivil Service and the salaries are, in general, tied. Thus changes in the rates of pay of the latter will bring revisions in the former. Yet a person In one Ministry may not get the sane pay as one in another Ninistry at the same grade because years of service may differ and be reflected in the salaries each gets. Consular duties and personnel are considereti separate froa diplomatic duties and personnel. At times they are housed together, at other times they are housed separately, as in Hew York. It is possible for an individual to be assigned consular work one year and diplomatic work the following, especially if the two services are housed together. In theory the Jamaican diplomatic mission in each country is in charge of all consulates in that country, in practice the latter operate quite independently. Not every representative of the Jamaican government abroad is under the 3urisdiction or reports to the Chief of Mission in that country. If a person is given a special assignment abroad he or she may have to report to two or more Ministries, Unsually he will report to the Ministry of External Affairs but sometimes he will turn his report in to his own Ministry which will then be obliged to make sure that those other ministries or agencies ooncerned are informed, There is no agency or committee that has special oversight of the Ministry or its missisns abroad, But this is true for the other aervices as well. There is financial oversight to see that funds which are appropriated are spent ~roperly,and this is done through an auditor-general report which is submitted to a watchdog parliamentary committee. But the legislature itself does not attempt to hold the diplomatic service under its scrutiny, There have been many proposals which have considered such zm approach, but none has received serious attention although tho present government has likewise ahoun some interest in the idsa. Jamaica, Lateral tranefers are not prohibited. They do occur, but very infrequently. But political appointments to a diplomatic mission are more common. When they are made they generally take place at the very highest level, Of course, euch appointees are not members of the Foreign Service. And members of the Service become disturbed if evidence appears that this practice ie increasing, especially at lower levels, There are no particular posts earmarked for such appointments, and none has been sent to head the United Nations Miseion, There have been some sent at lower rank, however, but this has produced concern. Political appointees have gone to Washington, Ottawa, London and Hoscow. When prornotians are given to members of the Foreign Service it generally requires a reassignment, It is possible to stay at the same post, as for example when an officer is brought home and his assistant takes over his work, The assistant may then get promoted and stag where he or she is, but this is not very common, Usually a person will move on when a promotion is received, (3hiefs of Mission will not all have the same grade; some because of previous experience or special accoaplishments will be more prestigious than others. Or for example, a person may have a-high government poaition, be brought into the diplomatic service and have a right to keep his salary, fhough the rank of Ambassador will be shared with others, the rate of pay will not be the sme. On the other hand, there will not be wide gaps between then. So the salaries are related to one's government service experience and standing, but the income will vary depending upon the post,which carries with it a cost of living component. Personnel Concerns There fs a aondatory retirement age, but the word mandatory is interpreted loosly, For example, it is-possible to bring a person back to the Service after retirement via a special contract, How- ever, there is & retirement age that applies across the whole government service, But there really are three retirement ages and there is even a differenoe in these ages for mec and women. There is an age at which a person may retire if the government gives permisclion (age 50), there is a higher age for retirenent whether or not the government wishes it (age 55), and there is a still higher age at which an individual nust retire but which can be sidestepped upon mutual agreement between the government and the individual, This is where flexibility is shown, Obviously tfie first two are those ages set by Civil Service regulations, A11 regular Foreign Service personnel may expect to return to Jamaica after a tour (approximately three years) abroad. After a year or two at home thay can be expected to be re-assigned abroad. Their work while at home will generally be at the Foreign Ministry. Passage home will be paid for five years of service abroad, If one returns before five years the passage expenses will be paid for at a pro rats amount, If the officer is married, passage for the spouse and usually for not more than three children will be provided. TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO

Recruitment Trinidad and Tobago does not advertise for openings in its Foreign Service. Usually one hears about the government's interest in recruiting and writes to the Ministry of External Affairs or to &he Personnel Affairs Office to express an interest. Then an application form is sent to the prospective recruit and if the response is deemed satisfactory he or she is called in for an interview before the Ministry. No Foreign Service examination is required but an oral interview is beld. There is ns minimum age for admission, but inasmuch as a university degree is normally expected it can be assumed that the applicants will be at least in their early twenties, Some will also have a diploma in international relations, but this is not required, However, if such a diploma has not be obtained the candidate will usually be sent to do the course in diplomacy at the Institute of International Relations at St. Auguetlne, Foreign language facility is not necessary for admission to the Service, but it is considered desireable. However, there are various tsske that need doing that would not require knowledge of a foreign language. Therefore, one can a,ssume that there would be some persons whose careers would be devoted to the Foreign Service but who would net have had or been required to have foreign language skills, It should also be aoted that political party affiliation is not necessary for admiasion to or promotion in the Foreign Service. Training Once an applicant has been admitted to the Foreign Service he or she will either be sent to the Institute at St, Bugustine for training or if that is not necessary because of previous educational development, then a special training program will be mapped out to be taken in Trinidad. This may be in addition to the Institute's training and will normally last about two years. It will be designed to faniliarize the recruit with the policies and procedures sf the Ministry. During these two years the recruit is on probation, Training abroad also takes place and is of two dimensions, The most typical will be training on the job. It is through tbis method that the new Foreign Service officer is expected to learn his or her duties, The on the job experience will be designed to familiarize the officer in the broadest sense with the work and policies of the Ministry and hence may be considered a generalist type QZ training* This does not mean that persons with specialized skills, e.g. in legal or econcmio work will not be pernitted and encouraged to utilize their talents, however. (Language skills are not considered in this category far there is no call for work which concentrates only on knowledge of a foreign language.)The second dimension per- tains to a more formal academic ty e of training whlch is also possible, but this one does on oneS s own time. This is permitted minidad and Tobago. porticularlj if It fits into the projected needs of the Service. Over time it can be anticipated that more attention and encouragement will be provided for specialization aa the need is beooming more apparent, Geaerally speaking, the Ministry does not expect if8 sfficers to specialize in international organiaations, such as the United Hatlons, Those who are assigned ts a United Nwtlons mission are assumed to familiarize themselves quickly with tho work of the United Nations and the position of the mission, but they are not normally considered international organization specialists, However, at the plenary meetings of the Organization of American States or the United Nations General Assembly meetings in the fall, rrupport staff are usually sent from Port of Spain, Some of these people may be specialisto, but usually assignments Lo internstional organization missions are a part of a normal career pattern and one is rotated through these posts just as one is through miasions to foreign capitals, No new approaches to trainlng are presently being considered, but one idea gresently under consideration is to arrange an 0fficerr8 time uher he or she returns frou a tour abroad so that new programs are brought to their attention with the objective of bringing them up to date in order to fnorease tbeir knowledge of these government undertakings, Struoture There are five grades used in the Trinidad and Tobago Foreign Service from Second secretary (FSO-2) up. Every year each officer is reviewed, Any negative comments or reports are made known to the officer who may reply to the criticism In writing. Pro~otlonis therefore tied to these reports and is based on merit, Salaries are tied to the Civil Service salaries. Although this is the general rule, exceptions do exist* This is because of certain special quslifications or seniority, or because of transfers from other ministries. Lateral transfers into the Foreign Ministry are possible, but such arrangements even with regard to pay are er- ceptions rather than the rule, Any special arrangement will only be undertaken if it is deemed to be beneficial to the Foreign Service. -An officer may expect to do both diplomatic and consular work during the course of his or her career. Ifhen officers are home they may get special training from the Immigration Service in the form of weekend seminars. If a special delegation Is sent to a country on an ad hoc mission, the leaders of such a mission will send their reports to both their own ministry and to External Affairs, Other ministries, where considered appropriate, might then receive oopies, Trinidad and Tobago. Political appointments to carry out diplomatic assignments have been made, Such appointments are not enuouraged and while they continue, their number is diminishfng, moetly because of retirement, One may receive a promotion and remain at the same post, There la no rule or practice which requires such persons to be re-as~igned, Heads of missions are always of the top grade. For Trinidad and Tobago this would be grade five. There is no parliamentary committee that provides overslgbt. The cabinet perfoms this function in Trinidad and Tobago, Personnel Concerns The age of retirement fron government service is age 60,but one may retire at an earlier age if the government gives approval, Home leave comes after each tour of duty which means after every tw~to three yeaxe. One may be reassigned to the same post but if so If will be at a higher gradee The leave will be for approxinately three months' duration and passage for the officer and his family is provided. But this assumes that at least half of the leave time is spent at home. Special financial remuneration is possible for various schemes, Educational fees are paid for but not at university level; medical schemes are joined where they exist, If no such medical program exists, the government will pay part.of the medical. expenses con- fronting an officer and his fanily, and the officer will pay the remainder. !here is no Foreign Service newspaper, There is, however, an information gram which briefly states what important events have occurred at home such as the arrival of prominent visitors, etc. It also informs about new postings. Husbands an8 wives are both permitted to be a part of the Foreign Service. Postings at the sam? mission are not likely to occur. There is a sex imbalance in the representational charaoter of the Service inasmuch as there are more males than females, whereas the reverse is true of the total population. But it is believed that in general the Service is representative of the country's population. There are even two women who hold Ambassa- dorial rank at present. There is no Foreign Service Union but *ere is a Civil Service Association. If problems arise with a particular officer, the Director of Persaz el and the Chief Administrative Officer are the ones who would most likely become involved, If the matter is serioua the Oivil Service Association would probably bet asked to get involved, However, this is deemed "stickyN for in a sense it then becomes management versus managenent. * SUMMARY

It is necessary now to compare the findings regarding the Foreiw Services of these six countries, Understandably there are many similarities in the approach to and organization of these Services. However, it is also important to note the differences and to attempt to explain them. We shall attempt to do all of this by going back to our format and generalizing about the six countries in terms of recruitment, training, structure and personnel concerns. Recruitment It is proba.bly in the areas of recruitment and training tht the ereatest differences among the Foreign Services msnifest them- selvgs. vihile four of the six require the passing of an examination for those who would like to be admittec?, two, 'l'rinidad and Tobago and 32rbados omit formal testing. They, as do the other four, conduct interviews which serve as a screening device allowing the government to establish criteria which the applicant must meet in a face-to-face setting with governnental officials . Sritain and Brazil use oral examinations in addition to interviews, with the former probing the applicant's ideas and judgments in great depth. And Barbados conducts two interviews, one by the Public Service Commission and the other by the Ministry. Advertising openings is not undertaken by the three Caribbean countries, but it is by the other three, although the British rely more on university circu1a.r~and student communications systems rather than the public news media. The first three also set ace limits for those who would be diplomats ranging fron 19 to 30, whereas the latter three have no set minimum age. And in most cases a university degree would be expected for applicants, but exceptions zre generally made under certzin circumstances, but not in aarbados. Foreign laneuage 9bility is demanded either at the outset or soon after in Brazil, Britain and India, but is not required by the Caribbean governments. And each of the governments protects itself against bad judgment regzrdinu who should be admitted to the Foreign Service through the establishment of a probationary period, the length generally being two years. Traininp, All governments appear to stress a generalist's approach to training in order to provide for flexibility with regard to assignments, However, the British do make provisions for specialization to a greater extent thsn others. India, on the other hand, provides a very extensive and interesting program, which, while it does not deviate from the generalist orientation does include field training in various government services in different places in India, the object being to broaden the perspective of the new recruit to the Service. Most governments provide their own training programs at their own centers, but the three Caribbean states use the Institute Summary,

of International Relations of the University of the West Indies in Trinidad, although Jarw ica also provides opportunities for general training at the Administrative Staff College. To a large extent, however, training is expected to come primarily on the job, All governments permit training abroad with time off providee- in most instances. This is particularly possible if the course is in foreign languages or some special aspect of international relations which is deemed useful to the government of the officer. ?his does not mean that all such courses are paid for by the home government for generally this is not the case. Financial help seems more likely to be available for krazilians than for the 0thers.1ndia1s program seems the most extensive. S tzucture The method of handling evaluations of Foreig Service officers shows perhaps the greatest variation of any variable examined in this study. All qovernments require officers to be evaluated annually, but the process varies considerably, In Brazil it is done by the officer's peers and superiors together, in Britain it is done only by his superiors,and in India it is carried out by peers but reviewed by superiors who may revise the first evaluation. In Jamaica and Trinidad and Tobago the judgments are prepared by the Chiefs of Mission, a~din Barbados also but there the Chief is likely to be assisted by the officer's section head. If negative views are included, the Brazilian officer will not know this since he or she does not see the report. In Erita.ln the report will be seen and rejoinders by the officer to negative comments are permitted orally. In India only negative evaluations are shown but the officer is warned before a stricture is included and if the officer alters his or her performance accordingly the adverse statement is not included. The officer may respond to the criticism and the Chief of Mission will consider the reply and possibly, therefore, remove the criticism. In Jamaica the officer is made aware of the ne~ativeentries but may not reply, However, if action is to be taken based Llpon this criticism he or she may ask for reconsj.derat;ion. In Trinidad and Tobago the officer is permitted to see and reply to the report's negative observations, if any are included. In Barbados the officer signs the report but rarely replies. All ~overnmentsuse the traditional diplomatic ranks but some begin new recruits at the Third Secretary level and others at the Second. Promotions are generally based on evaluations and openings, but in Brazil the move from 3rd to 2nd Secretary is autarn~ticwith time. Erazil also utilizes an unusual procedure of requiring the writing of a thesis for prorfotion to the rank of Minister. In India, on the basis of experience and evaluations one eventually enters an eligibility zone for five years. Every year while fi~that zone one is examined for the possibility of promotion. Once promotions are made Summary. the question of whether the officer may stay or must move to a new post varies considerably. Moving on is necessary for British and Jamaican officers, but not for those from the other states. All officers in all governments at one time or another will perform both consular and diplomatic duties. The use of political appointees to carry out diplonatic assignments is widespread but not intensively practiccc:. Jamaica and Earbados appear to engage in.the practice at the top of the diplo- mztic ranks more than the other four states. On the other hand, lateral transfer from other departments are widely permitted, but generally only at the lower grades and are most uncommon in India and Trinidad and Tobago. And, finally, legislative oversight exists only in Brazil, but Barbados is interested in the idea and exploring the possibility of adopting some form of oversight. Personnel Concerns Rotation of Yoreign Service officers of course occurs in every government. Usually it takes place every two or three years. Idhat is not so regular are the arrangements regarding home leave. In Brazil one may expect it every six years, in Eritain possibly every other. India, Jamaica, Barbados and Trinidad stand in the middle of that range. On the other hand, all but Brazil pay the transportation costs for officers and their families (although Trinidad and Bar- bados require that approximately half of the time be spent in the home country,and Jamaica covers transportation for only three children) Brazil pays only for the Ambassador's costs. Various overseas allowances are generally provided for housing, medical expenses and children's education. The British provide coverage in each of these areas -- the medical portion conparable to what would be provided zt home. India likewise provides coverage, but the educational stipend is reportedly quite small. Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago and Barbados meet part of the costs in each of these categories but Barbados covers all the educational expense including a university first degree. Brazil pays none of these expenses . Retirement azes vary considerably, sometimes even within a Service. For Brazil the variation depends upon rank, but all are entitled to retirement after thirty-five years of government service. In Britain it is mandatory at 60 as it is in Trinidad and 3arbados. In Jamaica the age is 55 and India it is 58.Various other special arran~ementsare possible. Special newsletters, bulletins or papers for Foreign Service officers are provided on a regular basis only in Brazil and Britain, but Trinidad has a limited information bulle'in. The others have no special news orcan. Several governments allow Foreign Service or Public Service Associations or unions, but Brazil has neither. Summary.

Britain actually has ,tW, one dezling with work problems and the other with pay scales, not an individual's salary. In no country does the Foreign Service actually represent a cross section of the society from which it comes. In al1,males and upper class families represent a larger segment of the total Service than would be typical of the society as a whole. In each instance the persons interviewed felt.there was no way of avoiding this, although most of them thought the sex bias was unfortunate. The class bizs, they felt, was a reflection of the educationa,l opportunities that are more widely available to a limited portion of the population. Most of the information contained in this report came from interviews of present and pst members of the dipl-omatic corps of each country studied, -plus minis try officials present and past and who were advisers to the various governments concerned. Over fifty such persons were interviewed. They asked to remain anonxmous. THE FOREIGN SERVICE AND ORGANIZATION THEORY

If one looks at the operations of the Diplomatic Service one finds a number of characteristics which describe all missions and the way they perform, or are intended to perform. In some respects they are very similar to most organizations in their authority and communication structures. The same pyramidal design which charac- terizes the locus of power and the flow of orders of business organizations, banks, unions, the military, church organizations, etc. is typical of the Foreign Service. The paradigm is even more apt if we compare it it with the multinational organization with its branches in various countries of the world.

The typical organizational requirement to obey- orders is enhanced in the Foreign Service by the concept of national security, particularly between countries where relationships are strained. This situation demands caution and strict obedience to the rules of operation. At times for some members of the embassy there is even the further obligation to obtain information about the host country and government which the latter would prefer not be known.

This stress on caution, obeying orders and sometimes on clandestine activities runs counter to another set of demands in diplomacy, namely that the mission project the image of its government and people in a positive light, interested in good relations with the host government. In performing this function the mission members serve as a link between the two governments and their societies. This linkage is a complex one consisting of interpreting one's own government to the host and vice versa, and performing the same function between the two societies. To do well in this effort requires knowledge of the history of one's own country, the policy of one's government and the cultural values of the two societizs so as to enhance their relationship and reduce the friction that may exist. This would appear to call for a totally different approach and a different talent than that which is needed to focus on national security and penetrating the host's secrets. This contradiction of demands nay create strong tensions within diplomatic missions. It calls for great skill and understanding on the part of Foreign Service officers, abilities that may not always be present.

At the other end of the spectrum of the demands and activities are the humdrum assignments consisting of routine, repetitive tasks -- gathering information, preparing reports, filling out records, which typifies most organizations. This in turn is also confronted with its antithesis, the need for creative, innovative approaches Theory. which will enhance the relationships between the sending and re-- ceiving governments and build good will in the latter's society. Creative approaches to problem solving is an asset which any government's personnel would do well to exhibit. Once again these internal inconsistencies may create serious problems within the mission and in terms of succeeding in its ultimate task.

Two other attributes of diplomatic missions merit brief men- tion. Like all other organizations, missions function as teams and although specialization is generally not stressed, individuation of performance does take place. Yet, as has been noted, members of the Foreign Service are rotated after one or two tours abroad. Thus, the team is repeatedly broken up with members arriving and departing with some degree of regularity. This is bound to be some- what disturbing to the equilibrium of the mission and to have some effects on the performance of its members.

Another factor that impinges upon work habits and levels of achievement is the predominence of males in all Foreign Services. Fifteen or more years ago this imbalance may not have been taken as unusual or undesireable, but with the raising of consciousness of men and women about the role and treatment of the latter, it is an issue that has demanded attention and remedial action. The lack of success in the eyes of many regarding that goal must inevitably create tensions within the society and the foreign ministry 'of each state. In turn, this researcher believes some spillover effect has affected behavior in the missions studied.

Finally, one should note that Foreign Service personnel are, in the main, advanced in their careers on the basis of evaluations of performance. To meet the objectives and needs of any organization the judgments should be fair and accurate. But it is inevitable that some dissatisfaction will arise in some missions as a result of both the process and the conclusions. This further strains the cohesiveness and performance levels of the group.

We shall now pass from the general analysis of Foreign Service missions and their inherent tensions to an attempt to explore these results from the viewpoint of organization theory. This theory has gone through a long history of development, one which we need not traverse here. And as in any history one can discern numerous turning points. The ones that seem particularly relevant to an understanding of ~oreignService organizations today first showed their heads in experiments and writings produced in the 1920's and 19301s, but became the central focus of theory building after World War 11. References to conclusions by Chester Barnard, Herbert Theory.

Simon, ames March, Rensis Likert, Chris Argyris, Warren Benis, Douglas McGregor, Daniel Katz and Robert Kahn should suffice to illustrate the thrust of this new thinking. Succinctly put it is argued that the performance record of any organization could not be adequately understood if one focused primarily on organizational structure, the establishment of imposed discipline by leaders and the utilization of rewards and punishment to achieve efficiency from the workers. While it was acknowledged that each of these variables played a role in effecting output, other crucial variables were being ignored to the detriment of the organization. Those variables could be seen as pertaining to the way leaders relate to members, the means they use to motivate beyond the use of sanctions and benefits, the importance of techniques used to enhance group cohesiveness and loyalty, and the assumptions about structure which would effect motivation. In effect after World War I1 it became increasingly clear that viewing organizations as closed systems isolated from their environment, or the assumptions that performance levels were enhanced by rigid, centralized control centers, or the view that the organization's success and decision making procedures did not require personnel involvement were no longer held to be tenable. Participative and decentralized decision making, the need to view both the structure and procedures of organizations as they impact on motivation, the importance of training, the encouragement of creative employee input in the solving of problems and the need to share information all were now emphasized.

Can Foreign Service organizations of the states of the world benefit from these developments in theory? Have they already shown an awareness of their value and reformed their approaches to the way the mission operates? Is there still room for change? The answer to all of these questions is yes.

It is clear that the recent theories of organizational behdvior have had an impact on the rules and operations of all Foreign Ser- vice missions, By the very nature of foreign affairs an element of decentralization has been a major characteristic of organizational decision making. It is not possible for an outsider to assess the degree of influence of the chiefs of mission on the central authorities of their governments. There is no question that embassy influences vary from country to country (and probably within ministries), and are also relative to the level of tensions prevailing in the international arena. But what is not clear is the degree of awareness of foreign ministries, of the need to help embassy officials keep well informed regarding all manner of issues, from major policy concerns to personnel affairs. The uneveness in the use of Foreign Service bulletins and newsletters makes one question Theory. whether this is fully appreciated. Some ministries and some embassies seem to understand the importance of communications as a means of- maintaining a high level of awareness on the part of all personnel, and some do not,

On the other hand the rotation policy followed by all governments appears in part to have the same objective in mind -- to keep each Foreign Service officer -a6 courant with what the government is doing at home, and what the public is thinking. When officers are brought home for one or two years this becomes an important adjunct to the efforts to increase the knowledge and awareness of personnel.

An informal style of operation also is reported in the literature as improving the communication process and heightening the level of cohesiveness. The degree to which this style prevails was observed as varying from mission to mission, but appears to be much more accepted today than the descriptive literature of the past would imply.

The significance of the individual in the system, the importance attached to the ideas held by mission members, and the extent to which superiors, including chiefs of mission, show respect and support for the members in the performance of their roles cannot be ascertained with a high level of certitude. But the research re- vealed very few instances where this could be assumed to be a serious shortcoming. Therefore, one can conclude that the relationships between superiors and subordinates is reasonably good. This would imply that the sense of loyalty, aside from reasons of national sympathy, is high.

But we can explore the issue of loyalty and cohesiveness on a less subjective basis. The existence of training programs as a means of enhancing one's skills and achievements is appreciated by each governmeslt, and while it is true that each of them does not provide its own program, each does make available the possiblity of training. The variety, intensity and frequency of the offerings varies considerably from state to state, usually in proportion to the financial resources available to it. While all ministries prefer their officers to have a generalist's training, a few also make possible specialist courses in languages, in administrative training, in accounts, etc. Even courses taken while posted abroad are possible and in line with the desire to improve abilities of the members and the standing of the mission. But not all governments are as willing as others to subsidize these costs. Theory.

Another program that is designed to heighten morale are the special benefits offered to those serving abroad, such as health, education and housing allotments. This undoubtedly aids in the recruitment process as well as in maintaining desired levels of performance.

One other area which may put the foreign mission ahead of many other organizations when it comes to benefitting from the newer theories is that of evaluation. Inasmuch as promotion is very much dependent on these evaluations, and that they are conducted on an annual basis, one can say that foreign ministries recognize the need to keep current on the progress and performance levels of their members. Equally important, however, is the methodology employed. Although each government does not carry out this task in the same fashion, several governments permit or require the participation of persons other than the chief of mission in the evaluation process. Sometimes it is only section chiefs who assist, but sometimes peers are also involved, The democratization process may increase the difficulties for members of a mission who share in this significant responsibility, but the act of sharing undoubtedly enhances the individual's sense of importance and the sense of justice. The latter is stressed even more by the right, where permitted, of those being evaluated to respond to negative judgments.

Finally, one should note that the surplus of males in all Foreign Services has been recognized as undesireable by almost all governments, although not all have seriously addressed the problem. Nevertheless some attention is beginning to be devoted to this condition, particularly with regard to recruitment efforts which are being made by some governments to encourage more women to apply. This, however, will not resolve the problem if few women rise to the rank of ambassador either because of the tendency to drop out of the Service for marriage and family reasons, or because the evaluations of them do not appear to warrant their being considered for the top posts. Of all the problems standing in the way of improving the performance levels of the Foreign Service this one may yet prove to be the thorniest. BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adams , John D., ed . , New (Zechnologies in Organization Developmu, (La Jolla, CA: University Associates, Inc., 1975). Arpyris, Chris, Integratina the Individual and. the Or~aniz2t3, (Xew York: John w iley, 1964).

Boyc6, P.J., Forei~nAffairs in Mew States: Some Questions of Credent isls , (~ewYork: St. Martin's Tress, 1977).

Dessler, Gary, Orqanization Beorg: Integratine: Structure a& behavior, (En,ylewood Cliffs, NJ: Frentice Hall, 1980 j . Katz, Daniel, and Kahn, Robert, 'The Social Psychology of Or-~a~stion, (h'ew York: John Wiley, 1966). Simon, Herbert, Administrative 'dehavior, (New York: Free Press, 1976 .