DIVERSITY, DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF FIJIAN FRESHWATER

Plate 1. A new (as yet unnamed) freshwater in the subfamily Sicydiinae from

by David Boseto

BSc Marine Science 2000 Postgraduate Diploma Marine Science 2001

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Marine Science at the University of the South Pacific, Laucala Campus, , Fiji. © April 2006 DECLARATION

I, David Boseto certify that this thesis is my own work. Assistance and work by other people has been properly acknowledged and cited.

3/04/06 ______David BOSETO (Date)

The research described in this thesis was performed under my supervision and to my knowledge is the sole work of Mr. David BOSETO

3/04/06 ______Professor William G.L. Aalbersberg (Date)

You are encouraged to cite my thesis with proper citations and acknowledgements.

ii ABSTRACT

One of the poorly known aspects of the biodiversity of the Fijian Islands is the biodiversity of freshwater fauna. Data collected from this study were used to compile a checklist of Fijian freshwater and estuarine fish, determine the physical habitat factors influencing richness and abundance and identify biogeographic patterns including fish communities and assemblages found in different regions and habitat.

In this survey, gill net, cast net, beach seine net, fine mesh net, pole seine net, hand net, spear gun, electro fisher machine, visual observation and hand gleaning were the techniques employed to document freshwater fish during the period of October 20th 2002 to October 10th 2004. Freshwater fish surveys were carried out in 66 sites in seven watersheds on the islands of , and . There are 40 sites in Viti Levu, 5 sites in Vanua Levu and 21 sites on Taveuni.

The field surveys resulted in the collection of 2,615 fish specimens from 31 families and 76 species. Data from previous surveys and museum collections identified 151 species from 41 families. Taking into account overlap between field data and other collections, there are 89 known freshwater fish species from 26 families in Fiji. Furthermore, 72 estuarine fishes from 31 families were recorded from previous data and during this field survey which gives a total of 161 freshwater/estuarine fish species from 45 families in Fiji.

This study has contributed 11 new records and a new to the total number of brackish and freshwater fishes of Fiji. The new species are Glossogobius sp., Redigobius sp., Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp., Stenogobius sp., Stiphodon sp. 1, Stiphodon sp. 2 and Sicydiinae: new genus and new species. One of the new species was already described by Jenkins and Boseto (2005) as Schismatogobius vitiensis. The new records are Yirrkala gjellerupi, Gerres longirostris, Lentipes kaaea and Belobranchus belobranchus.

The “Inter Quartile Range” and multiple regression analyses were used to analyse the data collected from this survey. “Inter Quartile Range” analysis was used to describe how common were the fish species caught from the different sites collected during this survey, other collections and the combine collections. Multiple regression analyses were used to examine the relationships

iii between physical habitat characteristics and freshwater fish species richness and abundance. SPSS Version 11.5 for Windows was used for all analyses and Į was set at 0.05 for all analyses.

Anguilla marmorata (Anguillidae) was the most common species collected during this survey. The common species after combining all the collections are Anguilla marmorata (Anguillidae), and Kuhlia rupestris (Kuhliidae). The moderate to occasionally common and the least common fish species of the combined collections are in Appendix 6.

This study shows species richness depends on physical habitat factors, mainly water temperature and river depth for total number of fish species and number of native species and distance from the coast for endemic species. The number of introduced fish species decreased with distance from the coast (p = 0.001). Species abundance depends on physical habitat factors such as water temperature for the total number of fish species and number of native species.

In this survey it was found that there is greater species richness in the estuarine zone and lower reaches of freshwater. Species richness decreases as one moves inland to the mid reaches and is lowest in the headwaters.

Fiji has the Environment Management Act and is signatory to international conventions (CITES, CBD, RAMSAR) that have legislation to protect Fiji’s biodiversity. Therefore, findings from this survey should help decision makers to recognize the importance of the flora and fauna of the rivers, streams, creeks and lakes, and protect them. Once care is given to the aquatic systems, it will help take care of the whole ecosystem.

iv DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to my beloved father the late Mr. David Pitisopa Boseto, who was called to rest on December 22nd, 2004 by the Almighty GOD. This was six weeks before the completion of the first draft of this thesis.

This is a product of your faith in me to allow me to continue with my studies. I wouldn’t have come this far if it wasn’t for your commitment, in persuading me to be successful in whatever things I do in life.

You have also taught me how to love and care for nature. Therefore, that’s one thing I’ll continue to do and advocate to our people the importance of these creatures and how to look after them as required by the Creator.

Thank you Dad for being my dear father and I thank GOD for your life. I’ll say bye to you for now but my hope is “for in awhile” to see you again.

v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This study could not have been completed without the help of a considerable number of people, friends and families whose help and support I must salute.

First and foremost I would like to thank GOD for the gift of life. I want to thank Him, Praise Him, and give him all the credit for what He has done for me.

Secondly, to Professor William Aalbersberg, for securing funds from the University of Utah (2001) and the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation (2002 – 2005) to fund my studies. In addition, the University of the South Pacific for providing a research grant for fieldwork and the Institute of Marine Resources for purchasing the electro fishing machine for my study.

I would like to thank the Department of Forestry and Public Works Department for granting me permission to do the work in Savura Creek, the Naitasiri Provincial Council, the Roko Tui of Cakaudrove Provincial Council in Taveuni and the Turaga ni Koro of Korovou Village (Taveuni), for allowing me to do the work in Tavoro Creek. Samplings at the other sites were made possible through the arrangements between the South Pacific Regional Herbarium and the landowners.

My sincere thanks to Messrs, Marika Tuiwawa, Alivereti Naikatini, Isaac Rounds, Timoci Koliyavu, Fred Pitisopa, Ms. Nunia Thomas and Dr. Clare Morrison from the South Pacific Regional Herbarium in Suva and all the Marine Studies Programme and Institute of Applied Sciences postgraduate students and staff for giving me valuable advice and company while carrying out this study.

To Marine Studies Program and Institute of Applied Sciences secretaries and clerical officers, Mesdames Nanise Bulai, Fulori Bulai, Susan Naco, Aisha Khan, Frances Lee and Reena Sagar, a very big vinaka vaka levu to you all for giving me all the support and help with administration and logistics, MSP drivers for transportations and workshop workers for their assistance: Messrs Sunia Lavaka, Jone Lima and Shiv Sharma for field logistics, equipment and laboratory space. I would also thank the late Mr. Peni Bulivakarua for making life more interesting while doing my studies and also the late Mr. Suren Chand for sewing the fishing nets for me. Foeksia aka to Mr. Sidney Malo for being my field assistant in Taveuni and the Tamavua River system.

vi I am greatly indebted to the following people: Mr. Aaron Jenkins, Mr. Johnson Seeto and Dr. Patricia Kailola for allowing me to use their fish books, their comments, advice and support towards my work; Dr. Clare Morrison for her contribution in statistics, organization of my thesis and reading the first drafts, Mr. Roger Jaensch (Wetlands International) for his comments on chapters three, four and five. Dr. Patricia Kailola for mentoring, reorganization, and editing of the whole thesis; Mr. Baravi Thaman (University of the South Pacific) and Ms. Leary Cokonasiga (Wildlife Conservation Society) for maps.

I am also very thankful for the support that I received through corresponding with the following people who provided me with electronic and hard copies of their published papers, Dr. R.M. McDowall, Dr. Andrew W. Storey, Dr. Ronald Watson, Ms Roselyn Kumar, Mr. Gunnar Keppel and Professor Randy Thaman. I would also like to extend my heartfelt thank you for people who always help me out when I need their help by continuing to communicate my work with Dr Helen Larson, Mr. Mark McGrouther and Dr. Ronald Watson.

I am indebted to the following specialists who provided assistance by identifying specimens and confirming some of my identifications: Mr. Johnson Seeto, University of the South Pacific (Lutjanidae and Crabs), Dr. Douglass F. Hoese, Australian Museum Sydney (Glossogobius sp. 1 and Eleotridae), Dr. Helen Larson Northern Territory Museum, Darwin (Redigobius leveri), Dr. Gerry Allen, Western Museum, Perth (Schismatogobius vitiensis), Dr. John McCosker, California Academic of Science, San Francisco, U.S.A. () and Dr. Ronald Watson, Florida (Stenogobius sp. 1 and Sicydiinae). Dr. Patricia Kailola (Sydney) and Mr. Aaron Jenkins (Wetlands International, Oceania) confirmed all the other fish species. I would also like to thank Mr. James Teri, Institute of Marine Resources for identifying some of my crustaceans and Dr. Alison Haynes, Institute of Applied Sciences, University of the South Pacific for identifying the snails.

I would also like to thank the museum managers of the following museums; Australian Museum Sydney, Queensland Museum, California Academy of Science, San Francisco, U.S.A., National Museum of Natural History, Washington D.C. and British Museum of Natural History who have provided information on the holdings of Fijian freshwater fish in their collections.

vii To my unofficial supervisors Dr. Patricia Kailola, Dr. Clare Morrison and Mr. Aaron Jenkins thank you for your invaluable guidance in directing me to complete my study. I would also like to thank Professor William Aalbersberg and Professor Leon Zann for giving me the push to complete my studies.

A big vinaka vakalevu to the following families: Misinare and family of Wairua Village in Suva for helping me out in my survey of the Tamavua River system, Mr Iowani Colaudolu and family of Korovou Village (Taveuni) for providing accommodation and support in the field and not forgetting Mr. Mikaele Colaudolu and Mr. Koinsteino Colaudolu for making all the arrangements for my travels to Taveuni.

I also extend my heartfelt gratitude to my Fijian families, my church families, the Solomon Island students and community in Suva and my wantoks from Choiseul for their support, encouragement and the joyous times that we spent together in Suva.

I would not come this far without the love and support of my mother Joy Betina Pitisopa; sisters Caroline Qilabari Pitisopa, Althea Qolelalu Pitisopa; brother Davis Pesala Pitisopa; nephew Terenz Atu and niece Betina Atu. Thank you for having faith in me by allowing me to continue with my studies. I thank you all for your understanding and patience during the loss of our father even though I did not come home for the funeral.

Last but not the least to the many friends although I may not mention all your names, thank you for your support. I especially would like to thank Mr. Afease Manoa and family, Mr. John Cocoran and family, the late Mr. Sam Hunt and family, Mr. Latchman Prasad and family, Mr. Patrick Pikacha and family, Dr Tenneth Dalipanda and family, Mr and Mrs Calvin Rore, Ms Freda Tuaveku, Messrs George Peter, Rex Valoa, Rex Willie, Jack Willie, Marson Lilopeza, Haymond Posala, Kevin Kegar Toata, Zoleilo Paul Jama and Moffat Ghala Mamu for making my stay in Fiji a home away from home. Thank you and GOD Bless.

viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Declaration ...... ii Abstract...... iii Dedication...... v Acknowledgement...... vi Table of Contents...... ix List of Tables ...... xi List of Figures...... xii List of Plates ...... xiii Abbreviations and definitions ...... xvi CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Global freshwater...... 1 1.2 Biota of freshwaters – global overview ...... 1 1.3 Distribution and ecology of freshwater fishes...... 2 1.4 Utilisation of freshwaters – fishes and other biota...... 3 1.5 Threats to freshwater communities ...... 5 1.6 Freshwater fishes in Fiji...... 7 CHAPTER 2 STUDY SITES AND SAMPLING METHODS ...... 11 2.1 Sampling sites ...... 11 2.2 Additional sources of information ...... 14 2.3 Sampling ...... 15 2.4 Site descriptions ...... 19 CHAPTER 3 FIJI FRESHWATER FISH CHECKLIST AND BIOGEOGRAPHY…...... 50 3.1 Introduction...... 50 3.2 Methods...... 51 3.3 Results...... 53 3.4 Discussion ...... 59 3.5 Chapter Summary ...... 102 CHAPTER 4 PHYSICAL HABITAT FACTORS INFLUENCING FIJI FRESHWATER FISH DISTRIBUTION ...... 103 4.1 Introduction...... 103

ix 4.2 Methods...... 104 4.3 Results...... 106 4.4 Discussion ...... 115 4.5 Chapter summary ...... 117 CHAPTER 5 FISH COMMUNITIES AND ASSEMBLAGES………………….…118 5.1 Introduction...... 118 5.2 Methods...... 119 5.3 Results...... 120 5.4 Discussion ...... 124 5.5 Chapter summary...... 128 CHAPTER 6 Conclusions and Recommendations……………………………….…129 6.1 Conclusions...... 129 6.2 Recommendations...... 131 CHAPTER 7 LITERATURE CITED...... 132 CHAPTER 8 APPENDICES ...... 152 Appendix 1. Physical parameters, river measurements, fish and invertebrates collected... 152 Appendix 2. Fish list of species collected from the 66 sites during this study...... 173 Appendix 3. Freshwater fish from Fiji collected from other sources...... 177 Appendix 4. Freshwater fishes collected from Fiji from other sources, identified only to genus...... 205 Appendix 5. Summary of Fijian estaurine and freshwater fishes...... 208 Appendix 6. Fish counted into the quartiles and representing common, moderate to occasionally common and less common species...... 213 Appendix 7. Fishes categorised into different water habitats namely freshwater, freshwater/brackish, freshwater/brackish/marine and brackish/marine...... 216 Appendix 8. Gazetteer of fish collections in Fiji and other sources………………………218 Appendix 9. Habitat type preferences of Fiji fish...... 224 Appendix 10. Some of the habit types surveyed during this study…………...……...……228 Appendix 11. Some freshwater and estuarine fishes caught during this study...... 234

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x LIST OF TABLES

TITLE PAGE Table 3.1 Summary of the quartiles calculation for the common and less common species from the two different collections and their combination. The first quartile is = > 75%, Inter quartile = 25% to 75% and third quartile is = <25%...... 53 Table 3.2 Number of species found in each category...... 56 Table 3.3 More common species in each collection...... 56 Table 3.4 List of species and families that are present in the four zones within Fiji...... 57 Table 3.5 Fish collected from different water salinity...... 58 Table 3.6 Total number of endemics and total freshwater fish fauna of Pacific Countries...... 59 Table 3.7 Goby species that are common between Fiji, Africa and Asia...... 74 Table 5.1 Summary of the fish species collected from the different habitat types...... 120 Table 5.2 Fish species found in sand substrate habitat...... 121 Table 5.3 Fish species found in silt habitat...... 122 Table 5.4 Fish species found in muddy habitat...... 122 Table 5.5 Fish species from three sub families of Gobiidae found in sand, gravel and boulders habitat...... 123 Table 5.6 Fish species found in fused rocks substrate and rock wall side...... 123

xi LIST OF FIGURES

TITLE PAGE Figure 1.1 The Fiji Islands. Source: Morrison, 2003...... 9 Figure 2.1 Water systems surveyed on Viti Levu...... 13 Figure 2.2 Water systems surveyed on Vanua Levu and Taveni...... 13 Figure 2.3 Tamavua River, Savura and Vago Creeks sampling sites 1- 21...... 48 Figure 2.4 Tavoro Creek sampling sites 22 – 34...... 49 Figure 3.1 Zonal distribution of the total number of fish in four zones from past and current records...... 57 Figure 4.1 Relationship between total number of fish species and physical habitat characteristics...... 107 Figure 4.2 Relationship between number of native fish species and physical habitat characteristics...... 108 Figure 4.3 Relationship between number of endemic fish species and physical habitat characteristics...... 109 Figure 4.4 Relationship between number of introduced fish species and physical habitat characteristics...... 110 Figure 4.5 Relationship between total abundance of fish and physical habitat characteristics. . 111 Figure 4.6 Relationship between abundance of native fish and physical habitat characteristics.112 Figure 4.7 Relationship between abundance of endemic fish and physical habitat characteristics...... 113 Figure 4.8 Relationship between abundance of introduced fish and physical habitat types...... 114

xii LIST OF PLATES

TITLE PAGE Plate 1. A new (as yet unnamed) freshwater fish species in the subfamily Sicydiinae from Fiji, Tavoro Fall, site 34. Female specimen. Photo-Aaron Jenkins………...... i Plate 2. A. Tamavua River, Site 1, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)...... 228 Plate 3. A. Tamavua River, Site 4, Viti Levu.. (Photo- David Boseto)...... 228 Plate 4. A. Savura Creek, Site 7, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)...... 229 Plate 5. A. Vago Creek, Site 21, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)...... 229 Plate 6. G. Wainivalau River, Site 50, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)...... 230 Plate 7. J. Wabu Creek, Site 54, Viti Levu(Photo- David Boseto)...………………………...230 Plate 8. L. Lower Wailotua River, Site 61, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)...... 231 Plate 9. S. Nukunuku Creek, Site 64, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto).……………………...231 Plate 10. M. Tavoro Fall, Site 33, Taveuni.. (Photo- David Boseto)...... 232 Plate 11. O. Wailevu Creek, Site 38, Taveuni.. (Photo- David Boseto)...... 232 Plate 12. P. Waitavala Creek, Site 42, Taveuni. (Photo- David Boseto)...... 233 Plate 13. Q. Savuqoro Creek below the fall, Site 58, Vanua Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)...... 233 Plate 14. Ambassis miops, 70.3 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)………………...…...... ……………………….…....…………………..234 Plate 15. Anguilla marmorata, 814.3 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) ...... ………………...…...... ……………………….…....…………………..234 Plate 16. Aguilla megastoma, 420 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)...... 235 Plate 17. Apogon amboinensis, 67 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 235 Plate 18. Sardinella fijiensis, 150.2 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 236 Plate 19. Belobranchus belobranchus, 87.7 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto).………...... 236 Plate 20. Eleotris fusca, 72.9 mm SL, Wailotua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)...... 237 Plate 21. Giurus hoedti, 65 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- Aaron Jenkins)...... 237 Plate 22. Giurus margaritacea, 101.5 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto) .……… ...... 238

xiii Plate 23. Hypseleotris guentheri, 61 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu (Photo- Aaron Jenkins) .……… ...... 238 Plate 24. Gerres longirostris, 12.7 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) .……… ...... 239 Plate 25. Glossogobius sp. 1., 101.7 mm SL, Wailotua River, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto) .……… ...... 239 Plate 26. ocellaris, 99.3 mm SL, Wailotua River, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)..240 Plate 27. Redigobius leveri, 38.7 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu. (Photo-Aaron Jenkins).....240 Plate 28. Schismatogobius vitiensis, 34.5 mm SL, Nasekawa River, Vanua Levu (Photo- John Pogonowski)...... 241 Plate 29. Stenogobius sp. 1, 74.8 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto).. . 241 Plate 30. Lentipes kaaea, 37.2 mm SL, Waitavala Creek, Taveuni. (Photo-Aaron Jenkins)..... 242 Plate 31. Sicyopterus lagocephalus, 106 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto) .……… ...... 242 Plate 32. Sicyopus zosterophorum, 85.4 mm SL, Wailevu Creek, Taveuni. (Photo- Aaron Jenkins)……………………………………………………………….…………….243 Plate 33. Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp., 85.4 mm SL, Waitavala Creek, Taveuni. (Photo- Aaron Jenkins)...... 243 Plate 34. Stiphodon rutilaureus, 31.8 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni. (Photo-Aaron Jenkins)...... 244 Plate 35. Stiphodon sp. 1. 35.1 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni. (Photo-Aaron Jenkins)...... 244 Plate 36. Stiphodon sp. 2, 25.3 mm SL, Waitavala Creek, Taveuni. (Photo-Aaron Jenkins).... 245 Plate 37. dispar, 68.3 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 245 Plate 38. Kuhlia marginata, 98 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 246 Plate 39. Kuhlia munda, 67 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 246 Plate 40. Kuhlia rupestris, 135 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 247 Plate 41. Leiognathus equulus, 4.2 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 247 Plate 42. Leiognathus fasciatus, 135 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 248 Plate 43. Lutjanus argentimaculatus, 225.3 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)...... 248 Plate 44. Lutjanus fulvus, 12.6 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 249

xiv Plate 45. Lutjanus russellii, 12.6 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 249 Plate 46. Monodactylus argenteus, 5.3 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 250 Plate 47. Liza subviridis, 15.9 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto)...... 250 Plate 48. Upeneus sulphureus, 89.1 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 251 Plate 49. Upeneus vittatus, 15.5 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 251 Plate 50. Lamnostoma kampeni, 230 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)...... 252 Plate 51. Yirrkala gjellerupi, 150 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)... 252 Plate 52. Tetraroge niger, 4.4 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 253 Plate 53. Siganus vermiculatus, 13.2 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 253 Plate 54. Sphyraena obtusata, 270.4 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 254 Plate 55. Microphis brachyurus brachyurus, 280 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni. (Photo- David Boseto)...... 254 Plate 56. Mesopristes kneri, 17.2 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 255 Plate 57. Oreochromis mossambicus, 140.5 mm SL, Wailotua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 255 Plate 58. Barbonymus gonionotus, 88.6 mm SL, Wailotua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto) ...... 256 Plate 59. Poecilia reticulata, 61.3 mm SL, Wailotua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)..256

xv ABBREVIATIONS AND DEFINITIONS

AMS – Australian Museum, Sydney, Australia BPBM – Bishop Museum, Hawaii, United States of America. BMNH – British Museum of Natural History, London, United Kingdom CAS – California Academy of Science, San Francisco, United States of America. FIT – Fiji Institute of Technology IAS – Institute of Applied Sciences, USP. MSP – Marine Studies Programme, USP NTM – Museum and Art Gallery of the Northern Territory, Australia PABITRA – Pacific Biodiversity Transect PWD – Public Works Department, Suva QM – Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Australia SPRH – South Pacific Regional Herbarium, IAS USNM – The Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Washington D.C., United States of America USP – University of the South Pacific WAM – Western Australia Museum, Australia WCS – Wildlife Conservation Society, Suva WI – Wetlands International, Suva INR – Institute of Natural Resources CITES – Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora CBD – Convention on Biological Diversity RAMSAR – Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat % of clarity – percentage of clarity asl – above sea level cm – centimetre E – east ha – hectare kg – kilogram km – kilometre km2 – square kilometre m – metre

xvi m/s – metres per second Ma – million years ago mg/l – milligrams per litre mm – millimetre Mt – mountain oC – degrees celsius pH – potential of hydrogen ppt – parts per thousand S – south SL – standard length ȝS – microsiemens

xvii CHAPTER 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION

1.1 Global freshwater

Water is the most abundant substance and it covers 71% of the earth’s surface (Thorpe et al., 1995). Of this amount, the ocean comprises over 97% and the polar ice caps and glaciers comprise an additional 2%. Less than 1% of the earth’s surface water therefore, is freshwater (Nelson, 1994). This freshwater forms the rivers, lakes and actively exchanged groundwater.

Although water in lakes and rivers constitute less than one-hundredth of one percent of the world’s total water volume (Lowe-McConnell, 1987), freshwater is the habitat for a large number of species and these aquatic organisms and the ecosystems in which they exist represent a substantial sector of the earth’s biological diversity (Kottelat and Whitten, 1996; Groombridge and Jenkins, 1998). The freshwater system is one of the most productive ecosystems and maintains large fisheries in different parts of the world (Lowe-McConnell, 1987; Allen, 1991; McDowall, 1993; 1997; 2001; Keith, 2003).

1.2 Biota of freshwaters – global overview

Freshwaters provide habitats for an estimated 4,500 species of amphibians (Morrison, 2003), approximately 75,000 species of aquatic insects (Dr. D. Polhemus, pers. comm., 2005), 5,000 species of freshwater snails (Abbott, 1950 in Supian and Ikhwanuddin, 2002), more than 10,000 species of freshwater crustaceans (Burukovskii, 1985; Holdich and Lowery, 1988), about 94 reptile species (Kottelat and Whitten, 1996) and 10,000 fish species, or 40% of the world’s 25,000 fish species (Nelson, 1994). Fish researchers believe that at least 5,000 more species await collecting universally, a large amount of these within freshwaters (Kottelat and Whitten, 1996).

Pacific Island countries are made up of many isolated volcanic island (Nunn, 1994). This limits larval dispersal and their isolation and irregularity of water levels has hindered some species from completing their life cycle in the ocean. This causes many fish fauna to be sea-locked that can cause the fish species to evolve quickly into a new species (Paulay, 1994). This is the case in Fiji where seven new endemic species and a new genus were found during this study which are not recorded from other continental and oceanic islands.

1 Hence, many freshwater fishes are vulnerable, endangered or extinct, mainly due to habitat alteration (Nelson, 1994).

1.3 Distribution and ecology of freshwater fishes

1.3.1 GLOBAL PATTERNS

Lowe-McConnell (1987) listed the total number of freshwater fish species present in some rivers and lakes of America and Africa. In the Amazon system, there are more then 1,300 species and in the Congo (Zaire) almost 700 species. The Mississippi system of North America has 250 species, and in the whole of Europe there are 192 species. The Great Lakes of eastern Africa (Victoria, Tanganyika and Malawi) have over 200 fish species each, most of them endemic to a particular lake (Lowe-McConnell, 1987).

Kottelat and Whitten (1996) compiled a list of the top ten countries in terms of numbers of freshwater fish species that are actually recorded. These countries are Brazil (3,000 species), (1,300), Venezuela (1,250), (1,010), Peru (855), Tanzania (800), United States of America (790), (750), (690) and (600).

Kottelat and Whitten (1996) also compiled a list of the total number of freshwater fish species in additional Asian countries. These countries are (450 species), (330), (329), Malaysia (300), Laos (262), Bangladesh (260), Cambodia (215), Pakistan (159), Nepal (129), (95), (90), Korea (90), Mongolia (56), Brunei (55) and (45).

1.3.2 PACIFIC PATTERNS

In the eastern Indo-Pacific region Indonesia has the highest recorded diversity of freshwater fish with Papua New Guinea recording the second highest diversity (Allen, 1991; Kottelat and Whitten, 1996). Freshwater fish diversity is much lower in neighbouring Pacific countries including tropical and sub-tropical Australia (209 species: Allen et al., 2002), (64 species: Marquet et al., 2003) and (62 species: Nimoho, 2000). Fish biodiversity declines from eastern Indonesia to the outer Pacific countries (Myers, 1999). The pattern of

2 distribution of freshwater fishes in the eastern Indian Ocean and Pacific Ocean is due to either freshwater fish with marine larvae moving through ocean currents (Briggs, 1999), geological processes such as movement of tectonic plates (Zink et al., 1996; Yap, 2002), intolerance of species to different climatic events, and vicariance.

Most freshwater fish species that are distributed in the Pacific are amphidromous (Lowe- McConnell, 1987; McDowall, 1993; 2004a) which means the adults live and breed in freshwater and larvae are washed into the sea where they develop into juvenile fish before swimming back into the rivers and continuing upstream where they complete their life cycles (Parenti, 1991; McDowall, 1993; Keith 2003). Most of the freshwater biota of the Pacific islands represents secondary species derived from marine ancestors (Springer, 1982; Kinzie, 1988).

1.3.3 FIJI PATTERNS

One of the poorly known aspects of the biodiversity of the Fijian Islands is the biodiversity of freshwater fauna. Ryan (1980) reported 75 native species of fresh and brackish water fishes from Fiji, and later (Ryan, 1991) listed a total of 80 species representing 28 families. Other collections by individuals and organizations have added to these numbers. Although more collections of freshwater fishes have been made in Fiji than in other Pacific countries, the knowledge of the freshwater fish fauna in Fiji is still insufficient.

Fiji is blessed with many freshwater ecosystems. These are described by Southern et al. (1986) and Gray (1993). The Fijian freshwater ecosystems conform to those described by Polhemus et al. (1992) for tropical Pacific islands. Therefore, Fiji should have a more diverse freshwater fish fauna compared to what has been reported so far.

1.4 Utilisation of freshwaters – fishes and other biota

Freshwater fishes and other freshwater biota are widely utilised around the globe. As well as being used for food, fish and other aquatic biota are used as fertilizers, medicines and pets and are an integral part of a dynamic food chain (Kottelat and Whitten, 1996). For example, in Indonesia, the clown loach Botia macracanthus is collected for the aquarium fish trade. This is the most important wild caught pet fish in the world, in terms of biomass, with an estimated 10 million

3 exported each year (Kottelat and Whitten, 1996). In Vietnam a total of 240,000 freshwater turtles valued at US$2.4 million are traded annually. In Bangladesh during the late 1980s, freshwater turtles and their eggs worth almost US$1 million were traded (Das, 1990 in Kottelat and Whitten, 1996).

In peninsular Malaysia, there are 327 species of aquatic plants of which 64 species have a socio- economic value: 15 plants for food, five plants for livestock food, 30 plants for medicine, three for fertilizers and another 11 plants for the aquarium trade, ornaments, magic, dyes, baskets, mats and strings (Khan, 1990 in Kottelat and Whitten, 1996).

In 1994, global commercial freshwater fisheries harvested from aquaculture and culture-based fisheries was roughly 97 million metric tonnes valued at USD $82 billion (Thorpe et al., 1995), of which 71% was consumed by humans.

Freshwater fish and other freshwater fauna are amongst the most nutritious of foods (English et al., 1996; Gadgil, 2001). Almost everywhere along rivers in the Indo-Pacific region, people catch fish. Large fish are generally brought to the market and sold and smaller fishes are usually eaten locally. In rivers and streams children catch frogs, tadpoles, snails, mussels, beetles, bugs, and almost everything is eaten (Nelson, 1994; Thorpe et al., 1995; Kottelat and Whitten, 1996). The aquatic biotas are the main sources of protein for many of the world’s poorer populations.

The over-harvesting of the aquatic flora and fauna for food and trade was evident in the Asian countries reported above. Hence, the formation of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in the 1960s should help to protect the survival of the wild and plants. Furthermore, countries have to become parties to the CITES and species have to be listed by CITES in order for the conventions to protect the species from exploitation.

Fish are also used as indicators of river health. In the Murray River, South Australia, carp gudgeons (Hypseleotris klunzingeri, Eleotridae) are used to assess the environmental health of the river system (Bertozzi et al., 2000; Berra, 2001). This native fish species is used as an indicator because it was probably abundant in the healthy water system of eastern Australia. The overall biodiversity in terms of species present in a fish community or ecosystem also can indicate water quality (Bertozzi et al., 2000). For example, small gobies like Sicyopus, Lentipes and Stiphodon

4 can be used as species indicators of a healthy water system. This was observed during these surveys: the Sicydiinae are more diverse and abundant in the most undisturbed environments.

1.4.1 FIJI

Fijians, like most people in other Pacific countries, depend on fish as their staple protein diet while others use it as a vital dietary supplement. People with lower income depend largely on fish as a major source of their protein.

Most of the villagers reported having fish and prawns about once a week as part of their diet. Although fish consumption by these villagers is relatively low, due to limited and inadequate alternative protein sources which are available, fish and prawns represent a very important dietary component of these people. It is also likely that consumption has decreased due to lower availability.

The harvest of freshwater fishes is generally ignored by authorities who do not discriminate between aquaculture, reservoir production, and subsistence capture. In Fiji there is the Environmental Management Act that is in place to safeguard the over harvesting of the aquatic fauna and flora.

1.5 Threats to freshwater communities

1.5.1 HABITAT AND HUMAN POPULATION

Freshwater systems worldwide are under threat (Bräutigam, 1999). These threats are due to human activities such as poor land use practices as a result of logging and mining; catchment alteration primarily for irrigation, weirs or hydropower dams; pollution from urban areas, industry and mines; and invasion of exotic species such as water hyacinths (Eichhornia crassipes) and tilapia (Oreochromis mossambica) (Jenkins, 1999; Berkamp et al., 2000; Thaman et al., 2002).

Poor agricultural and mining practices often result in erosion of soil and increased turbidity which may disrupt feeding success of fishes (Gratwicke et al., 2002). Dams or weirs reduce or block flow to the extent that lower reaches of waterways can no longer support aquatic life and

5 migratory species such as eels and amphidromous species lose their migratory paths and cannot complete their life cycles (Berkamp et al., 2000; Keith, 2003).

Increased world population raises the volume demands of water use in the agricultural sector and industrial processes on which economic development depends. According to a United Nations report (1997) in Groombridge and Jenkins (1998) inevitable per capita shares of water for human use are increasing and water stress is becoming more widespread. Industrial untreated chemicals from increased agricultural practices are often washed into the water by heavy rain (Clark, 1997). These pollutants pose a major threat by significantly altering the chemical and biophysical characteristics of the water, making the habitat non-conducive to aquatic life.

Other threats to freshwaters include habitat loss due to land reclamation, overfishing and the pet trade. Loss of fish habitat through development can cause a major loss to the biodiversity of the local area that has been affected.

1.5.2 INTRODUCTION OF EXOTIC ORGANISMS

Introduced species often affect native species indirectly through competition for space and food resources or directly by feeding on native species and their eggs and fry (Crossman, 1991; Wilcove, 1994; Howe et al., 1997; Englund and Filbert, 1999; Ivantsoff and Aarn, 1999). Species such as the popular tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus and O. niloticus) and carp (Cyprinus carpio) often create turbid conditions in formerly clean waterways and badly overcrowd native fauna due to their prolific breeding (Allen, 1991). Some of the major under-recognized impacts are introduction of pathogens, hybridization, and broad scale environmental and socio-economic effects (Eldredge, 2000).

Introducing exotic species such as carp can also influence water quality. Some examples of this have been documented in the lakes and ponds in Europe and the USA, showing that high densities of carp increase turbidity and play a role in increasing phytoplankton biomass by altering nutrient availability in the water column (King et al., 1997).

6 1.6 Freshwater fishes in Fiji

1.6.1 HABITAT DIVERSITY

The Fiji Islands are located in the south-west of the Pacific Ocean, roughly central to most of the other Pacific Island countries (Figure 1.1). Fiji is located between latitudes 15 oS and 21o South and longitudes 177o West to 175o East. The Fiji Islands are made up of 320 islands. The two largest islands are Viti Levu (10,386 km2) and Vanua Levu (5,535 km2), which make up 87% of the total land area. In addition, two small islands, Taveuni (435 km2) and Kadavu (408 km2), account for a further 4.6% of the land area. Most of the remaining islands are very small, less than 100 km2 on average (Gray, 1993; Figure 1.1).

The Fiji Islands comprise a group of high islands of volcanic origin, with barrier reefs, atolls, sand cays and raised coral islands. The larger islands are well watered by rivers and streams. Viti Levu alone is drained by five large rivers (the Rewa, Navua, Sigatoka, Nadi and Ba rivers) and on Vanua Levu there are several short rivers, with the Dreketi River the largest, 55 km long.

There are four main types of freshwater ecosystems in Fiji. They are rivers, creeks, peat swamps and lakes. Most of them are on the two main islands and the largest peat swamp is Bonatoa (870 ha) in Viti Levu. The freshwater lakes are generally restricted to mountainous regions. The largest lake is Lake Tagimaucia located on Taveuni Island, covering 213 ha. Other fresh water systems include human-made impounded reservoirs. In Viti Levu, there are two major dams: the small dam is Vaturu Dam (160 ha), which provides water for the western division of Viti Levu, and the larger Monasavu Dam (670 ha), which provides water and hydro-electricity for the whole island of Viti Levu. Recently a new dam (80 ha) has been built at Wainikavika Creek near Navua to provide water for rice irrigation (Gray, 1993).

Fijian streams and rivers are highly variable in size and length. The variability in streams and rivers size and environmental factors are likely to influence the diversity and the distribution of both the indigenous and the introduced fishes of Fiji. On the larger islands, many short coastal streams have very small catchment areas and few side-branches. Further inland, many streams are branches of much larger systems with collective catchments covering thousands of hectares. On some of the smaller steep-sided islands, e.g. Taveuni, the streams are short and unbranched and

7 also relatively steep, often being interrupted by high waterfalls that may act as barriers to fish dispersal.

The nature of the catchments is also highly variable. Many have been deforested and repeatedly burned and grazed, others have been over-planted with exotic trees such as pine (Pinus sp.) and mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), yet in a few cases the indigenous forest of the catchments has been largely left intact (Cabaniuk, 1987). Many streams drain from limestone and sedimentary rocks, while others drain from acidic volcanic rocks.

Freshwater streams provide a wide range of microhabitats for fishes. Observations from this study show that climbing gobies of the subfamily Sicydiinae are adapted to live in fast flowing habitats while other fishes are adapted to slow flowing zones. Deeper bodied mid-water dwellers, for example Kuhlia sp. and Lutjanus sp., tend to live in a deeper area of the stream while others, for example Schismatogobius vitiensis, live in the shallow zone. Several species spend a great deal of time on the river edge under the overhanging plants and grasses, for example Microphis sp. and Ambassis sp. This is an ideal habitat for shelter from predators and a generally safer zone for egg deposition (Welcomme, 2002).

Freshwater ecosystem habitats are discontinuous. Freshwater fish biodiversity can be highly localized and even small lake or stream systems may harbour unique locally evolved forms of life. The numbers of different species in any given freshwater habitat can be high even if the population numbers of the individual species are low (Thaman et al., 2002).

8 Figure 1.1. The Fiji Islands. Source: Morrison, 2003.

1.6.2 PREVIOUS STUDIES

Raj and Seeto (1984) reported the history of fish collections in Fiji. Of those collections, the following included freshwater fishes: Jordan and Dickerson 1908, Whitley 1927, Fowler 1928, Fowler 1931, Fowler 1932, Fowler 1934, Seale 1935, Herre 1936, Fowler 1940, Fowler 1949, Whitley 1950 and Fowler 1953.

Based on these past collections and publications Fowler compiled a book in 1959, “Fishes of Fiji,” reporting 545 species of which most were marine and estuarine species. However, he listed 75 freshwater and brackish water fish. Patrick Ryan in 1980 published the first checklist of the native brackish and freshwater fishes of Fiji, and some new records (Ryan, 1981), based on previous reports and several personal collections made in creeks near Suva and creeks in Lavena in Taveuni in 1979.

9 A list of introduced aquatic species was produced in 1985 (Andrews, 1985); Beumer (1985) carried out a study on the freshwater resources of Fiji; then a revised list of freshwater and estuarine fishes was published in 1986 (Lewis and Pring, 1986). Current research on freshwater fish in Fiji is being carried out by University of the South Pacific, Wetlands International, Wildlife Conservation Society and the Fiji Institute of Technology’s freshwater fauna research group. Knowledge of the true level of diversity and distribution of Fiji freshwater fishes and their ecology is still inadequate. Therefore, the purposes of this study are to further explore the freshwater fish in Fiji and to provide information on the variations that are to be expected in fish distribution in Fiji by comparing the fish biotas from different stream types.

1.6.3 AIMS OF STUDY

Throughout the tropical Pacific much conservation attention focuses on terrestrial species and on the destruction of rainforest and coral reef habitats (Thaman, 1994; Nishimoto and Fitzsimons, 1999). The increased pace of the development in many of the islands of the tropical Pacific have resulted in an increased threat to the fauna of their inland, aquatic habitats; therefore, there is an urgent need for ecological information of these ecosystems. Therefore, it is important to survey the freshwater fish resources of Fiji now before they are destroyed by the effects of land development, deforestation, mining and exotic species (Bräutigam, 1999; Jenkins, 1999; Ryan, 2000). This study is intended to improve our understanding of the diversity, distribution and the abundance of Fiji’s freshwater fish fauna.

The research aims of this study were to:

(i) describe and record the diversity, distribution and abundance of freshwater fishes in Fiji; (ii) compare and contrast fish species composition in different habitats, and correlate the results with environmental characteristics and habitat diversity; (iii) explain freshwater species distributions, abundance and habitat preferences in Fiji. Whereas data from all freshwater studies to date conducted in Fiji will be referred to, emphasis will be given to information on waterways in southeastern Viti Levu, interior Viti Levu, Taveuni and north-eastern Vanua Levu; and (iv) compare the freshwater fish species diversity of Fiji with those in other Pacific countries.

10 CHAPTER 2 STUDY SITES AND SAMPLING METHODS

Freshwater fish surveys were carried out in 66 sites in seven watersheds on the three largest islands in Fiji (Figure 2.1 and 2.2). Different sampling methods were used at each site depending on the substrate type and location of the site. Seven different types of fishing methods were used in total.

Sampling in this survey was biased towards the island of Viti Levu and Taveuni. The original aim of the thesis was to compare two systems; difficulties in design caused the focus to change to more general surveying, including a single stream in Vanua Levu and collections by individuals and other research organizations (See section 2.2.3 on page 14) from Vanua Levu, , Gau, Kadavu and Lau.

2.1 Sampling sites The Tamavua System in Viti Levu (Figure 2.3) and Tavoro Creek in Taveuni (Figure 2.4) are the main study sites. The creeks were chosen because of their differences in geological formation. The Tamavua System is within the older geological island of Viti Levu (Rodd, 1993) and Tavoro Creek is on the younger geological island of Taveuni (Nunn, 1994). The fish collected from the Tamavua System and Tavoro Creek cannot represent the biodiversity and abundance expected in Fijian fresh water fishes. Therefore, other coastal creeks and rivers in Fiji were surveyed to complement the collection from the two main study sites.

The additional sites were chosen to represent disturbed and undisturbed coastal and inland water systems. The water systems selected were the x Upper Navua River, in Viti Levu x Watershed of the Sovi Basin (Sovi River, Wainavobo River, Wainadi Creek, Wainasa Creek, (Wainivalau River and Waibasaga Creek) in Viti Levu, x Wabu watershed (Waiveikove Creek and Wabu Creek) in Viti Levu, x Headwaters of the Sigatoka River and Ba River (Upper Ba River, Nukunuku Creek, Nadala Creek and Qaliwana Creek) in Viti Levu, x Wailotua System (Wairoko Creek and Wailotua River) in Viti Levu, x Navaka Creek, Wailevu and Waitavala creeks in Taveuni, and x Waisali System (Waisali Creek and Savuqoro Creek) in Vanua Levu.

11 The watersheds on Viti Levu are labelled A to L and R to U (Figure 2.1). The watersheds on Vanua Levu and Taveuni are labelled M to Q (Figure 2.2). A survey of freshwater fish and other biota was carried out in the 66 sites within 21 watersystems over the period October 2002 to October 2004.

12 Figure 2.1. Water systems surveyed on Viti Levu. A – Tamavua River system, B – Navua River, C – Sovi River, D – Wainavobo River, E – Wainadi Creek, F – Wainasa Creek, G – Wainivalau River, H – Waibasaga Creek, I – Weiveikovi Creek, J – Wabu watershed, K – Wairoko Creek, and L – Wailotua River. R– Upper Ba River, S – Nukunuku Creek, T – Nadala Creek and U – Qaliwana Creek. Source: Jenkins and Boseto, 2003.

Figure 2.2. Water systems surveyed on Vanua Levu and Taveuni. M – Tavoro Creek, N – Navaka Creek, O – Wailevu Creek, P - Waitavala Creek, Q – Waisali Water system. Source: Jenkins and Boseto, 2003.

13 2.2 Additional sources of information

Museum holdings, published materials and recent collections of Fijian brackish and freshwater fishes were also utilized.

2.2.1 MUSEUMS Searches for fish collections of Fiji freshwater fishes and brackish water were made through several Pacific Rim natural history museums and the British Museum, with the assistance of collection managers. These museums were the Australian Museum, Sydney (AMS); Queensland Museum, Brisbane (QM); California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco (CAS); the Smithsonian Institution, National Museum of Natural History, Washington (USNM); the British Museum of Natural History, London (BMNH); and the Bishop Museum, Hawaii (BPBM).

2.2.2 LITERATURE Most literature sources consulted included Jordan and Dickerson 1908, Whitley 1927, Fowler 1928, Fowler 1931, Fowler 1932, Fowler 1934, Seale 1935, Herre 1936, Fowler 1940, Fowler 1949, Whitley 1950 and Fowler 1953. Fowler’s (1959) book “Fishes of Fiji” and papers by Paddy Ryan (1980, 1981 and 1991) recording his collections from creeks near Suva and Wainibau Creek in Lavena, on the island of Taveuni in 1979 and 1980. Other publications consulted are Lewis and Pring (1986) who published a revised list of freshwater and estuarine fishes, and Andrews (1985) who published a list of aquatic species introduced to Fiji.

2.2.3 RECENT FISH COLLECTION Unpublished data on recent collections of freshwater and brackish water fishes in Fiji have been kindly made available for comparison. The Fiji Institute of Technology (FIT, Suva) research group surveyed the freshwater fauna of three major river systems (Wainimala and Wainibuka in Viti Levu and Dreketi River in Vanua Levu) in 2002. John Pogonowski (AMS) surveyed waterways in Viti Levu and Vanua Levu which was reported in Jenkins (2003), Salote Waqairatu collected material from the lower Savura Creek and Nalase Creek in 2003 and the Wildlife Conservation Society (South Pacific, Suva) collected freshwater fishes in and the in 2003.

14 The information obtained from museums, literature and recent collections by other individuals, institutions and organisations are incorporated in Chapter 3 to Chapter 5.

2.3 Sampling

2.3.1 METHODS 2.3.1.1 Fishing gear Several types of fishing gear were used in this survey. They included gill nets of three different mesh sizes, a throw/cast net, beach seine net, a fine mesh net, pole seine net, a small hand net, a spear gun and a L-R 24 electro fisher.

(a) Gill nets The three types of gill nets were made of monofilament material and have different lengths, widths and mesh sizes. The gill nets were 10 m x 1.5m x 3.75 cm, 12 m x 1.5m x 3.75 cm and 30 m x 2 m x 5 cm respectively. The gill nets were weighted with lead on the bottom (lead line) and had floats on the top (float line). When they were stretched to their full lengths the nets were tied onto two rods at each end of the net when sealing off a passage, or the terminal reaches of the creek, then allowed time to soak before being checked.

(b) Cast net The cast net was made of a nylon cord and had a mesh size of 2 cm. It was circular in shape, approximately 3 m diameter, and is weighted around the circumference. This net was used only at Site 1, the Tamavua River (A). The net was thrown so that it spreads out into a circle before it enters the water, and then it sinks down quickly to trap the fishes inside before they can swim away. The fish caught are then pulled back into the canoe or to shore, before being taken out of the net.

(c) Beach seine net This net, which measured 2 m x 7 m, 0.4 cm2, was pulled in a rough circle, with the bottom edge down as close as possible to the substrate and forward of the top floating edge of the net. This technique was carried out with care to lessen the number of fleeing fishes. It is commonly used only in slow moving or still waters.

15 (d) Fine mesh net This net was made of 3-ply mending twine. The length of this net was 10 m, and the width was 2 m, and mesh was 3 cm. One person had to stand at one end of the net while another person pulled it in a circle. The bottom of the net was weighted and is kept close to the substrate. The net was pulled onto the river’s edge. This technique was used on slow moving and oxbow pools, especially those beside the Wailotua River.

(e) Pole seine net This net is made of 2-ply mending twine with a length of 2 m and width of 3 m. It was used in three ways. Firstly, it was held by two people downstream as another two people kicked, splashed and removed rubble upstream and swam towards the net. Secondly, the net was submerged under over-hanging vegetation and the vegetation was disturbed to chase the fish into the net and then the net was thrust upwards. Finally, the net was set behind a person with the electric fishing machine to catch the fish that had been stunned.

(f) Hand net This net was used to scoop fish that were stunned by the electric fishing machine and were floating on the surface of the water. This hand net was made of 1-ply mending twine with a mesh size of 1cm and was tied to a wire ring at the end of a wooden rod of 30 cm length. The circumference of the ring was 15 cm.

(g) Spear gun This is a long thin iron rod used with an elastic rubber band. It was very useful in collecting fast moving fish and fish hiding under tree roots or under big rocks in a pool. The spear gun was used while swimming with mask and snorkel.

(h) Electric fishing machine This is a LR -24 Smith – Roote Electric Fishing Machine. This machine was used extensively in shallow waters of the creeks and rivers including along the banks of the deeper areas. A fine mesh net was attached to the wand and two other persons were positioned behind the person with the electric fishing machine with a fine mesh net and hand net each to collect the stunned fishes.

16 (i) Visual observation This was used in big clear pools while swimming underwater with a mask and a snorkel. A tape measure was used to run a transect line and fish within a metre distance from each side of the line were counted from one end of the pool to the other.

(j) Hand gleaning This was used in pools where prawns are dominant. Prawns were collected by hand from under stones and rocky substrate.

2.3.1.2 Physical parameter equipment A portable Global Positioning System (GPS) (Garmin 8 – hand held) was used to take the position and altitude of the sampling sites. Water turbidity was measured by estimating the water clarity in percentage ranging from 0 to 100%, with 100% denoting pristine freshwater. River flow was measured by calculating the flow of an object from point A to point B over a length of one meter using the formula Velocity = distance (metres)/time (seconds). Other equipment used to measure the water parameters were: x YSI meter 85, model # 85/10 FT to measure the dissolved oxygen, conductivity, salinity and temperature x YSI meter 83 model #63/10FT to measure the pH x 100 m tape measure to measure the length, width and depth of the sampling site

2.3.2 PROCESSING At each of the sampling sites, the physical parameters were measured and recorded before the fish survey began. The site location, substrate type, the creek and river type and the flow rate determined the fishing method used at a particular site.

During field collections all known fish species were counted, measured and returned to the water. Unidentified specimens were brought back to the laboratory. The fish specimens were fixed in 10 % formalin, stored in sampling bottles and labeled with site and date of collection. Later the fish were changed over to 70 % ethanol.

In the laboratory, all fish collected were counted, identified and their standard length recorded. They were registered and are kept in the USP Marine Reference Collection.

17 2.3.2.1 Fish All fishes were identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level using available literature. This included Munro (1967), Dawson (1984, 1985), Allen (1985), Allen and Burgess (1990), Allen and Leggeh (1990), Allen (1991), Watson (1991), Watson (1991a), Allen, Parenti and Coates (1992), Allen (1997), Carpenter, K.E. and Niem, V.H eds (1998, 1999), Myers (1999), Kuiter (2000), Fishbase (2004), Larson and Murdy (2001), Allen, Midgley and Allen (2002) and Gloerfelt-Tarp and Kailola (no date).

Help was also sought from fish taxonomists to identify or verify some identifications. These included Aaron Jenkins (WI), Johnson Seeto (USP) and Patricia Kailola (Sydney), John McCosker (CAS), Douglass Hoese and Sally Reader (AMS), Helen Larson (NTM) and Ronald Watson (Florida).

Aquatic invertebrates caught were also collected as a means of determing relative biodiversity and also food availability. Furthermore, the plants alone the water systems were recorded as a way of identifying habitats.

2.3.2.2 Invertebrates All invertebrates collected such as snails, prawns, crabs and freshwater insects were identified to the lowest possible taxonomic level using available literature. This was Burukovskii (1983) and Haynes (2001).

2.3.2.3 Flora The plant materials from sampling sites were identified on site by Alifereti Naikatini and Marika Tuiwawa (SPRH) or from specimens brought back to the SPRH. Not all plants have common names. Hence, the plants that have common names are put in brackets beside the scientific names.

18 2.4 Site descriptions 2.4.1 (A) TAMAVUA SYSTEM- SAVURA CREEK, TAMAVUA RIVER AND VAGO CREEK (Sites 1-21). The Tamavua System was chosen as it represents a coastal lowland tropical rainforest in Viti Levu (Figure 2.3). This system comprises three different water courses (Vago Creek, Savura Creek and Tamavua River), which run through two forest reserves (Vago and Savura catchments) and a disturbed area in the Tamavua River. Therefore, it could provide a comparison between the fish fauna of a forest reserve and a disturbed area. The final reason for choosing this site was that it would provide information on the fish fauna of an old (ancient) geological island formation (Viti Levu) (Nunn, 1994).

The Savura Forestry Reserve Catchment is located in the province of Naitasiri and includes two adjacent forest reserves, Vago and Savura, catchments for the Tamavua River system. The Vago Forest Reserve was established in 1959 and comprises 24.7 ha of lowland rainforest, while the Savura Forest Reserve was established in 1963 and comprises 396.5 ha (Keppel et al., 2003). The Savura and Vago Creeks provide much of Suva’s water supply (Figure 2.3) and drain into the Tamavua River, which then flows into the sea. The Savura Forestry Reserve Catchment is located on the western perimeter of Suva and has its headwaters at an altitude of 29 m at the top of Vago Waterfall.

2.4.1.1 General description of Tamavua River System. (a) Vegetation The Tamavua System is an example of a tropical lowland rainforest in South-eastern Viti Levu. The forest is dominated by trees of the species Balaka microcarpa and Cyathea hormei (tree fern). The creek is overshadowed by tall riparian trees such as Dolicholobium macgregorii, woody shrubs such as Ficus bambusifolia and tree shrubs such as Syzygium seemannianum and Acalypha rivularis. Other riparian plants that are common along the creek edge and the creek banks at the middle upper section of the Savura and Vago Creeks are vines and creepers such as Derris malaccensis (New Guinea Creeper), herbs such as Elatostema vitiense and E. australe, woody shrubs such as Ficus vitiensis, small trees such as Ficus theophrastoides and Astronidium robustum, and big forest trees such as Dillenia biflora, Geniostoma ternate, Atuna racemosa and Geniostoma macrophyllum. The banks of the lower middle section of the Savura Creek are

19 covered with paragrass meadow of Brachira mutica. The Tamavua River estuary is dominated by mangrove forest of Rhizophora stylosa and R. samoensis.

(b) Climate The Savura Forestry Reserve Catchment records an average monthly rainfall of 230 mm (Fiji Meteorology Service, 2004). The monthly rainfall ranges from 104 mm in July to 366 mm in January. Monthly mean temperature ranges from 22.8 0C in August to 27.2 0C in February. The average temperature from June 2002 to October 2004 was 28.7 0C and the average minimum temperature of the same period was 22.2 0C (Fiji Meteorology Service, 2004).

(b) Geology The geology of the Savura Forestry Reserve Catchment was first described by Skiba in 1953. He found that the major rocks are igneous, and include andesites with tuffs and andesitic agglomerates, rhyolites and rhyolitic tuffs, and dacites. The youngest rocks are basalts.

Vago Creek flows within 50 m of the embedded Tawavatu Tuff above the first waterfall (Skiba, 1953). Above and below the falls are large boulders, gravel and sand in the creek bed. A further 50 m downstream, where Vago Creek joins Savura Creek, the creek flows through another exposed 20 m stretch of embedded Tawavatu Tuff. The bed of Savura Creek is mainly characterised by large metamorphic boulders, whereas the Tamavua River bed downstream comprises smaller gravel until near the river mouth where silt and mud cover most of the river bed.

2.4.1.2 Description of sites and sampling techniques used in Sites 1 to 21 within Tamavua catchment. The Tamavua catchment was sampled during the wet and dry seasons. The sites denoted with (a) refers to wet season sampling (b) refers to the dry season sampling.

A. Site 1a. Mouth of Tamavua River (Appendix 10, Plate 2) (at 180 06’.92”S, 1780 25’.80”E), 3 February 2003, at sea level. Substrate mainly of silt, mud and rubble on sides and sand in middle of river. Lower reach of river, including this site, mainly in mangrove forest of Rhizophora stylosa and R. samoensis. Cast net thrown randomly on both sides of the canoe when canoe was paddled upstream and downstream on either side of river. Gill net (10 m x 1 m x 2.75 cm) was

20 used to seal off the river mouth from 1050 to 1500 hours. Sampling time 1100 till 1530 hours. Tidal range from high to 1.60 m at 0804 hours to low 0.50 m 1402 hours.

A. Site 1b. Same site and method as 1a. Date: 5 October 2004; gill net set: 1050 to 1500 hours, tide 1.51 m at 1128 hours to 1.01 m at 1656 hours.

A. Site 2a. Tamavua River. Small mangrove passage opposite lower Tamavua-i-Wai village (at 180 06’.15”S, 1780 26’.01”E), 3 - 4 February 2003, at sea level. Substrate of silt and mud. Passage in mangrove forest of Rhizophora stylosa and R. samoensis. Gill net (10 m x 1.5 m x 3.75 cm), used to seal small passage overnight (2000 to 0400 hours). Tidal range from high 1.70 m at 2000 to low 0.30 m at 0230 hours.

A. Site 2b. Same site and method as 2a. Date: 8 October 2004; gill net set: 0100 to 0800 hours, tide 1.64 m at 0130 hours to 0.72 m at 0800 hours.

A. Site 3a. Tamavua River. Small mangrove passage 5 m away from site 2 (at 180 06’.23”S, 1780 26’.02” E), 3 - 4 February 2003, at sea level. Substrate of silt and mud. Passage in mangrove forest of Rhizophora stylosa and R. samoensis. Gill net (12 m x 1.5 m x 3.75 cm), used to seal off this passage overnight (2000 till 0400 hour). Tidal range from high 1.70 m 2000 hours to low 0.30 m at 0230 hours.

A. Site 3b. Same site and method as 3a. Date: 8 October 2004; gill net set: used 0100 to 0800 hours, tide 1.64 m at 0130 hours to 0.72 m at 0800 hours.

A. Site 4a. Tamavua River. Larger mangrove passage compared to that of sites 2 and 3, about 80 m away from site 3 (Appendix 10, Plate 3) (at 180 06’.10”S, 1780 26’.02”E), 4 February 2003, at sea level. Substrate of silt and mud. Vegetation type dominated by mangrove forest of Rhizophora stylosa and R. samoensis. Two gill nets used in site 2 and 3 joined together and set during the day (0800 to 1420 hours). Tidal range from high 1.6 m at 0844 hours to low 0.50 m at 1445 hours.

A. Site 4b. Same site and method as 4a. Date: 4 October 2004; two gill nets used in site 2 and 3 joined together set: 1100 to 1500 hours, tide 1.57 m at 1020 hours to 0.94 m at 1600 hours.

21 A. Site 5a. Tamavua River. 200 m upstream from site 4 and the Tamavua-i-Wai Village (at 180 05’.80”S’, 1780 26’.81”E), 5 February 2003, at sea level. Substrate within passage mostly silt and mud. Passage in mangrove forest of Rhizophora stylosa and R. samoensis. Gill net (12 m x 1.5 m x 3.75 cm), set from 0900 am to 1355 hours. Tidal range from high 1.60 m at 0800 to low 0.50 m at 1414 hours.

A. Site 5b. Same site and method as 5a. Date: 6 October 2004; gill net set: 1130 to 1630 hours, tide 1.50 m at 1230 hours to low 1.04 m at 1800 hours.

A. Site 6a. Tamavua River. 600 m away from site 5 (at 180 05’.53”S 1780 25’.59”E), 6 February 2003, 1 m above sea level. Substrate of silt and mud. Passage enclosed in mangrove forest of Rhizophora stylosa and R. samoensis. Gill net (10 m x 1.5 m x 3.75 cm) used to seal mangrove passage from 1400 to 1800 hours. Tidal range from high 1.60 m 0840 hours to low 0.50 m 1452 hours.

A. Site 6b. Same site and method as 6a. Date: 6 October 2004; gill net set: 1230 to 1730 hours, tide 1.50 m at 1230 hours to low 1.04 m at 1800 hours.

A. Site 7a. Lower Savura Creek. 50 m away from confluence of Savura Creek and Tamavua River and 400m away from Wailoku Public Works Department Pump Station (Appendix 10, Plate 4) (at 180 05’.45”S, 1780 25’.98”E), 10 February 2003, 2 m above sea level. This is where the freshwater begins. Substrate of sand and rubble in centre and mud on edge where grasses overhang creek. Vegetation type dominated by paragrass, Brachiaria mutica. Electro fisher, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling took place between 0900 and 0930 hours and tide rising from 0.70 m at 0632 to 1.50 m at 1309 hours. Sampling abandoned then due to heavy rain.

A. Site 7b. Same site as 7a. Date: 6 October 2004; beach seine net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes to shovel along both sides under overhanging vegetation and towards centre of creek. Sampling from 1000 to 1030 hours during rising tide from 0.77 m at 0603 hours to 1.50 m at 1240 hours.

A. Site 8a. Savura Creek. 300 m away from site 7 (at 180 05’.43”S, 1780 26’.09”E), 11 February 2003, 3 m above sea level. Substrate of sand and rubble at side and towards centre and mud on

22 edge where grasses overhang creek. Vegetation dominated by paragrass, Brachiaria mutica. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time from 0830 to 0900 hours, during rising tide from 0.70 m at 0723 hours to 1.50 m at 1403 hours.

A. Site 8b. Same site as 8a and method as in 7b. Date: 7 October 2004; beach seine net and pole seine net used from 1230 to 1300 hours, during rising tide from 0.76 m at 0713 hours to 1.54 m at 1345 hours.

A. Site 9a. Savura Creek. 200 m away from site 8 (at 180 05’. 41”S, 1780 26’. 22”E), 11 February 2003, 4 m above sea level. Substrate type mainly has sand and rubble on side and towards centre and mud on edge where grasses overhang creek. Vegetation dominated by paragrass, Brachiaria mutica. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time from 0915 to 0945 hours, during rising tide from 0.70 m at 0723 hours to 1.50 m at 1403 hours.

A. Site 9b. Same site as 9a and method as in 7b. Date: 7 October 2004; beach seine net and pole seine net used from 1320 to 1350 hours, during high tide; 1.54 m at 1345 hours.

A. Site 10a. Savura Creek. 200 m away from site 9 (18o 05’.29”S, 178o26’.26” E), 11 February 2003, 5 m above sea level. Substrate of sand and rubble in centre and mud on edge where grasses overhang creek. Vegetation dominated by paragrass, Brachiaria mutica. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time from 1000 to 1030 hours, during rising tide from 0.70 m at 0723 hours to 1.50 m at 1403 hours.

A. Site 10b. Same site as 10a and method as in 7b. Date: 7 October 2004; beach seine net and pole seine net used from 1400 to 1430 hours, during falling tide from 1.54 m at 1345 hours to 1.00 m at 1930 hours.

A. Site 11a. Savura Creek. 200 m above last site (at 180 06’.93”S, 1780 26’.46”E), 11 February 2003, 6 m above sea level. Substrate of sand and rubble in centre and mud on edge where grasses overhang creek. Vegetation dominated by paragrass, Brachiaria mutica. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards

23 centre of creek. Sampling time from 1045 to 1115 hours, during rising tide from 0.70 m at 0723 hours to 1.50 m at 1403 hours.

A. Site 11b. Same site as 11a and method as in 7b. Date: 7 October 2004; beach seine net and pole seine net from 1450 to 1520 hours, during falling tide from 1.54 m at 1345 hours to 1.00 m at 1930 hours.

A. Site 12a. Savura Creek. 200 m away from site 11. (at 180 05’.07”S, 1780 26’.44”E), 11 February 2003, 8 m above sea level. This site is within the forest reserve. Substrate of sand and rubble in centre and mud on edge where ferns and creepers overgrow sides of creek. Vegetation dominated by forest cover forming understorey shrubs and ferns along edges of creek Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time from 1130 to 1200 hours, during rising tide from 0.70 m at 0723 hours to 1.50 m at 1403 hours.

A. Site 12b. Same site as 12a and method as in 7b. Date: 8 October 2004; beach seine net and pole seine net used from 0900 to 0930 hours, during rising tide from 0.72 m at 0813 hours to 1.62 m at 1438 hours.

A. Site 13a. Savura Creek. 200 m below water dam (at 180 05’. 08”S, 1780 26’.54”E), 28 January 2003, 9 m above sea level. Substrate of sand and rubble in centre and mud on edges where ferns and creepers overhang creek. Vegetation dominated by forest cover forming understorey shrubs and ferns along edges of creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time from 1015 to 1045 hours, during rising tide from 0.50 m at 0843 hours to 1.70 m 1510 hours.

A. Site 13b. Same site as 13a and method as in 7b. Date: 8 October 2004; beach seine net and pole seine net were used from 0950 to 1020 hours, during rising tide from 0.72 m at 0813 hours to 1.62 m at 1438 hours.

A. Site 14a. Savura Creek. Deep pool below water dam, 10 m away from site 13 (at 180 04’.59” S, 1780 26’.36”E), 28 January 2003, 10 m above sea level. Substrate of sand and rubble; few scattered small boulders. Vegetation dominated by mosses and paragrass, Brachiaria mutica. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along

24 the pool edge. Visual observation used at this site using a transect line along length of pool. Sampling time from 1100 to 1130 hours, during rising tide from 0.50 m at 0843 hours to 1.70 m 1510 hours. Sampling discontinued due to rain starting to fall.

A. Site 14b. Same site as 14a. Date: 8 October 2004; visual observation used at this site using a transect line along length of pool and beach seine net was used dragged along side of pool from 1040 to 1110 hours, during rising tide from 0.72 m at 0813 hours to 1.62 m at 1438 hours.

A. Site 15a. Vago Creek. Sampling at confluence of Vago Creek and Savura Creek, 50 m away from site 14 (at 180 05’.94”S, 1780 26’.56”E), 29 January 2003, 13 m above sea level. Substrate of sand, rubble and boulders and in some parts of creek substrate comprises fused rock. Vegetation dominated by mosses on fused rock, and grasses, Commelina sp., along creek edges. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time from 0900 to 0930 hours.

A. Site 15b. Same site as 15a. Date: 8 October 2004; beach seine net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes. Two people dislodge the rocks and pebble to chase the fish into net from 1130 to 1200 hours.

A. Site 16a. Vago Creek. 10 m upstream from site 15 (at 180 04’.89”S, 1780 26’.59”E), 29 January 2003, 14 m above sea level. Substrate of sand, rubble and boulders. Vegetation dominated by small trees and grasses, Commelina sp. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time from 0945 to 1015 hours.

A. Site 16b. Same site as 16a and method as in 15b. Date: 10 October 2004; beach seine net and pole seine net were used from 0930 to 1000 hours.

A. Site 17a. Vago Creek. 10 m from site 16 (at 180 04’.52”S, 1780 26’.32”E), 29 January 2003, 15 m above sea level. Substrate of sand, rubble and boulders. Vegetation dominated by forest cover forming understorey shrubs and ferns along edges of creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time from 1025 to 1055 hours. Sampling discontinued due to heavy rain.

25 A. Site 17b. Same site as 17a and method as in 15b. Date: 10 October 2004; beach seine net and pole seine net were used from 1025 to 1055 hours.

A. Site 18a. Vago Creek. 20 m from site 17 (at 180 04’.03”S, 1780 27’.22”E), 31 January 2003, at 17 m above sea level. Substrate of sand, rubble and boulders. Vegetation dominated by forest cover forming understorey shrubs and ferns along edges of creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time from 0900 to 0930 hours.

A. Site 18b. Same site as 18a and method as in 15b. Date: 10 October 2004; beach seine net and pole seine net were used from 1115 to 1145 hours.

A. Site 19a. Vago Creek. 20 m from site 18 and also below Vago Waterfall (at 180 04’.83”S, 1780 26’.51”E), 31 January 2003, 18 m above sea level. Substrate type of with sand on pool bottom, and fused rock wall surrounding pool. Vegetation of a few ferns, creepers and grasses over fused rock. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along the pool edges. Visual observation used at this site using a transect line along length of pool. Sampling time from 1015 to 1045 hours. Sampling discontinued due to heavy rain.

A. Site 19b. Same site as 19a and method as in 15b. Date: 10 October 2004; beach seine net and pole seine net were used from 1205 to 1235 hours.

A. Site 20a. Vago Creek. At top of Vago Waterfall (at 180 04’.49”S, 1780 26’.26”E), 12 February 2003, 27 m above sea level. Substrate comprises of fused rock. Vegetation dominated by forest cover forming understorey shrubs and ferns along edges of creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time from 0830 to 0900 hours.

A. Site 20b. Same site as 20a and method as in 15b. Date: 10 October 2004; beach seine net and pole seine net were used from 1300 to 1330 hours.

A. Site 21a. Vago Creek. Above Vago Falls, 200 m from its edge (Appendix 10, Plate 5) (at 180 04’.45”S, 1780 26’.26”E), 12 February 2003, 29 m above sea level. Substrate of sand, rubble, boulders and fused rocks in some parts. Vegetation dominated by forest cover forming

26 understorey shrubs and ferns along edge of creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time from 0915 to 0945 hours.

A. Site 21b. Same site as 21a and method as in 15b. Date: 10 October 2004; beach seine net and pole seine net were used from 1350 to 1420 hours.

2.4.2 (B) UPPER NAVUA RIVER (SITES 43 and 44) The Upper Navua River was chosen because of its unique substrate type. This river is within the Navua Gorge where interesting formations of limestone rocks form the gorge on both sides of the river. It was anticipated that this habitat would contain a unique variety of fishes.

2.4.2.1 General description of the Upper Navua River (a) Vegetation The forest type represents a lowland tropical forest type. The riparian plants of the Navua Gorge were studied by Keppel et al. (2004) who compiled a plant list for the gorge. Some of the common riparian plants that they listed are Acalypha rivularis, Ficus bambusifolia, Syzygium seemanianum, Ophiorrhiza peploides, and ferns Plesioneuron prenticei and Pronephrium rubinerve. Introduced species are also common on the river bank. They are Piper aduncum (Honolulu), Vernonia cinera (Little iron weed) and Arundo donax (Giant reed).

(b) Climate The meteorology station closest to the Navua Gorge is the Namosi Copper Mine. The average monthly rainfall is 261 mm and range from 162 mm in July to 398 mm in April. Mean monthly maximum temperature ranges from 23.1 oC in August to 27.2 oC in March (Fiji Meteorology Service, 2004).

(c) Geology The limestone rock formation at the Navua Gorge is from the Namosi Andesites (Kumar, 2003).

2.4.2.2 Description and sampling techniques used in Sites 43 and 44. B. Site 43. Upper Navua River (at 18 0 07’.43”S, 1770 56’.73”E), 10 April 2003, at 50 m above sea level. Substrate mostly dominated by rubble, boulders and rocks. Vegetation beside river of

27 mosses and grasses. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and into centre of creek. Sampling time from 0950 to 1020 hours.

B. Site 44. Upper Navua River. Side stream flowing into Navua River (at 180 07’.49”S, 1770 56’.83”E), 10 April 2003, 45 m above sea level. Substrate of stream pools mainly sand, rubble and boulders; sometimes edges of rock walls. Vegetation dominated by tropical rainforest, mosses and grasses along stream edge. Pole seine net used at confluence of Navua River and a tributary. Visual observation made in several small pools of tributary side creek, by using face mask and sitting submerged in each pool to observe and record fish species present. Sampling time from 1040 to 1110 hours.

2.4.3 (C – H) SOVI BASIN (SITES 45 – 52) The Sovi Basin was picked to represent an undisturbed lowland tropical rainforest (less then 600 m) in the interior of Viti Levu. This site has a unique landform feature of a bowl shape. Two major rivers, the Wainavobo River and the Wainivalau River, flow through the basin and join to form the Sovi River. Many side tributaries flow into the rivers. These three rivers and the following selected side creeks were surveyed within the Sovi Basin: the Wainadi Creek, Wainasa Creek, Waibasaga Creek and Waiveikovi Creek.

2.4.3.1 General description (a) Vegetation Along the banks of the three rivers and three creeks surveyed, typical riparian vegetation was found. Common species included the three endemic riverine species of Acalypha rivularis, Syzygium seemannianum and Ficus bambusifolia. Other species commonly found here include Dipplazium sp., Acalypha insularis and Glochidion cordatum. There are introduced species such as Kyllinga polymorpha (Nama sedge) and Piper aduncum (Honolulu) that are common along the rivers and creeks. Keppel (2003) compiled the plant list of the lower Sovi Basin.

(b) Climate The meteorology station closest to the Sovi Basin is Namosi Copper Mine. The average monthly rainfall is 289 mm and ranges from 173 mm in July to 441 mm in April. Mean monthly maximum temperature ranges from 22.4 oC in August to 26.6 oC in March (Fiji Meteorology Service, 2004).

28 (c) Geology The Sovi Basin is composed of the Namosi Andesite and the Nubuonaboto Volcanic Conglomerate. The Namosi Andesite belongs to the Medrausucu Group which consists mostly of coarse epiclastic strata ranging from sedimentary rocks to andesitic tuff. The Nubuonaboto Volcanic Conglomerate belongs to the Wainimala group, and is composed completely of coarse volcanic clastic rocks, mostly conglomerate and breccia, basalt to dacite in composition (Kumar, 2003).

2.4.3.2 Description and sampling techiques used in Sites 45 – 52 C. Site 45 Sovi River. Camp base (at 170 55’.38”S, 1780 15’.23”E), 6 May 2003, 65 m above sea level. Substrate mainly rubble and sand. No vegetation close to river edge: open area exposed to sunlight. Riparian vegetation further upstream and downstream of ferns, grasses and creepers. Visual observation with face mask and snorkel while submerged at one position, counting and recording all fish species passing reference point. Sampling carried out from 1600 to 1630 hours.

D. Site 46. Lower Wainadi Creek (at 180 04’.52”S, 1780 26’.26”E), 7 May 2003, 125 m above sea level. Substrate in some pools of sand, rubble and boulders; in other places substrate of fused rock and rock walls. Creek well covered by tropical rainforest. Creek sampled by visual observation in pools along it, and with spear gun in pools and under rocks. Visual observation made by using face mask and sitting submerged in each pool, observing and recording fish species present in each pool. Sampling time from 0905 to 0935 hours.

D. Site 47. Mid Wainadi Creek (at 180 04’.49”S, 178o 26’.26”E), 8 May 2003, 131 m above sea level. Substrate of sand in pool centre, rock wall on one side, boulders on other side. Creek covered by tropical rainforest, and small ferns and grasses along side dominated by rock wall. Visual observation made using transect line along length of pool. Sampling time from 0950 to 1020 hours.

D. Site 52. Upper Wainadi Creek. Upper section of creek (at 180 04’.45”S, 1780 26’.26”E), 15 May 2003, 139 m above sea level. Substrate dominated by rubble and sand. Creek covered by tropical rainforest; ferns and mosses along both sides of creek. Visual observation made in small pools of creek by using face mask and sitting submerged, observing and recording fish species present in each pool. Sampling time from 0945 to 1015 hours.

29 E. Site 48. Wainavobo River. Lower to mid Wainivobo River (at 170 55’.64”S, 1780 14’.12”E), 8 May 2003, 75 m above sea level. Substrate of rubble and sand at centre of river and soft mud along both sides. River dominated by riparian plants, with bamboo patches at river edge. Visual observation in pools along creek, and with spear gun in pools and under rocks. Visual observation by using face mask and sitting submerged in each pool, observing and recording fish species present in each pool. Sampling time from 1320 to1350 hours.

F. Site 49. Wainasa Creek. Lower section of creek (at 170 33’.07”S, 1780 13’.25”E), 9 May 2003, 79 m above sea level. Substrate of rubble and sand at creek centre; some pools of fused rock walls with sand at bottom. Creek well shaded under thick tropical rainforest; small ferns and creepers along edges of creek.Visual observation and spear gun used to observe and collect fish specimens from pool along creek. Visual observation by using face mask and sitting submerged in each pool observing and recording fish species present. Sampling time from 1035 to 1105 hours.

G. Site 50. Wainivalau River. Upper section of creek (Appendix 10, Plate 6) (at 170 35’.64”S, 1780 14’.85”E), 13 May 2003, 81 m above sea level. Substrate dominated at centre by rubble and sand; large boulders at sides. River exposed to sunlight; riparian plants of mosses, creepers and grasses present. Sampling by visual observation in pools along creek, and with spear gun in pools and under rocks. Visual observation made by using face mask and sitting submerged in each pool, observing and recording fish species present. Sampling time from 1130 to1200 hours.

H. Site 51. Waibasaga Creek. Lower section of creek (at 170 54’.46”S, 1780 13’.41”E), 14 May 2003, 80 m above sea level. Substrate dominated at centre by rubble and sand; soft mud along creek edges. Creek covered by thick tropical rainforest ferns and understorey shrubs along edges of creek. Sampling by visual observation in pools along creek, and with spear gun in pools and under rocks. Visual observation made by using face mask and sitting submerged in each pool, observing and recording fish species present. Sampling time from 1515 to 1545 hours.

2.4.4 (I – J) WABU WATERSHED (SITES 53 and 54)

Wabu is one of the three main forest reserves in Fiji located on the north-west of Viti Levu. This site was chosen as it represents a highland to cloud montane rainforest. Two creeks, Waiveikovi and Wabu, were surveyed in this site, from one of the headwaters of the Wainimala River.

30 2.4.4.1 General description (a) Vegetation The common riparian vegetation that is found on banks of the Wabu Creek include the three endemic riverine species of Acalypha rivularis, Syzygium seemannianum and Ficus bambusifolia. Other species commonly found here include Dipplazium sp. and Dolicholobium macgregorii. Tuiwawa and Naikatini (2004) compiled the plant list of the Wabu Forest Reserve.

(b) Climate The meteorology station closest to the Wabu area is the Monosavu Dam. The average monthly rainfall is 399 mm and the monthly rainfall ranges from 190 mm in July to 670 mm in March. Mean monthly maximum temperature ranges from 18.1 oC in August to 22.5 oC in March (Fiji Meteorology Service, 2004).

(c) Geology The Wabu site is dominated by the Vatukoro Grey wacks, Nakorotubu Basalt and undifferentiated basalt flow belonging to the Ba Volcanic Group (Rodda, 1966). In the Wabu area, the formation is dominated by volcanic conglomerate, pillow basalts and flow (Kumar, 2003).

2.4.4.2 Description and sampling techniques used in Sites 53 and 54 I. Site 53. Waiveikovi Creek (at 170 35’.13”S, 1780 02’.13”E), 17 November 2003, 862 m above sea level. Main substrate of fused rock, rubble and pebbles. Creek in undisturbed montane forest. Riparian vegetation of understorey shrubs and thick moss layers along edges. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and into centre of creek. Sampling time from 0900 to 0930 hours.

J. Site 54. Wabu Creek (Appendix 10, Plate 7) (at 170 35’.27”S, 1780 02’.16”E), 17 November 2003, 848 m above sea level. Substrate varies along creek: large boulders, rock wall, fused rock, sand and rubble. Creek within montane tropical rainforest. Creek flows through large rock boulder and thick moss layers, ferns and in some parts, vines and creepers, along overhanging bank. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and into centre of creek. Sampling time from 1000 to 1030 hours.

31 2.4.5. (K –L) WAILOTUA RIVER (SITES 60-62) This site was chosen as it represents a river and a side creek on the south-eastern side of Viti Levu. It also represents a disturbed lowland rainforest area because of human settlement, road construction and food gardens. The river and the creek flow through an uplifted reefal substrate near the Wailotua Cave, which is a big uplifted limestone cavern in Fiji.

2.4.5.1 General description of Wailotua (a) Vegetation The common riparian vegetation that is found on the banks of the Wailotua Creek include the three endemic riverine species of Acalypha rivularis, Syzygium seemannianum and Ficus bambusifolia. Other species commonly found here include Dipplazium sp. and Dolicholobium macgregorii.

(b) Climate The meteorology station closest to the Wailotua Creek is the Korovo Town. The average monthly rainfall is 325 mm and monthly rainfall ranges from 165 mm in July to 635 mm in March. Mean monthly maximum temperature ranges from 19.7 oC in August to 24.1oC in March (Fiji Meteorology Service, 2004).

(c) Geology The geology of the Wailotua area was first formed by the uplifting of the reefal rock due to tectonic activity. These rocks were covered by soil and vegetation, but due to weathering they had become exposed.

2.4.5.2 Description and survey techniques used in Sites 60 – 62 K. Site 60. Wairoko Creek (at 170 45’.40”S, 1780 24’.50”E), 1 April 2004, 142 m above sea level. Rock wall in some places, substrate on sides muddy where vegetation overhangs creek. Boulders, rubble and sand in middle of creek. Common vegetation of ferns, moss, bamboo, shrubs; Merremia sp. (creeper) covers creek banks. Pole seine net used with chasers who dislodged rocks and chased the fish into the net. Visual observation also made in small pools along creek with face mask and snorkel, recording fish species. Sampling time from 1005 hours to 1035 hours.

32 L. Site 61. Wailotua River. Lower Wailotua River (Appendix 10, Plate 8) (at 170 45’.34”S, 1780 24’.01”E to 170 45’.32”S, 1780 24’.18”E), 1 April 2004, 4 m above sea level. Substrate of rubble, sand and mud at sides of river; substrate of soft mud in oxbow pools along section of river sampled. Common vegetation along creek and in pools is paragrass, Brachiaria mutica and water hyacinths, Eichhornia crassipes; ferns on pool edges and sides of river. Fine seine net used in three oxbow pools formed from bending of river. Fine seine net rounded to seal opening to Wailotua River and then pulled towards pool and onto dry land. Sampling time from 1405 to 1435 hours.

L. Site 62. Mid Wailotua River (at 170 45’.36”S, 1780 24’.29”E to 170 45’33” S, 1780 24’.27” E), 2 April 2004, 8 m above sea level. Substrate type varies along river; rock walls on some sides, mud at sides where vegetation overhangs river; mainly boulders, rubble and sand in river middle. Common vegetation of ferns, grasses such as Brachiaria mutica, Kyllianga sp and Commelina sp. and water hyacinth, Eichhornia crassipes, beside river; algae common on river edges. Spear gun fishing and visual observations used in this river. Fish counts taken from two reference points 10 m apart along river, while sitting submerged. Sampling time from 0845 to 0915 hours.

2.4.6 (R) UPPER BA RIVER (SITE 63) Upper Ba River represents a montane forest zone. This site was chosen with respect to its substrate types, which have some parts with fused rock wall where water runs through.

2.4.6.1 General description (a) Vegetation On each side of the river was grassland and weedy plants such as Wedelia biflora (Wedelia), Vernonia cinerea (Little iron weed), Stachytarpheta urticaefolia (Blue rat tail), Nephrolepis biserrata, Sporobolus diander (Indian dryseed) and Pennisetum polystachion (Buffel grass).

(b) Climate The meteorology station closest to the Upper Ba River is from the Nadarivatu Forestry Station. The average monthly rainfall is 279 mm and monthly rainfall ranges from 77 mm in July to 704 mm in March. Mean monthly maximum temperature ranges from 14.6 0C in August to 24.5 0C in January (Fiji Meteorology Service, 2004).

33 (c) Geology Refer to section 2.4.4.1 (b) of the Wabu watershed. This site is close to the Wabu watershed; the geology formation is the same.

2.4.6.2 Description and sampling techniques used in Site 63 R. Site 63. Upper Ba River (1770 54’.31”S, 170 42’.53”E), 26 August 2004, 740 m above sea level. Substrate rock wall fused in the centre of the river on both sides and large boulders at centre of river. River exposed to sunlight; riparian plants of mosses, creepers and grasses present. Spear gun fishing and visual observations used in this river. Hand gleaning for prawns also carried out in small pools in creek. Sampling time from 1100 to 1130 hours. Questionnaires were used to gather additional fish information from the villagers.

2.4.7 (S) NUKUNUKU CREEK (SITE 64). Nukunuku Creek represents a montane forest zone. This site was chosen to look at the different habitats and altitudes fish may inhabit. This creek is one of the headwaters of the Sigatoka River. It has a unique substrate with rock wall on one side of the creek.

2.4.7.1 General description (a) Vegetation The plants on the river side are Wedelia biflora (Wedelia), Cyperus rotundas (Nut sedge), Hedychium gardneriamum (Yellow ginger), Psidium guajava (Guava), Lantana camara (Lautana), Spathodea campunulata (African tulip), Piper aduncum (Honolulu), Mikania micrantha and Clidemia hirta.

(b) Climate Refer to section 2.4.6.1 (b) of the Upper Ba River. These sites are close together therefore experience similar climatic factors.

(c) Geology Refer to section 2.4.4.1 (c) of the Wabu watershed. The geology formation is the same as of the Wabu area.

34 2.4.7.2 Description and survey techniques used in Site 64 S. Site 64. Nukunuku Creek (Appendix 10, Plate 9) (1770 56’.30”S 170 38’.36”E), 25 August 2004, 835 m above sea level. Substrate dominated at centre by rubble and sand; large boulders at sides and centre of the creek. River exposed to sunlight; riparian plants, mosses, creepers and grasses present. Handline and visual observations used in river. Sampling time from 1345 to 1415 hours. Questionnaires were used to gather additional fish information from the villagers.

2.4.8 (S) NADALA CREEK (SITE 65)

2.4.8.1 General description. Nadala Creek represents a montane forest zone. The forest there is secondary as the original forest was logged ten years ago. Now there are reforestation activities taking place at this site.

(a) Vegetation The common plants along the creek edge were Syzygium seemannii, Acalypha rivularis, Podocarpus neriifolius, Piper aduncum (Honolulu), Hedychium gardnerianum, Kyllinga polymorpha (Nama sedge) and Arundo donax (Giant reed).

(b) Climate Refer to section 2.4.4.1 (b) of the Wabu watershed. This site is close to Wabu watershed; therefore, it has a similar rainfall.

(c) Geology Refer to section 2.4.4.1 (c) of the Wabu watershed. This site is close to Wabu watershed; the geology formation is the same.

2.4.8.2 Description and sampling techniques used in Site 65 T. Site 65. Nadala Creek (1770 57’.24”S 170 36’.18”E), 31 August 2004, 920 m above sea level. Substrate dominated at centre by rubble and sand; large boulders at sides. River exposed to sunlight; riparian plants of mosses, creepers and grasses present. Spear gun fishing and visual observations used in river. Sampling time from 1347 to 1417 hours. Questionnaires were used to gather additional fish information from the villagers.

35 2.4.9 (U) QALIWANA CREEK (SITE 66) Qaliwana Creek represents a montane forest zone. It was within a disturbed area where settlements, farming and pastures lie along the creek edge.

2.4.9.1 General description (a) Vegetation The plants on the creek edge are Syzygium seemannii, Acalypha rivularis, Podocarpus neriifolius, Piper aduncum (Honolulu), Hedychium gardnerianum, Kyllinga polymorpha (Nama sedge), Arundo donax (Giant reed) and Wedelia biflora (Wedelia).

(b) Climate Refer to section 2.5.4.1 (b) of the Wabu watershed. This site is close to Wabu watershed; therefore, it has a similar rainfall.

(c) Geology Refer to section 2.5.4.1 (b) of the Wabu watershed. This site is close to Wabu watershed; the geology formation is the same.

2.4.9.2 Description of Site 66 Site 66. Qaliwana Creek (1770 59’.57”S, 170 37’.13”E), 31st August 2004, 933 m above sea level. Substrate dominated at centre by boulders and rubbles; rock wall at sides. River exposed to sunlight, riparian plants, creepers and grasses present on the creek edge. Spear gun fishing and visual observations used in river. Sampling time from 1115 to 1145 hours. Questionnaires were used to gather additional fish information from the villagers.

2.4.10 (M) TAVORO CREEK, BOUMA (SITES 22 –34) Tavoro Creek was chosen because it is a short coastal river system within a forest reserve draining into a marine reserve area. The creek has a series of five waterfalls between its headwaters and the coast. Tavoro Falls, one of the waterfalls, is a well-known tourist destination, and is visited by an average of 21,000 tourists every year. Apart from the waterfall and the marine reserve, Tavoro Creek is on a young geological island (Taveuni). It was surveyed to provide information on the fish fauna of the creek for comparison with the fish fauna of the older geological island of Viti Levu.

36 Taveuni is the third largest island in the Fiji group. It is one of the most recent (800 years ago) volcanically active islands in the Fiji group. It has a total landmass of 435 km2 (Woodhall, 1985; Cabaniuk, 1987). The island’s mountainous backbone is essentially a line of ancient volcanic cones, which forms a ridge some 10 miles long from north to south, with the highest elevation of 1241m at Mt Uluiqalau. A flooded crater floor forms Lake Tagimaucia, which is located at the northern end of the ridge (Southern et al., 1986 and Cabaniuk, 1987). This is Fiji’s largest freshwater lake.

Taveuni is characterised by a landscape of deeply dissected valleys. Waterfalls, cascades and associated pools are a common feature of this mountainous and forested environment. There are a large number of swift flowing streams which run roughly parallel, in a west to east direction to the coast (Cabaniuk, 1987).

The Bouma (or Tavoro) Waterfall (24m high) is located at 160 49’ S and 1790 52’ W on Taveuni within the locally managed Bouma Forestry Reserve Park (Figure 2.4). The waterfall is about 500 m away from Korovou Village. Tavoro Creek has five major waterfalls, each associated with deep natural pools at their base. Tavoro Creek is surrounded by 80% pristine forest comprising the 15,000 ha Forest Reserve Park. In 1996, the adjacent Korovou Village had a total of 293 people within 46 households (Bureau of Statistics, 2003).

2.4.10.1 General description of Tavoro Creek. (a) Vegetation The Bouma Forestry Reserve comprises a lowland tropical rainforest habitat. A riparian plant survey of Tavoro Creek within the reserve was carried out by Naikatini (2003). In the upper reaches the riparian trees are Agathis macrophylla (Fiji kauri), Sauraria rubicunda and Parinari insularum, the shrubs are Ficus vittiensis, Syzygium seemannianianum, Cordyline sp., Ficus sp. and Polyscias sp., and the vines and climbers are Merremia sp., Mikania micrantha, Dioscorea sp., Ipomoea sp., Freycinetia sp., Entada phaseoloides (Water vine). The herbs are Clidemia hirta, Heliconia sp. and Cyathea sp., and the ferns are Nephrolepis biserata and Marattia smithii.

The following plants were most common in the middle reaches. The trees Inocarpus fagifer (Tahitian chestnut), Syzygium sp., Citrus sp., Dendrocnide harveyii, Sauraria rubicunda, Mangifera indica (Mango), Agathis macrophylla (Fiji kauri), Artocarpus altilis (Breadfruit), Pometia pinnata; shrubs Ficus vitiensis, Syzygium seemannianianum, Ficus bambusifolia,

37 Psidium guajava, vines and climbers Merremia sp., Mikania micrantha, Freycinetia sp., Epipremnum sp., herbs Clidemia hirda, Heliconia sp., Alpinia sp., Hedycanium sp., Cyrtosperma sp., and ferns Nephrolepis biserrata and Marattia smithii.

The terminal reach vegetation is dominated by the tree species Syzygium malaccense (Malay apple), Hibiscus tiliaceus, Spondias dulcis, Atuna raceamosa, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Rhizophora samoensis and Cocos nucifera, and shrubs of the species Ficus vitiensis, Carica papaya and Leucaena leucocephala. The non-coastal forest is generally above 350 m elevation and is comprised of Calophyllum vitiense, Syzygium sp., Mysristica gillespieana, Dendrocnide sp., Endospermum macrophyllum and Fulvo pilosa or F. greenwood (Shepherd and Neall, 1991).

Coastal forest clearings usually occur near the middle to lower reaches of the creeks. Yam (Dioscorea sp.), cocoa (Theobroma cacao), dalo (Colocasia sp.), coconut trees (Cocos nucifera) and yagona (Piper methysticum) plants are planted in these clearings. Cattle are grazed in farms at lower elevations close to the root crops and often within the coconut plantations.

(b) Climate Taveuni experiences tropical conditions year round. The meteorology station closest to the Tavoro Creek is from the Matei Airport. It records an average monthly rainfall of 226 mm. The monthly rainfall ranges from 100 mm in July to 349 mm in January, mean monthly maximum temperature ranges from 24.1 oC in August to 28.3 oC in February and the minimum monthly temperature is 22.2 o C (Fiji Meteorology Service, 2004).

Taveuni records the highest rainfall of the Fiji group, averaging in excess of 12 m per year. The higher slopes of eastern Taveuni can experience even higher rainfall of more than 30 m per year (Cabaniuk, 1987). This high rainfall can be explained by the island’s full exposure to the moisture-laden south-east trade winds.

(c) Geology Taveuni is the largest Pleistocene dormant volcano in Fiji. It is a basaltic eruption centre and the island is dominantly constructed of lava flows with intercalated lava beccia and tephra depositions (Cronin, 1999).

38 The age of the Taveuni volcanic group is from 0.01 - 0.02 Ma to 0.8 - 1.8 Ma. The whole island is covered with the Somosomo Basalt of a parent rock known as the Olivine Basalt. The island itself is dominated by basaltic lava with scoria cones all over the island.

Almost 80% of the upper Bouma Reserve was covered with the Somosomo Basalt, halite and occasional benmoneite lava, whereas the lower Bouma Reserve to the coast is covered with Somosomo Basalts and occasional hawiite lava (Woodhall, 1985).

Above the falls the Tavoro Creek substrate is mostly large metamorphic boulders with interspersed gravel. The creek water flows through a conglomerate embedded rock wall substrate before it drops off the waterfall into a big pool. The pool is surrounded by a rock wall and in the centre of the pool sand and gravel dominate. The substrate of the middle reach of the creek is more rubble and sand near the middle of the creek and mud and silt close to the banks. The lower reaches of the creek are mainly mangrove swamps with silt near the banks and silt, sand and scattered pebbles in the middle of the creek. The substrate of the creek mouth is intermittently dominated by sand and silt.

2.4.10.2 Description and survey techniques used in Sites 22–34 M. Site 22. Tavoro Creek. At mouth of Tavoro Creek (at 16o 49’.50”S, 179o 52’.31”W), 10 March 2003, at sea level. Main substrate type at mouth of silt and mud at sides, sand with some gravel in middle. Vegetation of mangrove forest of Rhizophora stylosa and some Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Gill net (30 m x 2 m x 5 cm) used to seal off creek mouth (1135 to 1600 hours). Tidal range from 1.40 m at 1121 hours to 0.60 m at 1747 hours.

M. Site 23. Tavoro Creek. 50 m away from mouth, (at 16o 49’.50”S, 179o 52’.28”W), 10 - 11 March 2003, at sea level. Gill net (30 m x 2 m x 5 cm) used to seal off part of creek. Substrate of lower part of creek mostly silt and mud on sides, small rocks in middle. Vegetation mainly mangrove forest of Rhizophora stylosa and some creepers edges of creek. Gill net set overnight (1630 to 1800 hours). Tidal range from 1.30 m at 2400 hours to low tide 0.70 m at 0545 hours.

M. Site 24. Tavoro Creek. 50 m away from site 23 and 10 m below a bridge (at 16o 49’.50”S, 179o 52’.28”W), 12 March 2003, at sea level. Substrate mostly of large boulders on one side, mud on other side, rock and rubble in middle of creek. Vegetation of grasses on one side and creepers

39 and grasses on other side of creek. Gill net (30 m x 2 m x 5 cm) used to seal off site (1250 to 1800 hours). Tidal range from 1.40 m at 1314 hours to 0.60 m at 1946 hours.

M. Site 25a. Tavoro Creek. Above bridge (at 16o 49’.58”S, 179o 52’.38”W), 21 October 2002, 2 m above sea level. Substrate mainly sand, rubble and boulders, mud at edge. Vegetation mainly grasses and ferns along creek with bamboo on one side. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time from 0815 to 0845 hours, during falling tide from 1.50 m at 0624 hours to 0.40 m at 1230 hours.

M. Site 25b. Same site and method as 25a. Date: 4 March 2003; electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used from 0800 to 0830 hours, during falling tide from 1.60 m at 0730 hours to 0.50 m at 1336 hours.

M. Site 26a. Tavoro Creek. 50 m upstream of bridge (at 160 49’.56”S, 1790 52’.42”W), 21 October 2002, 2 m above sea level. Substrate mainly sand, rubble and boulders; mud at edges of creek. Vegetation of grasses and ferns along both sides and overhanging creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time was from 0855 to 0925 hours, during falling tide from 1.50 m at 0624 hours to 0.40 m at 1230 hours.

M. Site 26b. Same site and method as 26a. Date: 4 March 2003; electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used from 0840 to 0910 hours, during falling tide during falling tide from 1.60 m at 0730 hours to 0.50 m at 1336 hours.

M. Site 27a. Tavoro Creek. 100 m above bridge (at 160 49’.57”S, 1790 52’.44”W), 21 October 2002, 4 m above sea level. Substrate dominated by sand, rubble and boulders, mud at sides of creek. Vegetation of grasses and ferns along both sides, some grasses and ferns spreading into creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time 0935 to 1005 hours, during falling tide from 1.50 m at 0624 hours to 0.40 m at 1230 hours.

40 M. Site 27b. Same site and method as 27a. Date: 4 March 2003; electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used from 0920 to 0950 hours, during falling tide from 1.60 m at 0730 hours to 0.50 m at 1336 hours.

M. Site 28a. Tavoro Creek. 100 m upstream of site 27 (at 160 49’.57”S, 1790 52’.47”W), 22 October 2002, 6 m above sea level. Substrate mainly sand, rubble and boulders, mud at edges. Vegetation of grasses and ferns along both sides, some grasses and ferns overhanging creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time is 0900 to 0930 hours, during falling tide from 1.50 m at 0701 hours to 0.50 m at 1301 hours.

M. Site 28b. Same site and method as 28a. Date: 4 March 2003; electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used from 1000 to 1030 hours, during falling tide during falling tide from 1.60 m at 0730 hours to 0.50 m at 1336 hours.

M. Site 29a. Tavoro Creek. At confluence of Nakabuka and Tavoro creeks (at 160 49’.57”S, 1790 52’.47”W), 22 October 2002, 7 m above sea level. Substrate mainly sand, rubble and boulders, mud at edges. Vegetation of grasses and ferns along sides, some grasses and ferns overhanging creek. Dead tree fallen into creek, tree roots on side of creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides of creek and towards centre of creek. Sampling time from 0940 to 1010 hours, during falling tide from 1.50 m at 0701 hours to 0.50 m at 1301 hours.

M. Site 29b. Same site and method as 29a. Date: 4 March 2003; electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used from 1040 to 1110 hours, during the falling tide during falling tide from 1.60 m at 0730 hours to 0.50 m at 1336 hours.

M. Site 29c. Same site and method as 29a. Date: 10 March 2003; electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used from 0830 to 0900 hours, during rising tide from 0.40 m at 0459 hours to 1.40 m at 1121 hours.

M. Site 30a. Tavoro Creek. 100 m upstream of site 29 (at 160 49’.60”S, 1790 52’.53”W), 22 October 2002, 8 m above sea level. Substrate mainly sand, rubble and boulders, mud at edges. Vegetation of grasses and ferns on sides, some grasses and ferns spreading into creek. Small dead

41 tree laying in creek and on one side a small tree overhangs creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time from 1020 to 1040 hours, during falling tide from 1.50 m at 0701 hours to 0.50 m at 1301 hours.

M. Site 30b. Same site and method as 30a. Date: 4 March 2003; electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used from 0910 to 0940 hours, during rising tide during falling tide from 1.60 m at 0730 hours to 0.50 m at 1336 hours.

M. Site 31a. Tavoro Creek. 100 m downstream from waterfall pool (at 160 49’.60”S, 1790 52’.62” W), 21 October 2002, 9 m above sea level. Substrate dominated by thick layer of sediment washed down creek during recent flood. Vegetation of grasses and ferns on sides with small bushy shrubs overhanging one side of creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both and towards centre of the creek. Sampling time was from 1400 to 1430 hours, during rising tide from 0.40 m at 1230 hours to 1.60 m at 1840 hours.

M. Site 31b. Same site and method as 31a. Date: 4 March 2003; electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used from 1335 to 1405 hours, during the low tide 0.30 m at 1320 hours.

M. Site 31c. Same site and method as 31a. Date: 11 March 2003; electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used from 0905 to 0935 hours, during rising tide from 0.7 m at 0545 hours to 1.4 m at 1215 hours.

M. Site 32a. Tavoro Creek. 50 m downstream of waterfall (at 160 49’.59”S, 1790 52’.70”W), 21 October 2002, 10 m above sea level. Substrate mainly sand, rubble and boulders, mud at edges. Dead tree lying in creek, roots overhanging creek. Vegetation of grasses and ferns on sides, some grasses and creepers overhanging creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and towards centre of creek. Sampling time from 1415 to 1445 hours, during rising tide from 0.40 m at 1230 hours to 1.60 m at 1840 hours.

M. Site 32b. Same site and method as 32a. Date: 11 March 2003; electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used from 0945 to 1015 hours, during rising tide from 0.70 m at 0545 hours to 1.40 m at 1215 hours.

42 M. Site 33a. Tavoro Creek. Waterfall pool (Appendix 10, Plate 10) (at 160 49’.59”S, 1790 52’.72”W), 21 October 2002, 11 m above sea level. Substrate mainly sand and small gravel in centre and large boulders on sides. Vegetation of grasses and ferns on both sides. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 20 minutes for five sweeps along both sides of edge of pool outlet to creek. Visual observation also used at this site using a transect line along length of pool. Ten minutes spent on visual observation. Sampling time from 1455 to 1525 hours, during falling tide from 0.40 m at 1230 hours to 1.60 m at 1840 hours.

M. Site 33b. Same site and method as 33a. Date: 4 March 2003; electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used from 1415 pm to 1445 pm, during rising tide 0.50 m at 1336 hours to 1.60 m at 1932.

M. Site 34a. Tavoro Creek. Above Tavoro Falls, 400m from edge (at 160 49’.63”S, 1790 52’.90” W), 22 October 2002, 91 m above sea level. Substrate mainly sand, fused rock and boulders. Vegetation of mosses and vines on sides, few creepers on one side of creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and into centre of creek. Sampling time from 1300 to 1330 hours.

M. Site 34b. Same site and method as 34a. Date: 4 March 2003; electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used from 0825 to 0855 hours.

2.4.11 (N) NAVAKA CREEK (SITES 35 and 36) The Navaka Creek is the neighbouring creek to Tavoro Creek. It is a disturbed lowland coastal creek, and it was sampled to provide a comparison with the undisturbed Tavoro Creek. This is a disturbed area due to dalo and yaqona farming on both side of the creek.

2.4.11.1 General description The general description is similar to that of Tavoro. Therefore, refer to section 2.4.10.1

2.4.11.2 Description and sampling techniques used in Sites 35 and 36 N. Site 35. Navaka Creek. Lower Navaka Creek (at 160 49’.46”S, 1790 52’.81”W), 5 March 2003, 3 m above sea level. Substrate mainly sand, rock and boulders. Vegetation of mosses and vines on sides of creek, moss and grasses on creek edges. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole

43 seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and into centre of creek. Sampling time from 1400 to 1430 hours.

N. Site 36. Navaka Creek. Upper Navaka Creek, (at 160 49’.43”S, 1790 53’.06”W), 5 March 2003, 6 m above sea level. Substrate mainly sand, rock and boulders. Vegetation of mosses on creek edges and creepers and grasses along sides. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and into centre of creek. Sampling time from 1445 to 1515 hours.

2.4.12 (O) WAILEVU CREEK (SITES 37 – 40) Paddy Ryan in 1979 collected at Wainibau Creek near Lavena village. Therefore, I decided to survey Wailevu Creek, Lavena (which is adjacent to Wainibau Creek) and then compare the fish species collected from the two creeks. Wailevu Creek also represents a disturbed lowland forest.

2.4.12.1 General description The general description is similar to that of Tavoro. Therefore, refer to section 2.4.10.1

2.4.12.2 Description and survey techniques used in Sites 37 – 40 O. Site 37. Mouth of Wailevu Creek (at 160 51’.25”S, 1790 53’.06”W), 6 March 2003, at sea level. Substrate mainly sand and rubble, mud near edges. Vegetation of mangrove forest of Rhizophora stylosa on one side of creek, creepers and grasses on other side under coconut trees. Visual observation with face mask on and sitting submerged at one point, making record of all fish passing reference point. Pole seine net also used to survey creek. Sampling time from 0835 to 0905 hours, during high tide at 1.60 m at 0840 hours.

O. Site 38. Mid Wailevu Creek (Appendix 10, Plate 11) (at 160 51’.09”S, 179 0 53’.08”W), 6 March 2003, 2 m above sea level. Substrate mainly rubble and boulders. Vegetation of big forest trees, mosses and few creepers under forest on sides of creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides of and into centre of creek. Sampling time from 0920 to 0950 hours.

O. Site 39. Small pool tributary to Wailevu Creek (at 160 50’.97”S, 1790 53’.39”W), 6 March 2003, 50 m above sea level. Substrate of pool dam-like: mainly rock wall at one end and boulders at other end, creating pool. Vegetation of big forest trees and shrubs around pool,

44 mosses and creepers on edges. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and into centre of creek. Sampling time from 1120 to 1150 hours.

O. Site 40. Upper Wailevu Creek (at 160 50’.96”S, 1790 53’.38”W), 6 March 2003, 42 m above sea level. Substrate along creek mainly rubble and boulders. Vegetation of forest trees and understorey shrubs along some parts of creek, mosses and creepers on sides of creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and into centre of creek. Sampling time from 1255 to 1325 hours.

2.4.13 (P) WAITAVALA CREEK (SITES 41 and 42) Waitavala Creek is on the north-west coast of Taveuni Island, opposite Bouma Creek. It was selected due to its unique fused volcanic rock substrate, which the creek flows over and into a big pool. Waitavala Creek is also a well-known site in Taveuni, with a lot of tourists utilising the creek in various ways. This creek also represents a disturbed coastal creek.

2.4.13.1 General description The general description is similar to that of Tavoro. Therefore, refer to section 2.4.10.1

2.4.13.2 Description and survey techniques used in Sites 41 and 42 P. Site 41. Waitavala Creek. Lower Waitavala Creek (at 160 47’.73”S, 1790 59’.46”W), 7 March 2003, 21 m above sea level. Substrate mostly boulders in centre, rubble on one side, huge fused rock wall on other side. Dead tree in small pool. Vegetation of mosses and ferns, some tree roots also in creek. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and into centre of creek. Sampling time from 0900 to 0930 hours.

P. Site 42. Waitavala Creek. Pool at base of water slide (Appendix 10, Plate 12) (at 160 47’.78”S, 1790 59’.43”W), 7 March 2003, 58 m above sea level. Substrate of fused volcanic rock. Vegetation type mainly big forest trees, few mosses on rocks beside pool. Visual observation used at this site using a transect line along length of pool. Sampling time from 1045 to 1115 hours.

45 2.4. 14 (Q) WAISALI SYSTEMS (SITES 55-59) Waisali Creek was chosen as it represents an interior disturbed lowland tropical rainforest. This river flows beside a forest reserve; therefore, it was thought it would provide a good comparison of the fish fauna in adjacent disturbed and undisturbed areas. Savuqoro Creek is within the Waisali Forest Reserve in North-west of Vanua Levu. It is a tributary of the Waisali Creek. This creek flows through embedded basaltic rock before a great slope forms a waterfall. Below the fall is a wide range of pools.

2.4.14.1 General description (a) Vegetation The forest system within the area is typical of a lowland to mid-elevation tropical forest. The common riparian vegetation found on banks of the Savuqoro Creek and Waisali Creek include the three endemic riverine species of Acalypha rivularis, Syzygium seemannianum and Ficus bambusifolia.

(b) Climate The meteorology station closest to the Waisali System is from the Savusavu Airport The mean annual rainfall is 3000 - 5000 mm and the mean temperature is 22.1 0C (Fiji Meteorology Service, 2004).

(c) Geology The geology and soils of the Waisali Forest Reserve is mainly highly weathered rocks and clays of moderate to low fertility.

2.4.14.2 Description and survey techniques used in Sites 55 – 59 Q. Site 55. Upper Waisali. Upper section of Waisali Creek (at 160 33’.24”S, 1790 14’.13”E), 3 March 2004, 49 m above sea level. Substrate dominated by boulders, rubble and sand. Vegetation of tropical rainforest forming understorey shrubs with fern, Merremia sp., covering river edges; mosses on boulders in river. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and into centre of creek. Sampling time from 1230 to 1300 hours.

46 Q. Site 56. Confluence of Waisali and Savuqoro Creeks (160 33’.33”S, 1790 14’.11”E), 3 March 2004, 36 m above sea level. Substrate dominated by large boulders, sand and rubble. Lower section of site exposed to sunlight, upper section under tropical rainforest. Electro fishing machine, hand net and pole seine net used for 30 minutes for five sweeps along both sides and into centre of creek. Sampling time from 1355 to 1425 hours.

Q. Site 57. Lower Savuqoro Creek (160 33’.30”S, 1790 14’.06”E to 160 33’.33”S, 1790 14’.06”E), 3 March 2004, 50 m above sea level. Substrate of sand, rubble and fused rock in pools along creek. Creek flows through thick, tropical rainforest and understorey shrubs; ferns and mosses on edges of creek. Visual observation and hand gleaning for prawns carried out in four small pools along creek. Visual observations made by using facemask and sitting submerged in each pool for an average of seven minutes per pool. Sampling carried out from 1445 to 1515 hours.

Q. Site 58. Savuqoro Creek below waterfall (Appendix 10, Plate 13) (160 33’.24”S, 1790 13’.27”E to 160 33’.24”S, 1790 13’.27”E), 4 March 2004, 190 m above sea level. Substrate mainly of large rocks, gravel and sand. Below waterfall a huge rock wall surrounded by ferns and creepers. Forest forms understorey shrubs, ferns and mosses on edges of creek. Visual observation, hand net and hand gleaning for prawns carried out in one big pool and two small pools below Savuqoro Creek. Visual observations made by using facemask and sitting submerged in each pool for an average of ten minutes each. Sampling carried out from 1115 to 1145 hours.

Q. Site 59. Savuqoro Creek, above waterfall (160 33’.19”S, 1790 13’.20” E to 160 33’.19”S, 1790 13’.20”E), 4 March 2004, 364 m above sea level. Substrate mainly of large rocks, rubble and sand. Ferns, Merremia sp. (creeper) and mosses on sides of creek. Visual observation, hand net and hand gleaning for prawns carried out in six pools surveyed along creek above Savuqoro Waterfall. Visual observations made by using facemask and sitting submerged in each pool for an average of five minutes each. Sampling carried out from 1210 to 1240 hours.

The best photography of habitats and fish species are illustrated in Appendix 10 and Appendix 11.

47 Figure 2.3 Tamavua River, Savura and Vago Creeks sampling sites 1- 21. Source: Baravi Thaman, (Unpublished).

48 Figure 2.4 Tavoro Creek sampling sites 22 – 34. Source: Baravi Thaman, (Unpublished).

49 CHAPTER 3 FIJI FRESHWATER FISH CHECKLIST AND BIOGEOGRAPHY 3.1 Introduction Springer and Williams (1990) found that fish richness decreased eastward due to loss of habitats and cooler sea temperatures causing the extinction of Indonesian-Malayan population but giving rise to endemic fish on the Pacific Plate. Furthermore, the island nature of river systems limits the possibility of dispersal in the freshwater fish (McGlashan and Hughes, 2002). See also section 1.3.2.

In insular Pacific islands, freshwater streams and rivers are dominated by seven families of freshwater fishes (Andrews, 1985; Lewis and Pring, 1986; Ryan, 1980; 1991; Watson, 1991; McRae, 2001; Jenkins, 1999; Fitzsimons et al., 2002; Allen 2003). These families are: Gobiidae, Eleotridae, Kuhliidae, , Mugilidae, Anguillidae and Poeciliidae. A number of marine fish families are usually found in estuarine areas including the Carangidae, Chanidae, Muraenidae, Carcharhinidae and Toxotidae (Fitzsimons et al., 2002).

Unfortunately most of the earlier collecting expeditions (see 1.6.2) barely ventured inland and freshwater systems remained almost unknown until recently. One exception was MacDonald (1869, in Fowler 1959), he described Gonostomyxus loaloa, a synonym of Cestraeus plicatilis, based on material he collected from the Wai Manu (=Waimanu) River, a tributary of the Rewa River. MacDonald (1869 in Fowler 1959), also reported Eulamia gangetica, a synonym of Carcharhinus leucas, 40 miles into Raiva (= Rewa) River. The works of Ryan (1980 and 1981), Andrews (1985) and Lewis and Pring (1986) have partly addressed that problem. But it was believed that the freshwater fishes of Fiji had been underreported, and the true status of this fauna remained undetermined.

Freshwater fish collections by the author and Aaron Jenkins from 2001 to 2004, the freshwater fauna research group from the Fiji Institute of Technology in 2002, Waqairatu in 2003, and the Wildlife Conservation Society in 2003 provided new information. The FIT and the WCS have given permission for information on their collections to be used in this study; in addition, some of their information was reported by Jenkins (2003).

50 The aims of this chapter are: 1. To produce an updated freshwater fish species list for Fiji 2. To compare this update list with what is known from other Pacific Countries and 3. To analyse occurrence of fish due to overall commonness, geographical zone, and salinity zone.

3.2 Methods

Information on the sites surveyed (1-66) and collecting methods used at each site are presented in Chapter 2 (Figure 2.1 and 2.2).

To measure how common the fish species were one could analyse the total number of each species obtained and/or the number of sites at which a given species was found. Given the different intensity of effort at different water systems and different methods/technologies used it was determined more reliable to use the latter method.

The “Inter Quartile Range” analysis was used to describe how common were the fish species caught from the different sites collected during this survey, other collections and the combined collections. The Inter Quartile Range used in this analysis was sourced from the Department of Statistics, Yale University (http://www.stat.yale.edu/Courses/199798/101/numsum.htm).

Common fish species that are presented in this report were based on those found in the top quartile in order of number of sites where they were observed. Least common fish species are those which found in the lower quartile. There are other fish species that are between the lower and top quartile which are known as the “inter quartile range (IQR).” The fish species that are within the IQR can be termed as ocassionally to moderately common because they are not most common or least common in their occurrence from the different water systems of collection. Collections from this study and the other collections from Fiji sourced from literature, books, museums and student reports were used to determine most common and least common fish species. The analysis was done for this thesis collection, other collections and then the combined collection.

The calculation of the quartiles is presented on the next page.

51 First multiply the percentage of interest p by the total number of observations plus one (n + 1). In this case p = 25 % or 0.25 for the first quartile and 75 % or 0.75 for the third quartile Therefore 0.25*(n+1) = y The y value is the observation value used to calculate the first quartile. Therefore the first quartile is calculated by; st 1 quartile = 0.25*y1 + 0.75*y2, where y1 + y2, are the whole number above and below y if it is a fraction.

The third quartile may be calculated similarly: 0.75*(n+1) = Z The Z value is the observation value used to calculate the third quartile. rd 3 quartile = 0.75*z1 + 0.25*z2, where z1 + z2, are the whole number above and below z if it is a fraction.

The first quartile is a group of values that falls at or below the 25 % and the third quartile of a group of values that falls at or below the 75 %. The observation values are placed in ascending order. The distance between the first and the third quartile is referred to as “Inter quartile range” (IQR).

For example;

From this thesis’ collections there were 21 water systems, so n = 21 (n + 1) = (21 + 1) = 22 0.25*22 = 5.5, it falls between 5 and 6. Therefore, 1st quartile = 0.25*5 + 0.75*6 = 1.25 + 4.5 = 5.75 (rounded off to the nearest whole number equals to 6). 0.75*22 = 16.5, it falls between 16 and 17 Therefore, 3rd quartile = 0.75*16 + 0.25*17 = 12 + 4.25 = 16.25 (rounded off to the nearest whole number equals to 16). The Inter quartile range is 16.25 – 5.75 = 10.5 (rounded off to the nearest whole number equals to 11).

So if a fish species occurred in at least 17 water systems it is classed as common whereas occurrence at 5 or less systems makes it less common. Between 6 and 16 systems makes it occasionally to moderately common. A similar analysis was performed for all other collections and then a total combination including collections from this thesis. Note there was overlap in

52 some of the other water systems. The summary of the fish calculated are presented in Table 3.1 below and the fish species lists are in Appendix 6.

The outcome of this analysis shows that there is a greater widespread of the freshwater fih in Fiji despite most of the past collections and the collections from this survey are biased towards the island of Viti Levu.

Table 3.1 Summary of the quartiles calculation for the common and less common species from the two different collections and their combination. The first quartile is = > 75%, Inter quartile = 25% to 75% and third quartile is = <25%. Different collections Quartiles This thesis Other Combined collection collections collections First quartile 6 species 5 species 11 species Inter quartile range 11 species 10 species 18 species Third quartile 16 species 15 species 28 species Total water systems 21 19 37 sampled

3.3 Results

3.3.1 CURRENT FIELD SURVEY COLLECTION

The list of collection sites, their description and the fish collected are listed in Appendix 1. A total of 76 freshwater and estuarine species from 31 families were found during field surveys (Appendix 2).

Seven species and one genus believed new to science were found during this survey. These new taxa are from two subfamilies within the family Gobiidae. Glossogobius sp. 1, Schismatogobius vitiensis and Stenogobius sp. 1 are in the subfamily Gobionellinae and Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp., Stiphodon sp.1, Stiphodon sp. 2 and a believed new species (new genus) are in subfamily Sicydiinae.

Glossogobius sp.1 (Appendix 11, Plate 25) was collected from Tavoro Creek was confirmed by Dr Douglass Hoese (AMS) as a new species. Dr Hoese reports that this species was previously identified as Glossogobius celebius, which has been reported as widely distributed from Australia

53 to Japan and east to Fiji and New Caledonia. However, the real Glossogobius celebius (Valenciennes, 1837) is confined to the Indian Ocean (Hoese and Allen, in press). The Pacific Glossogobius is a new species. It differs from G. celebius in position of head pores and has one more dorsal ray. In Fiji, this species was found only in clear, slow flowing rivers with a sand to gravel substrate type.

Schismatogobius vitiensis Jenkins and Boseto, 2005 (Appendix 11, Plate 28) was collected from Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Taveuni. It can be distinguished by the following combination of features: 8 or 9 anal rays, dorsal fins with seven spines and 9 – 10 dorsal fin rays with diagonal black band. Females have a thin dark band crossing the chin, and a triangular dark patch in the region of isthmus in juveniles. See Jenkins and Boseto (2005) for a full description.

Stenogobius sp.1 (Appendix 11, Plate 29) was called S. genivittatus by earlier authors (e.g. Fowler, 1959; Ryan, 1980; Lewis and Pring, 1986) but S. genivittatus (Valenciennes, 1837) is a species endemic to the Society Islands (Watson, 1991). Stenogobius genivittatus is different by having fewer rows of teeth and more trunk bars in males. Stenogobius sp.1 has seven to ten trunk bars on its body and a naked predorsal area. Usually it inhabits clear water with sandy substrate in a slow flowing part of the stream.

Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp. (Appendix 11, Plate 33) appears similar to S.(J.) nigripinnis (Parenti and Maciolek, 1993) from Pohnpei and Kosrae (Federated States of Micronesia) but differs in having some teeth recurved and lateral teeth more widely spaced (Dr. R. Watson, pers. comm., 2004). In addition, there is considerable difference in colouration. This species inhabits a unique substrate composed of a fused rock wall. More specimens are needed before it can be fully ascertained that it is a new species.

Stiphodon sp. 1 (Appendix 11, Plate 35) is very similar to S. elegans (Steindachner, 1879) from the Central Pacific (French Polynesia to ) but is not conspecific with it (Dr. R.Watson, pers. comm., 2004). The characteristics distinguishing the new species from other species of Stiphodon include: nine second dorsal fins, 32 – 38 total lateral scales that extend close to the pectoral fin base except in small specimens. Additional specimens of males and females are needed to validate the status of this species (Dr. R. Watson, pers. comm., 2004). In Fiji, this species was usually found in a clear pool where large boulders and rocks were surrounded with gravel.

54 Stiphodon sp. 2 (Appendix 11, Plate 36) is another probable new species of miniature goby that differs from the other Stiphodon species (Dr. R. Watson, pers. comm., 2004). Females have the following characteristics: nine second dorsal fins, 19 – 30 total lateral scales that do not extend close to the pectoral fin base; predorsal midline without scales; belly naked; scales below first dorsal fin cycloid; widely separated upper jaw teeth 34 – 42; tricispid teeth present on each side of symphysis; and females have no conical or canine like teeth in the lower jaw. This species was collected from a clear pool where large boulders and rocks occur with gravel in the bottom.

The new genus, new species (Front cover, Plate 1) differs from Stiphodon species by lacking head pores K and L and by the associated length of the oculoscapular canal (Dr. R. Watson, pers. comm., 2004). The species has a tongue that is broadly free. It closely resembles a new genus and new species from Vanuatu in which the females have upper jaw teeth that are always tricuspid, but in males the posterior tricuspid teeth in the upper jaw are replaced with conical teeth. The species from Vanuatu has ctenoid scales laterally while specimens from Fiji have cycloid scales. The new genus, new species in Fiji is immediately separated from Lentipes in having a broadly free tongue. Specimens of this species were collected from sites above the Tavoro Falls and from Waitavala Creek (both places in Taveuni). This fish lives in the rapid zone where large boulders and rocks occur or where rocks are fused (e.g. Site 41).

Four new records for Fiji were collected from this survey. These were Yirrkala gjellerupi, Gerres longirostris, Lentipes kaaea and Belobranchus belobranchus. However, Yirrkala gjellerupi and Belobranchus belobranchus collected during this survey were reported in Jenkins and Boseto (2003).

3.3.2 PREVIOUS COLLECTIONS A total of 151 species from 41 families had been recorded from Fiji’s fresh and estuarine waters, or are held in collections (Appendix 3).

Redigobius specimens collected from a single site in the Lekutu River in Vanua Levu by John Pogonowski in 2003 have been confirmed as representing a new species (Dr. H. Larson, pers. comm., 2004). Some specimens held in overseas collections are incompletely identified (Appendix 4). Some of these specimens may also represent new species, or new records for Fiji.

55 3.3.3 COMBINED COLLECTIONS There are 161 species from 45 families of freshwater and estuarine fish in Fiji known to date. There are still many more species to be found. See Appendix 5 for complete fish list.

3.3.4. ANALYSES 3.3.4 a. Commoness The summary of fish commonness is presented in Table 3.2 and Table 3.3. The detail results of the moderate and less common species are presented in the Appendix 6.

Table 3.2 Number of species found in each category. Collections Category This collection Other collections Combined collections Most common 1 4 2 Moderate 6 26 17 Less Common 69 121 142

Table 3.3 More common species in each collection. This collections Other collections Combined collections Anguilla marmorata Hypseleotris guentheri Anguilla marmorata Eleotris fusca Kuhlia rupestris Kuhlia rupestris Anguilla marmorata

3.3.4 b. Geographical distribution Fijian estuarine and freshwater fish distributions were also sub divided into the government zones of Fiji. This was done as they have characteristics that might influence what fish occur there and to look at the fish distribution in relation to the different habitats that are within the different zones. The Western and Central zones are both of the main island of Viti Levu, the former being the dry side and latter the wet side of the island. These have marked rainfall, river flow and vegetation differences. The Northern zone contains Vanua Levu, which has similar characteristics overall to Viti Levu and Taveuni, the third largest island but much younger volcanically. The Eastern zone is mainly the smaller outer islands, some low-lying but also some small volcanic ones. The fish distribution and composition of each of the four zones are presented in Figure 3.1.

56 150

100

50 Total number Total 0 Western Zone Central Zone Eastern Zone Northern Zone Families 10 37 20 18 Species 22 137 57 53 Zones

Figure 3.1. Zonal distribution of the total number of fish in four zones from past and current records.

There were some fish that occurred in all four divisions. These are listed in Table 3.4 below.

Table 3.4 List of species and families that are present in the four zones within Fiji. ANGUILLIDAE Anguilla marmorata Quoy & Gaimard, 1824 Anguilla obscura Günther, 1872 ELEOTRIDAE Eleotris fusca (Forster, in Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Eleotris melanosoma Bleeker, 1852 Giurus hoedti (Bleeker, 1854) Hypseleotris guentheri (Bleeker, 1875) GOBIIDAE GOBIONELLINAE Awaous guamensis (Valenciennes, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837), Awaous ocellaris (Broussonet, 1782) Stenogobius sp.1 SICYDIINAE Sicyopterus lagocephalus (Commerson, in Lacepède, 1800) HEMIRAMPHIDAE Zenarchopterus dispar (Valenciennes, in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1847) KUHLIIDAE Kuhlia marginata (Cuvier, in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1829) Kuhlia rupestris (Lacepède, 1802) SYNGNATHIDAE Microphis brachyurus brachyurus (Bleeker, 1853) TERAPONIDAE Terapon jarbua (Forsskål, 1775)

57 3.3.4 c. Salinity The fish collected from this survey and the other collections were also categorised based on water salinity. There are fish that are found in the freshwater and species that are present in both the freshwater and estuarine zone. There are species that are found in the freshwater, estuarine and marine water. Finally there are species that are present in only estuarine and marine that are found in the estuarine collection areas. The summary of the total number of fish collected from the different water salinity are in Table 3.5 below.

Examples of fish that present in different water salinity are as follows: freshwater (Hypseleotris guentheri), freshwater/brackish (Apogon amboinensis), freshwater/brackish/marine (Ambassis miops) and brackish/freshwater (Sardinella fijiense). The fish species collected from the different water salinity are presented in Appendix 7.

Table 3.5 Fish collected from different water salinity. Salinity Total fish collected from preferred salinity Freshwater 14 Freshwater/Brackish 20 Freshwater/Brackish/Marine 55 Brackish/Marine 72

3.3.5 FRESHWATER FISH OF FIJI COMPARED TO OTHER PACIFIC COUNTRIES The ten endemic freshwater species of Fiji are Glossogobius sp.1, Redigogius leveri, Redigobius sp.1, Schismatogobius vitiensis, Stenogobius sp.1, Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp., Stiphodon sp.1, Stiphodon sp. 2, the Sicydiinae: new species (new genus) and Mesopristes kneri (but this number may increase). A summary of the total number of endemic and total number of freshwater and estuarine fish fauna in some Pacific countries are presented in Table 3.6.

58 Table 3.6 Total number of endemics and total freshwater fish fauna of Pacific Countries. Country Endemics Total Fauna % Total Sources Australia 65 209 31.1 Allen et al. 2002; Fishbase 2004 Palau Island 2 40 5 Bright and June, 1981; Fishbase 2004 Guam 0 17 0 Fishbase 2004 PNG 60 32918.2 Allen 1991; Allen 2003; Fishbase 2004 Solomon Islands 3 84 3.6 Gray 1974; Allen and Boseto (unpublished report); Fishbase 2004 New Caledonia 10 64 15.6 Marquet et al. 2003; Fishbase 2004 Vanuatu 5 60 8.3 Ryan 1986; Nimoho 2000; Fishbase, 2004 Fiji 10 89 11.2 This study Samoa 3 31 9.7 Ryan 1991; Fishbase 2004; Dr. R. Watson, pers. comm., 2004 Cook Islands 0 7 0 Ryan 1991; Fishbase 2004 Hawaii 3 59 5.1 Fitzsimons et al. 2002; Fishbase 2004 French Polynesia 12 46 26.1 Marquet and Mary 1999; Fishbase 2004

Low numbers of endemics and freshwater fish fauna in some of the insular Pacific countries can be attributed to lack of freshwater fish research being carried out there and therefore, may not reflect true numbers.

3.4 Discussion 3.4.1 TOTAL FISH CHECKLIST By carrying out surveys in 66 sites, analyzing published and unpublished reports, and accessing collection data from several large international institutions, the number of freshwater and estuarine fish species known from Fiji has been raised from 80 species (in 28 families) in Ryan (1991), the most recent checklist, to 161 species (in 45 families) in this study. Even so, it is unlikely that this will be the final number.

59 Why were new taxa found? The new taxa reported in this thesis were made possible through:

i. the use of a mixture of fishing gears (including electrofisher);

ii. collecting at different places; and

iii. accessing a wide range of information.

The development of the Fiji National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (1999) has raised new interest in biodiversity assessments. In addition several international biodiversity conservation organizations have set up offices in Fiji in the last ten years.

Why were some old records not repeated? There are three possible reasons: i. most previous studies covered different zones and habitats that were not covered in this survey; ii. different fishing methods may have been used; and iii. some species may have been incorrectly identified earlier.

There are very few common species and the majorities are less common species observed from this collection, other collections and combined collections. In general freshwater fish have fairly specific habitat requirements (Gehrke and Harris, 2000; Keith, 2003). This was the case in Fiji where only a few fish were found everywhere whereas the majority of the fish are found in only a few places. The lack of study and comparability of methods (for example electrofisher) has not been used for scientific collections are other possible reasons.

Earlier expeditions by Wilkes in 1842, Challengers in 1874 and collections from this studies shows that most of the freshwater fish sampling in the central zones of Fiji where 85 % of fish species have been found. The fewer numbers of species from the western and northern zones may reflect reduced habitat diversity, or insufficient collecting.

The exotic species of the family Cichlidae are present in three zones of the Fiji group except for the eastern zone. The central zone recorded the highest number of exotic species (11 species from four families) (refer Appendix 3).

60 In general, there are only a few species that spend their entire life cycle in fresh water. However, there are certain species that are equally at home either in fresh water or marine water and most of the species have entered fresh water at a certain stage of their life cycle. For example, in this case there are 72 species that are not of fresh water but enter the lower reaches of streams. A similar trend was also reported from Australia and PNG by Allen (1991 and Allen et al., 2002).

The species richness in the estuarine water is probably due to the seagrass beds and mangrove habitats of that zone (Mumby et al., 2004). In addition, the proximity of coral reefs to the sampling areas (Quinn and Kojis, 1985; Mumby et al., 2004) also increases fish species richness in the estuarine zone.

3.4.2 BIOGEOGRAPHY PATTERN

The number of freshwater fish species reported from different Pacific Island countries is likely under reported because of the lack of freshwater fish surveys. For example, the freshwater fish reported from Solomon Islands is a result of three collections made by Gray (1974) on the island of Guadalcanal and a preliminary survey by G. R. Allen in 2004 and G. R. Allen and David Boseto in 2005 (Unpublished report). Once collections are conducted throughout all Pacific Islands countries the true number of the freshwater fish of the region will be better known.

From Table 3.6 it is seem that the highest numbers of fish species are reported from Australia and PNG, the western most Pacific countries. However, Fiji, which is east of New Caledonia, Vanuatu and Solomon Islands, has more than double the reported species of these countries. This is likely due to the greater effort that has taken place in Fiji. Another factor may be the bigger islands, longer rivers and more varied habitats of Fiji compared to these other three island groups.

The regional trend in fish diversity generally declines from the west to the east (Randall, 1998). Biogeographical studies of freshwater fish show historical links between the geological and biotic evolution of the region (Sivasundar et al., 2001) and there is a positive relationship between geographical range size that is associated with body size, local abundance and habitat breadth (Randall, 1998 and Pyron, 1999).

In the last 100 million years tectonic development of the Southwest Pacific Plate has occurred. Plate motions shift from the hotspot frame, which involves rifted continental margins and oceanic

61 plateaus, to move towards the subduction zones with associated island arcs and marginal basins (Springer, 1982; Nunn, 1994; Kroenke, 1996; Polhemus, 1996). Hotspots and volcanic activity are more common in the Western Pacific which leads to more habitat types and larger islands.

Springer (1982) emphasizes the andesite line because it is an important faunaistic boundary that describes the easternmost limits of the distribution of Indo-Pacific species. The andesite line around the Pacific and its continuation around the Indonesian Arc is one of the fundalmental geological boundaries of the earth (Springer, 1982). It was through the different geological boundaries and plates that perform an integral part on the distribution of the fish species from the western to the eastern Pacific.

In general, endemism increases with isolation. Species differeniation depends on the ability of the taxon to be isolated (Paulay, 1994). Although this seems to be true of French Polynesia, there is no general pattern moving across the Pacific. There must be many factors involved, including the degree of study that has been done.

3.4.3 DISTRIBUTION OF FRESHWATER FAMILIES WITHIN FIJI

The information given here is based on Fowler, 1959; Gray, 1974; INR Report, 1979; Ryan, 1980; Beumer, 1985; Allen, 1991; Watson, 1991; Allen and Burgess, 1990; Allen and Coates, 1990; Allen and Leggeh, 1990; Nimoho, 2000; Allen et al., 2000; Berra, 2001; Allen et al., 2002; Allen, 2003; Marquet et al., 2003; Jenkins 2004; Randall, 2005; Hoese and Allen (in press) and Fishbase, 2004, unless otherwise stated. See Appendix 5 for a complete list of Fiji freshwater and estuarine fishes so far recorded.The fish distribution in countries was sourced from the Fishbase, 2004 and other sources stated beside the fish species.

ALBULIDAE (Bonefishes)

A single specimen of Albula glossodonta (Forsskål, 1775) was collected in the Rewa River reported by Fowler (1959). This species inhabits estuarine water but also travels upstream. Widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific from the Red Sea to Hawaii, Japan, Lord Howe Island and throughout Micronesia (Fowler, 1959 and Fishbase, 2004).

62 AMBASSIDAE (Glassfishes)

Three species of Ambassis have been recorded from freshwater systems in Fiji: A. miops Günther, 1872, A. urotaenia Bleeker, 1852 and A. vaivasensis Jordan & Seale, 1906. The only species collected during this study was A. miops (Appendix 11, Plate 14) from the Tamavua River system (including Savura Creek). Ambassis urotaenia was collected from an unspecified site in Fiji by Kendall and Goldsborough 1911 reported in (Fowler 1959) and in Suva by Fowler 1928. A. vaivasensis was reported by Fowler (1959) and Ryan (1980) from rivers and creeks near the Tamavua River system. However, these two species were not collected in this survey.

Ambassis urotaenia is distributed from East Africa to the Papua New Guinea and as far as Japan, so it is likely that Fiji specimens were wrongly identified. However, there are no specimens of A. urotaenia in the USP collection to verify their identification. Ambassis vaivasensis has been reported from five different sites within Fiji. These are a river flowing into Suva, Naikorokoro Creek, lower Nasavu River and Bureta River (Ryan, 1980; Andrew, 1985; Jenkins and Boseto, 2003; and CAS material). The type locality of Ambassis vaivasensis is reported from Upolu Island in Samoa; and that may be why Fiji specimens have been identified as that species. There are no materials at the USP collections except for the A. vaivasensis specimen collected from lower Nasavu River and reported by Jenkins and Boseto (2003). This specimen was wrongly identified and was re–identified by myself and Patricia Kailola as A. miops. It is probable that all A. vaivasensis records in Fiji are misidentified specimens of A. miops.

Ambassis miops inhabits freshwater systems. It is widely distributed in the Indo-west Pacific from India to New Guinea, New Caledonia and north to Ryukyu Island (Allen, 1991). It is also reported from New Caledonia, Samoa and now in Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

ANGUILLIDAE (Freshwater Eels)

Six species of Anguilla have been recorded from Fiji. These are Anguilla australis Richardson, 1841, A. bicolor bicolor McClelland, 1844, A. marmorata Quoy & Gaimard, 1824, A. megastoma Kaup, 1856, A. obscura Günther, 1872 and Anguilla sp. In this study, only A. bicolor bicolor, A. marmorata (Appendix 11, Plate 15) and A. megastoma (Appendix 11, Plate 16) were collected. A. bicolor bicolor is collected in Fiji by (Ege 1939 in Beumer, 1985), Jenkins and Boseto (2003). It was widespread in the tropical Indian Ocean and western Pacific.

63 Anguilla marmorata is widespread through the Fiji Islands. Anguilla marmorata is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from East Africa to French Polynesia and north to southern Japan (Gray, 1974; Ryan, 1980; Nimoho, 2000; Marquet et al., 2003 and Fishbase, 2004). Anguilla megastoma is distributed in the western and central Pacific Ocean from Sulawesi in Indonesia to the Society Islands, and Pitcairn Island (Beumer, 1985 and Fishbase, 2004). Anguilla megastoma (Appendix 11, Plate 20) was collected from Tamavua River system during this study. It was also reported from Viti Levu by (Ege, 1939 in Beumer, 1985) and Kanathea (=) by Fowler (1959).

Some of Anguilla obscura specimens reported (Appendix 3) were collected from creeks near the Tamavua River system; however it was not encountered during this survey. Anguilla obscura is reported from the Society Islands and is also present as far west as New Guinea and Queensland (Allen et al., 2002). It should also be present in Fiji, but since it was not caught in this survey, it is believed that has to do with the limited sampling. It can be clearly be differentiated from A. marmorata and A. megastoma.

Anguilla australis was recorded from Samoa by Wass (1984). Ege (1939, in Beumer, 1985) reported it from Viti Levu. However, its presence in Fiji needs to be verified.

Anguilla sp. was recorded from Nadi River on the island of Viti Levu by Anon (1983 in Beumer, 1985).

APOGONIDAE (Cardinalfishes)

There are two species of Apogon in Fiji freshwaters: These are A. amboinensis Bleeker, 1853 and A. lateralis Valenciennes, 1832. Sphaeramia orbicularis Cuvier, 1828 has also been recorded from creeks and rivers near the Tamavua River system (Appendix 3). This family was only recorded from Viti Levu where most of the survey was carried out. These fish are usually found in estuarine waters, and enter fresh water at times for feeding.

Apogon amboinensis (Appendix 11, Plate 17) was collected from the Tamavua River system in this survey. This species is widely distributed from Africa to Oceania, including Palau, Philippines, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, and now Fiji (Gray, 1974; Allen and Burgess, 1990; Marquet et al., 2003 and Fishbase, 2004).

64 Apogon lateralis was collected from the Tamavua River system during this survey and has been collected from Naqara, Kubuna and Suva reported from the USNM collection. It is widely distributed in the Indo-west Pacific from East Africa to Samoa, north to Taiwan, Marianas, Micronesia, and Lord Howe Island (Fishbase, 2004).

Sphaeramia orbicularis has been collected in the Wainadoi River (USNM specimens). It is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific from East Africa to Kiribati, and the Ryukyu Islands, the Caroline and Mariana Islands, and New Caledonia (Fiahbase, 2004).

BALISTIDAE (Triggerfishes)

A single specimen of Rhinecanthus aculeatus (Linnaeus, 1758) from the Rewa River mouth is in the USNM collection. This marine species must have wandered into fresh water at the time it was collected. It is distributed in the Indo-west Pacific and Atlantic oceans (Fishbase, 2004).

CARANGIDAE (Jacks)

Four species of Caranx, C. ignobilis (Forsskål 1775), C. papuensis Alleyne & Macleay, 1877, C. sexfasciatus Quoy & Gaimard, 1825 and C. tille Cuvier 1833, and a specimen of Scomberoides tol (Cuvier, 1832) were recorded from Fijian fresh and brackish waters. Only C. sexfasciatus was collected during this study. Most of these species are marine and brackish water inhabitats and only occasionally enter fresh water. In this survey, only three estuaries were surveyed and less time was spent in this habitat, hence the opportunity of catching Carangidae species was low.

Caranx ignobilis was reported by Lewis and Pring (1986) from an unspecified location from within Fiji Islands. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from Red Sea and the east coast of Africa to the Hawaiian and Marquesas Islands, north to southern Japan and south to northern Australia (Fishbase, 2004).

Caranx papuensis (CAS material) was collected from Kubuna Creek. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from Africa to the Caroline Islands, the Ryukyu Islands and Australia (Fishbase, 2004).

Caranx sexfasciatus was collected from the Tamavua River system and Wailotua and Tavoro Creeks. The CAS has a specimen from Kubuna Creek, the USNM has material from Suva; Lewis

65 and Pring (1986) reported it from Viti Levu, Waqairatu (2003) collected it from the Tamavua River system, Herre (1936) recorded it from the mid Rewa River and the FIT research group collected it from the Waimanu River. This species is distributed from the Red Sea and East Africa to Hawaii, southern Japan, Australia and New Caledonia. It also occurs in the Eastern Pacific (Ryan, 1980; Allen, 1991 and Fishbase, 2004).

There is a specimen of Caranx tille from Suva in the USNM collection. This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from Africa to Okinawa, Australia and Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

Scomberoides tol was reported from an unidentified location in Fiji by Lewis and Pring (1986). It is a marine and estuarine species that is distributed in the Indo-west Pacific (Fishbase, 2004).

CARCHARHINIDAE (Requiem Sharks)

Carcharhinus leucas (Müller & Henle, 1839) has been collected from three of Fiji’s river systems. These are the Sigatoka, Rewa and Nasavu rivers Ryan (1980) and Lewis and Pring (1986). Carcharhinus leucas is usually present in major river systems and lakes. It is also globally distributed from Western Atlantic, Indo-West Pacific and Eastern Pacific (Berra, 2001). In Fiji it was reported by MacDonald (1869 in Fowler 1959), as Eulamia gangetica 40 miles into Raiva (= Rewa) River. It was reported in Viti Levu by Günther (1870 in Fowler, 1959) as Carcharias gangeticus. It was reported in Fiji by (Fowler, 1928) as Eulamia gangeticus and Whitley (1927) as Carcharinus gangeticus.

CENTRARCHIDAE (Sunfishes)

Micropterus salmoides (Lacepède, 1802) was reported from the Vaturu dam by Andrews (1985) and collected in the upper Nadi River by Mr. J. Pogonowski in 2003. No specimens were collected during this survey. This species is known from North America (Fishbase, 2004). It has been widely introduced to cosmopolitan countries as a game fish.

CENTROPOMIDAE (Giant Perches)

Lates calcarifer (Bloch, 1790) was reported to be in Fiji by Sukhavisidh, P. and D. Eggleston, 1974. However, the distribution of L. calcarifer is in the Indo-West Pacific: from the eastern edge Arabian Gulf to Taiwan and southern Japan, southward to southern Papua New Guinea and northern Australia (Fishbase, 2004). Therefore, the status of this species in Fiji is incorrect.

66 CHANIDAE (Milkfishes)

Chanos chanos (Forsskål, 1775) has been collected in Fiji from Viti Levu by the FIT researchers and records from CAS and USNM. The USNM material from Lau Island (Appendix 3). It is an inshore species in Fiji. It was not collected during this study. Chanos chanos is widely distributed in the Indo-Pacific from the Red Sea and South Africa, to South-east Asia and east to Hawaii and the Marquesas Islands (Allen and Coates, 1990 and Fishbase, 2004). It also occurs in the eastern Pacific (Randall, 2005).

CHIROCENTRIDAE (Wolf Herrings)

Chirocentrus dorab (Forsskål, 1775) was collected from an unspecified site in Fiji by Lewis and Pring (1986) and there is material from the Rewa River in the USNM collection. Herre (1936) recorded it from Ovalau Island. It is an estuarine species that usually penetrates the lower reaches of rivers. Distributed in the Indo-Pacific from the Red Sea and East Africa to Solomon Islands, and north to Japan (Fishbase, 2004).

CICHLIDAE (Cichlids)

There are three species of Oreochromis and a species of Tilapia were introduced in Fiji. These are O. aureus (Steindachner, 1864), O. mossambicus (Peters, 1852), O. niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) and Tiliapia zilli (Gervais, 1848). In this study O. mossambicus (Appendix 11, Plate 57) was collected from the upper Navua River, Upper Ba River, Nukunuku Creek, Nadala Creek and Qaliwana Creek. It was collected from upper and mid Ba River, Nadi River and lower Sigatoka in Viti Levu and from mid–upper Nakawakawa River in Vanua Levu by Pogonowski in 2003. It is also recorded from the interior of Viti Levu at 705 m (BMNH specimen) and from Waimanu River by the FIT research group and from the confluence of Wainivodi and Wainasavulevu River by an INR report (1977). Oreochromis mossambicus is widely favoured by locals as a source of protein, making it common in aquaculture ponds near villages and in big river systems in the islands of Viti Levu and Vanua Levu (Andrews, 1985). Oreochromis mossambicus is an east African species that has been widely introduced in the world for aquaculture, but it has escaped and established itself in the wild in many countries and out-competes native species, thus having an ecological impact (Eldredge, 2000).

67 Oreochromis niloticus was reported from Waimanu River by the FIT research group, Monasavu Reservoir by Lewis and Pring (1986), Waisai Creek by Jenkins (2004), in Vanua Levu and in lower Wainikoro, upper Dreketi and Mid-Upper Navonu rivers by John Pogonowski (Appendix 3). It was not collected in this study, although it occurs in several tributaries of the Rewa River (Ms. S. Waqairatu, pers. comm., 2005). It so far does not occur in Taveuni. This Nile River (Africa) species has been widely introduced into Fiji from Malaysia for aquaculture (Uwate et al., 1984). Several countries have reported adverse ecological effects after introduction (Eldredge, 2000).

Oreochromis aureus was introduced for aquaculture at Raviravi in 1975 and 1976 and Tilapia zilli have also been introduced to an unknown location for unknown purpose however, both species were unestablished in Fiji (Andrew, 1985 and Eldredge, 2000).

CLUPEIDAE (Herrings and Sardines)

Sardinella fijiense (Fowler & Bean, 1923) was collected from the Tamavua River system in this study. Also collected by Waqairatu (2003) from the Tamuvua River, from an unspecified location in Fiji by Lewis and Pring (1986), and Naikorokoro Creek (USNM collection). A species that is usually found in the estuarine ecosystem and the . Sardinella fijiense (Appendix 11, Plate 18) is generally found in the Western Pacific, from New Guinea to New Caledonia and Fiji (Fishbase, 2004). It has also been reported from Vietnam (Fishbase, 2004).

CYPRINIDAE (Carps)

There are six species of this exotic family in Fiji. These are Aristichthys nobilis (Richardson, 1845), Barbonymus gonionotus (Bleeker, 1850), Ctenophyaryngon idella (Valenciennes, in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1844), Cyprinus carpio carpio Linnaeus, 1758, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes, 1844) and Rhodeus ocellatus (Kner 1866).

Yet, in this study Barbonymus gonionotus (Appendix 11, Plate 58) was the only species collected despite the other species having been recorded from the same catchments. These are introduced species that compete with native species for habitat. Whenever Barbonymus gonionotus and Oreochromis mossambicus were collected, no other exotic species were collected; therefore they might out compete the other introduced species. Most of these species were introduced to Fiji for various reasons such as food, aquaculture, pituitary donor for grass carp, ornamental and

68 biological control with little thought of their possible effects on native aquatic biota and on freshwater ecosystems (Uwate et al., 1984; Andrews, 1985; Lewis and Pring, 1986; Eldredge, 2000).

Aristichthys nobilis and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix were introduced into Fiji for pond culture and control of vegetation. Aristichthys nobilis was imported from Malaysia and China. Hypophthalmichthys molitrix was imported from Malaysia and New Zealand. These species were placed at the fisheries station in Lami for further studies into their feeding abilities to control the weeds. They were later transfer into the Rewa River in wired netting to assess their ability to control the weeds. This was very success however, it was destroyed by flooding and the fish escped into the Rewa River.

Barbonymus gonionotus is an Asian species and was collected from Wailotua River during this survey and from Rewa River and tributaries of the Rewa River by Lewis and Pring (1986).

Ctenophyaryngodon idella is reported from an unidentified site by Andrews (1985) and collected from the Waimanu River by the FIT research group. It is native to China and eastern Siberia, but is widely transported around the world. Several countries have reported adverse ecological impact (Allen, 1991; Eldredge, 2000).

Cyprinus carpio carpio was introduced into Fiji for pond culture and as a source of pituitary. It was first introduced from New Zealand and later from Malaysia. This was later abandoned after Americans have imposed import restrictions on this species therefore, initial stock was destroyed.

Rhodeus ocellatus was reported from Naduruloulou Research Station ponds by Lewis and Pring (1986). It has been introduced to several countries from its native China, Korea and Japan (Fishbase, 2004).

DIODONTIDAE (Porcupinefishes)

A single specimen of Diodon liturosus Shaw, 1804 was collected during this study from Tavoro Creek. It is a marine species which occasionally enters the lower reaches of freshwater systems. This species is widely distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific from East Africa to Society Islands (French Polynesia) (Allen and Leggeh, 1990 and Fishbase, 2004).

69 ELEOTRIDAE (Sleepers)

Sixteen species from 11 genera are reported from Fiji. Amblyeleotris guttata (Fowler, 1938) (CAS collection) is known from a single site on the island of Kadavu. It is a marine species which usually enters the lower reaches of creeks. Distributed in the Western Pacific from Philippines to Samoa, including Ryukyu Islands, the Great Barrier Reef and Micronesia (Fishbase, 2004).

Belobranchus belobranchus (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837) (Appendix 11, Plate 19) was collected during this study from the Sovi Basin (in the interior of Viti Levu) using spear gun, and the Tavoro, Navaka and Wailevu creeks in Taveuni using a portable electro fisher. A speciemen was collected during this study and Jenkins (2003) reported it as a new record for Fiji. This species was previously reported from Indonesia, Philippines, and New Guinea (Allen, 1991).

Bostrychus sinensis Lacepède, 1801 was collected from three different sites in Fiji. During this study it was collected from the Tamavua River system and records from Bureta River on Ovalau Island and Kanacea Island in the Lau Islands come from Fowler (1959). Bostrychus sinensis inhabits fresh waters and is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from India to Indonesia, Australia, Vanuatu, Bougainville (PNG) and Samoa (Ryan, 1980 and Fishbase, 2004).

Bunaka gyrinoides (Bleeker, 1853) was collected from the Tamavua River system and Wailotua River during this study and in Waimanu River by the FIT research group and the Naduruloulou Research Station ponds by (Wetlands International training group). Then BMNH has material from the interior of Viti Levu and Boren collected a specimen from Nayarabale River in 1986. In Fiji these fish usually inhabit freshwaters from the coastal zone to inland. Widely distributed in Oceania and Asia from Sri Lanka to Philippines, PNG, Micronesia, Australia, New Caledonia and Fiji (Allen et al., 2000).

There are two species of Butis in Fiji. These are Butis amboinensis (Bleeker, 1853) and B. butis (Hamilton, 1822). Butis amboinensis was collected from Kubuna Creek (USNM collection) and Butis butis was reported from Naikorokoro Creek by Ryan (1980) and Nalase Creek by Waqairatu (2003). Although the sites are close to the Tamavua River system neither of these species was collected during this survey. Butis amboinensis has been recorded from Palau Island and New Caledonia, while B. butis has been recorded from Palau Island and Fiji. It is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from India to Solomon Islands (Gray, 1974 and Ryan, 1980).

70 There are two species of Eleotris in Fiji. These are Eleotris fusca (Forster, in Bloch & Schneider, 1801) (Appendix 11, Plate 20) and E. melanosoma Bleeker, 1852. Both species are widely distributed in Fiji and inhabit an ecosystem where there is overhanging riparian plants near streams that have soft muddy edges. The fish live in mud substrates. E. fusca ranges from East Africa to French Polynesia, and E. melanosoma is distributed from East Africa to the Society Islands and north to Japan (Ryan, 1980; Allen, 1991 and Fishbase 2004)

There is a two species of Giurus in Fiji. These are G. hoedti (Bleeker, 1854) (Appendix 11, Plate 21) and G. margaritacea (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valencienne, 1837) (Appendix 11, Plate 22). Giurus hoedti is widely distributed in Fiji and is present in Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Taveuni (Appendix 3). Giurus hoedti inhabit an ecosystem where there are overhanging riparian plants, dead trees and tree roots in the river or streams, that have soft muddy edges. Giurus hoedti is distributed from Molucca Islands to New Guinea and Fiji (Allen et al., 2000).

The Giurus margaritacea (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valencienne, 1837). Previous collections in Fiji called it as Ophieleotris aporos has been reported from the Sovi River by Lewis and Pring (1986), Waimanu River (FIT research group), Naikorokoro Creek by Ryan (1980), and Suva and Kanacea by Fowler (1959, as Ophiocara aporos). In this survey, it was collected in Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Taveuni (Appendix 2). Giurus margaritacea is distributed from to northern Australia, Palau, Solomon Islands, New Caledonia, Vanuatu and Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

Lairdina hopletupus was recorded by Fowler (1955) as a Fijian endemic freshwater species. However, (Dr. D. Hoese, pers. comm., 2003) identifies that this species is a synonym of Giurus margaritacea. Therefore, this species is no longer an endemic species to Fiji but a widely distributed species.

Hence, the Emperor of Japan is reviewing this group (Dr D. Hoese, pers. comm., 2004). It is anticipated that the differentiation of Giurus margaritacea will be resolved at the end of his review.

Hypseleotris guentheri (Bleeker, 1875) (Appendix 11, Plate 23) is widely distributed in Fiji. It is usually common in fresh waters with overhanging vegetated habitats. Distributed from Indonesia to New Guinea, New Ireland, Caroline Islands, New Caledonia, Fiji and Samoa (Ryan, 1980 and Allen and Coastes, 1990).

71 Two species of Ophiocara have been recorded from Fiji. These are Ophiocara macrolepidotus (Bloch, 1792) and O. porocephala (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valencienne, 1837). Ophiocara macrolepidotus was reported by Whitley (1927) and Fowler (1927, 1931 and 1934) from Fiji, Günther (1880, as Eleotris macrolepidota) from Ovalau Island, and Herre (1936, as Ophiocara porocephala) reported it from Suva. Other earlier records that reported in Fowler (1959) are Kner (1868), Schmeltz (1869), Pöhl (1884) as Eleotris cantoris then later called it as Eleotris ophiopcephalus by Schmeltz (1879) from (Kanathia = Kanacea) and Viti Levu.. However, Fishbase (2004) reports that O. macrolepidotus is an endemic species on the east coast of Madagascar. Therefore, this species is likely to be wrongly identified; Perhaps O. porocephala was intended.

Ophiocara porocephala was found in the lower reaches of the Tamavua River system during this survey. Waqairatu (2003) also collected it from the Tamavua River system, it was reported from Suva by Herre (1936), Kanacea by Fowler (1959) and from the Wainadoi River (USNM collection). This species usually lives in fresh and estuarine (mangrove) ecosystems. Distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from East Africa to high volcanic islands of Oceania (Fishbase, 2004).

Oxyeleotris marmorata (Bleeker, 1852) has been reported by Whitley (1927) and Fowler (1928 and 1931) in Fiji. Other earlier records in Fowler (1959) by Schmeltz (1865, as Eleotris marmorata) from (Neva River = Rewa River), Pöhl (1884, as Eleotris marmorata) from Viti. Ryan (1980) reported it from Rewa River, Waqairatu (2003) reported it from the Tamavua River system and the FIT research group recorded it from the Waimanu River. However, no specimens were collected during this study. According to Fishbase (2004), Oxyeleotris marmorata occurs only in Asia (Vietnam to Indonesia). The records for Fiji need to be verified therefore.

ENGRAULIDAE (Anchovies)

Two species in two genera were collected from the mouth of the Tamavua River in Fiji during this survey; however, other species of this family which are found in the marine habitat were reported by Baldwin (1984). The two species collected during this survey are Stolephorus indicus (van Hasselt, 1823) and Thryssa baelama (Forsskål, 1775). Both species usually penetrate the lower reaches of freshwater systems. Stolephorus indicus was collected from the mouth of the Tamavua River system during this study, and there is a record of Thryssa baelama from Kubuna Creek (USNM collection). It is also reported from an unspecified location by Lewis and Pring (1986). Stolephorus indicus occurs through the Indo-West Pacific and Thryssa baelama is

72 distributed from the Rea Sea and Madagascar, east to Samoa and north to Philippines and Marianas Islands (Fishbase, 2004).

EPHIPPIDAE (Spadefishes)

Platax orbicularis (Forsskål, 1775) was collected from Toberua Island (USNM collection). No specimens were collected during this study although it is a species which usually penetrates the lower reaches of freshwater creeks. Distributed in the Indo-Pacific from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Tuamotu Islands, including southern Japan, Australia and New Caledonia (Fishbase, 2004).

GERREIDAE (Silver Biddies)

Gerres longirostris (Lacepède, 1801) (Appendix 11, Plate 24) was collected from the mouth of the Tamavua River system during this survey. A brackishwater species which usually penetrates lower reaches of the rivers. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific (Fishbase, 2004).

GOBIIDAE (Gobies)

There are four subfamilies of Gobiidae (Nelson, 1994). These are Gobiinae, Gobionellinae, Oxudercinae and Sicydiinae. All subfamilies are represented in Fiji.

Species of the family Gobiidae are common throughout the Indo-Pacific, Africa, Asia and America (Berra 2001) and they are among the most structurally diverse and numerically speciose fish (Miller, 1986). Twelve species belonging to the family Gobiidae are common between Africa and Fiji (Daget et al., 1986 and Fishbase, 2004). There are twenty three species that are found in Fiji and also in Asia (Fishbase, 2004) and twenty two species that are common between Fiji and the other Pacific countries (Table 3.7).

73 Table 3.7 Goby species that are common between Fiji, Africa and Asia. “X” denotes their presence in the locality. Countries Gobiidae Fiji Africa Asia Other Pacific Islands Acentrogobius caninus x x x x Acentrogobius suluensis x x x Bathygobius fuscus x x x x Bathygobius hongkongensis x x Bathygobius padangensis x x Caragobius urolepis x x x Ctenogobiops aurocingulus x x x Glossogobius bicirrhosus x x x Glossogobius sp.1 x Oplopomus oplopomus x x x x Palutrus scapulopunctatus x x Psammogobius biocellatus x x x x Yongeichthys nebulosus x x x x Awaous guamensis x x x Awaous melanocephalus x x x Awaous ocellaris x x x Mugilogobius notospilus x Oxyurichthys ophthalmonema x x x x Oxyurichthys tentacularis x x x x Redigobius bikolanus x x x x Redigobius leveri x Redigobius roemeri x x x Redigobius sp.1 x Schismatogobius vitiensis x Stenogobius sp.1 x Stigmatogobius sadanundio x x Periophthalmus argentilineatus x x x x Periophthalmus kalolo x x x x Lentipes kaaea x x Sicyopterus lagocephalus x x x x Sicyopterus hicklingi x Sicyopus zosterophorum x x x Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp. x Stiphodon rutilaureus x x Stiphodon sp. 1 x Stiphodon sp. 2 x New genus, new species x

74 Gobiidae are the most abundant fish in freshwater on insular Pacific islands (Nelson, 1994; Ryan, 1991). They are present in a wide range of aquatic habitats from the ocean into the head waters of rivers (Nelson et al., 1997; Marquet and Mary, 1999). This study is only on the estuary and the freshwater systems of Fiji and will compare goby distribution with other Pacific Islands.

There are 37 species of gobies known to inhabit freshwater and estuarine zone in Fiji known to date, 10 species in Vanuatu, 18 species in Samoa, five species in Cook Islands, 23 species in Palau, five species in Cape York in Australia, 61 species in Papua New Guinea (Ryan 1991; Fishbase 2004), 23 species in the Solomon Islands (Allen and Boseto, unpublished), 18 species in New Caledonian fresh waters (Marquet and Mary, 1999) and four species in Hawaiian freshwaters (Fitzsimons et al., 2002). Singleton (1997) also recorded Gobiidae species present in estuaries of tropical Pacific countries.

Nevertheless, recent discoveries of additional Goby species in the countries mentioned above should increase the number of the gobies present in each country. This survey produced seven new Gobiidae species to Fiji and there is another new species from John Pogonowski’s collections reported in Jenkins (2003) that gives a total of 37 species of Gobiidae recorded for Fiji to date. This does not limit the number of gobies that are still waiting for discovery in the waterways of Fiji and the other Pacific Island countries.

GOBIINAE Fourteen species from nine genera in this subfamily have been recorded from Fiji. Most of these species are estuarine species. However, no specimens were collected during this study because of the limited number of estuaries surveyed.

There are two species of the genus Acentrogobius in Fiji. These are A. caninus (Valenciennes in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837) and A. suluensis (Herre, 1927). Acentrogobius caninus was reported from Namusi (=Namosi) by Fowler (1959, as Gobius caninus) and Naqara (USNM collections). The species is distributed through the Indo-West Pacific as far west as Madagascar (Fishbase, 2004).

Acentrogobius suluensis is recorded from South Draunibota Island and Nadroga (USNM collection). The species is distributed throughout the western Pacific from the Ryukyu Islands, Philippines, Indonesia to Papua New Guinea and Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

75 There are three species of the genus Bathygobius that were reported in the freshwater of Fiji. These are B. fuscus (Rüppell, 1830), B. hongkongensis Lam, 1986 and B. padangensis (Bleeker, 1851). Bathygobius fuscus was reported from Suva and Ovalau Island by Fowler (1959, as Gobius fuscus) and B. hongkongensis is collected from Naqara (USNM collection). Bathygobius fuscus is distributed from Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Thailand. It also occurs in the New Guinea to Samoa and the Micronesia Islands (Fishbase, 2004).

Bathygobius padangensis was reported from Namusi (=Namosi) by Fowler (1959, as Gobius petrophilus var. ocellatus). It is distributed over the Western Pacific from Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia and New Guinea, Solomon Islands and also to Christmas Island in the eastern Indian Ocean (Fishbase, 2004).

Caragobius urolepis (Bleeker, 1852) has been collected from Naqara (USNM collection). It is distributed over the Western Pacific from India to the Philippines and Papua New Guinea (Fishbase, 2004).

Ctenogobiops aurocingulus (Herre, 1936) was reported from Ovalau Island by Herre (1936 as Apparius aurocingulus). Fowler (1959) reported it as Gobius aurocingulus. It is distributed through the Indo-West Pacific from the Philippines and Ryukyu Islands to Fiji, Samoa, Caroline Islands, and Marshall Islands (Fishbase, 2004).

There are two species of Glossogobius. These are G. bicirrhosus (Weber, 1894), and Glossogobius sp.1. Glossogobius bicirrhosus has been collected from Naikorokoro Creek (USNM collection). It is distributed from Indonesia, Philippines, and Japan to Palau. Also reported from southern Taiwan, Australia and Papua New Guinea (Fishbase, 2004).

Glossogobius sp.1 is a new species widely distributed in Fiji collected from during this survey. Previously reported from Fiji as G. celebius (Valenciennes, 1837) by Ryan (1980), and also recorded from the Solomons, New Caledonia and Palau. However, a closer examination of the species Glossogobius in the Pacific has concluded that these species from the Pacific are a new species as it differs in the position of head pores and has one more dorsal ray than the true G. celebius (Dr. D. Hoese, pers. comm., 2004) and Hoese and Allen (in press).

76 Oplopomus oplopomus (Valenciennes, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837) was reported from South Draunibota Island (USNM collections). This is a marine species that penetrates the lower reaches of the freshwater streams. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from East Africa to the Society Islands and north to the Ryukyu Islands (Fishbase, 2004).

Palutrus scapulopunctatus (de Beaufort, 1912) reported from an unidentified location in Fiji by Fowler (1959, as Gobius scapulopunctatus). A brackishwater species that penetrates the lower reaches of the freshwater streams. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from Arabia to Indonesia and Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

Psammogobius biocellatus (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837) was collected from Tamavua River system and the Tavoro Creek during this survey, Herre (1936, as Glossogobius biocellatus) and Fowler (1959, as Glossogobius giurus) reported it from a river flowing into the Suva Harbour, from the Naikorokoro Creek, Naqara and Kadavu (USNM collection) and Pogonowski collected it from lower Nala (Natewa) and upper Lekutu in Vanua Levu (Appendix 3). A brackish water species that penetrates the lower reaches of freshwater streams. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from south to East London and South Africa (Fishbase, 2004).

Yongeichthys nebulosus (Forsskål, 1775) was recorded from Namusi (=Namosi) by Fowler (1959, as Gobius nebulosus). This species is distributed from East Africa through Indonesia east to Micronesia, north to China and the Ryukyus and Australia (Fishbase, 2004).

GOBIONELLINAE

There are 13 species from seven genera in this subfamily in Fiji. Each genus and species will be discussed.

Three Awaous species are recorded in Fiji; these are Awaous guamensis (Valenciennes, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837), A. melanocephalus (Bleeker, 1849) and A. ocellaris (Broussonet, 1782). Awaous guamensis and A. ocellaris (Appendix 11, Plate 26) are widely distributed throughout Fiji while on the other hand A. melanocephalus was collected from Viti Levu by Lewis and Pring (1986). A. ocellaris was reported by Herre (1936) from Rewa River and Fowler (1959) reported it from Fiji.

77 Awaous guamensis was reported from Neva (= Rewa River) as Gobius ocellaris by Godeffroy (1865 in Fowler 1959), in Fiji as Chonophorus ocellaris by Whitley 1927, in Namusi (= Namosi), Kanathia (= Kanacea) and Ovalau as Gobius crassilabris by Godeffroy (1869 and 1877 in Fowler 1959). Pöhl (1884 in Fowler 1959) reported it from Kanathia (=Kanacea) and in Narokorokoyawa Creek by Fowler (1959, as Chonophorus guamensis). It is distributed in Oceania from Hawaiian and Mariana Islands, south to Vanuatu, New Caledonia and Fiji and A. ocellaris is distributed from India to the Philippines and north to Japan, Fiji and French Polynesia: Awaous melanocephalus is distributed from Asia to Solomon Islands and Fiji (Lewis and Pring, 1986 and Watson, 1991).

Mugilogobius notospilus (Günther, 1877) was reported from Viti Levu by Koumans (1953 in Fowler 1959, as Stigmatogobius hoevenii) however, reported from Namusi (=Namosi) in Fowler (1959, as Gobius notospilus). The type locality of this specimen is in Fiji.

There are two species of the genus Oxyurichthys in Fiji. These are Oxyurichthys ophthalmonema (Bleeker, 1856-57) and O. tentacularis (Valenciennes, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837). Oxyurichthys ophthalmonema was reported from Kubuna Creek (USNM collections). Fowler (1959 as O. ophthalmonemus) reported it from Fiji and Oxyurichthys tentacularis was reported from Naqara (USNM collections). These are brackish water species which only penetrate the lower reaches of the creeks.

Oxyurichthys ophthalmonema is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific and Oxyurichthys tentacularis is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from Transkei northwards, Zanzibar, Madagascar to the tropical West Pacific (Fishbase, 2004).

There are four species of Redigobius in Fiji. These are R. bikolanus (Herre, 1927), R. leveri (Fowler, 1943), R. roemeri (Weber, 1911) and Redigobius sp. 1 in Jenkins (2003).

Redigobius bikolanus was collected during this survey and reported from a river flowing into Suva harbour (CAS collection). Redigobius bikolanus extend to the east as far as Fiji from Asia and Oceania; Japan southward to the Philippines, Indonesia, New Guinea, Australia and Samoa. Reported from South Africa and (Fishbase, 2004).

78 Redigobius leveri (as Vaimosa leveri in Fowler, 1943 and Gobius leveri in Fowler, 1959) (Appendix 11, Plate 27) is an endemic species of Fiji. It is widespread in Fiji on the island of Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Taveuni. R. roemeri was reported from a river near Suva by Fowler (1959, as Gobius roemeri) but no specimen of R. roemeri was collected from this survey even though survey was carried out in Tamavua River. The species R. roemeri is distributed from Philippines, Indonesia, New Guinea, Fiji, Australia and New Caledonia. John Pogonowski collected a Redigobius species from a single site in the Lekutu River in Vanua Levu which represents a new species (Dr. H. Larson, pers. comm., 2003).

Schismatogobius vitiensis Jenkins and Boseto, 2005 was collected from the upper Navua River, Sovi River and Tavoro Creek during this survey, and John Pogonowski collected it from lower Nala, mid Buca and upper Lekutu River in Vanua Levu (Appendix 3). This species is endemic to Fiji and is widely distributed from the coast to lowland forest.

Another new species is Stenogobius sp.1 Previously Fowler (1959) called it Stenogobius genivittatus. However, it was wrongly identified. Refer to section 3.3.1 on page 54 for more description of this species. This species is widely distributed in the three main islands of the Fiji group as far as the Lau Island group (Appendix 3).

Stigmatogobius sadanundio (Hamilton, 1822) was collected from Viti Levu and Kanathia (= Kanacea Island) reported by Fowler (1959 as Gobius sadanundio). This species is distributed in South-east Asia (Fishbase, 2004). The status of this species in Fiji is uncertain.

OXUDERCINAE There are three species from three genera in this subfamily in Fiji. These are all estuarine species which are widespread over Fiji’s four main islands. These are Viti Levu, Taveuni, Kadavu and Ovalau Island. Most of these species are also very difficult to catch.

Periophthalmus barbarus (Linnaeus, 1766) was reported by Fowler (1959, as Periophthalmodon barbarus) based on Whitley (1927), Fowler (1928), Fowler (1934) and Herre (1936). This species is an African species. The status of Fowler’s species is uncertain.

Periophthalmus argentilineatus Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837 was reported from Ellington Penang, Naikorokoro Creek and Kadavu (USNM collection). No specimens were

79 collected during this survey. This species is distributed along continental margins and high islands of the tropical Indo-West Pacific Ocean from East Africa to Samoa (Fishbase, 2004).

Periophthalmus kalolo Lesson, 1831 was collected during this survey from Tavoro Creek by using the cast net. Specimens from Naqara and Kadavu, Naikorokoro creeks were collected by Ryan (1980) and from Rewa River by Fowler (1959, as Periophthalmus koelreuteri). This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from East Africa to Samoa (Fishbase, 2004).

SICYDIINAE My study revealed 15 species from five genera from this subfamily in Fiji. By collaborating with international goby experts (Dr. D. Hoese, Dr. H. Larson, Dr. R. Watson and Mr. A. Jenkins pers comm., 2004), we have determined eight proposed new species and a new genus. This includes Glossogobius sp. Redigobius sp., Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp., Stenogobius sp., Stiphodon sp. 1, Stiphodon sp. 2 and Sicydiinae: new genus and new species. One of the new species was already described by Jenkins and Boseto (2005) as Schismatogobius vitiensis.

Lentipes kaaea Watson, Keith and Marquet, 2002 (Appendix 11, Plate 30) was collected from Waitavala Creek in Taveuni during this survey and collected from Nakoronawa Creek in Kadavu by the WCS (Appendix 3). It was initially, reported from Vanuatu and New Caledonia and now in Fiji. Lentipes kaaea has broken the trend of a remarkably high degree of endemism even to the point that they restricted to a single pool to widely distributed (Dr. R. Watson, pers. comm., 2004).

There are two species from Sicyopterus reported from Fiji. These are S. lagocephalus (Pallas, 1770) (Appendix 11, Plate 31) and S. hicklingi (Whitley, 1950). Sicyopterus lagocephalus is widely distributed throughout the Islands of Viti Levu, Vanua Levu and Kadavu (Appendix 3). Sicyopterus lagocephalus is common and widespread through Fiji ranging from the coast to the montane forest from this survey. Fowler (1959) reported it from Fiji as Sicydium laticeps as a junior synonym of S. lagocephalus. This species is distributed from East Africa; Reunion and Mauritis with few records from Comores and Madagascar (Fishbase, 2004).

Sicyopterus hicklingi is known from a single specimen collected from Rewa River by Dr. Hickling in 1947 (Whitley, 1950). However, this species is now known as a junior synonym of

80 Sciyopterus lagocephalus. Therefore, there is only a single species of the genus Sicyopterus that is known in Fiji to date.

There are two species of Sicyopus reported from Fiji. These are S. zosterophorum (Bleeker, 1857) and Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp. S. zosterophorum (Appendix 11, Plate 32) was first recorded by Ryan (1991) from Wainibau Creek on Taveuni and later collected from Vago, Wailevu, Waitavala and Waisali creeks during this survey, on Vanua Levu by Pogonowski (Appendix 3) and on Kadavu by Kini Koto of Wildlife Conservation Society (Appendix 3). Therefore, it is found on all four larger island of the Fiji group. It is also reported in the Western Pacific including Indonesia, Philippines, New Guinea and New Caledonia, and Japan (Allen, 2003 and Fishbase, 2004).

For Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp. refer to section 3.3.1 on page 54.

There are three species from the genera Stiphodon reported from Fiji. These are S. rutilaureus Watson, 1996, Stiphodon sp. 1 and Stiphodon sp. 2. Stiphodon rutilaureus (Appendix 11, Plate 34) was widely distributed on the four main islands of the Fiji groups. It was collected from 21 sites from the island of Viti Levu and Taveuni while John Pogonowski and Kini Koto collected them from Vanua Levu and Kadavu (Appendix 3). Stiphodon rutilaureus is distributed through out the Indo-Australia Archipelago from Waigeo and Batanta to Vanuatu and Fiji. Herre (1936) and Fowler (1959) reported Sicydium elegans as a junior synonym of Stiphodon elegans in Fiji. However, collaborating with goby expert it was said that Stiphodon elegans does not distributed as far as Fiji (Dr. R. Watson, pers. comm., 2004).

For Stiphodon sp. 1, Stiphodon sp. 2 and Sicydiinae: new genus and new species refer to section 3.3.1 on page 54 and 55 for more descriptions.

HAEMULIDAE (Grunts)

Plectorhinchus gibbosus (Hombron & Jacquinot, 1853) was collected in Tavoro Creek during this survey and reported from Kubuna Creek from the USNM collection. This is a marine species but juveniles inhabit the lower reaches of the fresh water in the mangrove. This species is distributed from Red Sea to South Africa, Persian Gulf eastward to Samoa, north to the Ryukyu Islands, Australia, Caroline and the Mariana Island (Fishbase, 2004).

81 HEMIRAMPHIDAE (Garfishes)

There are three species from this family in Fiji. These are Hyporhamphus dussumieri (Valenciennes, in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1847), Zenarchopterus buffonis (Valenciennes, in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1847) and Zenarchopterus dispar (Valenciennes, in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1847) (Appendix 11, Plate 37). Hyporhamphus dussumieri was reported from Bureta River (CAS collection) and Fowler (1959, as Hemirhamphus erythrorichus). It is a marine species that enters the lower reaches of the freshwater streams therefore, must be caught at that time it is moving upstream. On the other hand the equipment used may not be suitable for collecting Hyporhamphus dussumieri. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from Seychelles through the eastern Indies, Borneo, Philippines, and New Guinea to Hong Kong and Okinawa, and as far as the Tuamotu Islands (Fishbase, 2004).

Zenarchopterus buffonis was reported from Suva by Fowler (1959) cited from his old records from Fowler (1928, as Zenarchopterus maculosus) and Garman (1903 in Fowler 1959, as Zenarchopterus maculosus). It was also reported from Fiji as Zenarchopterus maculosus by Whitley 1927. It is a marine species that enters the lower reaches of the freshwater streams. This species distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from India, to East Indies, Philippines, Taiwan, New Guinea and northern Australia (Ryan, 1980 and Fishbase, 2004).

Zenarchopterus dispar is a common species in Fiji as it is widespread in Viti Levu, Vanua Levu, Taveuni, Kadavu and Ovalau Island (Appendix 3). Fowler (1959) reported it from Suva and Nggawa in Vanau Levu. A marine to freshwater species that is common in brackish water and lower reaches of the freshwater streams. It is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from , Seychelles, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Australia, New Caledonia, Vanuatu, Fiji and Samoa (Fishbase, 2004).

KUHLIIDAE (Flagtails)

There are three species from the genera Kuhlia that were collected during this survey that enter freshwater in Fiji. These are Kuhlia marginata (Cuvier, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829) (Appendix 11, Plate 38), K. munda (De Vis, 1884) (Appendix 11, Plate 39) and K. rupestris (Lacepède, 1802) (Appendix 11, Plate 40). However, Fowler (1959) reported five species of this genus in Fiji. The other two species reported are Dules sandvicensis (Steindachner, 1876) now known as Kuhlia sandvicensis and Dules taeniurus (Cuvier, 1829) now known as Kuhlia petiti

82 Schultz, 1943 (Randall and Randall, 2001). However, they are marine species and therefore will not be discussed here.

Kuhlia marginata was widely distributed in the four main islands of the Fiji group. Günther (1859, in Fowler 1959) and Fowler (1931, 1934 and 1959) reported it as Dules marginatus from Fiji. Boulenger (1895, in Fowler 1959), Whitley (1927) and Fowler (1928) reported it as Kuhlia marginata in Fiji. Schmeltz (1865, in Fowler 1959) reported it from Rewa River and Pöhl (1884, in Fowler 1959) reported it from Viti as Dules malo. Boulenger (1895, in Fowler 1959) and Whitley (1927) reported it from Viti Levu as Kuhlia malo. They are freshwater species found interior of Viti Levu at 705 m. This species is distributed from Taiwan, Philippines and Indonesia to Japan, to Rapa, Palau, Marshall and Mariana Islands (Allen, 1991; Nimoho, 2000; Marquet et al., 2003 and Fishbase, 2004).

Kuhlia munda is an estuarine species which is usually found in the lower reach of freshwater streams. Ryan (1980 and 2000) also reported it from Fiji as Kuhlia bilunulata. Herre (1936, as Kuhlia bilunulata) reported it from small rivers flowing into Suva Harbour. Whitley (1927) and Fowler (1928) reported it as Kuhlia munda in Fiji. Fowler (1931, 1934 and 1959) reported it as Dules munda from Fiji. Regan (1913, in Fowler 1959) reported it as Kuhlia humilis in Fiji. Boulenger (1859, in Fowler 1959) reported it as Kuhlia malo in Fiji. Kendall and Goldsborough (1911, in Fowler 1959) reported a type locality in Fiji as Kuhlia proxima. They are widely spread throughout the lower reaches of the main islands and are collected from as far as the Lau Islands by Kini Koto of WCS. This species is distributed in the Western Pacific, in tropical estuarine waters and in fresh waters in New Caledonia (Fishbase, 2004).

Kuhlia rupestris is a common jungle perch species widely distributed throughout the Fiji Islands from the coast to the montane forest. Günther (1880 and 1859, in Fowler 1959) reported it from Fiji and Ovalau, Schmeltz (1874, in Fowler 1959) reported it from Viti Levu and Fowler (1931, 1934 and 1959) reported it as Dules rupestris from Fiji. Boulenger (1895, in Fowler 1959), Whitley (1927) and Fowler (1928) report it from Fiji and Herre (1936) reported it from Rewa River as Kuhlia rupestris. Kner (1868, in Fowler 1959) reported in from Kandavu (=Kadavu) and Whitley (1928, in Fowler 1959) reported it from Fiji as Therapon unicolor. This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from East Africa to Melanesia (Allen, 1991; Nimoho, 2000; Marquet et al., 2003 and Fishbase, 2004).

83 LACTARIIDAE (False trevallies)

Lactarius lactarius (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) was collected from the mouth of the Rewa River (USNM collection). This is a marine species which migrates to the lower reaches of the freshwater streams. This species is distributed from Indo-West Pacific from East Africa and eastern Indian Ocean extending eastward to Southeast Asia, north to Japan, south to Queensland, Australia and Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

LEIOGNATHIDAE (Ponyfishes)

There are four species collected from this family in Fiji during this survey. These are Gazza minuta (Bloch, 1795), Leiognathus equulus (Forsskål, 1775) (Appendix 11, Plate 41), L. fasciatus (Lacepède, 1803) (Appendix 11, Plate 42) and L. splendens (Cuvier, 1829).

Gazza minuta is a marine and estuarine species which usually enters the mouth of the river. One was caught at the mouth of the Tamavua River system during this survey and the other specimen was reported by Lewis and Pring (1986) from an unknown site in Fiji. Fowler (1959) reported it also from Fiji. This species is distributed from Red Sea and the east Africa Coast to Australia and Tahiti (Fishbase, 2004).

Leiognathus equulus is a marine and estuarine species. It was collected from the Tamavua River system during this survey and collected from Nalase near Rewa River by Waqairatu (2003) and in Suva by Fowler (1959, as Leiognathus equula). This species is distributed from Red Sea, Persian Gulf, and East Africa to Fiji, to the Ryukyus Islands and Australia (Fishbase, 2004).

Leiognathus fasciatus was collected from Tavoro Creek during this survey. Fowler (1959) reported it from Suva. Leiognathus fasciatus is a marine species which usually enters the freshwater system. This species is distributed from Seychelles, , Red Sea, Gulf of Aden, Indian and Sri Lanka to Japan, China, north eastern Australia, Samoa and Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

Leiognathus splendens is a marine and brackish species which also penetrates the lower reaches of fresh water. This species was caught at the mouth of Tamavua River system during this survey. Fowler (1959) reported it from Fiji. It was first caught in Fiji during a deep sea trawling at Laucala Bay (Mr. J. Seeto, pers. comm., 2005). This species is distributed from the Red Sea, Madagascar and Mauritius to India and Sri Lanka, Australia and Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

84 LETHRINIDAE (Emperors) There are two species from this family that enters fresh water in Fiji. These are Lethrinus harak (Forsskål, 1775) and L. reticulatus (Valenciennes, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830). Both species came from Kubuna Creek (USNM collection).

Lethrinus harak is an estuarine and marine species. Fowler (1959) reported this species from Fiji citing it from his previous records of Fowler 1928, 1931, 1933 and other earlier collectors. It was reported from Suva by Jordan and Dickerson (1908) and in Fiji also by Whitley 1927. This species is distributed from the Red Sea, East Africa, Maldives, Indonesia, Philippines, Japan, Australia, Papua New Guinea, Caroline Islands, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji and Samoa (Fishbase, 2004).

Lethrinus reticulatus is a marine species. Fowler (1959) reported this species from Fiji citing it from his previous records Fowler 1928, 1931, 1933 and reported from Kadavu by Günther (1880 in Fowler 1959, as Lethrinus moensi). It is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from Chagos, Thailand, Ryukyu Island and the Philippines to Indonesia and Samoa (Fishbase, 2004).

LUTJANIDAE (Snappers) There are eight species from the genera Lutjanus that enters fresh water in Fiji. These are Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Forsskål, 1775) (Appendix 11, Plate 43), L. fulviflamma (Forsskål, 1775), L. fulvus (Forster, in Bloch & Schneider, 1801) (Appendix 11, Plate 44), L. gibbus (Forsskål, 1775), L. johnii (Bloch, 1792), L. lunulatus (Park, 1797), L. rivulatus (Cuvier, in Cuvier & Valencinnes, 1828) and L. russellii (Bleeker, 1849) (Appendix 11, Plate 45). Three species of the eight that were collected during this study were L. argentimaculatus, L. fulvus and L. russellii. Most of the Lutjanus species listed above are marine species that enter the estuarine and the lower reaches of the stream in their juvenile stages for rearing ground except for Lutjanus fuscescens which was not reported from Fiji as the true freshwater species.

Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Appendix 11, Plate 28) is a common mangrove jack and young ones often inhabit mangroves and the lower reaches of rivers. This species was collected from Tamavua River system and Tavoro from this collection and (USNM collection) from eastern Viti Levu. John Pogonowski collected L. argentimaculatus from Vanua Levu. Herre (1936) reported it from Suva and Fowler (1959) citing it from his previous records of Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1934

85 reported it from Fiji.This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from East Africa to Samoa and the Line Islands, north to the Ryukyu Islands and south to Australia (Fishbase, 2004).

Lutjanus fulviflamma is known from Kubuna Creek (USNM collection). This species was reported from Nukulau Island by Herre (1936, as Lutianus fulviflamma) and Fowler (1959) reported it from Fiji from his previous records of Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1934. It was also reported from Suva by Jordan and Dickerson (1879 in Fowler 1959, as Lutianus aureovittatus). It was also reported from Fiji by Whitley (1927, as Lutianus aureovittatus). An estuarine and marine species which usually penetrates the lower reaches of the river. It is distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific; Red Sea, east Africa to Samoa, north to the Ryukyu Islands, south to Australia (Fishbase, 2004).

Lutjanus fulvus was collected from the Tamavua River system, Wailevu Creek and Tavoro Creek from this survey and from the eastern side of Viti Levu in Fiji Islands, Wainadoi and Kubuna Creek (USNM collection). This is a marine species but juveniles are often common at the mouth of the freshwater creeks and rivers. Distributed from East Africa to the Marquesas and Line Islands, southern Japan and Australia (Fishbase, 2004).

Lutjanus gibbus is known from the Rewa River mouth (USNM collections). It was reported from Fiji by Whitley (1927, as Lutianus gibbus) and from Suva by Fowler (1959) cited from his previous records of Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1934. A marine species. This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from the Red Sea and East Africa to Society and Line Islands, north to Japan and south to Australia (Fishbase, 2004).

Lutjanus johnii was collected by Waqairatu (2003) while carrying out her survey from the Tamavua River system. It was reported from Fiji by Whitley (1927, as Lutianus johnii) and Fowler (1959) cited from his previous records in Fowler 1928 and 1934. An estuarine and marine species which usually penetrates the lower reaches of the freshwater stream. Distributed from East Africa to the Fiji Islands, the Ryukyu Islands and Australia (Fishbase, 2004).

Lutjanus lunulatus is recorded by the USNM from Naikorokoro Creek. A marine species. This species is distributed in the Indo-west Pacific from northeastern Arabian Sea to Philippines and Vanuatu (Fishbase, 2004).

86 Lutjanus rivulatus (USNM collection) from the Wainadoi River, just upstream. A marine species. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from East Africa to Tahiti, Japan and Australia (Fishbase, 2004).

Lutjanus russellii was collected from Tamavua River system and Tavoro Creek during this survey and the USNM collection from the Wainadoi River and Kubuna Creek. L. russellii is an estuarine and marine species that enters the lower reaches of the freshwater system. This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from East Africa to the Fiji Islands, Ryukyu Islands and Australia (Fishbase, 2004).

MEGALOPIDAE (Tarpons) Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonet, 1782) was reported in Suva and Ovalau Island by Günther (1880, in Fowler 1959), in Fiji by Whitley (1927) and Fowler (1959) from his previous records of Fowler 1928 and 1931, in Suva by Herre (1936), Naduruloulou Research Station ponds and an unidentified location in Suva by Lewis and Pring (1986). These species inhabitat estuarine areas in the mangroves and freshwater systems. No specimens were collected from this survey. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from South Africa, east to the Society Island and southern Korea (Fishbase, 2004).

MONODACTYLIDAE (Silver Moonfishes) Monodactylus argenteus (Linnaeus, 1758) (Appendix 11, Plate 46)was collected from the Tamavua River system and Tavoro Creek during this survey and from Ovalau Island (BMNH collection) and from Wainadoi (USNM collection). It was reported from Levuka by Günther (1880, as Psettus argenteus) and in Fiji by Whitley (1927) and Fowler (1959) from his previous records from Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1934. Monodactylus argenteus can be found in freshwater, estuarine and marine ecosystems. This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from Red Sea and East Africa to Samoa, New Caledonia and Australia (Fishbase, 2004).

MORINGUIDAE (Worm Eels) Two species of have been in entering fresh waters in Fiji. These are Moringua abbreviata (Bleeker, 1863) and M. macrocephalus (Bleeker, 1863). Moringua abbreviata was collected from Tamavua River during this survey and reported from Namusi (=Namosi) by Fowler (1959) cited from his previous records of Fowler (1928, as Rataboura abbreviata). Schmeltz (1879, in Fowler 1959) reported it from Viti Levu, from Fiji by Whitley (1927) and

87 from Nukulau Island by Herre (1936, as Aphthalmichthys abbreviatus). Moringua abbreviata is a marine species that penetrates the lower reaches of freshwater streams. This species is distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific from Laccadives, Ryukyu Islands, Philippines, Marshall Island to Samoa (Fishbase, 2004).

The Moringua macrocephalus record is from Kanathea (=Kanacea) by Günther (1910 in Fowler 1959, as Moringua macrocephala), in Fiji by Herre (1936, as Moringua macrocephala) and Fowler (1959, as Moringua macrocephala) citied from his previous record in Fowler (1928, as Aphthalmichthys macrocephalus) and Fowler (1934, as Rataboura macrocephala). It is a freshwater and estuarine species. This species is distributed from China to New Guinea, Palau, Fiji and Cook Islands (Fishbase, 2004).

Neoconger tuberculatus (Castle, 1965) is based on Johnson Seeto’s collection from Rewa River in 1987 and from the specimens collected from Tavoro Creek in Taveuni during this survey. It was believed to be endemic to Australia, however, now that it has been collected in Fiji, its distribution extends eastward as far as Fiji. This is a very rare (Dr. J. McCosker, pers. comm., 2004).

MUGILIDAE (Mullets) There are 11 species from five genera reported in the estuarine and freshwater of Fiji. These are Cestraeus plicatilis Valenciennes in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836, Liza macrolepis (Smith, 1846), Crenimugil crenilabis (Forsskål, 1775), Liza melinoptera (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836), L. subviridis (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836) (Appendix 11, Plate 47), L. vaigiensis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825), Mugil cephalus Linnaeus, 1758, Valamugil buchanani (Bleeker, 1853), V. cunnesius (Valenciennes in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836), V. engeli (Bleeker, 1858) and V. seheli (Forsskål, 1775). Six of the species recorded from Fiji were collected during this survey. These are Liza macrolepis, Liza subviridis, Mugil cephalus, Valamugil buchanani, V. cunnesius and. V. engeli.

Cestraeus plicatilis was reported from Fiji by Fowler (1959) citing it from his previous records in Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1934 and the collections from the Wai Manu (=Waimanu) River by MacDonald (1869 in Fowler 1959, as Gonostomyxus loa-loa), in Viti by Schmeltz (1881 I Fowler 1959, as Agonostoma plicatile) and in Fiji by Whitley (1927, as Agonostomus loaloa). Lewis and Pring (1986) and the Rewa River by Andrews (1985). No specimens were collected during this

88 survey. This species usually inhabitats the freshwater and estuarine zone. Distributed in the Western Pacific from Celebes, New Caledonia, Vanuatu and Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

Crenimugil crenilabis is known from the USNM collection from the Lau Islands. It was reported by Fowler (1959, as Mugil tade) from his previous in Suva Fowler (1928) and in Nukulau Island, Fowler (1949). Schmeltz (1869, in Fowler 1959) and Pöhl (1884, in Fowler 1959) reported it from (Kandavu = Kadavu) as Mugil decimradiatus. Whitley (1927, as Mugil kandavensis) also reported it from Fiji and Herre (1936, as Mugil kandavensis) reported it from Kandavu = Kadavu Island). It usually lives in the estuarine and marine water. No specimens were collected from this survey. This species is distributed from Red Sea and East Africa, South Africa, southern Japan, south to Lord Howe Island and Micronesia (Fishbase, 2004).

Liza macrolepis was collected during this survey at Tamavua River system and Vakano Creek in by Kini Koto (Appendix 3). It was reported from Suva by Fowler (1928, 1931, 1934 and 1949, as Mugil macrolepis). It was also reported from Fiji by Whitley (1927, as Liza troscheli), in Suva by Seale (1935, as Liza troscheli) and in Suva harbour by Herre (1936, as Liza troscheli). This is a marine and estuarine species that is also present in fresh water. This species is distributed from east coast of Africa, to Indonesia, China, Philippines, Japan, Marshall Islands, New Guinea, Vanuatu and Samoa (Fishbase, 2004).

Liza melinoptera is reported by the FIT research group from Waimanu River and from Kadavu (BMNH collection). It was reported from Suva by Jordan and Dickerson (1908) and Herre (1936). Lewis and Pring (1986) reported the species from the Rewa delta. It was reported from Fiji by Whitley (1927, as Liza melinopterus). Fowler (1928, 1931, and 1934) reported it as Mugil vaigiensis and later in Fowler (1949 and 1959) reported it as Mugil melinopterus from Suva. This is a marine and estuarine species that enters freshwater. This species is distributed from East Africa to Samoa, Philippines, Tonga, Australia, Palau Island and Marquesa Islands (Fishbase, 2004).

Liza subviridis was collected from the Tamavua River system and the Tavoro Creek during this survey and reported from Nalase Creek by Waqairatu (2003). Fowler (1928, 1931 and 1959) reported it as Mugil dussumieri in Fiji and reported from Suva Harbour by Herre (1936, as Mugil dussumieri). This is an estuarine and marine species that enters the lower reaches of fresh water. Distributed from South Africa to Samoa, and north to Japan (Fishbase, 2004).

89 Liza vaigiensis was collected from the Rewa River mouth and the Lau Islands from the USNM collection. It was reported from Fiji by Whitley (1927) and a reef between Suva and Nukulau Island by Herre (1936). Fowler (1928, 1931, 1934 and 1959) reported it from Suva as Mugil vaigiensis. Fowler (1949, as Ellochelon vaigiensis) reported it from Suva. This is an estuarine and marine species that enters the lower reaches of fresh water. No specimens were collected during this survey. This species is distributed from South Africa to the Tuamotu Islands, southern Japan, and Samoa (Fishbase, 2004).

Mugil cephalus is reported from a river flowing into the Suva Harbour (CAS collection) and collected from Vakano, Tobou and Nukunuku creeks from the Lakeba Island by Kini Koto of WCS (Appendix 3). No specimens were collected during this survey. This is a marine, estuarine and freshwater species. It is distributed between 42°N and 42°S, in coastal waters; a cosmopolitan species (Fishbase, 2004).

Valamugil buchanani was collected from the Tamavua River during this survey and from Waimanu River by the FIT research group. A marine and estuarine species. This species is distributed throughout Indo-West Pacific from South Africa through Philippines, parts of Indonesia, Micronesia and Melanesia; north to Mariana Islands and southern Japan (Fishbase, 2004).

Valamugil cunnesius was collected from Tamavua River system during this survey. This is a marine and estuarine species. This species is distributed from South Africa to the Western Pacific (Fishbase, 2004).

Valamugil engeli was collected from Tamavua River during this survey. It is a marine and estuarine species. This species is distributed throughout Indo-West Pacific from East Africa to Madagascar and Tuamotu Island, Marshall and Mariana Islands in Micronesia.

Valamugil seheli was collected from a river flowing into Suva harbour reported by Ryan (1980). It was reported from Suva as Liza caeruleamaculata by Jordan and Dickerson (1908) and Whitley (1927). Fowler (1928, 1931, 1934, 1949 and 1959) reported it from Suva as Mugil seheli. It was reported from Suva Harbour by Herre (1936, as Liza seheli). No specimens were collected during this survey. This species is distributed from the Red Sea, South Africa and east to Samoa; southern Japan, New Caledonia and Norfolk Island, Madagascar and Hawaii (Fishbase, 2004).

90 MULLIDAE (Goatfishes) There are three species from two genera collected in the freshwaters of Fiji during this survey. These are Parupeneus indicus (Shaw, 1803), Upeneus sulphureus (Cuvier, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829) (Appendix 11, Plate 48) and U. vittatus (Forsskål, 17750 (Appendix 11, Plate 49).

Parupeneus indicus (USNM collection) was collected from the mouth of the Rewa River. It was also reported from Fiji by Whitley (1927) and Fowler (1959) as Pseudupeneus indicus. It is a marine species that penetrates into the estuaries. No specimens were collected during this survey. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific region from East Africa to Samoa and Tonga, Philippines, Ogasawara Island, New Caledonia, Palau Island and Micronesia (Fishbase, 2004).

Upeneus sulphureus was collected from Tamavua River system during this survey and Waqairatu’s 2003 survey and in Kubuna Creek (USNM collection). It was reported in Suva by Kendall and Goldsborough (1911 in Fowler 1959, as Upeneoides sulphureus). Whitley (1927) reported it from Fiji and Fowler (1932, 1934 and 1959) reported it from Suva. It is an estuarine and marine species that penetrates estuaries. This species is distributed from Africa to south-east Asia, northward to China and southward New Caledonia and Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

Upeneus vittatus was collected from the Tamavua River system during this survey and reported from Naikorokoro Creek, Wainadoi River and Kubuna Creek (USNM collection) and from Ovalau Island (BMNH collection). Whitley (1927) reported it from Fiji and Fowler (1932, 1933, 1934 and 1959) reported it from Suva. Initially Fowler (1928 and 1931) reported it as Upeneoides vittatus from Suva. It is an estuarine and marine species that penetrates estuaries. This species is distributed from the Red Sea and South Africa and to Micronesia, Hawaii, Society Islands, north to Japan and New Caledonia (Fishbase, 2004).

MURAENESOCIDAE (Pike congers)

Muraenesox cinereus (Forsskål, 1775) was collected from an unknown location near Suva reported by Jordan and Dickerson (1908) and reported in Fiji by Whitley (1927). Fowler (1934 and 1959) reported it as Muraenesox arabicus in Fiji. It is a marine, estuarine, and freshwater species. No specimens were collected during this survey. This species is distributed from Red

91 Sea, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Japan and Korea, northern Australia (Fishbase, 2004). It is also reported from Fiji and Tuvalu (Fishbase, 2004).

MURAENIDAE (Moray Eels)

There are five species from two genera reported from the estuarine and freshwater systems in Fiji. These are Gymnothorax favagineus Bloch and Schneider, 1801), G. pictus (Ahl, 1789), G. polyuranodon (Bleeker, 1853), G. undulata (Lacepède, 1803) and Uropterygius concolor Rüppell, 1838. All these eels are marine species except for G. polyuranodon that lives in fresh water.

Gymnothorax favagineus was collected by Herre (1936) from Suva Harbour. Fowler (1959, as Lycodontis favaginea) from his 1931 and 1934 report collected from Narokorokoyawa Creek. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from Red Sea and East Africa to Papua New Guinea, southern Japan and Australia; also Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

Gymnothorax pictus was reported from the Rewa River mouth (USNM collection). Jordan and Dickerson (1908) collected it from Suva and Herre (1936) collected it from Nukulau Island. It was also reported from Fiji by Whitley (1927, as Gymnothorax (Siderea) pictus). Fowler (1959, as Lycodontis picta) from his 1928 report collected from Suva Point. Distributed in the Indo- Pacific from East Africa to the Cocos, and Clipperton Islands; north to the Hawaiian and Ryukyu Islands, Australia and throughout Micronesia (Fishbase, 2004).

The only freshwater species of this genus is Gymnothorax polyuranodon collected from the Tamavua River system, upper Navua River, Wainivobo River, Wainasa Creek, mid Wailotua River and Tavoro Creek during this survey. It is also collected from the Waimanu River by the FIT research group, from Ovalau Island (BMNH collection), from an unspecified site in the Fiji Islands by Fowler (1959, as Lycodontis polyuranodon) from his 1928 and 1931 reports and from the mid-upper Nakawakawa River by Pogonowski. Whitley (1927) also reported it from Fiji. This species is distributed from Sri Lanka, Indonesia, New Guinea, Philippines and Fiji (Allen, 1991 and Fishbase, 2004) It is also reported from Palau, Australia and New Caledonia (Fishbase, 2004).

92 Gymnothorax undulata was reported by Fowler (1959, as Lycodontis undulata) from his 1928, 1931 and 1934 report collected from Suva. Whitley (1927, as Gymnothorax undulates and G. stellatus) reported it from Fiji. Herre (1936, as Gymnothorax undulates) reported it from Suva and Nukulau Island. This species is distributed from Red Sea and East Africa to French Polynesia, north to Japan, and the Hawaiian Islands and throughout the whole of Micronesia (Fishbase, 2004).

The other species of this family is Uropterygius concolor, collected at the Tamavua River system by Waqairatu (2003). This is a marine and estuarine species that usually penetrates the lower reaches of the freshwater stream. No specimens were collected during this survey. This species is distributed from Rea Sea and East Africa to the Marquesan and Society Islands, Japan, south to New Caledonia and the Caroline Islands in Micronesia. Fowler (1959) recorded Uropterygius marmoratus and U. fijiensis from Fiji. However, they were collected during this survey as they are marine species.

OPHICHTHIDAE (Snake Eels)

There are five species from three genera in this family that are reported from estuarine and freshwater systems in Fiji. These are Lamnostoma bicolor (Kaup, 1856), Lamnostoma kampeni (Weber & de Beaufort, 1916) (Appendix 11, Plate 50), Pisodonophis cancrivorus (Richardson, 1848), Yirrkala gjellerupi (Weber & de Beaufort, 1916) (Appendix 11, Plate 51) and Yirrkala lumbricoides (Bleeker, 1853).

Lamnostoma bicolor was reported in Namusi (=Namosi) by Fowler (1959, as Caecula bicolor) from his 1928 and 1931 reports that he based it from Schmeltz (1869 in Fowler 1959, as Sphagebranchus bicolor). It was also reported in Fiji by Whitley (1927, as Ophichthys bicolor). The status of this species in Fiji is uncertain

Lamnostoma kampeni (Appendix 11, Plate 29) was collected from the Tamavua River system and the upper Navua River during this survey and also collected by Lewis and Pring (1986, as Achirophichthys kampeni) from Dobuilevu River near the research station and Sovi River, and the FIT research group reported it from Waimanu River. This is a freshwater species that is distributed from Philippines, northern New Guinea and New Caledonia (Fishbase, 2004).

93 Pisodonophis cancrivorus was reported by Fowler (1928, 1931, 1934 and 1959) based from Schmeltz (1869, as Pisodonophis schapii) in Namusi (=Namosi). Whitley (1927) also reported it from Fiji. This is a marine, estuarine and freshwater species. No specimens were collected during this survey. This species is distributed from Rea Sea and East Africa to French Polynesia, north to the Ogasawara Islands and south to Australia (Fishbase, 2004).

Yirrkala gjellerupi (Appendix 11, Plate 30) is an extremely poorly known animal, previously known from a single specimen collected in the early 1800’s in Dutch Northern New Guinea, presently west Papua. This eel was collected from sites 13 and 14 in the middle of Savura Creek in Viti Levu. While it is probably more widespread than collections suggest it is nonetheless a very rarely encountered animal (Dr. J. McCosker, pers. comm., 2003).

Yirrkala lumbricoides is a marine species. The type locality is from Indonesia. However, it was reported in Fiji by Fowler (1928 and 1959, as Caecula lumbricoides) based on Schmeltz (1869 in Fowler 1959, as Sphagebranchus lumbricoides) in Namusi (=Namosi). It was also reported from Suva by Seale (1935). This species is reported from Indonesia and is distributed into the Indo- Pacific therefore is likely to be in Fiji also (Fishbase, 2004).

POECILIIDAE (Livebearers)

There are four species from three genera that have established in the wild in this family in Fiji. These are Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard, 1853), Poecilia mexicana Steindachner, 1863, P. reticulata Peters, 1859 (Appendix 11, Plate 59) and Xiphophorus hellerii Heckel, 1848. Gambusia affinis is common in streams on the island of Viti Levu. This species was introduced as a biological control agent to eliminate mosquitoes, however, it became a pest in the waterways. It was introduced to Fiji and the Pacific Island countries from the USA and Mexico (Andrews, 1985).

Poecilia mexicana was reported from the confluence of the Wainivodi and Wainsavulevu rivers from an INR (1977) and reported from Suva by Ryan (1980), Andrews (1985) and Lewis and Pring (1986). No specimens were collected during this survey despite the facts that the sites where P. mexicana was collected by the others was close to the sites of this survey. This species was introduced as an ornamental species and is becoming established in a few waterways in Fiji. It is known from the Atlantic coast of Central America, from Texas border, through Yucután into Guatemala and Costa Rica and introduced to the Pacific Island countries (Fishbase, 2004).

94 Poecilia reticulata was collected from the Tamavua River system and the Wailotua River during this survey. It was also collected from Suva by Ryan (1980), Andrews (1985) and Lewis and Pring (1986). This species was introduced as an ornamental species which became established in the freshwater system. It was introduced from Western Atlantic and South America, now widespread in Pacific Island countries (Fishbase, 2004).

Xiphophorus hellerii is known as the American sword tail fish and was reported in Suva by Lewis and Pring (1986) and reported from a pond at Tamavua by Ryan (1980). No specimens were collected during this survey. It is also an ornamental species which was introduced to Fiji and became established in the waterways. It is known from Central America: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, Mexico and introduced widely to the Pacific (Fishbase, 2004).

POLYNEMIDAE (Threadfins)

There are two species in the genera Polydactylus in Fiji. These are Polydactylus microstoma (Bleeker, 1851) and P. plebeius (Broussonet, 1782). Polydactylus microstoma is reported from an unspecified location in Fiji by Lewis and Pring (1986) and P. plebeius was reported from the mouth of the Rewa River from the USNM collection. It was also reported from Suva by Jordan and Dickerson (1908) and in Fiji by Fowler (1928, 1931, 1934 and 1959). It was also reported from Fiji by Whitley (1927, as Polynemus plebeius). Both are marine and estuarine species. No specimens were collected during this survey. Polydactylus microstoma is distributed in the Indo- West Pacific from India to New Caledonia and Polydactylus plebeius is distributed in the Indo- Pacific from East Africa including Madagascar and Mauritius and the northern Indian Ocean, Indonesia, to Korea and Japan, New South Wales and New Guinea east to Polynesia (Fishbase, 2004).

SCATOPHAGIDAE (Scats)

Scatophagus argus (Linnaeus, 1766) collected from the Tamavua River system during this survey and from Naikorokoro Creek by Ryan (1980) and the USNM collection and from Dravo Village (CAS collection). This species usually lives in the marine and estuarine mangroves habitat and the young ones inhabitats the lower reaches of the freshwater system. This species is distributed from Arabia to the Society Islands (Fishbase, 2004).

95 SCORPAENIDAE (Scorpionfishes) In the family Scorpaenidae there are four species in three genera known from estuarine zone and freshwater in Fiji. These are Dendrochirus brachypterus (Cuvier, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829), D. zebra (Cuvier, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829), Scorpaenopsis macrochir Ogilby, 1910 and Tetraroge niger (Cuvier, in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1829) (Appendix 11, Plate 52).

Dendrochirus brachypterus was reported from the mouth of the Rewa River (CAS collection). It was reported from Fiji by Fowler (1928, 1931 and 1934) and later Fowler (1959, as Brachyrus brachypterus) based on Schmeltz (1879 in Fowler 1959) from Kandavu (=Kadavu). It was reported from Suva by Jordan and Dickerson (1908, as Pterois sausualele) and in Fiji by Whitley (1927, as Pterois (Brachirus) sausualele). This is a marine species. No specimens were collected during this survey. This species is distributed in Indo-West Pacific from Red Sea and East Africa to Samoa and Tonga to Micronesia and Australia (Fishbase, 2004).

Dendrochirus zebra was collected from the mouth of the Rewa River (CAS collection) and reported from Kadavu (USNM collection). It was also reported from Fiji by Fowler (1928 and 1931) and later Fowler (1959, as Brachyrus zebra) based on Schmeltz (1879 in Fowler 1959) from Viti Levu. It was also reported in Fiji by Whitley (1927, as Pterois (Brachirus) zebra). This is a marine species. No specimens were collected during this survey. This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from Red Sea and East Africa to Samoa north to southern Japan and south to Australia and Lord Howe Island (Fishbase, 2004).

Scorpaenopsis macrochir was collected from the mouth of the Rewa River (USNM collection). A marine and estuarine species. No specimens were collected during this survey. This species is distributed in the West-Central Pacific from northwest Australia, Philippines to Marquesas and Society Islands, north to Ryukyu Islands, western Australia, and Tonga and Mariana Islands in Micronesia (Fishbase, 2004).

Tetraroge niger was collected from the Tamavua River system during this survey and from Kubuna Creek (CAS collection). This is a marine and brackish water species but also enters the lower reaches of freshwater systems. This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from India to Philippines, Indonesia, New Guinea and Japan; also Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

96 SERRANIDAE (Groupers)

There are two species from this family enters the lower reaches of the freshwater system in Fiji. These are Epinephelus lanceolatus (Bloch, 1790) and Epinephelus malabaricus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801).

Epinephelus lanceolatus was reported from an unidentified location in the Fiji Island by Lewis and Pring (1986). It was also reported in Fiji by Whitley (1921 in Fowler 1959) and Fowler (1959) as Promicrops lanceolatus. Fowler (1928 and 1931) reported it from Fiji as Serranus lanceolatus. This is a marine and estuarine species. No specimens were collected during this survey. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from the Rea Sea and South Africa, eastward to the Hawaiian to Pitcairn Islands, southern Japan and Australia (Fishbase, 2004).

Epinephelus malabaricus is a brackish and marine species which was reported from the Wainadoi Creek (USNM collection). Whitley (1927) also reported it from Fiji as Ephinephelus pantherinus and Fowler (1931 and 1934, as Serranus malabaricus). No specimens were collected during this survey. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from the Red Sea and East Africa to Tonga, north to Japan and Micronesia (Fishbase, 2004).

SIGANIDAE (Rabbitfishes)

Siganus vermiculatus (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1835) (Appendix 11, Plate 53) was collected from the Tamavua River system and the Tavoro Creek during this Survey, reported from the Tamavua River system by Waqairatu (2003) and from the Wainadoi River, Kubuna Creek and the mouth of the Rewa River (USNM). It was reported from Fiji by Whitley (1927) and by Fowler (1928 and 1931). Fowler (1932, 1934 and 1959) reported it from Suva. It was also reported from Kandavu (=Kadavu) by Schmeltz (1869 in Fowler 1959, as Tenthis vermiculata) and Schmeltz (1879 in Fowler 1959, as Tenthis vermiculatus). This is an estuarine and marine species. This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from India and Sri Lanka, to Indonesia, Philippines, New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji and Marshall Islands (Fishbase, 2004).

SPHYRAENIDAE (Barracudas)

Sphyraena obtusata (Cuvier, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829) (Appendix 11, Plate 54) was collected from the mouth of the Tamavua River system during this survey. It was reported in Fiji

97 by Günther (1877 in Fowler 1959) and Whitley (1927). Fowler (1928 and 1959) reported it from Suva. This is a marine and estuarine species. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from the Red Sea and East Africa to the Philippines; from Samoa north to Ryukyus, south to Lord Howe Island; Kapingamarangi and Marianas in Micronesia (Fishbase, 2004).

SYNGNATHIDAE (Pipefishes)

There are seven species from two genera in Fiji. There are two species in the genus reported from Fiji. These are Hippichthys cyanospilus (Bleeker, 1854) and H. spicifer (Rüppell, 1838). In this survey no Hippichthys were collected.

Hippichthys cyanospilus was collected from South Draunibota Island (USNM collection) and in Fiji by Dawson (1985) and Kuiter (2000). This is a marine, estuarine and freshwater species. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from the northern Rea Sea and East Africa to Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

Hippichthys spicifer was collected from Naikorokoro Creek, Kubuna Creek, Kadavu and Lau Island (USNM collection) and in Suva by Herre (1953, as Micrognathus suvensis in Kuiter, 2000). It was also reported from Suva by Fowler (1959, as Syngnathus spicifer) cited from earlier records including Fowler 1928, 1932, 1934 and Seale 1935.This is a marine and estuarine species. This species is distributed from Indo-Pacific from Rea Sea and East Africa to Sri Lanka and Samoa (Fishbase, 2004).

There are five species collected in the genus Microphis in Fiji. These are Microphis argulus (Peters, 1855), M. brachyurus brachyurus (Bleeker, 1853), M. brevidorsalis (de Beaufort, 1913), M. leiaspis (Beeker, 1853) and M. retzii (Bleeker, 1856).

Microphis argulus was collected from Wailevu Creek, in Taveuni from this survey and also from Wainibau Creek, in Taveuni by Ryan (1980 and 1981) and in Fiji by Kuiter (2000). This is a freshwater fish species and is distributed from Mauritius and the Comoros to Indonesia, the Marquesan Islands, north to New Guinea, and south to the Society Islands (Fishbase, 2004).

Microphis brachyurus brachyurus (Appendix 11, Plate 55) was collected from the Tamavua River system, Tavoro Creek and Wailevu Creek during this Survey and was collected from the lower Sigatoka River by Pogonowski, Naikorokoro Creek by Ryan (1980) and from Ovalau

98 Island by Fowler (1959, as Microphis brachyurus). This is a fresh and estuarine water fish species and is distributed from Sri Lanka and southern India, to Japan and the Society Islands (Fishbase, 2004).

Microphis brevidorsalis was collected from Tavoro Creek during this survey and from the middle of the Rewa River and Naikorokoro Creek (USNM collection). It was also reported from Suva by Herre (1936, as Micrognathus brevidorsalis) and in Fiji by Fowler (1959, as Micrognathus brevidorsalis). Kuiter (2000) also reported this species from Fiji. This is a freshwater species and is distributed from Indonesia, western Caroline Islands and southeast ward to Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

Microphis leiaspis was collected from the Tamavua River system and Tavoro Creek during this survey, from lower Wainikoro Creek, lower Nasavu, lower Nala, and mid-upper Nakawakawa River by Pogonowski, from Suva by Fowler (1959, as Coelonotus leiaspis) cited from his earlier records of Fowler 1928, 1931 and Seale 1935 and from Waimanu River at Sawani by Ryan (1980) and Lewis and Pring (1986). It was also reported from Fiji by Dawson (1985) and Kuiter (2000).This is a freshwater and estuarine water species distributed from eastern Africa to Madagascar, Southeast Asia and from Japan to Indonesia, New Caledonia and Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

Microphis retzii was collected from the Tamavua River system and Tavoro Creek during this survey, from Tavuki Creek from Kadavu (WCS collection), from lower Wainikoro, lower Nala (Natewa) and mid upper Nakawakawa Creek by Pogonowski, from Wainibau Creek in Taveuni by Ryan (1980) and Waisere Creek in Tailevu from a WI training collection (Appendix 3). This is a freshwater species that is distributed from Indonesia and the Philippines to Pohnpei and Samoa (Fishbase, 2004).

Patricia Kailola has identified another species of Microphis in collections held at the USP. The specimens are from Savura Creek, Ba River and Waidina River.

TERAPONIDAE (Grunters) There are two species in this family in Fiji. These are Mesopristes kneri (Bleeker, 1876) (Appendix 11, Plate 56) and Terapon jarbua (Forsskål, 1775).

99 Mesopristes kneri is an endemic species to Fiji which was collected from the Tamavua River system and the Tavoro Creek during this survey. It was also collected from Naikorokoro Creek, Naqara Creek, Suva, Kadavu and Lau Island from the USNM collection and from Suva by Ryan (1980), reported from a river flowing into Suva (CAS collection), from Tamavua River and Nalase Creek by Waqairatu (2003) and from the mouth of the Rewa River (AMS collection). It was also reported as Therapon argenteus from Fiji by Whitley (1927) and Fowler (1931) and in Suva Harbour by Herre (1936). Fowler (1928, as Therapon kneri) reported it from Suva based from Kendall and Goldsborough (1911 in Fowler 1959, as Therapon maculates). Later Fowler (1931 and 1959) reported it as Terapon Kneri based on his previous reports from Suva. Mesopristes kneri is usually found in estuarine mangroves habitats.

Terapon jarbua was sighted in Tavoro and Wailevu Creek in Taveuni during this survey. They are very difficult to catch as they can avoid the nets that are set up to catch them. J. Pogonowski collected a specimen from the lower Sigatoka River (Appendix 3), and other collections are from Lau, South Draunibota Island and Kubuna Creek (USNM collection). Fowler (1931, 1932, 1934 and 1959) reported it from Suva. It was also reported as Therapon jarbua from Suva by Jordan and Dickerson (1908) and in Fiji by Whitley (1927) and Fowler (1928). It was reported from Suva Harbour by Herre (1936, as Therapon jarbua). This is a marine and estuarine species which can also utilize the freshwater habitat. This species is distributed in the Indo-Pacific from the Rea Sea and East Africa to Samoa, north to southern Japan, Australia and Lord Howe Island (Fishbase, 2004).

TETRAODONTIDAE (Puffers) There are two species of Arothron and a species of Lagocephalus in freshwater in Fiji. These are Arothron immaculatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801), A. reticularis (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) and Lagocephalus lunaris (Bloch & Schneider, 1801).

Arothron immaculatus was collected from three different localities that are close to the sampling sites at the Tamavua River system. They were not collected during this survey. This species was reported from Wainadoi River (USNM collection), from a small creek at Laucala Bay by Ryan (1980). It was reported from Fiji as Tetraodon immaculatus by Whitley (1927) and in Suva by Herre (1936). Fowler (1928, 1931, 1934 and 1959) reported it from Suva as Tetrodon immaculatus. This is a marine and estuarine species. This species is distributed in the Indo-West

100 Pacific from the Rea Sea and East Africa to Indonesia, north to southern Japan, and east to Samoa (Fishbase, 2004).

Arothron reticularis was collected from the Tamavua River system during this survey and Waqairatu (2003). It was also reported from Suva as Tetrodon reticularis by Fowler (1928, 1934 and 1959) and from creeks behind Orchid Island, Pacific Harbour by Ryan (1980). Herre (1936) reported it from Suva as Tetraodon reticularis. This is a marine and estuarine fish species. This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific and north to Ryukyu Islands (Fishbase, 2004).

Lagocephalus lunaris was reported in Suva by Seale 1935 and Fowler (1928 and 1959) as Sphoeroides lunaris. This is a marine and estuarine species (Fishbase 2004). No specimens were collected during this survey. This species is distributed in the Indo-West Pacific from the south coast of South Africa to Japan, PNG and Fiji (Fishbase, 2004).

TRICHIURIDAE (Cutlassfishes) Trichiurus lepturus Linnaeus, 1758 was collected from an unspecified location within the Fiji Islands by Lewis and Pring (1986). No specimens were collected during this survey. This is a marine and estuarine species. This species is distributed globally in tropical and temperate waters (Fishbase, 2004).

101 3.5 Chapter Summary

A total of 76 freshwater and estuarine species from 31 families were found during this survey in Fiji. A total of 151 species from 41 families had been previously recorded and held in museum collections. The total of known freshwater/estuarine fishes in Fiji is now 161 species from 45 families. This report should give an updated list of freshwater and estuarine species in Fiji (Appendix 5).

There are 15 species from seven families that are present in all four geographical zones. More species were found in the central zone while the western zone has the least number of species. This is due to fewer collections that have been carried out in the western zone during the past and current surveys and also perhaps less diverse habitats.

There are a total of 14 species that live in fresh water, 20 species that moved between freshwater and estuarine zones and 55 species that general moved between freshwater, estuarine and marine water (Appendix 7). This gives a total of 89 freshwater and estuarine fish species that are known to this date from Fiji.

Fiji has the second highest known freshwater fish diversity in the Pacific after Papua New Guinea and the third highest level of endemism behind Australia and PNG in the Pacific (Table 3.6). However, if more intense surveys carried out in the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu should record higher estuarine and freshwater fish species than that of Fiji, this would confirm the regional trend of fish diversity which is generally declines from the west to the east Pacific

The common species after combining all the collections are Anguilla marmorata (Anguillidae), and Kuhlia rupestris (Kuhliidae). And the moderate to occasionally common species of the combined collections are Sicyopterus lagocephalus, Kuhlia marginata, Eleotris fusca, Hypseleotris guentheri, Awaous ocellaris, Glossogobius sp.1, Stiphodon rutilaureus, Eleotris melanosoma, Stiphodon sp. 1, Stiphodon sp. 2, Kuhlia munda, Stenogobius sp.1, Oreochromis mossambicus, Awaous guamensis, Ambassis miops, Redigobius leveri and Zenarchopterus dispar. The least common fish species of the combined collections are in Appendix 6.

102 CHAPTER 4 PHYSICAL HABITAT FACTORS INFLUENCING FIJI FRESHWATER FISH DISTRIBUTION

4.1 Introduction

Physical water parameters and habitat types are important factors influencing freshwater species richness and abundance (Reash and Pigg, 1990; Jenkins, 1997). Local factors such as water quality and stream morphology directly influence the distribution of different fish size classes within a stream (Holmguen and Appeberg, 2000). Most species that are common in large rivers are more abundant in shallow, slow to moderate velocity areas such as river margins (Jowett and Richardson, 1994). The abundance of a few species like Anguilla marmorata, Kuhlia marginata, K. rupestris and species of the family Gobiidae is higher in riffles than in runs, probably because of the spaces in the substrate rather than because of any velocity preference (Jowett and Richard, 1994). The substrate and water parameters will also help to determine the type of fish present at different sites (Pusey et al., 1993). Therefore, healthy water bodies with high habitat diversity will support a more diverse freshwater fauna (Pusey and Kennard, 1996).

The riparian plants on stream edges play an important role in the trapping of terrestrial sediments and nutrients along the riparian zone and can therefore influence the aquatic fauna by maintaining habitat structure, water clarity and food web structure (Pusey and Arthington, 2003). A study carried out in Australia by Pusey and Arthington (2003) found that freshwater fish consume terrestrial plant matter directly, this plant matter providing a very important source of energy under certain circumstances.

Previous studies by Haynes (1994) reported that the run-off soil that covers stream bottoms during forest logging, road making and dam building affects all freshwater invertebrates. Major environmental changes are caused by dam building which alters and blocks the natural flow of the river, and subsequently interferes with and destroys native fish populations (Grossman, 1997). Changes to water temperature, damage to riparian plants, poor water chemistry and water quality will also have serious impacts on freshwater invertebrates (Reash and Pigg, 1990).

103 In the Sepik River in New Guinea, Allen and Coates (1990) did not catch any fish when sampling 900 km upstream. However, studies on the Ramu River in New Guinea show that river distance from the coast does not affect fish distribution (Allen et al., 1992). There have been reports of altitudinal variation in fish abundance within different reaches of rivers (Jowett et al., 1996). Furthermore, Haynes et al. (1989) and McDowall (1991) found that elevation and distance from the sea were closely related to fish distribution.

Despite many previous studies, there is still considerable debate in recent literature as to the relative importance of physical and biological factors in structuring fish assemblages in streams and rivers. Habitat complexity, physiochemical characteristics, competition and predation have been used as significant regulatory factors (Pusey et al., 1993).

To date there has been no study which documents the relationship between physical parameters and freshwater fish in Fiji. Therefore, the specific aims of this chapter were:

1. To determine physical habitat characteristics that affect freshwater fish species richness in Fiji; and 2. To determine physical habitat characteristics that affect freshwater fish species abundance in Fiji.

4.2 Methods

4.2.1 FIELD METHODS The study sites and field methods used are described in Chapter 2.

The freshwater fish collections in the Tamavua Water System and the Tavoro fall were carried out in different seasons. This is the wet and dry season. However, fish collections from the other sites were carried out only once and the physical parameters were measured at the time of survey and not monitored over a period of time.

This is due to the poor experimental design that was originally planned for this survey. However, from the data that were collected during this survey, multiple regression analysis was used to determine the relationship between the freshwater fish richness and abundance and the physical habitat characteristic.

104 4.2.2 STATISTICAL METHODS

SPSS Version 11.5 for Windows was used for all analyses and Į was set at 0.05 for all analyses. Multiple regression analyses were used to examine the relationships between physical habitat characteristics and freshwater fish species richness and abundance. Definitions of the terms used are presented below: Richness – refers to the total number of fish species. Abundance – refers to the total number of fish Native – these are local fish that have established without deliberate/accidental introductions by humans. Endemic – these are local species that are only found in one country Introduced – these are fish that are brought in from different countries and now are established in the watershed.

A total of eight multiple regression models (dependent variables: total species richness, native species richness, endemic species richness, introduced species richness, total species abundance, native species abundance, endemic species abundance and introduced species abundance) were tested against six physical parameters: water temperature, pH, river width, river depth, velocity of water and distance from the coast.

Model 1 – Total species richness: Total number of species = temperature + pH + river width + river depth + velocity of water + distance from the coast.

Model 2 – Native species richness: Total number of native species = temperature + pH + river width + river depth + velocity of water + distance from the coast.

Model 3 – Endemic species richness: Total number of endemic species = temperature + pH + river width + river depth + velocity of water + distance from the coast.

Model 4 – Introduced species richness: Total number of introduced species = temperature + pH + river width + river depth + velocity of water + distance from the coast.

105 Model 5 – Total species abundance: Total species abundance = temperature + pH + river width + river depth + velocity of water + distance from the coast.

Model 6 – Native species abundance: Abundance of native species = temperature + pH + river width + river depth + velocity of water + distance from the coast.

Model 7 – Endemic species abundance: Abundance of endemic species = temperature + pH + river width + river depth + velocity of water + distance from the coast.

Model 8 – Introduced species abundance: Abundance of introduced species = temperature + pH + river width + river depth + velocity of water + distance from the coast.

4.3 Results 4.3.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL HABITAT FACTORS AND FISH SPECIES RICHNESS. The total number of species was significantly related to physical habitat characteristics (p = 0.033, r2 = 0.136, Figure 4.1). However, of the physical habitat characteristics, water temperature was the only significant factor (p = 0.001, Figure 4.1A) with total species richness increasing with water temperature. Note: Figures 4.1 to 4.8 are all partial plots and therefore values are not real. Partial plots display the relationship between the dependent variable and one independent variable after removing the confounding influence of the other independent variables.

106 20 20 B A

10 10

0 0 Total number of fish species (partial) species Total numberfish of Total number of fish species (partial) species fish of number Total

-10 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5

Temperature (partial) pH (partial)

20 C 20 D

10 10

0 0 Total number of fish species (partial) species fish of number Total Total number of fish species (partial) species fish number of Total

-10 -10 -10 0 10 20 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

River width (partial) River depth (partial)

20 E 20 F

10 10

0 0 Total number of fish species (partial) species fish of number Total Total number of fish species (partial) species numberTotal fish of

-10 -10 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 -10 0 10 20 30

Velocity of water (partial) Distance from the coast (partial) Figure 4.1. Relationship between total number of fish species and physical habitat characteristics.

107 Native species richness was significantly related to physical habitat characteristics (p = 0. 011, r2 = 0.161, Figure 4.2). Native fish species richness increased with temperature (p < 0.001, Figure 4.2A) and decreased with river depth (p = 0.049, Figure 4.2 D).

A 10 B 12 8 10

8 6

6 4

4 2

2 0 0 -2 -2

-4 Number of native fish species (partial) species fish native of Number

Number of native fish species (partial) species fish native of Number -4

-6 -6 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5

Temperature (partial) pH (partial)

10 C D 8 12

10 6 8 4 6

2 4

0 2

0 -2

-2 -4 Number of native fish species (partial) species fish native of Number

Number of native fish species (partial) species fish Number of native -4 -6 -6 -10 0 10 20 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

River width (partial) River depth (partial)

10 10 8 E 8 F

6 6

4 4

2 2

0 0

-2 -2

-4

Number of native fish species (partial) species fish native of Number -4 Number of native fish species (partial) species Number fish native of

-6 -6 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 -10 0 10 20 30

Velocity of water (partial) Distance from the coast (partial)

Figure 4.2. Relationship between number of native fish species and physical habitat characteristics.

108 The endemic species richness was not significantly related to overall physical habitat characteristics (p = 0. 335, r2 = 0.700, Figure 4.3). However, it did increase with distance from the coast (p = 0.040, Figure 4.3F).

3 A B 3 2

2

1

1

0

0

-1 -1 Number of endemic fish species (partial) species fish endemic of Number Number of endemic fish species (partial) species fish endemic of Number -2 -2 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

Temperature (partial) pH (partial)

3.0 3 2.5

2.0 C 2 D

1.5 1 1.0

.5 0

0.0 -1 -.5 Number of endemic fish species (partial) species fish endemic of Number Number of endemic fish species (partial) species fish endemic of Number -1.0 -2 -10 0 10 20 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

River width (partial) River depth (partial)

3 2.5

2.0 2 E F

1.5

1 1.0

.5 0 0.0

-.5 -1

-1.0 Number of endemic fish species (partial) species fish endemic of Number Number of endemic fish species (partial) species fish endemic of Number -2 -1.5 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 -10 0 10 20 30

Velocity of water (partial) Distance from the coast (partial)

Figure 4.3. Relationship between number of endemic fish species and physical habitat characteristics.

109 The introduced species richness was significantly related to physical habitat characteristics (p < 0.001, r2 = 0.310, Figure 4.4). The number of introduced fish species decreased with distance from the coast (p = 0.001, Figure 4.4F).

2.0 2.0

1.5 A B 1.5

1.0 1.0

.5 .5

0.0 0.0

-.5 -.5 Number of Introduced fish species (partial) species fish Introduced Numberof Number of introduced fish species (partial) species fish introduced Number of -1.0 -1.0 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5

Temperature (partial) pH (partial)

2.0 2.0 C D 1.5

1.5

1.0

1.0 .5

.5 0.0

0.0 -.5 Number of introduced fish species (partial) species Number of fish introduced Number of introduced fish species (partial) species fish introduced of Number -.5 -1.0 -10 0 10 20 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

River width (partial) River depth (partial)

2.0 2.0 E F

1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0

.5 .5

0.0

0.0 -.5 Number of introduced fish species (partial) species Number of fish introduced Number of introduced fish species (partial) species fish introduced of Number -1.0 -.5 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 -10 0 10 20 30

Velocity of water (partial) Distance from the coast (partial)

Figure 4.4. Relationship between number of introduced fish species and physical habitat characteristics.

110 4.3.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL HABITAT FACTORS AND FISH SPECIES ABUNDANCE.

Total freshwater fish abundance was not significantly related to overall physical habitat characteristics (p = 0.143, r2 = 0.097, Figure 4.5). However, total abundance did increase with water temperature (p = 0.007, Figure. 4.5A).

200 200 A B

100 100

0 0 Total numberTotal (partial) of fish Total number of fish (partial) number fish Total of

-100 -100 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5

Temperature (partial) pH (partial)

200 200 C D

100 100

0 0 Total number (partial) of fish Total number (partial) of fish

-100 -100 -10 0 10 20 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

River Width (partial) River depth (partial)

200 200 E F

100 100

0 0 Total number (partial) of fish Total number of fish (partial) number fish Total of

-100 -100 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 -10 0 10 20 30

Velocity of water (partial) Distance from the Coast (partial)

Figure 4.5. Relationship between total abundance of fish and physical habitat characteristics.

111 The abundance of native fish was not significantly related to overall physical habitat characteristics (p = 0.105, r2 = 0.106, Figure 4.6). It did however, increase with water temperature (p = 0.005, Figure. 4.6A).

200 A 200 B

100 100

0 0 Number of native fish (partial) fish native of Number Number of native fish (partial) fish of native Number

-100 -100 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5

Temperature (partial) pH (partial)

200 200 C D

100 100

0 0 Number of native fish (partial) fish Number of native Number(partial) fish of native

-100 -100 -10 0 10 20 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

River width (partial) River depth (partial)

200

200 E F

100

100

0 0 Number of native fish (partial) Number fish of native Number(partial) fish of native

-100 -100 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 -10 0 10 20 30

Velocity of water (partial) Distance from the coast (partial)

Figure 4.6. Relationship between abundance of native fish and physical habitat characteristics.

112 Endemic species abundance was not significantly related to overall physical habitat characteristics (p = 0.340, r2 = 0.70, Figure 4.7), nor to any of the specific habitat characteristics.

40 A 40 B

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0 Number (partial) of endemic fish Number of endemic fish (partial) fish endemic of Number

-10 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5

Temperature (partial) pH (partial)

40 40 C D 30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0 Number of endemic fish (partial) fish endemic of Number Number of endemic fish (partial) fish endemic of Number

-10 -10 -10 0 10 20 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

River width (partial) River depth (partial)

40 40 E F

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0 Number of endemic fish (partial) fish endemic of Number Number of endemic fish (partial) fish endemic of Number

-10 -10 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 -10 0 10 20 30

Velocity of water (partial) Distance from the coast (partial)

Figure 4.7. Relationship between abundance of endemic fish and physical habitat characteristics.

113 Introduced species abundance was not significantly related to overall physical habitat characteristics (p = 0. 503, r2 = 0.055, Figure 4.8), nor to any of the specific habitat characteristics.

200 A B 200

100 100

0 0 Number of introduced fish (partial) fish introduced of Number Number of introduced fish species (partial) species fish introduced of Number -100 -100 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5

Temperature (partial) pH (partial)

200 C 200 D

100 100

0 0 Number of introduced fish (partial) fish introduced of Number Number of introduced fish (partial) Number of introduced fish

-100 -100 -10 0 10 20 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5

River width (partial) River depth (partial)

200 E 200 F

100 100

0 0 Number of introduced fish (partial) fish introduced of Number Number of introduced fish (partial) fish of introduced Number

-100 -100 -1.0 -.5 0.0 .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 -10 0 10 20 30

Velocity of water (partial) Distance from the coast (partial)

Figure 4.8. Relationship between abundance of introduced fish and physical habitat types.

114 4.4 Discussion 4.4.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL HABITAT FACTORS AND SPECIES RICHNESS 4.4.1.1 Total species richness Total species richness was affected by physical water characteristics, in particular water temperature. Total species richness in this study increased with water temperature. A study by Pusey et al., (1993), in Mary River in south-eastern Queensland, Australia shows canopy cover helps to keep the water temperature cool, therefore, give rise to the total species richness. The higher species richness of total species in warm waters in Fiji may be due to the large number of lowland waterways surveyed during this study. (majority of sites were lowland, warmer water sites).

4.4.1.2 Native species richness Native species richness was affected by physical water characteristics, in particular water temperature and stream depth. Native species in this study increased with water temperature and decreased with stream depth.

Bhat (2004) reported that in the central Ghats of India stream depth and altitude are the important parameters determining fish richness. This may be due to the likelihood that streams are more polluted and disturbed in lower reaches in India. The higher species richness of native fish in shallow warmer waters in Fiji may be due to the less polluted and disturbed lowland water systems surveyed during this study.

4.4.1.3 Endemic species richness Endemic species richness was not affected by overall physical water characteristics. However, this study found that there are more endemic fish species when moving inland away from the coast. Likewise, Keith (2003) reported that there are more endemic fish living in the headwaters of streams. However, Jowett et al., (1996) suggested that elevation, rather than distance from the sea or average gradient between the site and sea appeared to limit the distribution of diadromous species. In Fiji it appears that the high number of endemic species is inland headwater sites are due to combination of both distance to the ocean and altitude.

115 4.4.1.4 Introduced species richness Introduced species richness was not affected by physical water characteristics. However, during this study it was found that there are more introduced species found near the coast than in the headwaters of the streams. This is because more people are living on coast therefore, more likely to introduce alien species. Furthermore, introduced species can tolerate a wide range of water pH and salinity (Howe et al., 1997). Therefore the high richness of the introduced species near the coast was due to their ability to survive in high salinity and disturbed habitat.

4.4.2 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PHYSICAL HABITAT FACTORS AND SPECIES ABUNDANCE 4.4.2.1 Total and native fish abundance Total fish and native fish abundance increased with water temperature. However, other studies for example, Rowe et al., (1999) found that fish were more abundant in sites associated with forest canopy that formed the understorey that kept the stream cooler. The high abundance of fish in warmer water in this study may be due to the fact that most of the sites were coastal therefore, had a high abundance of estuarine species.

4.4.2.2 Endemic and Introduced fish abundance In this study the abundance of endemic and introduced fish was not influenced by physical site and water characteristics. This could be due to very low variation in the number of endemic and introduced fish caught in each site except for site 41 and site 61 respectively.

Endemic fish species are associated with different substrate composition characteristics (Pusey et al., 1993) furthermore, their abundance can occur in areas with greater habitat type (Gehrke and Harris, 2000). Generally in Fiji, there was less variety of substrate composition and habitat types in the watersystems surveyed during this study.

In this survey, most of the introduced species are abundant in disturbed areas. This result is not surprising given that introduced species often thrive in disturbed areas (Rosecchi et al., 2001).

116 4.5 Chapter Summary

Despite the poor experimental design the following conclusions were reached. Species richness depends on physical habitat factors, mainly water temperature and river depth for total number of fish species and number of native species and distance from the coast for endemic species. The number of introduced fish species decreased with distance from the coast (p = 0.001).

Species abundance depends on physical habitat factors such as water temperature for the total number of fish species and number of native species. However, long-term monitoring of a single stream in Fiji should clearly show how useful physical parameters and habitat variables will determine which factors are affecting the fish community.

An additional observation made during this survey is that the endemic fish were more common in undisturbed habitats while introduced fish were more common in disturbed areas.

117 CHAPTER 5 FISH COMMUNITIES AND ASSEMBLAGES

5.1 Introduction

Fish communities are adapted to different zones and habitat types in freshwater systems (Almiron et al., 2000). Pusey and Arthington (2003) stated that riparian zones in a freshwater system promote a diversity of fish.

Berra et al. (1975), from a study carried out in the Laloki River in New Guinea, showed that the lower reaches of the main channels contained more species.

The type of coarse organic matter drained into streams from the riparian zone can greatly influence the stream habitat which can also affect the aquatic biodiversity and a range of processes such as fish reproduction and predation (Pusey and Arthington, 2003). The lower elevation systems are often inhabited by more fish species which are adapted to warmer, more turbid, fine-sediment-rich and nutrient-rich conditions (Scott and Helfman, 2001).

Biological monitoring of fishes in the Fly River system in New Guinea showed that the overall decline in fish catches was due to both mine-related and non-mine related factors. The mine- related factors caused the loss of fish habitat through increased riverbed aggradation (from mine waste rocks). Non-mine factors may include natural climatic phenomena, such as El Nino droughts, introduced species and increased commercial and artisanal fishing; these also contributed to the declining fish catches (Swales et al., 1998; Swales et al., 2000).

Common land use practices, such as deforestation, degrade stream habitats and reduce habitat diversity, and are often negatively correlated with taxonomic and ecological diversity (Hicks and Barrier, 1996 and Scott and Helfman, 2001). Such activities lead to shifts in the structure of stream fish assemblages as they disturb fish breeding and feeding areas (Jones et al., 1999).

Canopy cover, substrate types and changes with stream elevations are the main determinant factors of the distributions and densities of tropical stream gobies (Nelson et al., 1997; Keith, 2003). A study of Eleotris sandwicensis in Hawaii showed that it was associated with coarse substrate (Corkum, 2002). The other factors to take into account are behaviour of recruiting

118 juveniles, the natural ebb and flow of streams in response to rainfall, stream locations in entering the ocean and, in one species, the timing of the spawning migration (Nishimoto and Fitzsimons, 1999).

Marquet and Mary (1999) carried out a study in New Caledonia in order to better understand the ecology of some freshwater fish in the families Anguillidae, Kuhliidae and Mugilidae. However, there has been no research on the fish communities and assemblages of freshwater fish in Fiji. Therefore, the specific aim of this chapter is to: determine whether the freshwater fishes of Fiji form distinct fish communities based on habitat.

5.2 Methods The study sites and field methods used are described in Chapter 2.

The fish caught in this survey were divided into six main combinations of river location and bank vegetation stream where fish were collected: These are: a. mouth of creeks with sand substrates with coastal plants on the bank, b. mouth of creeks with silt in substrate mangrove forest c. midreach of river with muddy substrate and riparian plants overhanging on the stream edge usually slow flowing and often dead logs and tree roots in the creek d. midreach of river with sand, gravel and boulders substrate with riparian plants on banks usually fast flow and riffle e. riffles, fast flowing water with fused rocks substrate and rock wall sides and f. deep pools with sand and gravel substrate and riparian plants on side.

Note that in all the different habitats there are certain sites that are exposed to the sunlight without any forest cover and there are sites that are under the forest cover without being exposed to the sunlight. For more description of each site see Appendix 1.

119 5.3 Results The 76 fish species recorded during this survey can be grouped into 6 distinct groups/communities based on habitat (see Appendix 9 and Tables 5.1) for the summary of the fish species collected from the different habitat types.

Table 5.1 Summary of the fish species collected from the different habitat types. Whereby a - mouth of creeks with sand substrates with coastal plants on the bank, b - mouth of creeks with silt in substrate mangrove forest, c - midreach of river with muddy substrate and riparian plants overhanging on the stream edge usually slow flowing and often dead logs and tree roots in the creek, d - midreach of river with sand, gravel and boulders substrate with riparian plants on banks usually fast flow and riffle, e - riffles, fast flowing water with fused rocks substrate and rock wall sides and f - deep pools with sand and gravel substrate and riparian plants on side. Note there are some species that overlapped into more than two different habitat types.

Habitat Total number of families Total number of fish types species a 10 12 b 10 15 c 7 9 d 1 5 e 1 2 ab 3 4 ac 1 1 af 1 1 bc 2 2 cd 7 9 cf 4 8 de 1 1 df 1 3 abc 2 2 bdef 1 1 cdef 1 1

Some fish species can be found in more than one habitat type whereas there are species that were only collected from a single habitat and are known to be restricted to a certain habitat.

120 5.3.1 ESTUARINE ZONE

In the estuarine zone there are two distinctive habitat types that are denoted as a and b. There are a total of 12 species from 10 families that are restricted to the habitat a and there are 15 species from 10 families restricted to habitat b. There are four species from three families that were found in both the habitats a and b. Therefore, there are a total of 31 species from 20 families that are restricted to the estuarine zone. There are seven species from six families that were collected from the estuarine zone and at the same time were collected from non-estuarine area and 37 species from 14 families are non-estuarine species (Table 5.1 and Appendix 9).

5.3.2 RATE OF WATER FLOW (SLOW WATER/FAST WATER/POOLS)

In a habitat which is characteristised by rate of waterflow, there are 54 species from 30 families that are restricted to the slow water, there are eight species from a single family, mainly gobies, that are found in the fast waters and there are 14 species from eight families that moved between the slow water, fast water and pools. There are no fish species that are restricted to pools (Table 5.1 and Appendix 9). The riffles, runs and pool habitats used in this survey closely follow the description of Jowett (1993).

5.3.3 SUBSTRATE TYPES (SAND, SILT, MUDDY, GRAVEL, BOULDERS, FUSED ROCKS AND ROCK WALL SIDES)

There were eight species from seven families that were found in sand substrate (Table 5.2).

Table 5.2 Fish species found in sand substrate habitat. Family Species Family Species Engraulidae Stolephorus indicus Haemulidae Plectorhinchus gibbosus Gerreidae Gerres longirostris Sphyraenidae Sphyraena obtusata Leiognathidae Gazza minuta Teraponidae Terapon jarbua Leiognathidae Leiognathus Tetraodontidae Arothron reticularis splendens

121 There are 16 species from 11 families that were found in silt habitat (Table 5.3).

Table 5.3 Fish species found in silt habitat. Family Species Family Species Apogonidae Apogon amboinensis Mugilidae Liza macrolepis Apogonidae Apogon lateralis Mugilidae Valamugil buchanani Clupeidae Sardinella fijiense Mugilidae Valamugil cunnesius Eleotridae Bostrychus sinensis Mullidae Upeneus vittatus Eleotridae Ophiocara Scorpaenidae Tetraroge niger porocephala Gobiidae; Periophthalmus Siganidae Siganus vermiculatus Oxudercinae kalolo Lutjanidae Lutjanus fulvus Syngnathidae Microphis brevidorsalis Lutjanidae Lutjanus russellii Teraponidae Mesopristes kneri

There were 11 species from seven families found in the muddy habitat (Table 5.4).

Table 5.4 Fish species found in muddy habitat. Family Species Family Species Anguillidae Anguilla megastoma Neoconger tuberculatus Cyprinidae Barbonymus Scatophagidae Scatophagus argus gonionotus Eleotridae Bunaka gyrinoides Syngnathidae Microphis brachyurus brachyurus Eleotridae Giurus margaritacea Syngnathidae Microphis brevidorsalis Gobiidae; Psammogobius Syngnathidae Microphis leiaspis Gobiinae biocellatus Moringuidae Moringua abbreviata

122 There were five species from three sub-families of Gobiidae found in sand, gravel and boulders habitat (Table 5.5).

Table 5.5 Fish species from three sub families of Gobiidae found in sand, gravel and boulders habitat. Family Species Family Species Gobiidae; Glossogobius sp. 1 Gobiidae; Stenogobius sp. 1 Gobiinae Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Redigobius bikolanus Gobiidae; new genus, new Gobionellinae Sicydiinae species Gobiidae; Schismatogobius Gobionellinae vitiensis

There were two species from a single family found in fused rock substrate and rock wall sides (Table 5.6).

Table 5.6 Fish species found in fused rock substrate and rock wall side. Family Species Gobiidae; Lentipes kaaea Sicydiinae Gobiidae; Sicyopus (c.f. Sicydiinae Juxtastiphodon) sp.

5.3.4 VEGETATION TYPES (COASTAL PLANTS/ MANGROVES/ GRASSES AND SHRUBS OVERHANGING INTO THE STREAM AND FOREST COVER). The vegetation types and forest cover were not measured as one of the variables for consideration during this survey. Hence, it was just noted in describing the sites of collections. However, at the end of the survey it was clear that vegetation types and forest cover also influence the fish habitat and their distribution to some extent. This was similar to the findings in a tropical ecosystem in a Venezuelan piedmont stream where streams with forest cover has a higher number of fish richness and abundance (Wright and Flecker, 2004). The vegetation of the different sites surveyed during this study was described in Appendix 1. Therefore, the fish found in relation to the different vegetation types will be presented in the discussion on section 5.4.1 and 5.4.2.

123 5.4 Discussion

5.4.1 INDICATORS OF FISH DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE 5.4.1.1 Estuarine zone There are 31 species from 20 families recorded from this habitat. This is a higher diversity in terms of the fish families present compared to the other zones. Salinity, temperature, and current speed are the factors that influence fish distribution in estuaries (Segar, 1998). Most species in the estuarine zone have marine ancestors and have developed an ability to tolerate a wide range of salinities (Castro and Huber, 1997). Estuaries are incredibly productive and are the residence of a large numbers of organisms, some of which are very marketable (Jellyman et al., 1997). The estuarine zone provides an avenue for breeding and feeding for many birds, fishes and other animals (Kathiresan and Bingham, 2001).

Estuarine fish species are usually associated with the mangrove ecosystem for breeding and feeding (Ro¨nnba¨ck, 1999). Mangrove habitats rate among one of the most productive ecosystems on earth (Singleton, 1997). They are considered important feeding sites for juvenile fish because of increased productivity of detritivorous benthic and plantonic prey organisms, providing an important food source (Grenouillet et al., 2002). Studies by March et al. (2002) have shown that juvenile prawns are more abundant in mangroves than adjacent habitats. Prawns provide an important food source for a number of juvenile fish species such as Caranx sexfasciatus and Gerres sp. (Storey et al., 2000).

The mangrove ecosystem is referred to as the nursery spot for the marine and freshwater species (Vidy, 2000). Therefore, the mangrove forest has a great influence in the fish community structure (Mumby et al., 2004). The flushing of ocean water and the river discharge have contributed to the biodiversity of the fish community of any lower reach of any water system because it is usually dominated by estuarine, marine and coral reef fish species (Loneragan, 1999; Dankwa and Gordon, 2002).

In this study eight species from seven families were collected at the mouth of the streams. These have marine ancestors and are now colonizing the mouth of the streams and so are called estuarine fishes. They are established along the shoreline for feeding and refuge from larger predators (Ro¨nnba¨ck, 1999; Allen et al., 2002).

124 There are eight species from seven families that are found between the estuarine and freshwater water system. These species’ movements are governed by the current fluctuations. They move up and down the streams following the tidal movement that flushes food inland therefore fish species are swimming upstream for feeding. Most of these species that overlap are estuarine species, therefore, they are moving following the tide. The movement between the sea and fresh water is an important factor for the life cycle of these fish that also determines their distribution within a stream (Jowett et al., 1996).

5.4.1.2 Water Rate (Slowwater/fastwater/pools) Combining all the sites with slow water rates during this survey gives a higher diversity. The higher diversity in terms of species in the slow water can be attributed to the availability of food and habitats (Grenouillet et al., 2002).

Site 8 in Savura Creek is a riffle with sand, gravel and boulders substrate. A total of 18 fish species and 72 individual fishes were found there. This site is also exposed to the sunlight, therefore, algae growth is evident on the substrate, attracting the Gobiidae and the herbivores species for feeding (Keith, 2003). It is evident from this study that the abundance of species like A. marmorata, Kuhlia marginata and K. rupestris are higher in riffles due to preference for higher water velocity. This is similar to what Jenkins (1997) found in Upper Yuat River, in Madang, Papua New Guinea where only few species are found in high current speed of larger water bodies.

Site 33b, a pool below the Tavoro falls of Tavoro Creek, recorded a total of ten species and 23 individual fishes. The pool in Tavoro Creek recorded the highest number of species since it was the largest pool that was surveyed in this study. This probably shows that the larger pools provided a wide range of habitat types where fish species can partition themselves within the pool (Jowett, 1993).

5.4.1.3 Substrate types (Sand, silt, muddy, gravel, boulders, fused rocks and rock wall sides)

There are Gobiidae species such as the Awaous guamensis, A. ocellaris, Schismatogobius vitiensis, Stenogobius sp. 1 and Sicyopus zosterophorum that are restricted to sand, gravel and boulders substrate habitat type because of the coarseness in substrate type, food availability and refuge from their predators (Haynes et al., 1989).

125 The Waitavala Creek is a unique habitat type with fused rock and rock wall side, which yielded a new record, and a new species for Fiji. These were Lentipes kaaea and Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp. from the sub family Sicydiinae that are more speciose throughout the insular tropical Pacific (Marquet and Mary, 1999).

5.4.1.4 Vegetation types (coastal plants/mangroves/grasses and shrubs overhanging into the stream and forest cover). There are 16 species from 11 families that were collected from the areas near the coastal plant area and mangrove habitat in this survey which are similar to families and species reported by Allen (1991) and Allen et al. (2002) from New Guinea and Australia. There are more fish families reported in the mangrove habitat compared to the lowland and montane forest zones despite the limited number of mangrove habitats that were surveyed.

The mangrove forest provides shelter for the fish. This is evident with the mangrove habitats in the lower reach of the Savura Creek, which provide increased protection from piscivores by providing habitat complexity.

In this study, native fish abundance was highest for the Sicydiine gobies in catchments with the least forest cover where streams were exposed to sunlight which enhanced the growth of algae for food and breeding (Keith, 2003). The Eleotridae, Syngnathidae and Poeciliidae were most abundant in streams with shrubs and overhanging riparian vegetation on the edge of the lower reaches which provided cover for spawning and feeding (Welcomme, 2002).

It was observed during this study that the forest reserve areas and the disturbed areas also influence the fish distribution and abundance. The forest canopy is to provides the conditions that allow the under stories to develop and these then affect the stream habitat for fish (Rowe et al., 1999).

Sampling intensity was high in Savura and Tavoro creeks, however field observation of the under developed grassland was an important discriminator of the fish distribution. The sites 7 to 11 of the Savura Creek were meadow grassland and from sites, 12 to 21 were in the Savura Forest Reserve. The other sites with understorey of grass into the creeks, understorey shrubs, ferns and riparian vegetation from this survey are sites 8 to 14 and sites 25 to 33. These sites recorded an abundance of fish species.

126 5.4.2 FISH CHARACTERISTICS The fish size, shape and colour are components of the fish themselves that also determine what types of habitat they lived in. Freshwater streams provide a wide range of habitats for fishes. Body size and morphology contribute to the selection of habitats and also seasonal variation in habitats will determine the community structure.

Several species spend most of their time on the river edge under the overhanging plants and grasses, for example Eleotridae, Kuhliidae, Syngnathidae and Poeciliidae. This is an ideal habitat for shelter from predators and a generally safer zone for egg deposition (Welcomme, 2002).

Eleotris fusca, E. melanosoma, Giurus hoedti, Hypseleotris guentheri and Giurus margaritacea of the family Eleotridae and Poecilia reticulata (Poeciliidae) were the species that were commonly more abundant in the creek edges with overhanging vegetations. These species are carnivores with big eyes and mouth which hide in their habitat and wait for their prey to come near or pass by and they attack to feed. At times Kuhlia marginata and K. rupestris were associated with dead logs and tree roots in the streams and species from the family Syngnathidae were also collected under the over hanging riparian plants besides the streams.

There are six species from six families that were caught in the upper reaches during this survey. They are the eel Anguilla marmorata which usually extends as far as the headwaters from the lower reaches. The introduced Oreochromis mossambicus are stocked into some major freshwater system of Fiji as an alternative protein food source (Andrews, 1985) and are widely distributed in the lower and montane zones of a few streams. The sicydiine gobies such as Sicyopterus lagocephalus move upstream to complete their life cycles (Keith, 2003). The jungle perch Kuhlia rupestris can swim upstream in rivers and creeks without barriers such as the waterfalls and are found at above 600 m asl in the upper Ba River. Awaous guamensis in Fiji was similar to what was observed in New Caledonia: it was common along the entire length of the rivers because it preys on insects (Marquet and Mary, 1999). Poecilia reticulata was introduced as an agent for biological control of mosquitoes (Eldredge, 2000) and is becoming very extensive in the Fijian streams and is distributed in the lower and montane zones.

The sicydiine gobies were found in a single creek where they stuck into the crevices of the fused rock to hide from their prey and feed from the algae that are growing on the substrate. Moreover, they are amphidromous species that in the freshwater and their eggs are washed down

127 stream for development before returning to the freshwater system to complete their life cycle (McDowall, 1997; McDowall, 2004).

Fish that overlapped into other habitat types and distribution trend. There were 29 species fron 15 families that were found in more than one habitat (Table 5.1 and Appendix 9). Sicyopterus lagocephalus and Anguilla marmorata were the most widespread species.

The above species are widespread and use a variety of habitat. This can be attributed to their ability to adapt to different habitats or habitat preferences that are influenced by factors like undisturbed catchment vegetation or pristine streams (Chadderton and Allibone, 2000).

Furthermore, fish distribution in this study compares well with fish distribution in the Indo– Pacific, where the number of fish species declines in an upstream direction (McDowall and Taylor, 2000; Joy and Death, 2001).

5.5 Chapter summary In summary, it was found out during this survey that the freshwater fishes in Fiji form distinct fish communities based on the habitat. The fish distribution and diversity were determined by accessing the different indicators that will help to determine the fish species that are likely to be found in the different habitat types.

Therefore, in this survey it was found that there is a family diversity of fish species at the estuarine zone, there is species diversity at the lower and mid reaches of the river and a lower diversity at the upper reaches of the river. The fish species are grouped into these habitats in declining trends of diversity and distribution from the mouth to the headwaters of the streams that were surveyed. Furthermore, there are 29 species from 15 families that can be found in more then one habitat types.

Most of all, it is evident from this study that habitat preference is an indicator of biodiversity and abundance of Fijian fresh water fish. Furthermore, fish species live together in a preferred habitat for feeding, breeding and refuge from their predators.

128 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusions Seventy six species were collected during this survey. An additional 151 species are recorded in literature, recent unpublished reports and are listed in museum collection records. This total includes seven undescribed fish species (one from John Pogonowski’s collection) and four fish species that were not previously recorded from the estuaries and fresh waters of Fiji. Therefore, this work has contributed 11 new records and a new genus to the total number of brackish and freshwater fishes of Fiji. The new species are Glossogobius sp. Redigobius sp., Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp., Stenogobius sp., Stiphodon sp. 1, Stiphodon sp. 2 and Sicydiinae: new genus and new species. One of the new species was already described by Jenkins and Boseto (2005) as Schismatogobius vitiensis. The new records are Yirrkala gjellerupi, Gerres longirostris, Lentipes kaaea and Belobranchus belobranchus. The combined record produced a total of 161 species from 45 families of Fijian freshwater fishes.

The common species after combining all the collections are Anguilla marmorata (Anguillidae), and Kuhlia rupestris (Kuhliidae). The moderate to occasionally common species of the combined collections are Sicyopterus lagocephalus, Kuhlia marginata, Eleotris fusca, Hypseleotris guentheri, Awaous ocellaris, Glossogobius sp.1, Stiphodon rutilaureus, Eleotris melanosoma, Stiphodon sp. 1, Stiphodon sp. 2, Kuhlia munda, Stenogobius sp.1, Oreochromis mossambicus, Awaous guamensis, Ambassis miops, Redigobius leveri and Zenarchopterus dispar. The least common fish species of the combined collections are in Appendix 6.

Some of the least common species are Lentipes kaaea, Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp., Neoconger tuberculatus and Yirrkala gjellerupi which were collected during this survey from a single site or creek.

More species were found in the central zone of Fiji while the western zone was least diverse. Fiji has the second highest known freshwater fish diversity in the tropical Pacific after Papua New Guinea and the third highest level of endemism behind Australia and PNG in the Pacific (Table 3.6). This is valid at the date this thesis was submitted. However, the species richness in Solomon Islands and Vanuatu could surpass Fiji’s record if more estuarine and freshwater fish surveys were carried out.

129 It was ascertained during this survey that the freshwater fishes in Fiji form distinct fish communities based on the habitat. The fish distribution and diversity were determined by accessing the different indicators that will help to determine the fish species that are likely to be found in the different habitat types.

Most of all, it is evident from this study that habitat preference is an indicator of the biodiversity and abundance of Fijian fresh water fish. Furthermore, fish species live together in a preferred habitat for feeding, breeding and refuge from their predators.

The common preferred habitat types are the overhanging grasses in the creeks, understorey shrubs, ferns and riparian vegetation and fine (muddy) to gravel substrate type. The other habitat that is well populated with fish species is the mangrove forest at the lower reaches of the creeks where there are mostly marine and estuarine fishes.

In addition to habitat preferences, it was noted that the conserved terrestrial and marine ecosystems like that of the Tavoro Reserve Forest and the Waitabu Marine Park complement each other with a high diversity of freshwater, estuarine and marine species.

The present study shows that it is possible to identify broad habitat associations of several principal species, although the importance of cover cannot be separated from that of other parameters such as salinity. This is evident from the preference for middle reach areas shown by Eleotris fusca, E. melanosoma, Giurus hoedti and Giurus margaritecea. These species prefer the greater availability of cover offered by water depth, tree roots, understorey shrubs, ferns, riparian vegetation and associated debris.

Freshwater fish species richness patterns are important biodiversity indicators, therefore, they should be given equal treatment to that given to terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Legislation should be put in place to avoid freshwater biodiversity losses associated with human actions, such as the extent of human alterations of freshwater ecosystems here in Fiji, and globally.

The present study has provided the most comprehensive and detailed description of Fijian freshwater fishes yet made. The sampling methods used gave an adequate and detailed description of the freshwater fish community structure and composition in systems surveyed. It is hoped that the information gathered in this study will be used as a baseline to further enhance the

130 knowledge of the Fijian freshwater fish fauna in future studies in Fiji, and facilitate the development of protective legislation for the fresh water systems of Fiji. However, still more places and streams must be surveyed before we can fully understand the Fijian freshwater flora and fauna.

The use of new technology such as the electrofisher has also assisted with new species discovery. It is also imported to check identifications with known experts

6.2 Recommendations At the end of this study there are four main recommendations to be made: 1. Although Fiji still retains most of its original fresh water resources and lacks the economic and industrial pressures of many Asian countries, its small size and isolation makes its freshwater ecosystem and fauna very vulnerable to destruction and degradation. Therefore, if Fiji is to retain its freshwater fauna, legislation and environmental laws are needed. Freshwater ecosystems are as important as the terrestrial and the marine ecosystems because they make the link between the land and the sea. Therefore, stakeholders from the Lands, Forestry and Fisheries Departments should work with other stakeholders for effective management.

2. Long term monitoring of the abiotic and biotic factors that influence the fish assemblages in Fijian streams is required for further understanding of the fish fauna.

3. Proper assessments of the freshwater systems must be carried out first before any development should take place, to avoid destroying the endemic fish fauna that might be restricted to particular sites.

4. Forest and freshwater parks should be established in priority forest areas where new genera and new species have been collected. Furthermore, when setting up a marine reserve, the freshwater system and the forest adjacent to it should also be reserved so that they can complement each other in their species biodiversity.

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151 CHAPTER 8 APPENDICES Appendix 1. Physical parameters, river measurements, fish and invertebrates collected. Note the sites which marked with site 1a or 1b or 1c denotes the number of sampling taking places at that same site in different times of the year.

A. Site 1a. Mouth of Tamavua River. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 29 0C, DO 4.3 mg/L, turbidity 60 %, conductivity 31.3 ȝS, salinity 19.3 ppt and pH 6.3. River measurements: maximum width 25 m, maximum depth 1.2 m, length sampled 100 m. Finfish species caught: Stolephorus indicus (1), Zenarchopterus dispar (2), Ambassis miops (16), Caranx sexfasciatus (7), Leiognathus equulus (1), Lutjanus argentimaculatus (1), Liza subviridis (1), Valamugil engeli (1), and Psammogobius biocellatus (1).

A. Site 1b. Mouth of Tamavua River. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.3 ms-1, temperature 27.7 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 40 %, conductivity 50.7 ȝS, salinity 29.3ppt and pH 6.2. River measurements: maximum width 25 m, maximum depth 1.2 m, length sampled 100 m. Finfish species caught: Sardinella fijiense (2), Gazza minuta (1), Leiognathus equulus (3), Leiognathus splendens (3), Lutjanus argentimaculatus (1), Liza macrolepis (1), Valamugil buchanani (4), Valamugil engeli (1), Upeneus sulphureus (2), Gerres longirostris (1), Sphyraena obtusata (2) and Siganus vermiculatus (1).

A. Site 2a. Tamavua River. Small passage opposite lower Tamavua-i-Wai village. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 29.1 0C, DO 3.9 mg/L, turbidity 60 %, conductivity 44.8 ȝS, salinity 26.3 ppt and pH 6.3. Passage measurements: maximum width 4.8 m, maximum depth 1.2 m, length sampled 20 m. Finfish species caught: Arothron reticularis (1).

A. Site 2b. Tamavua River. Small passage opposite lower Tamavua-i-Wai village. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 26.6 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 40 %, conductivity 42.9 ȝS, salinity 25.9ppt and pH 6.3. Passage measurements: maximum width 4.8 m, maximum depth 1.2 m, length sampled 20 m. Finfish species caught: Valamugil buchanani (1).

A. Site 3a. Tamavua River. Small passage 5 m upstream from Site 2. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 29.1 0C, DO 3. 7 mg/L, turbidity 40 %, conductivity 41.4 ȝS, salinity 25.2 ppt and pH 6.3. Passage measurements: maximum width 8.2

152 m, maximum depth 1.1 m, length sampled 25 m. Finfish species caught: Valamugil cunnesius (1) and Ophiocara porocephala (1).

A. Site 3b. Tamavua River. Small passage 5 m upstream from Site 2. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 25.9 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 50 %, conductivity 37.6 ȝS, salinity 25.4 ppt and pH 6.5. Passage measurements: maximum width 8.2 m, maximum depth 1.1 m, length sampled 25 m. Finfish species caught: Zenarchopterus dispar (6), Poecilia reticulata (9), Tetraroge niger (3), Mesopristes kneri (1), Ambassis miops (23), Apogon amboinensis (7), Apogon lateralis (16), Leiognathus equulus (5), Leiognathus splendens (4), Liza subviridis (28), Psammogobius biocellatus (4) and Siganus vermiculatus (29). Crustaceans: Scylla serrata (1) and Macrobrachium sp 1 (11).

A. Site 4a. Tamavua River. Larger passage compared to that of Sites 2 and 3, about 80 m upstream from Site 3. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 29.4 0C, DO 3. 4 mg/L, turbidity 40 %, conductivity 8.2 ȝS, salinity 4.7 ppt and pH 6.4. Passage measurements: maximum width 9.1 m, maximum depth 0. 8 m, length sampled 30 m. Finfish species caught: Poecilia reticulata (1), Mesopristes kneri (1), Gerres longirostris (2), Lutjanus argentimaculatus (7), L. russellii (1), L. fulvus (2), Monodactylus argenteus (2), Valamugil cunnesius (1), Bostrychus sinensis (2), Ophiocara porocephala (1) and Siganus vermiculatus (10). Crustaceans: Scylla serrata (3), Uca vocans (1) and Macrobrachium sp 1 (2).

A. Site 4b. Tamavua River. Larger passage compared to that of Sites 2 and 3, about 80 m upstream from Site 3. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 27.1 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 30 %, conductivity 40.5 ȝS, salinity 26 ppt and pH 6.0. Passage measurements: maximum width 9.1 m, maximum depth 0. 8 m, length sampled 30 m. Finfish species caught: Sardinella fijiense (134), Leiognathus equulus (50), Upeneus sulphureus (3), Lutjanus argentimaculatus (3), Valamugil buchanani (1) and Siganus vermiculatus (2).

A. Site 5a. Tamavua River, 200 m upstream from Site 4 and Tamavua-i-Wai village. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 27.2 0C, DO 5.0 mg/L, turbidity 60 %, conductivity 8.2 ȝS, salinity 4.7 ppt and pH 6.4. Passage measurements: maximum width 9.1 m, maximum depth 1.1 m, length sampled 35 m. Finfish species caught: Ophiocara porocephala (1).

153 A. Site 5b. Tamavua River, 200 m upstream from Site 4 and Tamavua-i-Wai village. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 26.60C, DO (No reading), turbidity 40 %, conductivity 37.0 ȝS, salinity 15.4 ppt and pH 6.1. Passage measurements: maximum width 9.1 m, maximum depth 1.1 m, length sampled 35 m. Finfish species caught: Lutjanus fulvus (2).

A. Site 6a. Tamavua River, 600 m upstream from Site 5. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 25.5 0C, DO 5.2 mg/L, turbidity 50 %, conductivity 18.6 ȝS, salinity 11.3 ppt and pH 6.3. Passage measurements: maximum width 4.2 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 24 m. Finfish species caught: Poecilia reticulata (1), Tetraroge niger (1), Ambassis miops (3), Apogon amboinensis (6), A. lateralis (3), Caranx sexfasciatus (2), Leiognathus equulus (5), Lutjanus argentimaculatus (1), Upeneus vittatus (3), Liza subviridis (1) and Siganus vermiculatus (10).

A. Site 6b. Tamavua River, 600 m upstream from Site 5. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 26.6 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 30 %, conductivity 24.9 ȝS, salinity 15.4 ppt and pH 6.0. Passage measurements: maximum width 4.2 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 24 m. Finfish species caught: none.

A. Site 7a. Lower Savura Creek, 50 m upstream from confluence of Savura Creek and Tamavua River and 400 m away from Wailoku Pump Station. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 26.7 0C, DO 6.2 mg/L, turbidity 40 %, conductivity 93 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 5.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 12 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 18 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (1), Lamnostoma kampeni (2), Poecilia reticulata (1), Ambassis miops (13), Eleotris melanosoma (1), Giurus hoedti (5) and Hypseleotris guentheri (5).

A. Site 7b. Lower Savura Creek, 50 m upstream from confluence of Savura Creek and Tamavua River and 400 m away from Wailoku Pump Station. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.2 ms-1, temperature 25.1 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 70 %, conductivity 195.9 ȝS, salinity 0.1 ppt and pH 6.0. Creek measurements: maximum width 12 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 18 m. Finfish species caught: Ambassis miops (3) and Eleotris fusca (1). Crustaceans: Macrobrachium sp. 1 (2)

154 A. Site 8a. Savura Creek, 300 m upstream from Site 7. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.11 ms-1, temperature 26.1 0C, DO 7.0 mg/L, turbidity 40 %, conductivity 82.5 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 14 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 81 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (2), A. megastoma (1), Gymnothorax polyuranodon (1), Poecilia reticulata (6), Microphis brachyurus brachyurus (3), Ambassis miops (9), Kuhlia marginata (1), K. rupestris (1), Caranx sexfasciatus (1), Scatophagus argus (1), Awaous ocellaris (1), Glossogobius sp. 1 (1), Stenogobius sp. 1 (1), Bunaka gyrinoides (1), Eleotris fusca (7), E. melanosoma (9), Giurus margaritacea (13) and Hypseleotris guentheri (11).

A. Site 8b. Savura Creek, 300 m upstream from Site 7. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 26.3 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 70 %, conductivity 186.8 ȝS, salinity 0.1 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 14 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 81 m. Finfish species caught: Eleotris fusca (2) and Hypseleotris guentheri (2). Crustacean: Macrobrachium sp. (3)

A. Site 9a. Savura Creek, 200 m upstream from Site 8. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.25 ms-1, temperature 29.9 0C, DO 8.0 mg/L, turbidity 40 %, conductivity 74.9 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 10 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 45.4 m. Finfish species caught: Poecilia reticulata (1), Ambassis miops (4), Awaous ocellaris (1), Stenogobius sp.1 (7), Eleotris fusca (18), E. melanosoma (15), Giurus margaritacea (12) and Hypseleotris guentheri (5).

A. Site 9b. Savura Creek, 200 m upstream from Site 8. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.2 ms-1, temperature 25.1 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 65 %, conductivity 122.4 ȝS, salinity 0.1 ppt and pH 6.1. Creek measurements: maximum width 10 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 45.4 m. Finfish species caught: Zenarchopterus dispar (1), Ambassis miops (1), Eleotris fusca (2), Hypseleotris guentheri (4) and Giurus margaritacea (1). Crustaceans: Varuna litterata (1), Macrobrachium sp. 1 (1), Macrobrachium sp. 2 (3) and Macrobrachium sp. 3 (1)

A. Site 10a. Savura Creek, 200 m upstream from Site 9. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 27.4 0C, DO 7. 9 mg/L, turbidity 40 %, conductivity 77.3 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 6 m, maximum depth 0.2 m,

155 length sampled 102 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (5), Moringua abbreviata (1), Microphis leiaspis (5), Ambassis miops (3), Kuhlia marginata (5), K. rupestris (1), Awaous ocellaris (1), Psammogobius biocellatus (1), Stenogobius sp. 1 (1), Eleotris fusca (10), E. melanosoma (10), Hypseleotris guentheri (3) and Giurus margaritacea (9).

A. Site 10b. Savura Creek, 200 m upstream from Site 9. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 25.3 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 70 %, conductivity 106.2 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.1. Creek measurements: maximum width 6 m, maximum depth 0.2 m, length sampled 102 m. Finfish species caught: Ambassis miops (2), Eleotris fusca (2), Hypseleotris guentheri (4) and Giurus margaritacea (1). Crustaceans: Macrobrachium sp. 1 (3).

A. Site 11a. Savura Creek, 200 m upstream from Site 10. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 27.5 0C, DO 8.0 mg/L, turbidity 40 %, conductivity 67.3 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 6 m, maximum depth 0.4 m, length sampled 98 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (8), Poecilia reticulata (1), Kuhlia marginata (3), K. rupestris (7), Awaous ocellaris (1), Redigobius leveri (2), Schismatogobius vitiensis (1), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (13), Stenogobius sp. 1(1), Eleotris fusca (12), E. melanosoma (1), Hypseleotris guentheri (2) and Giurus margaritacea (2).

A. Site 11b. Savura Creek, 200 m upstream from Site 10. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.2 ms-1, temperature 23.7 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 85 %, conductivity 81.5 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.1. Creek measurements: maximum width 6 m, maximum depth 0.4 m, length sampled 98 m. Finfish species caught: Poecilia reticulata (1), Kuhlia marginata (1), Stenogobius sp. 1 (5), Eleotris fusca (2), Hypseleotris guentheri (4) and Giurus margaritacea (1). Crustaceans: Macrobrachium sp. 1 (6), Caridina sp. (2). Molluscan species collected: Melanoides tuberculata (4).

A. Site 12a. Savura Creek, 200 m upstream from Site 11. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 28.6 0C, DO 7.0 mg/L, turbidity 50 %, conductivity 76.2 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 14 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 105 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla megastoma (1), A. marmorata (6), Ambassis miops (1) Kuhlia marginata (8), K. munda (2), K. rupestris (1), Glossogobius sp. 1 (1) Eleotris fusca (29), E. melanosoma (16), Giurus hoedti (1), Hypseleotris guentheri (12) and Giurus margaritacea (3).

156 A. Site 12b. Savura Creek, 200 m upstream from Site 11. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 23.0 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 90 %, conductivity 77.0 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 14 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 105 m. Finfish species caught: Stenogobius sp. 1 (3) and Hypseleotris guentheri (3). Crustaceans: Macrobrachium sp. 1 (5).

A. Site 13a. Savura Creek, 200 m below water dam. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.4 – 1.2 ms-1, temperature 25.7 0C, DO 8.1 mg/L, turbidity 50 %, conductivity 58.1 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 14.2 m, maximum depth 0.7 m, length sampled 28 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (2), Yirrkala gjellerupi (1), Poecilia reticulata (1), Microphis retzii (1), Kuhlia marginata (3), Schismatogobius vitiensis (2), Stenogobius sp. 1 (1), Eleotris fusca (12), E. melanosoma (5), Giurus margaritacea (1) and Hypseleotris guentheri (6).

A. Site 13b. Savura Creek, 200 m below water dam. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.2 – 1.0 ms-1, temperature 24.3 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 80 %, conductivity 84.7 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 14.2 m, maximum depth 0.7 m, length sampled 28 m. Finfish species caught: Poecilia reticulata (3), Kuhlia marginata (2), Eleotris fusca (1) and Hypseleotris guentheri (1).

A. Site 14a. Savura Creek. Deep pool below water dam, 10 m upstream from Site 13. This site is disturbed due to building of dam; therefore, trees near dam cleared. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0 – 1.2 ms-1, temperature 25.7 0C, DO 8.1 mg/L, turbidity 50 %, conductivity 58.1 ȝS, salinity 0 and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 14.2 m, maximum depth 1.4 m, length sampled 10 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (3), Yirrkala gjellerupi (3), Microphis retzii (1), Kuhlia marginata (3), Caranx sexfasciatus (1), Eleotris fusca (19), E. melanosoma (1), Giurus hoedti (1) and Hypseleotris guentheri (6). Crustaceans: Thalamita sp. (1) and Varuna litterata (1). Mollusca species collected: Melanoides tuberculata (4).

A. Site 14b. Savura Creek. Deep pool below water dam, 10 m upstream from Site 13. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 – 1.2 ms-1, temperature 23.5 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 95 %, conductivity 81.6 ȝS, salinity 0 and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 14.2 m, maximum depth 1.4 m, length sampled 10 m. Finfish species caught: Poecilia

157 reticulata (6), Kuhlia marginata (3), Eleotris fusca (4), E. melanosoma (1), Hypseleotris guentheri (13) and Stenogobius sp. 1 (7).

A. Site 15a. Vago Creek. Sampling at confluence of Vago Creek and Savura Creek, 50 m upstream from Site 14. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.2 – 0.8 ms-1, temperature 24.5 0C, DO 7. 9 mg/L, turbidity 80 %, conductivity 47.8 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 11 m, maximum depth 0.8 m, length sampled 37 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (5), Poecilia reticulata (7), Stiphodon sp. 2 (1), Stiphodon rutilaureus (1), Eleotris fusca (2) and E. melanosoma (5).

A. Site 15b. Vago Creek. Sampling at confluence of Vago Creek and Savura Creek, 50 m upstream from Site 14. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.2 – 1.0 ms-1, temperature 23.0 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 90 %, conductivity 77.0 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 11 m, maximum depth 0.8 m, length sampled 37 m. Finfish species caught: Poecilia reticulata (5) and Stiphodon sp. 1 (1). Molluscan species collected: Melanoides tuberculata (6).

A. Site 16a. Vago Creek, 10 m upstream from Site 15. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.3 – 0.6 ms-1, temperature 25.1 0C, DO 7.6 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 48.6 ȝs, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 15.5 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 36.7 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (5), Poecilia reticulata (3), Kuhlia rupestris (1), Eleotris fusca (7) and E. melanosoma (3).

A. Site 16b. Vago Creek, 10 m upstream from Site 15. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 – 0.5 ms-1, temperature 23.10C, DO (No reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 40.2 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 15.5 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 36.7 m. Finfish species caught: Redigobius leveri (2) and Sicyopterus lagocephalus (5).

A. Site 17a. Vago Creek, 10 m upstream from Site 16. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.3 – 0.6 ms-1, temperature 25.1 0C, DO 7.6 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 48.6 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 15.3 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 10 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (4), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (4), Eleotris fusca (3) and E. melanosoma (5).

158 A. Site 17b. Vago Creek, 10 m upstream from Site 16. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.2 – 0.4 ms-1, temperature 23.3 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 32.4 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 15.3 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 10 m. Finfish species caught: Sicyopterus lagocephalus (2) and Stiphodon sp. 1 (1). Molluscan species collected: Melanoides tuberculata (3).

A. Site 18a. Vago Creek, 20 m upstream from Site 17. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 23.7 0C, DO 7.8 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 52.6 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.4. Creek measurements: maximum width 13.7 m, maximum depth 0.4 m, length sampled 50 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (4), Redigobius leveri (7), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (4), Stiphodon rutilaureus (2) and Eleotris melanosoma (21).

A. Site 18b. Vago Creek, 20 m upstream from Site 17. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.3 ms-1, temperature 23.1 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 57.1 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 13.7 m, maximum depth 0.4 m, length sampled 50 m. Finfish species caught: Sicyopterus lagocephalus (1), Sicyopus zosterophorum (1), Stiphodon sp. 1 (2) and Stiphodon sp. 2 (1). Molluscan species collected: Melanoides tuberculata (4).

A. Site 19a. Vago Creek, 20 m upstream from Site 18 and also below Vago Waterfall. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 24.1 0C, DO 6.8 mg/L, turbidity 80 %, conductivity 53.3 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 12 m, maximum depth 2.9 m, length sampled 30 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (5), Kuhlia rupestris (1), Redigobius leveri (2), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (5) and Eleotris melanosoma (25).

A. Site 19b. Vago Creek, 20 m upstream from Site 18 and also below Vago Waterfall. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 23.8 0C, DO (No reading), turbidity 90 %, conductivity 61.1 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 12 m, maximum depth 2.9 m, length sampled 30 m. Finfish species caught: Sicyopterus lagocephalus (3) and Stiphodon sp. 1 (1).

A. Site 20a. Vago Creek, at top of Vago Waterfall. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 24.5 0C, DO 7.6 mg/L, turbidity 70 %, conductivity 76.6 ȝS, salinity

159 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 15 m, maximum depth 0.7 m, length sampled 100 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (7) and Sicyopterus lagocephalus (20).

A. Site 20b. Vago Creek, at top of Vago Waterfall. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 23.2 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 66.9 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 15 m, maximum depth 0.7 m, length sampled 100 m. Finfish species caught: Sicyopterus lagocephalus (1), Sicyopus zosterophorum (5), Stiphodon sp. 1 (2) and Stiphodon sp. 2 (1). Molluscan species collected: Melanoides tuberculata (11).

A. Site 21a. Vago Creek, above Vago waterfall, 200 m upstream from its edge. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 24.5 0C, DO 7.6 mg/L, turbidity 70 %, conductivity 76.6 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 15 m, maximum depth 1 m, length sampled 100 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (2) and Sicyopterus lagocephalus (3).

A. Site 21b. Vago Creek, above Vago waterfall, 200 m upstream from its edge. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 23.7 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 72.1 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 15 m, maximum depth 1 m, length sampled 100 m. Finfish species caught: Sicyopterus lagocephalus (5), Sicyopus zosterophorum (4) and Stiphodon sp. 2 (1). Molluscan species collected: Melanoides tuberculata (7).

B. Site 43. Upper Navua River. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 24.7 0C, DO 6.6 mg/L, turbidity 20 %, conductivity 119.3 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. River measurements: maximum width 13 m, maximum depth 1.5 m, length sampled 30 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (4), Gymnothorax polyuranodon (1), Lamnostoma kampeni (2), Kuhlia marginata (1), K. rupestris (1), Awaous ocellaris (1), Redigobius leveri (1), Schismatogobius vitiensis (2), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (7), Stenogobius sp. 1 (2) and Eleotris melanosoma (5).

B. Site 44. Upper Navua River, side stream into flowing river. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 24.6 0C, DO 7.4 mg/L, turbidity 20 %,

160 conductivity 110.8 ȝS, salinity 0.1 ppt and pH 6.2. River measurements: maximum width 13 m, maximum depth 1.5 m, length sampled 5 m. Finfish species caught and observed: Oreochromis mossambicus (2), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (2) and Stenogobius sp. 1 (1).

C. Site 45 Sovi River. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 3.0 ms-1, temperature 23.7 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 51 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. River measurements: maximum width 7 m, maximum depth 1.2 m, length sampled 10 m. Finfish species observed: Anguilla marmorata (2), Kuhlia marginata (8), K. rupestris (11), Awaous ocellaris (12), Schismatogobius vitiensis (1), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (1), Stiphodon rutilaureus (5) and Belobranchus belobranchus (7).

D. Site 46. Lower Wainadi Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 23.8 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 60.2 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 4.3 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 10 m. Finfish species caught and observed: Anguilla marmorata (1), Kuhlia marginata (2), K. rupestris (4), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (1) and Stiphodon rutilaureus (5). Crustacean species caught: Macrobrachium rosenbergii (2).

D. Site 47. Mid Wainadi Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 23.8 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 66.5 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 3.5 m, maximum depth 0.7 m, length sampled 12 m. Finfish species observed: Anguilla marmorata (3), Kuhlia marginata (5), K. rupestris (4), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (1) and Stiphodon rutilaureus (5).

D. Site 52. Upper Wainadi Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 24.2 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 46 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 1.5 m, maximum depth 0.3 m, length sampled 3 m. Finfish species observed: Anguilla marmorata (2), Kuhlia marginata (7), K. rupestris (9), Awaous ocellaris (4), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (2) and Stiphodon rutilaureus (3).

E. Site 48. Lower to mid Wainavobo River. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 23.6 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 52 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. River measurements: maximum width 4 m, maximum depth 0.4 m, length sampled 8 m. Finfish species caught and observed: Anguilla marmorata (6),

161 Gymnothorax polyuranodon (1), Kuhlia marginata (17), K. rupestris (21), Stiphodon rutilaureus (7) and Belobranchus belobranchus (5).

F. Site 49. Lower section of Wainasa Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 23.7 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 60.7 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 5 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 10 m. Finfish species caught and observed: Anguilla marmorata (3), Gymnothorax polyuranodon (2), Kuhlia marginata (12), K. rupestris (15), Awaous ocellaris (7), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (3), Stiphodon rutilaureus (5) and Belobranchus belobranchus (4).

G. Site 50. Upper section of Wainivalau River. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 2.5 ms-1, temperature 23.7 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity100 %, conductivity 48 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. River measurements: maximum width 5 m, maximum depth 0.3 m, length sampled 10 m. Finfish species caught and observed: Anguilla marmorata (7), Kuhlia marginata (9), K. rupestris (14), Awaous ocellaris (9), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (5), Stiphodon rutilaureus (9) and Belobranchus belobranchus (6). Crustacean species caught: Macrobrachium rosenbergii (8).

H. Site 51. Lower section of Waibasaga Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 23.8 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 80 %, conductivity 66.5 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 5 m, maximum depth 1.5 m, length sampled 10 m. Finfish species caught and observed: Anguilla marmorata (5), Kuhlia marginata (10), K. rupestris (7), Awaous ocellaris (3) and Stiphodon rutilaureus (3).

I. Site 53. Waiveikovi Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 1.0 ms-1, temperature17.3 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 46 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 2 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 100 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (2). Crustacean species caught: Caridina nudirostris (abundant).

J. Site 54. Wabu Creek (Wabu watershed). Physical water parameters measured: current speed 1.2 ms-1, temperature 17.9 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 43.7 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 4 m, maximum depth 1.2 m, length

162 sampled 100 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (2). Crustacean species caught: Caridina nudirostris (abundant).

K. Site 60. Wairoko Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 1.2 ms-1, temperature 23.6 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 30 %, conductivity 73.5 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.5. Creek measurements: maximum width 5 m, maximum depth 1.3 m, length sampled 50 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (1), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (5) and Stiphodon rutilaureus (1). Crustacean species caught: Macrobrachium caledonicum (1), Macrobrachium lar (3) and Macrobrachium rosenbergii (1). Molluscan species caught: Melanoides tuberculata (9). Insecta species caught: millipod sp. (1).

L. Site 61. Oxbow pools along Wailotua River. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.5 ms-1, temperature 25.5 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 70 %, conductivity 158 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.5. River measurements: maximum width 10 m, maximum depth 1.0 m, length sampled 25 m. Finfish species caught: Barbonymus gonionotus (10), Poecilia reticulata (190), Awaous ocellaris (3). Glossogobius sp. 1 (1) and Eleotris fusca (1). Crustacean species caught: Macrobrachium lar (16), Palaemon debilis (20) and Caridina nudirostris (abundant). Molluscan species caught: Melanoides arthurii (2), Thiara scabra (8) and T. terpsichore (9).

L. Site 62. Mid Wailotua River. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.3 ms-1, temperature 24.5 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 70 %, conductivity 147.4 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.4. River measurements: maximum width 10 m, maximum depth1.5 m, length sampled 40 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (1), Gymnothorax polyuranodon (3), Poecilia reticulata (61), Kuhlia marginata (21), K. rupestris (28), Caranx sexfasciatus (1), Oreochromis mossambicus (1), Bunaka gyrinoides (1) and Giurus margaritacea (1). Crustacean species caught: Macrobrachium lar (4).

R. Site 63. Upper Ba River. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 1 ms-1, temperature 21.4 0C, DO 6.7, turbidity100 %, conductivity 83.8 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 7.8. River measurements: maximum width 9 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 15 m. Finfish species caught and observed: Anguilla marmorata (1), Gambusia affinis (13), K. rupestris (4) and Oreochromis mossambicus (3). Crustacean species caught: Caridina fijiana (abundant) and molluscan species collected: Melanoides tuberculata (abundant) and M. lutosa (5).

163 S. Site 64. Nukunuku Creek Physical water parameters measured: current speed 1.2 ms-1, temperature 20.9 0C, DO 7.1 mg/L turbidity100 %, conductivity 56.3 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 7.5. River measurements: maximum width 12 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 20 m. Finfish species caught and observed: Anguilla marmorata (3), Gambusia affinis (2), Oreochromis mossambicus (4), Awaous guamensis (3) and Sicyopterus lagocephalus (1). Crustacean species caught: Caridina sp. 1 (abundant), Macrobrachium equidens (2), M. rosenbergii (2), and molluscan species collected: Melanoides tuberculata (3) and M. lutosa (5).

T. Site 65. Nadala Creek Physical water parameters measured: current speed 1 ms-1, temperature 21.7 0C, DO 7.13 mg/L turbidity100 %, conductivity 56.4 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.9. River measurements: maximum width 6 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 25 m. Finfish species caught and observed: Anguilla marmorata (1), Gambusia affinis (7), Oreochromis mossambicus (2), Awaous guamensis (2) and Sicyopterus lagocephalus (4). Crustacean species caught: Caridina sp. 1 (abundant) and molluscan species collected: Melanoides tuberculata (3).

U. Site 66. Qaliwana Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.3 – 1 ms-1, temperature 21.1 0C, DO 7.13, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 54.7 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.94. River measurements: maximum width 5 m, maximum depth 0.3 m, length sampled 10 m. Finfish species caught and observed: Anguilla marmorata (2), Gambusia affinis (5), Oreochromis mossambicus (3), Awaous guamensis (3) and Sicyopterus lagocephalus (2). Crustacean species caught: Macrobrachium rosenbergii (8). Crustacean species caught: Caridina fijiana (11), Caridina sp. 1 (8), and molluscan species collected: Melanoides tuberculata (7) and M. lutosa (5).

M. Site 22. Mouth of Tavoro Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 27.9 0C, DO 6. 5 mg/L, turbidity 50 %, conductivity 22.8 ȝS, salinity 30.8 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurement: maximum width 30 m, maximum depth 2.5 m, length sampled 50 m. Finfish species caught: Terapon jarbua (1), Leiognathus fasciatus (1), Liza subviridis (1), Lutjanus fulvus (1), L. russellii (1), Periophthalmus kalolo (1) and Siganus vermiculatus (1).

M. Site 23. Tavoro Creek, 50 m away from mouth. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 25.8 0C, DO 6.6 mg/L, turbidity 40 %, conductivity 36.5 ȝS, salinity 2.8 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 25 m, maximum depth 1.0 m, length

164 sampled 50 m. Finfish species caught: Mesopristes kneri (1), Lutjanus argentimaculatus (1), L. russellii (1), Plectorhinchus gibbosus (2), Monodactylus argenteus (1) and Diodon liturosus (1).

M. Site 24. Tavoro Creek, 50 m away from Site 23 and 10 m downstream from a bridge. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 27.2 0C, DO 6.1 mg/L, turbidity 40 %, conductivity 38 ȝS, salinity 2.5 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 20 m, maximum depth 1.5m, length sampled 50 m. Finfish species caught: Terapon jarbua (1) and Lutjanus russellii (1).

M. Site 25a. Tavoro Creek, a metre upstream of bridge. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 23.8 0C, DO 7.8 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 53.9 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 16 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 29 m. Finfish species caught: Kuhlia marginata (2), K. munda (3), K. rupestris (3) Eleotris melanosoma (11) and Stiphodon rutilaureus (1).

M. Site 25b. Tavoro Creek, a metre upstream of bridge. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 28.2 0C, DO 7.2 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 43.8 ȝS, salinity 2.9 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 16 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 29 m. Finfish species caught: Ambassis miops (3), Kuhlia marginata (5), Redigobius bikolanus (2) and Eleotris melanosoma (5).

M. Site 26a. Tavoro Creek, 50 m upstream of bridge. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.2 ms-1, temperature 23.6 0C, DO 6.8 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 44.3 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 18 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 17 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (1), Zenarchopterus dispar (3), Microphis brachyurus brachyurus (1), Ambassis miops (8), Kuhlia marginata (1) and Eleotris melanosoma (5).

M. Site 26b. Tavoro Creek, 50 m upstream of bridge. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 27.2 0C, DO 7.0 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 66.1 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 6 m, maximum depth 0.5, length sampled 26 m. Finfish species caught: Glossogobius sp. 1 (1), Stiphodon rutilaureus (3) and Eleotris melanosoma (15).

165 M. Site 27a. Tavoro Creek, 100 m upstream of bridge. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 23.6 0C, DO 5.3 mg/L, water turbidity 100 %, conductivity 41.5 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 18 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 22 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (3), Microphis brachyurus brachyurus (1), Kuhlia marginata (1), K. munda (1), Stiphodon rutilaureus (1), Eleotris melanosoma (15) and Giurus margaritacea (4).

M. Site 27b. Tavoro Creek, 100 m upstream of bridge. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.02 ms-1, temperature 27.2 0C, DO 7.0 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 66.1 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 9 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 22 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (2), Ambassis miops (1), Kuhlia rupestris (1), Redigobius leveri (2), Stiphodon rutilaureus (1), Stiphodon sp. 1 (1), Eleotris melanosoma (15) and Giurus margaritacea (3).

M. Site 28a. Tavoro Creek, 100 m upstream of Site 27. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.02 ms-1, temperature 23.8 0C, DO 8.5 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 66.1 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 9 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 28 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (10), Neoconger tuberculatus (1), Gymnothorax polyuranodon (3), Kuhlia marginata (5), Eleotris fusca (3), Giurus margaritacea (1), Psammogobius biocellatus (2) and Stenogobius sp. 1 (1)

M. Site 28b. Tavoro Creek, 100 m upstream of Site 27. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.02 ms-1, temperature 24.3 0C, DO 8.1 mg/L, turbidity 40 %, conductivity 33.3 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 6 m, maximum depth 0.4 m, length sampled 25 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (9), Redigobius leveri (3), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (4), Stiphodon rutilaureus (3), Belobranchus belobranchus (5), Eleotris fusca (2), E. melanosoma (14) and Hypseleotris guentheri (2).

M. Site 29a. Tavoro Creek, at confluence of Nakabuka and Tavoro creeks. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.4 ms-1, temperature 23.6 0C, DO 8.1 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 42.3 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 10 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 25 m. Finfish species caught: Microphis brachyurus brachyurus (1), Kuhlia marginata (2), K. munda (1), K. rupestris (5), Eleotris fusca (6) and Hypseleotris guentheri (2).

166 M. Site 29b. Tavoro Creek, at confluence of Nakabuka and Tavoro creeks. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 26.4 0C, DO 6.6 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 48.3 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 10 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 25 m. Finfish species caught: Redigobius leveri (2), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (1), Stiphodon rutilaureus (2), Eleotris melanosoma (1), Giurus margaritacea (1) and Hypseleotris guentheri (1).

M. Site 29c. Tavoro Creek, at confluence of Nakabuka and Tavoro creeks. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 24.7 0C, DO 7.7 mg/L, turbidity 40 %, conductivity 32.6 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width10 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 25 m. Finfish species caught: Microphis brevidorsalis (1), Kuhlia marginata (4), K. munda (3), K. rupestris (2), Caranx sexfasciatus (1), Stenogobius sp. 1 (1), Stiphodon rutilaureus (1), Eleotris fusca (6), Giurus margaritacea (1) and Hypseleotris guentheri (3).

M. Site 30a. Tavoro Creek, 100 m upstream of Site 29. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.2 ms-1, temperature 23.5 0C, DO 5.4 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 40.7 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 9 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 29 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (2), Kuhlia marginata (3),K. rupestris (3), Awaous ocellaris (1), Eleotris fusca (15), E. melanosoma (3) and Hypseleotris guentheri (5).

M. Site 30b. Tavoro Creek, 100 m upstream of Site 29. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 24.7 0C, DO 7.7 mg/L, turbidity 40 %, conductivity 32.6 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 9 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 20 m. Finfish species caught: Kuhlia marginata (1), Caranx sexfasciatus (1), Stenogobius sp. 1 (1), Stiphodon rutilaureus (3), Eleotris melanosoma (3) and Giurus margaritacea (2).

M. Site 31a. Tavoro Creek, 100 m downstream from waterfall pool. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.2 ms-1, temperature 22.6 0C, DO 8.6 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 36.4 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 14 m, maximum depth 1.2 m, length sampled 3.0 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (1),

167 Schismatogobius vitiensis (1), Stenogobius sp. 1 (1), Belobranchus belobranchus (2), Eleotris fusca (1) and E. melanosoma (7).

M. Site 31b. Tavoro Creek, 100 m downstream from waterfall pool. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.2 ms-1, temperature 26.5 0C, DO 7.2 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 46.7 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 14 m, maximum depth 1.2 m, length sampled 30 m. Finfish species caught: Kuhlia marginata (1), Glossogobius sp. 1 (1), Redigobius leveri (1), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (2) Stenogobius sp. 1 (2), Belobranchus belobranchus (5), Eleotris fusca (1) and Hypseleotris guentheri (3).

M. Site 31c. Tavoro Creek, 100 m downstream from waterfall pool. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 25.3 0C, DO 7.4 mg/L, turbidity 60 %, conductivity 36.5 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 10 m, maximum depth 0.3 m, length sampled 50 m. Finfish species caught: Kuhlia marginata (3), K. rupestris (1), Stiphodon sp. 2 (7), Stiphodon rutilaureus (5), Eleotris fusca (7) and Hypseleotris guentheri (1).

M. Site 32a. Tavoro Creek, 50 m downstream of waterfall. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.02 ms-1, temperature 23 0C, DO 7.1 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 36.8 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 6 m, maximum depth 0.4 m, length sampled 14 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (1), Kuhlia marginata (2), Eleotris melanosoma (1) and Giurus margaritacea (1)

M. Site 32b. Tavoro Creek, 50 m downstream of waterfall. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 25.2 0C, DO 7. 9 mg/L, turbidity 60 %, conductivity 36.6 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.1. Creek measurements: maximum width 10 m, maximum depth 0.4 m, length sampled 50 m. Finfish species caught: Kuhlia marginata (2), Redigobius leveri (1) and Eleotris fusca (1).

M. Site 33a. Tavoro Creek, waterfall pool. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.3 ms-1, temperature 23.2 0C, DO 8.3 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 37.2 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 9 m, maximum depth 3.0 m, length sampled 14 m. Finfish species caught: Kuhlia marginata (2), K. rupestris (1), Redigobius leveri (1), Stenogobius sp. 1 (1), Stiphodon sp. 2 (2) and Stiphodon rutilaureus (1).

168 M. Site 33b. Tavoro Creek, waterfall pool. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 25.3 0C, DO 7.4 mg/L, turbidity 60 %, conductivity 36.5 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 9 m, maximum depth 2.6 m, length sampled 14 m. Finfish species caught: Microphis leiaspis (1), Kuhlia marginata (2), K. rupestris (1), Eleotris fusca (1), Belobranchus belobranchus (1), Glossogobius sp. 1 (1), Redigobius leveri (1), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (1), Stiphodon rutilaureus (3) and Stiphodon sp. 2 (2).

M. Site 34a. Tavoro Creek, above Tavoro Falls, 400m from edge. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.4 ms-1, temperature 23.2 0C, DO 6.7 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 39.3 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 8 m, maximum depth 1.2m, length sampled 7 m. Crustacean species caught: Caridina nudirostris (abundant).

M. Site 34b. Tavoro Creek, above Tavoro Falls, 400m from edge. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 24.8 0C, DO 7.2 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 44 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.1. Creek measurements: maximum width 8 m, maximum depth 1.2 m, length sampled 28 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (2) and Sicydiinae: new genus, new species (1). Crustacean species caught: Caridina nudirostris (abundant).

N. Site 35. Lower Navaka Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 28.7 0C, DO 8.8 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 56.4 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 12 m, maximum depth 0.4 m, length sampled 20 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (2), Kuhlia marginata (1), K. munda (1), K. rupestris (4), Redigobius leveri (1), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (4), Stiphodon rutilaureus (1), Belobranchus belobranchus (1), Eleotris fusca (3) and E. melanosoma (5).

N. Site 36. Upper Navaka Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 25.7 0C, DO 7.0 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 55 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 10 m, maximum depth 0.8 m, length sampled 40 m. Finfish species caught: Kuhlia marginata (3), K. munda (1), K. rupestris (5), Redigobius leveri (4), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (3), Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp. (1), Stiphodon rutilaureus (13) and Stiphodon sp. 2 (4).

169 O. Site 37. Mouth of Wailevu Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 28.8 0C, DO 6.5 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 26.3 ȝS, salinity 29.1 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 7 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 30 m. Finfish species caught/observed: Microphis brachyurus brachyurus (2), M. brevidorsalis (1), Ambassis miops (6), Terapon jarbua (1), Kuhlia munda (8), Caranx sexfasciatus (1), Lutjanus fulvus (3), and Sicyopterus lagocephalus (1).

O. Site 38. Mid Wailevu Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 26.1 0C, DO 7.1 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 46.9 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.1. Creek measurements: maximum width 8 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 10 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (3), Kuhlia marginata (1), K. munda (1), K. rupestris (1), Redigobius leveri (2), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (1), Stiphodon rutilaureus (2), Belobranchus belobranchus (4), Eleotris melanosoma (1), Giurus hoedti (1) and Hypseleotris guentheri (1). Molluscan species collected: Clithon corona (2) and C. pritchardi (1).

O. Site 39. Wailevu Creek (side pool). Small tributary to Wailevu Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 28.6 0C, DO 6.0 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 46.7 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 5 m, maximum depth 0.5 m, length sampled 3 m. Finfish species caught: Sicyopus zosterophorum (1) Stiphodon sp. 2 (1) and Stiphodon rutilaureus (10).

O. Site 40. Upper Wailevu Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 28.4 0C, DO 7.1 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 43.5 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 6 m, maximum depth 0.7 m, length sampled 20 m. Finfish species caught: Awaous ocellaris (1), Redigobius leveri (2), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (4), Stiphodon sp. 1 (1), Stiphodon sp. 2 (10) and Stiphodon rutilaureus (11). Molluscan species collected: Septaria sanguisuqa (1), S. macrocephala (1) and S. bougainvillei (1).

P. Site 41. Lower Waitavala Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 25 0C, DO 7.8 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 62.3 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 3.8 m, maximum depth 0.2 m, length sampled 70 m. Finfish species caught: Lentipes kaaea (12), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (1), Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp. (9), Stiphodon rutilaureus (31) Stiphodon sp. 1 (8), Stiphodon sp. 2 (18) and Sicydiinae: new genus, new species (1).

170 P. Site 42. Waitavala Creek, pool at base of water slide. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 26.7 0C, DO 7.1 mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 63.5 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.2. Creek measurements: maximum width 5 m, maximum depth 1.7 m, length sampled 12 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (1) and Sicyopus zosterophorum (2).

Q. Site 55. Upper section of Waisali Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.5 ms-1, temperature 25.2 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 73.5 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.5. River measurements: maximum width 12 m, maximum depth 0.6 m, length sampled 35 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (1), Kuhlia marginata (11), K. rupestris (7), Eleotris fusca (1), Redigobius leveri (1), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (5), Stiphodon sp. 1 (1). Crustacean species caught: Macrobrachium lar (6) and Macrobrachium sp. 1 (3). Molluscan species caught: Septaria suffreni (4).

Q. Site 56. Confluence of Waisali and Savuqoro Creeks. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.4 ms-1, temperature 25.8 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 86.4 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.4. River measurements: maximum width 10 m, maximum depth 1.0 m, length sampled 25 m. Finfish species caught: Anguilla marmorata (1), Kuhlia marginata (8), K. rupestris (9), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (3). Crustacean species caught: Macrobrachium lar (9) and Macrobrachium sp. 1 (5).

Q. Site 57. Lower Savuqoro Creek. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 25.6 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 72.6 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.4. Creek measurements: maximum width 7 m, maximum depth 0.8 m, length sampled 8 m. Finfish species caught/observed: Kuhlia marginata (5), K. rupestris (2), Sicyopterus lagocephalus (2) and Sicyopus zosterophorum (3). Crustacean species caught/observed: Macrobrachium lar (abundant) and Macrobrachium sp. 1 (abundant).

Q. Site 58. Savuqoro Creek, below waterfall. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.01 ms-1, temperature 25.6 0C, DO (no reading), turbidity 100 %, conductivity 70.9 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.4. Creek measurements: maximum width 7 m, maximum depth 0.8 m, length sampled 9 m. Finfish species caught: Sicyopterus lagocephalus (5) and Sicyopus zosterophorum (4). Crustacean species caught/observed: Macrobrachium lar (abundant) and Macrobrachium sp. 1 (abundant).

171 Q. Site 59. Savuqoro Creek, above waterfall. Physical water parameters measured: current speed 0.1 ms-1, temperature 25.2 0C, DO reading mg/L, turbidity 100 %, conductivity 60.7 ȝS, salinity 0 ppt and pH 6.3. Creek measurements: maximum width 7 m, maximum depth 0.2 m, length sampled 9 m. Finfish species Sicyopterus lagocephalus (7) and Sicyopus zosterophorum (11). Crustacean species caught/observed: Macrobrachium lar (abundant) and Macrobrachium sp. 1 (abundant).

172 Appendix 2. Fish list of species collected from the 66 sites during this study. The alphabetically letters are denoting the collection sites from this study as in Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2.

Family Species Fish species present in the USP Collection following water system Number: Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Quoy A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H,I, J, K, 5220 & Gaimard, 1824 L,M,N,O,P,Q, R,S,T,U Anguilla megastoma Kaup, A 5219, 5221 1856 Moringuidae Moringua abbreviata A 5222 (Bleeker, 1863) Neoconger tuberculatus M CAS 217641 (Castle, 1965) Muraenidae Gymnothorax polyuranodon A,B,E,F,L,M 5223 (Bleeker, 1853) Lamnostoma kampeni A,B 5224 and CAS (Weber & de Beaufort, 1916) 217643 Yirrkala gjellerupi (Weber A 5225 and CAS & de Beaufort, 1916) 217642 Clupeidae Sardinella fijiense (Fowler & A 5441 Bean 1923) Engraulidae Stolephorus indicus (van A 5226 Hasselt 1823) Cyprinidae Barbonymus gonionotus L 5312 (Bleeker, 1850) Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus dispar A,M 5227 (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1847) Poeciliidae Gambusia affinis (Baird & R,S,T,U 5451 Girard 1853) Poecilia reticulata Peters A,L 5234, 5313 1859 Syngnathidae Microphis brachyurus A,M,O 5229 brachyurus (Bleeker, 1853) Microphis brevidorsalis (de M,O 5228, 5230 Beaufort, 1913) Microphis leiaspis (Beeker, A,M 5231 1853) Microphis retzii (Bleeker, A 5232 1856) Scorpaenidae Tetraroge niger (Cuvier, A 5233 1829) Ambassidae Ambassis miops Günther A,M,O 5235 1872 Teraponidae Mesopristes kneri (Bleeker, A,M 5236 1876)

173 Terapon jarbua (Forsskål, M, O - 1775) Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata (Cuvier, A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H, L,M, N, O, Q 5237 1829) Kuhhia munda (De Vis, A,M,N,O 5238 1884) Kuhlia rupestris (Lacepède, A,B,C,D,E,F,G,H, L, M, N, O, Q,R 5239 1802) Apogonidae Apogon amboinensis A 5240 (Bleeker, 1853) Apogon lateralis A 5241 Valenciennes, 1832 Carangidae Caranx sexfasciatus Quoy & A,L,M,O 5242 Gaimard, 1825 Leiognathidae Gazza minuta (Bloch 1795) A 5442 Leiognathus equulus A 5243, 5244 (Forsskål, 1775) Leiognathus fasciatus M 5245 (Lacepède, 1803) Leiognathus splendens A 5443 (Cuvier 1829) Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimaculatus A,M 5246 (Forsskål, 1775) Lutjanus fulvus (Forster, A,M,O 5247 1801) Lutjanus russellii (Bleeker, A,M 5248 1849) Gerreidae Gerres longirostris A 5249 (Lacepède, 1801)

Haemulidae Plectorhinchus gibbosus M 5250 Lacepède, 1802

Mullidae Upeneus sulphureus Cuvier A 5444 in Cuvier & Valenciennes 1829 Upeneus vittatus (Forsskål, M 5251 1775) Monodactylidae Monodactylus argenteus A,M 5252 (Linnaeus, 1758) Scatophagidae Scatophagus argus A 5253 (Linnaeus, 1766) Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus B,L,R,S,T,U 5284 (Peters, 1852) Mugilidae Liza macrolepis (Smith, A 5445 1846) Liza subviridis A,M 5254 (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836)

174 Valamugil buchanani A 5446 (Bleeker, 1854) Valamugil cunnesius A 5441 (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836) Valamugil engeli A 5255 (Bleeker ,1858)

Sphyraenidae Sphyraena obtusata Cuvier A 5448 in Cuvier & Valenciennes 1829 Gobiidae -Gobiinae Psammogobius biocellatus A,M 5260 and AMS (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & 1. 43172 - 001 Valenciennes, 1837) -Gobionellinae Awaous guamensis S,T,U 5452 (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837) Awaous ocellaris A,C,D,F,G,H,L,M,O 5256 (Broussonet, 1792) Glossogobius sp. 1 A,L,M 5257 and AMS 1. 43171- 001 Redigobius bikolanus M 5261 (Herre, 1927) Redigobius leveri (Fowler, A,M,N,O.Q 5262 1943) Schismatogobius vitiensis A,B,C,M 5120 Jenkins and Boseto, 2005 Stenogobius sp. 1 A,B,M 5268 Oxudercinae Periophthalmus kalolo M 5259 Lesson 1831 -Sicydiinae Lentipes kaaea Watson, P 5258 Keith and Marquet, 2002 Sicyopterus lagocephalus A,B,C,D,F,G,K,M,N,O,P,Q,S,T,U 5263, 5264 (Lacepède 1800) Sicyopus zosterophorum O,P,Q 5265 (Bleeker, 1856-57) Sicyopus (c.f. N,P 5266 Juxtastiphodon) sp. New genus, new species M,P 5267 Stiphodon rutilaureus A, D,E,F,G,H,M,N,O,P 5269 Watson, 1996 Stiphodon sp. 1 A,M,O,P,Q 5271 Stiphodon sp. 2 A,M,N,O,P 5270 Eleotridae - Butinae Bostrychus sinensis A 5273 Lacepède 1801 Ophiocara porocephala A 5280 and AMS (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & 1. 43173 - 001 Valenciennes, 1837)

175 - Eleotrinae Belobranchus belobranchus C,E,F,G,M,N,O 5272 (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837) Bunaka gyrinoides (Bleeker, A,L 5274 1853) Eleotris fusca (Forster, A,L,M,N,Q 5275 1801) Eleotris melanosoma A,B,M,N,O 5276 Bleeker, 1852 Giurus hoedti (Bleeker, A,O 5277 1854) Giurus margaritacea A,L,M 5278, 5450 (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837) Hypseleotris guentheri A,M,O 5279 (Bleeker, 1875) Siganidae Siganus vermiculatus A,M 5281 (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837) Tetraodontidae Arothron reticularis (Bloch A 5282 & Schneider, 1801) Diodontidae Diodon liturosus Shaw, M 5283 1804

176 Appendix 3. Freshwater fish from Fiji collected from other sources. x The FIT fish collections were kept at the Fiji Institutue of Technology campus in Suva. x Boren and Beumer collected some freshwater fish in Fiji in 1986. The fish specimens are kept in the USP collection room. x John Pogonowski’s fish collections were reported in Jenkins (2003) and the fish specimen are kept in the USP collection room. x The Wetlands International and the Wildlife Conservation Society fish collections are kept in the USP collection room. x The fish collections by the Institute of Natural Resources (now IAS) and Waqairatu were cited from an EIA report and a student project report. The IAS report is confidential.

Family Species locality Month / mm Source year SL collected Albulidae Albula glossodonta Mid Rewa River Fowler 1959: 570 Ambassidae Ambassis miops Nalase Creek Waqairatu 2003 Ambassidae Ambassis miops Lower Nasavu Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Ambassidae Ambassis miops Waisai Creek Sep-05 Jenkins 2004 Ambassidae Ambassis urotaenia Fiji Islands Fowler 1959: 586 Ambassidae Ambassis vaivasensis River flowing into Suva Harbour Mar-29 CAS 24835 Ambassidae Ambassis vaivasensis Bureta River. Mar-29 Fowler 1959 Ambassidae Ambassis vaivasensis Naikorokoro Creek Ryan 1980 Ambassidae Ambassis vaivasensis Suva Mar-29 CAS 5969 Anguillidae Anguilla australis Kanacea Island Fowler 1959; Ryan 1980: 59; Lewis and Pring 1986 Anguillidae Anguilla australis Kadavu Island Fowler 1959; Ryan 1980: 59; Lewis and Pring 1986 Anguillidae Anguilla australis Viti Levu Ege 1939 in Beumer 1985

Anguillidae Anguilla bicolor bicolor Fiji Ege 1939 in Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla bicolor bicolor Fiji Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Wainikavika Creek, trib of Navua River Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Nabukavesi River, E Last River Sep-86 47-85 Lewis and Pring 1986

177 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Suva Fowler 1959 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Upper Rewa River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Confluence of Wainivodi and Wainisavulevu May-77 Inst Nat. Resources = IAS River Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Nala Village (Natewa Penisular) Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 54- J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village 112 Boseto 2003 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Mid Wainunu River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata lower Wainikoro River near Nasasa Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Upper Dreketi River near Saivou Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Levuka Town Fowler 1959 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Suva Apr-33 CAS 5594 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Narokorokoyawa Creek Fowler 1959 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Kadavu Island Fowler 1959 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Nairai Island Fowler 1959 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Suva Ege 1939 in Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Ovalau Ege 1939 in Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Narokorokoyawa Ege 1939 in Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Kandavu = Kadavu Fowler 1959 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Nairai Fowler 1959 Anguillidae Anguilla megastoma Viti Levu Ege 1939 in Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Rewa Dealta Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Lokia (Tributry to Rewa) Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata Nukunikula Creek Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla megastoma Vunidawa River Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla megastoma Kanathea = Kanacea Fowler 1959 Anguillidae Anguilla megastoma Naduruloulou research station ponds Sep-01 Wetlands Training Collections 2001 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Lami River May-82 USNM 00259990 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002

178 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Lokia Creek QM I.25649 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Dobuilevu R near research station Sep-86 38 Lewis and Pring 1986 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Naduruloulou research station ponds Sep-01 USP 4953 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Naduruloulou drainage Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Island Apr 82 USNM 00259989 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 85- J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village 123 Boseto 2003 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Wainikai Creek QM I.25651 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Kanacea Island Fowler 1959 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Suva Ege 1939 in Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Kanathea =Kanacea Island Ege 1939 in Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Rewa Delta Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Lokia (Tributory to Rewa River) Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Lower Rewa River Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Vunidawa River Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla obscura Fisheries station, Lami Beumer 1985 Anguillidae Anguilla sp. Nadi River Anon 1983 in Beumer 1985 Apogonidae Apogon lateralis Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00262499 Apogonidae Apogon lateralis Kubuna Creek May-65 USNM 00212388 Apogonidae Apogon lateralis Suva 1900 USNM 00065734 Apogonidae Sphaeramia orbicularis Wainadoi River Jun-82 USNM 00262420 Balistidae Rhinecanthus aculeatus Rewa River mouth May-82 27 USNM 00256554 Carangidae Caranx ignobilis Fiji Islands Lewis and Pring 1986 Carangidae Caranx papuensis Kubuna Creek May-65 CAS 17412 Carangidae Caranx sexfasciatus Kubuna Creek Aug-63 CAS 80184 Carangidae Caranx sexfasciatus Suva 1979 -1980 USNM 00176665 Carangidae Caranx sexfasciatus Fiji Islands Lewis and Pring 1986 Carangidae Caranx sexfasciatus Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Carangidae Caranx sexfasciatus Mid Rewa River Ryan 1980, after Herre 1936 Carangidae Caranx sexfasciatus Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Carangidae Caranx tille Suva 1982 USNM 00260045 Carangidae Scomberoides tol Fiji Islands Lewis and Pring 1986 Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus leucas Sigatoka River Ryan 1980

179 Carcharhinidae Eulamia gangetica = Mid Rewa River Fowler 1959: 569 Carcharhinus leucas Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus leucas Lower Nasavu River near Vitina Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Centrarchidae Micropterus salmoides Upper Nadi River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Centrarchidae Micropterus salmoides Vaturu dam Andrews 1985 Chanidae Chanos chanos Suva Apr-33 CAS 5695 Chanidae Chanos chanos Suva pre 1884 USNM 82799 Chanidae Chanos chanos Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Chanidae Chanos chanos Lau Island Apr 82 USNM 00259665 Chirocentridae Chirocentrus dorab Fiji Islands Lewis and Pring 1986 Chirocentridae Chirocentrus dorab Rewa River mouth May-82 USNM 00259952 Chirocentridae Chirocentrus dorab Ovalau Island Herre 1936 Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus Upper Ba River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus Mid Ba River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus Upper Nadi River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus Lower Sigatoka River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus Confluence of Wainivodi and Wainisavulevu May-77 Inst Nat. Resources = IAS River Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village Boseto 2003 Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus Interior 705 m BMNH 1981.1.19.1-4 Cichlidae Oreochromis niloticus Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Cichlidae Oreochromis niloticus Monasavu Reservoir Lewis and Pring 1986 Cichlidae Oreochromis niloticus Lower Wainikoro River near Nasasa Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Cichlidae Oreochromis niloticus Upper Dreketi River, near Saivou Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Cichlidae Oreochromis niloticus Mid-upper Navakamotolu Creek, near Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Navonu Village (Natewa Penisular) Boseto 2003 Cichlidae Oreochromis niloticus Waisai Creek Sep-04 Jenkins 2004 Cichlidae Oreochromis aureus Raviravi Andrews 1985 Cichlidae Tilapia zilli Unknown Andrews 1985

180 Clupeidae Sardinella fijiense Fiji Islands Lewis and Pring 1986 Clupeidae Sardinella fijiense Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00259992 Clupeidae Sardinella fijiense Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Cyprinidae Barbodes gonionotus Rewa River tributaries Lewis and Pring 1986 Cyprinidae Barbodes gonionotus Mid Rewa River Lewis and Pring 1986 Cyprinidae Ctenopharyngodon idella Rewa River Andrews 1985 Cyprinidae Ctenopharyngodon idella Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Cyprinidae Rhodeus ocellatus Naduruloulou research station ponds Lewis and Pring 1986 Cyprinidae Aristiehthys nobilis Unknown Andrews 1985 Cyprinidae Hypothamichthys molitrix Unknown Andrews 1985 Cyprinidae Cyprinus carpio carpio Unknown Andrews 1985 Eleotridae Amblyeleotris guttata Kadavu Island May 82 CAS - 56534 Eleotridae Bostrychus sinensis Bureta River Fowler 1959: 447, 606 Eleotridae Bostrychus sinensis Kanacea Island Fowler 1959: 447, 606 Eleotridae Bunaka gyrinoides Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Eleotridae Bunaka gyrinoides Naduruloulou research station ponds Sep-01 USP 4959 Eleotridae Bunaka gyrinoides Nayarabale River Sep-86 Boren 1986 Eleotridae Bunaka gyrinoides Fiji BMNH 1879.6.25.4 Eleotridae Butis amboinensis Kubuna Creek Aug-63 USNM 00272625 Eleotridae Butis butis Nalase Creek Waqairatu 2003 Eleotridae Butis butis Naikorokoro Creek Ryan 1980 Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Naikorokoro Creek Ryan 1980 Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Kubuna Creek Aug-63 USNM 00242159 Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Suva Fowler 1959: 446 Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Nayarabale River Sep-86 Boren 1986 Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Dobuilevu River near research station Sep-86 245 Lewis and Pring 1986 Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Naduruloulou research station ponds Lewis and Pring 1986 Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Waisere Creek, Tailevu Sep-01 USP 5301 Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Levuka Town BMNH 1879.5.14.536 - 537 Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Tavuki Creek in Kadavu Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Nasegai River in Kadavu Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society

181 Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Nukunuku Creek, Lakeba Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Vakano Creek, Lakeba Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Wainibau Creek, Taveuni Ryan 1980: 64 Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Viti Levu, in swamp Mar-29 USNM 00082916 Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Suva Fowler, 1959: 446 Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Ovalau Island, Levuka Fowler, 1959: 446 Eleotridae Eleotris fusca Narokorokayawa Creek Fowler, 1959: 446 Eleotridae Eleotris melanosoma Koroivonu River, near Nala Village (Natewa Aug-03 Pogonowski 2003 Penisular) Eleotridae Eleotris melanosoma Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Eleotridae Eleotris melanosoma Lower Sigatoka River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Eleotridae Eleotris melanosoma Savura Creek Sep-01 USP 4954 Eleotridae Eleotris melanosoma Naduruloulou research station ponds Sep-01 USP 4954 Eleotridae Eleotris melanosoma Nalase Creek Waqairatu 2003 Eleotridae Eleotris melanosoma River flowing into Suva Harbour Mar-29 CAS 24942 Eleotridae Eleotris melanosoma Suva Fowler 1959: 446 Eleotridae Eleotris melanosoma Naduruloulou drainage Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Eleotridae Eleotris melanosoma Vakano Creek, Lakeba Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Eleotridae Eleotris melanosoma Nukunikula Creek Nov-86 Beumer 1986 Eleotridae Giurus hoedti Lower Sigatoka River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Eleotridae Giurus hoedti Naduruloulou research station ponds Sep-01 USP 4951 Eleotridae Giurus hoedti Namara River near Sanima Village in Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Kadavu Eleotridae Giurus hoedti Kabariki Creek near Nabukelevu (Kadavu) Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Eleotridae Giurus hoedti Lower Wainikoro River near Nasasa Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Eleotridae Giurus hoedti Rewa River Fowler 1959: 449 Eleotridae Giurus hoedti Waisai Creek Sep-04 Jenkins 2004 Eleotridae Ophiocara aporos = Sovi River Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Ophieleotris aporos

Eleotridae Ophiocara aporos = Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Ophieleotris aporos

182 Eleotridae Ophiocara aporos = Naikorokoro Creek Ryan 1980 Ophieleotris aporos Eleotridae Ophiocara aporos = Suva Fowler 1959: 449 Ophieleotris aporos Eleotridae Ophiocara aporos = Kanacea Island Fowler 1959: 449 Ophieleotris aporos Eleotridae Ophiocara aporos = Ovalau Island Fowler 1959: 449 Ophieleotris aporos Eleotridae Giurus margaritacea Sigatoka River Fowler 1959 Eleotridae Giurus margaritacea Naikorokoro Creek Ryan 1980 Eleotridae Giurus margaritacea Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village Boseto 2003 Eleotridae Lairdina hopletupus = Giurus Fiji Fowler 1955 margaritacea Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Kanacea Island Fowler 1959: 458 & 608 Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Viti Levu, in swamp Fowler 1959: 458 & 608 Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Dobuilevu R near research station Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Lower Sigatoka River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Waibau Creek, trib of Waimanu River Dec-85 126 Lewis and Pring 1986 Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Waisere Creek, Tailevu Sep-01 USP 5291 Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Nasegai River in Kadavu Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Tavuki Creek in Kadavu Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Vakano Creek, Lakeba Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Tobou Creek, Lakeba Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Nukunuku Creek, Lakeba Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Mid Buca River (Natewa) Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Koroivonu River near Nala Village (Natewa Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Penisular) Boseto 2003 Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 121- J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village 180 Boseto 2003 Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Lower Nasavu River near Vitina Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Nayarabale River Sep-86 Boren 1986 Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Nabukavesi Creek Fowler 1959: 458 & 608 Eleotridae Hypseleotris guentheri Waisai Creek Sep-04 Jenkins 2004

183 Eleotridae Eleotris macrolepidota = Ovalau Island Günther 1880 in Fowler 1959: Ophiocara macrolepidotus 450 Eleotridae Ophiocara macrolepidotus Fiji Whitley 1927 Eleotridae Ophiocara macrolepidotus Fiji Fowler 1927, 1931 and 1934 Eleotridae Eleotris cantoris = Kanathia = Kanacea Island Kner 1868; Schmeltz 1869; Ophiocara macrolepidotus Pöhl 1884 in Fowler 1959: 450 Eleotridae Ophiocara porocephala = Suva Herre 1936 Ophiocara macrolepidotus Eleotridae Ophiocara porocephala Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00259779 Eleotridae Ophiocara porocephala Kanacea Island Fowler 1959: 450 Eleotridae Ophiocara porocephala Suva Fowler 1959: 450 Eleotridae Oxyeleotris marmorata Tamavua River Waiqairatu 2003 Eleotridae Oxyeleotris marmorata Fiji Whitley 1927 Eleotridae Oxyeleotris marmorata Fiji Fowler 1928 and 1931 Eleotridae Eleotris marmorata = Neva River = Rewa River Schmeltz 1965 in Fowler Oxyeleotris marmorata 1959: 452 Eleotridae Eleotris marmorata = Viti Pöhl 1884 in Fowler 1959: Oxyeleotris marmorata 452 Eleotridae Oxyeleotris marmorata Mid Rewa River Ryan 1980 Eleotridae Oxyeleotris marmorata Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Engraulidae Thryssa baelama Kubuna Creek Aug-63 USNM 00258494 Engraulidae Thryssa baelama Fiji Islands Lewis and Pring 1986 Ephippidae Platax orbicularis Toberua Island May-65 USNM 00276372 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Gobius caninua Namusi = Namosi Province Fowler 1959: 468 =Acentrogobius caninus Gobiidae, Gobiinae Acentrogobius caninus Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00243216 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Acentrogobius suluensis South Draunibota Island May-65 USNM 00329156 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Gobius fuscus = Bathygobius Suva Point Fowler 1959: 472 fuscus Gobiidae, Gobiinae Gobius fuscus = Bathygobius Ovalau Island Fowler 1959: 472 fuscus Gobiidae, Gobiinae Bathygobius hongkongensis Naqara island Jun 82 USNM 00241793 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Gobius petrophilus var. Namusi = Namosi Province Fowler 1959: 467 ocellatus = Bathygobius padangensis Gobiidae, Gobiinae Caragobius urolepis Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00241794

184 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Apparius aurocingulus Ovalau Island Herre 1936 =Ctenogobiops aurocingulus Gobiidae, Gobiinae Gobius aurocingulus Fiji Mar-29 Fowler 1959: 612 =Ctenogobiops aurocingulus Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius bicirrhosus Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00259534 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius celebius River flowing into Suva Harbour Ryan 1980 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius celebius River flowing into Suva Harbour Mar-29 CAS 24892; Fowler 1959: 483 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius celebius Vutini Creek Jun-01 pers com. Satyan Lal 2001 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius celebius Mid Rewa River AMS I .27052-001 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius celebius Mid Rewa River Mar-29 CAS 24871; Fowler 1959: 483 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius celebius Sovi River 1987 Lewis and Pring 1986 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius celebius Mid Buca River (Natewa Penisular) Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius celebius Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village Boseto 2003 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius celebius Davutu River mid of Wainunu Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius celebius Kauvula River, Lekutu Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius celebius Lower Wainikoro River near Nasasa Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius sp. 1 Nayarabale River Sep-86 Boren 1986 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius sp. 1 Mid Buca River (Natewa Penisular) Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius sp. 1 Koroivonu River, Nala Village (Natewa Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Penisular) Boseto 2003 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius sp. 1 Waibau Creek, trib of Waimanu River Feb-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius sp. 1 Nabukavesi River, E Last River Sep-86 62-97 Lewis and Pring 1986 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius sp. 1è River flowing into Suva Harbour Fowler 1959: 483; Ryan 1980 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Oplopomus oplopomus South Draunibota Island May-65 USNM 00342615 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Palutrus scapulopunctatus Fiji Islands Fowler 1959: 611 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Psammogobius biocellatus River flowing into Suva Harbour Mar-29 CAS 24845 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius biocellatus River flowing into Suva Harbour Herre 1936 =Psammogobius biocellatus Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius giurus River flowing into Suva Harbour Fowler 1959: 483; =Psammogobius biocellatus Gobiidae, Gobiinae Psammogobius biocellatus Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00259782 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Psammogobius biocellatus Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00241797

185 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Psammogobius biocellatus Kadavu Island May 82 USNM 00243081 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Psammogobius biocellatus Koroivonu River, Nala Village (Natewa Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Penisular) Boseto 2003 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Psammogobius biocellatus Kauvula River near Lekutu Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Psammogobius biocellatus River flowing into Suva Harbour Ryan 1980 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Gobius nebulosus Namusi = Namosi Province Fowler 1959 =Yongeichthys nebulosus Gobiidae; Awaous guamensis. Nakasaleka Creek near Nakoronawa Village Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Gobionellinae in Kadavu Gobiidae; Awaous guamensis Naduruloulou drainage Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Awaous guamensis Nadarivatu River 1994 AMS IB.2651 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Awaous guamensis Nabukavesi River, E Last River Sep-86 84-89 Lewis and Pring 1986 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Awaous guamensis Savura Creek Sep-01 USP 4960 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Awaous guamensis Ovalau Island BMNH 1856.9.4.84 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Chonophorus guamensis Narokorokoyawa River Fowler 1959: 474 Gobionellinae =Awaous guamensis Gobiidae; Gobius crassilabris = Namusi = Namosi Province Fowler 1959: 474 Gobionellinae Awaous guamensis Gobiidae; Gobius crassilabris = Kanathia = Kanacea Island Fowler 1959: 474 Gobionellinae Awaous guamensis Gobiidae; Gobius crassilabris = Ovalau Island Fowler 1959: 474 Gobionellinae Awaous guamensis Gobiidae; Gobius ocellaris =Awaous Neva = Rewa River Fowler 1959: 474 Gobionellinae guamensis Gobiidae; Chonophorus ocellaris Fiji Whitley 1927 Gobionellinae =Awaous guamensis Gobiidae; Awaous melanocephalus Viti Levu Lewis and Pring 1986 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Awaous ocellaris Dobuilevu R near research station Sep-86 72 Lewis and Pring 1986 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Awaous ocellaris Mid Buca River (Natewa Penisula) Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Gobionellinae Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Awaous ocellaris Sovi River Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Awaous ocellaris Kauvula River near Lekutu Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Gobionellinae Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Awaous ocellaris Kanacea Island Fowler 1959: 474, 614 Gobionellinae

186 Gobiidae; Awaous ocellaris Ovalau Island Fowler 1959: 474, 614 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Awaous ocellaris Nabukavesi Creek Fowler 1959: 474, 614 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Awaous ocellaris Namosi Province Fowler 1959: 474, 614 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Awaous ocellaris Rewa River Fowler 1959: 474, 614 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Awaous ocellaris Wainasavulevu Creek at Waibasaga Ryan 1980 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Awaous ocellaris Mid Rewa River Mar-29 CAS 24893 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Awaous ocellaris Upper Rewa Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Gobionellinae Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Awaous ocellaris Waibau Creek, trib of Waimanu River Feb-86 46-78 Lewis and Pring 1986 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Gobius notospilus = Namusi = Namosi Province Fowler 1959: 469 Gobionellinae Mugilogobius notospilus Gobiidae; Stigmatogobius hoevenii = Viti Levu Fowler 1959: 610 Gobionellinae Mugilogobius notospilus Gobiidae; Oxyurichthys ophthalmonema Kubuna Creek May-65 USNM 00238969 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Oxyurichthys tentacularis Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00259752 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Redigobius bikolanus River flowing into Suva Harbour Mar-29 CAS 24433 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Redigobius bikolanus Waisai Creek Sep-04 Jenkins 2004 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Redigobius leveri Wainivesi River Fowler 1959: 610 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Redigobius leveri Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Gobionellinae Nakawakawa Village Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Vaimosa leveri = Redigobius Fiji Fowler 1943 Gobionellinae leveri Gobiidae; Gobius leveri = Redigobius River near Suva Fowler 1959: 609 Gobionellinae leveri Gobiidae; Redigobius leveri Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Redigobius leveri Upper Dreketi River near Saivou Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Gobionellinae Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Redigobius leveri Davutu River near Wainunu Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Gobionellinae Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Gobius roemeri = Redigobius River near Suva Fowler 1959: 609 Gobionellinae roemeri

187 Gobiidae; Redigobius sp. 1 Kauvula River near Lekutu Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Gobionellinae Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Schmatogobius vitiensis Koroivonu River Nala Village (Natewa Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Gobionellinae Penisular) Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Schmatogobius vitiensis Mid Buca R iver (Natewa Penisular) Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Gobionellinae Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Schmatogobius vitiensis Kauvula River near Lekutu Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Gobionellinae Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Stenogobius sp. 1 Naduruloulou drainage Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Stenogobius sp. 1 Naikorokoro Creek Ryan 1980 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Stenogobius sp. 1 Lower Sigatoka River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Gobionellinae Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Stenogobius sp. 1 Nabukavesi River, E Last River Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Stenogobius sp. 1 Lau Island Apr 82 USNM 00259736 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Stenogobius sp. 1 Koroivonu River Nala Village (Natewa Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Gobionellinae Penisular) Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Stenogobius sp. 1 Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Gobionellinae Nakawakawa Village Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Stenogobius sp. 1 Tavuki Creek in Kadavu Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Stenogobius sp. 1 Mid Buca River (Natewa Penisula) Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Gobionellinae Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Stenogobius sp. 1 Kauvula River near Lekutu Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Gobionellinae Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Stenogobius sp. 1 Rewa River Fowler 1959: 476 Gobionellinae Gobiidae; Gobius sadanundio = Kanathia = Kanacea Island Fowler 1959: 468 Gobionellinae Stigmatogobius sadanundio Gobiidae; Stigmatogobius sadanundio Viti Levu Rainboth 1996 Gobionellinae Gobiidae, Oxudercinae Periophthalmodon barbarus Bureta River Fowler 1959: 490

Gobiidae, Oxudercinae Periophthalmodon barbarus Suva Fowler 1959: 490 Gobiidae; Oxudercinae Periophthalmus Ellington River, Penang in Rakiraki June-22 USNM 00278368 argentilineatus Gobiidae; Oxudercinae Periophthalmus Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00256565 argentilineatus Gobiidae; Oxudercinae Periophthalmus Kadavu Island May 82 USNM 00279332 argentilineatus

188 Gobiidae; Oxudercinae Periophthalmus kalolo Naikorokoro Creek Ryan 1980 Gobiidae; Oxudercinae Periophthalmus kalolo Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00241796 Gobiidae; Oxudercinae Periophthalmus koelreuteri = Rewa River Fowler 1959 Periophthalmus kalolo Gobiidae; Oxudercinae Periophthalmus kalolo Kadavu Island Mar 82 USNM 00238856 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Lentipes kaaea Nakasaleka Creek near Nakoronawa Village Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society in Kadavu Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopterus lagocephalus Kadavu Island Fowler 1959: 486; Ryan 1980 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopterus lagocephalus Namosi Province Fowler 1959: 485

Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopterus lagocephalus Narokorokoyawa Creek Fowler 1959: 485

Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopterus lagocephalus Nadarivatu River AMS IB.2306 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopterus lagocephalus Upper Sigatoka River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopterus lagocephalus Nakavu Creek Jan-01 Wetlands Training Collections Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopterus lagocephalus Sovi River Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopterus lagocephalus Nakasaleka Creek near Nakoronawa Village Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society in Kadavu) Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopterus lagocephalus Tavuki Creek in Kadavu Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopterus lagocephalus Kabariki Creek near Nabukelevu (Kadavu) Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopterus lagocephalus Kauvula Creek Lekutu Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopterus lagocephalus Fiji Islands Ryan 1980

Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopterus hicklingi Mid Rewa River AMS IB.1949

Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopus zosterophorum Waibau Creek, Taveuni Ryan 1991 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopus zosterophorum Nakasaleka Creek near Nakoronawa Village Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society in Kadavu Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopus zosterophorum Navakamotolu Creek mid of Navonu Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and (Natewa Penisula) Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopus zosterophorum Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopus zosterophorum Mid Wainunu River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Sicyopus zosterophorum Nakasaleka Creek near Nakoronawa Village Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society in Kadavu Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon rutilaureus Nakavu Creek Jan-01 Wetlands Training Collections

189 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon rutilaureus Nakavu Creek Jan-01 Wetlands Training Collections Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon rutilaureus Nasegai River in Kadavu Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon rutilaureus Nakasaleka Creek near Nakoronawa Village Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society in Kadavu Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon rutilaureus Kabariki Creek near Nabukalevu (Kadavu) Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon rutilaureus Mid Buca River (Natewa Penisular) Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon rutilaureus Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon rutilaureus Mid Wainunu River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 1 Nakasaleka Creek near Nakoronawa Village Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society in Kadavu Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 1 Tavuki Creek in Kadavu Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 1 Namara River near SanimaVillage in kadavu Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 1 Kabariki Creek near Nabukalevu (Kadavu) Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 1 Koroivonu River Nala Village (Natewa Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Penisular) Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 1 Navakamotolu Creek mid of Navonu Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and (Natewa Penisula) Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 1 Mid-Wainunu River, V. Levu Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 1 Nakavu Creek Jan-01 Wetlands Training Collections Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 1 Mid Buca River (Natewa Penisular), V. Levu Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 1 Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Sep-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 1 Wainibau Creek, Taveuni 1980 Ryan 1980 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 2 Tavuki Creek in Kadavu Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society

Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 2 Namara River near Sanima Village in Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Kadavu Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 2 Nakasaleka Creek near Nakoronawa Village Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society in Kadavu Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 2 Nakavu Creek Jan-01 Wetlands Training Collections Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 2 Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 2 Davutu River, mid- of Wainunu, V. Levu Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003

190 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 2 Nakasaleka Creek near Nakoronawa Village Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society in Kadavu Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 2 Namara River near Sanima Village in Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Kadavu Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 2 Navakamotolu Creek mid of Navonu Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and (Natewa Penisula) Boseto 2003 Gobiidae; Sicydiinae Stiphodon sp. 2 Mid Wainunu River Sep-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Haemulidae Plectorhinchus gibbosus Kubuna Creek May-65 USNM 00273653 Hemiramphidae Hyporhamphus dussumieri Bureta River Mar-29 50 CAS 24994 Hemiramphidae Hemirhamphus erythrorichus Bureta River Fowler 1959 = Hyporhamphus dussumieri Hemiramphidae Hemirhamphus erythrorichus Bureta River Mar-29 Fowler 1959: 102 = Hyporhamphus dussumieri Hemiramphidae Zenachopterus maculosus Fiji Whitley 1927 =Zenachopterus buffonis Hemiramphidae Zenachopterus maculosus Fiji Fowler 1959: 106 =Zenachopterus buffonis Hemiramphidae Zenachopterus maculosus Suva Fowler 1959: 106 =Zenachopterus buffonis Hemiramphidae Zenachopterus dispar Lower Sigatoka River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus dispar Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00236682 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus dispar Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00256571 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus dispar Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00256572 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus dispar Suva 1899 - USNM 00066085 1900 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus dispar Suva Apr-33 CAS 5769; Fowler, 1959: 106

Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus dispar Kadavu Island May 82 USNM 00236681 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus dispar Bureta River Mar-29 CAS 24816 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus dispar Bureta River Fowler 1959: 105 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus dispar Qawa River QM I.9819 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus dispar Wainikai Creek Apr 83 USNM 00266907 Kuhliidae Dules marginatus = Kuhlia Fiji Günther 1859 in Fowler 1959 marginata and Fowler 1931, 1934 and 1959 Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata Fiji Boulenger 1895in Fowler 1959, Whitley 1927, Fowler 1928

191 Kuhliidae Dules malo = Kuhlia Rewa River Schmeltz 1865 in Fowler marginata 1959 Kuhliidae Dules malo = Kuhlia Viti Pöhl 1884 in Fowler 1959 marginata Kuhliidae Kuhlia malo = Kuhlia Viti Levu Boulenger 1895 in Fowler marginata 1959 and Whitley 1927 Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata Lower Sigatoka River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata Wainisusu River Jul-02 D Boseto collection Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata Wainisavulevu Creek at Waibasaga Ryan 1980 Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata Viti Levu BMNH 1986.6.6.1

Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata Upper Dama River near Driti Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata Mid Buca River (Natewa Penisular) Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata Koroivonu River, Nala Village (Natewa Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Penisular) Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata Kabariki River near Nabukelevu (Kadavu) Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata Savura Creek Sep-01 USP 4957 Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata Nasegai River in Kadavu Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata Nakasaleka Creek near Nakoronawa Village Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society in Kadavu Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata Tavuki Creek in Kadavu Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Kuhliidae Kuhlia bilunulata = Kuhlia Fiji Ryan 1980 and 2000 munda Kuhliidae Kuhlia bilunulata = Kuhlia River flowing into Suva Harbour Herre 1936 munda Kuhliidae Kuhlia munda Fiji Whitley 1927 and Fowler 1928 Kuhliidae Dules munda = Kuhlia munda Fiji Fowler 1931, 1934 and 1959 Kuhliidae Kuhlia humilis = Kuhlia Fiji Regan 1913 in Fowler 1959 munda Kuhliidae Kuhlia malo = Kuhlia munda Fiji Boulenger 1859 in Fowler 1959 Kuhliidae Kuhlia proxima = Kuhlia Fiji Kendall and Goldsborough munda 1911 in Fowler 1959 Kuhliidae Kuhlia munda River flowing into Suva Harbour Mar-29 CAS 24427 Kuhliidae Kuhlia munda Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00258512

192 Kuhliidae Kuhlia munda Lower Nasavu River near Vitina Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia munda Mid Wainunu River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia munda Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia munda Mid Buca River (Natewa Penisular) Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia munda Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Kuhliidae Kuhlia munda Namara River near Sanima Village in Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Kadavu Kuhliidae Kuhlia munda Waisere Creek, Tailevu Sep-01 USP 5296 Kuhliidae Kuhlia munda Lau Island Apr 82 USNM 00236690 Kuhliidae Kuhlia munda Tobou Creek, Lakeba Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Kuhliidae Kuhlia munda Nakasaleka Creek near Nakoronawa Village Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society in Kadavu Kuhliidae Dules rupestris = Kuhlia Fiji Fowler 1931, 1934 and 1959 rupestris Kuhliidae Dules rupestris = Kuhlia Ovalau Günther 1880 and 1859 in rupestris Fowler 1959 Kuhliidae Dules rupestris = Kuhlia Viti Levu Schmeltz 1874 in Fowler rupestris 1959 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Fiji Boulenger 1895 in Fowler 1959, Whitley 1927, and Fowler 1928 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Rewa River Herre 1936 Kuhliidae Therapon unicolor = Kuhlia Kandavu = Kadavu Kner 1868 in Fowler 1959 rupestris Kuhliidae Therapon unicolor = Kuhlia Fiji Whitley 1928 in Fowler 1959 rupestris Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Suva Apr-33 CAS 5915 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Namara River near Sanima Village in Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Kadavu Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Koroivonu River, Nala Village (Natewa Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Penisular) Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Mid Buca River (Natewa Penisular) Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Upper Ba River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002

193 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Mid Wainunu River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Upper Dama River near Driti Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Lower Nasavu River near Vitina Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Interior 705 m BMNH 1986.6.6.2 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Savura Creek Sep-01 USP 4950 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Mid Rewa River BMNH 1984.11.6.2-3 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Rewa River mouth AMS I .24637-001 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Wainisusu River Jul-02 D Boseto collection Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Upper Rewa River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Waisere Creek, Tailevu Sep-01 USP 5294 Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Naivutini and Wainasavula River Jul-02 D Boseto collection Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Confluence of Wainivodi and Wainsavulevu May-77 Inst Nat. Resources = IAS River Kuhliidae Kuhlia rupestris Waisai Creek Sep-04 Jenkins 2004 Lactariidae Lactarius lactarius Rewa River mouth May-82 USNM 00259953 Leiognathidae Gazza minuta Fiji Islands Lewis and Pring 1986 Leiognathidae Leiognathus equulus Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Leiognathidae Leiognathus equulus Nalase Creek Waqairatu 2003 Leiognathidae Leiognathus equula = Bureta River Mar-29 Fowler 1959: 584 Leiognathus equulus Leiognathidae Leiognathus fasciatus Fiji Islands Lewis and Pring 1986 Leiognathidae Leiognathus splendens Laucala Bay J. Seeto pers comm.. Lethrinidae Lethrinus harak Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00259390 Lethrinidae Lethrinus harak Kubuna Creek May-65 USNM 00349434 Lethrinidae Lethrinus harak Fiji Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1933 Lethrinidae Lethrinus harak Suva Jordan and Dickson 1908 Lethrinidae Lethrinus harak Fiji Whitley 1927 Lethrinidae Lethrinus reticulatus Kubuna Creek Aug-63 USNM 00349305 Lethrinidae Lethrinus reticulatus Fiji Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1933 Lethrinidae Lethrinus moensi = Lethrinus Kadavu Günther 1880 in Fowler 1959 reticulatus Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimaculatus Fiji Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1934

194 Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimaculatus Suva Herre 1936 Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimaculatus Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00258890 Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimaculatus Naikorokoro Creek Ryan 1980 Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimaculatus Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00258895 Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimaculatus Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00258864 Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimaculatus Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimacualatus Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimaculatus Koroivonu River, Nala Village (Natewa Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Penisular) Boseto 2003 Lutjanidae Lutjanus argentimaculatus Mid Buca River (Natewa Penisular) Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Lutjanidae Lutianus fulviflamma = Fiji Herre 1936 Lutjanus fulviflamma Lutjanidae Lutjanus fulviflamma Fiji Fowler 1928, 1931 and 934 Lutjanidae Lutianus aureovittatus = Jordan and Dickson 1879 in Lutjanus fulviflamma Suva Fowler 1959 Lutjanidae Lutianus aureovittatus = Fiji Whitley 1927 Lutjanus fulviflamma Lutjanidae Lutjanus fulviflamma Kubuna Creek Aug-63 USNM 00298381 Lutjanidae Lutjanus fulvus Fiji Islands Apr-82 USNM 00260042 Lutjanidae Lutjanus fulvus Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00258886 Lutjanidae Lutjanus fulvus Kubuna Creek May-65 USNM 00298411 Lutjanidae Lutjanus fulvus Kubuna Creek Aug-63 USNM 00298409 Lutjanidae Lutianus gibbus = Lutjanus Fiji Whitley 1927 gibbus Lutjanidae Lutjanus gibbus Suva Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1934 Lutjanidae Lutjanus gibbus Rewa River mouth May-82 USNM 00259951 Lutjanidae Lutianus johnii = Lutjanus Fiji Whitley 1927 johnii Lutjanidae Lutjanus johnii Suva Fowler 1928 and 1934 Lutjanidae Lutjanus johnii Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Lutjanidae Lutjanus lunulatus Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00259401 Lutjanidae Lutjanus rivulatus Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00259402 Lutjanidae Lutjanus russelli Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00259397 Lutjanidae Lutjanus russelli Kubuna Creek May-65 USNM 00292116 Megalopidae Megalops cyprinoides Fiji Whitley 1927

195 Megalopidae Megalops cyprinoides Fiji Fowler 1928 and 1931 Megalopidae Megalops cyprinoides Suva Herre 1936 Megalopidae Megalops cyprinoides Suva Günther 1880 in Fowler 1959: 26 Megalopidae Megalops cyprinoides Naduruloulou research station ponds Lewis and Pring 1986 Megalopidae Megalops cyprinoides Ovalau Island Günther 1880 in Fowler 1959: 26 Megalopidae Megalops cyprinoides Fiji Islands Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Monodactylidae Psettus argenteus = Levuka Günther 1880 in Fowler 1959 Monodactylus argenteus Monodactylidae Monodactylus argenteus Fiji Whitley 1927 Monodactylidae Monodactylus argenteus Fiji Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1934 Monodactylidae Monodactylus argenteus Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00258894 Monodactylidae Monodactylus argenteus Ovalau Island BMNH 1879.5.14.338 Moringuidae Moringua abbreviata Viti levu Schmrltz 1879 in Fowler 1959 Moringuidae Moringua abbreviata Fiji Whitley 1927 Moringuidae Aphthalmichthys abbreviatus Nukulau Island Herre 1936 = Moringua abbreviata Moringuidae Rataboura abbreviate = Namusi = Namosi Province Fowler 1959: 68 from Fowler Moringua abbreviata 1928 Moringuidae Moringua macrocepala = Kanathea = Kanacea Island Günther 1910 in Fowler 1959: Moringua macrocephalus 67 Moringuidae Moringua macrocephala = Fiji Herre 1936 Moringua macrocephalus Moringuidae Moringua macrocephala = Fiji Fowler 1959: 68 Moringua macrocephalus Moringuidae Aphthalmichthys Fiji Fowler 1928 macrocephalus = Moringua macrocephalus Moringuidae Rataboura macrocephala = Fiji Fowler 1934 Moringua macrocephalus Moringuidae Neoconger tuberculatus Lower Rewa River CAS 60261 Mugilidae Cestraeus plicatilis Waimani River 113 Fowler 1959; Ryan, 1980; Lewis and Pring 1986 Mugilidae Cestraeus plicatilis Fiji Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1934 Mugilidae Gonostomyxus loa-loa = Wai Manu = Waimanu Macdonald 1869 in Fowler Cestraeus plicatilis 1959 Mugilidae Agonostoma plicatile = Viti Schmeltz 1881 in Fowler Cestraeus plicatilis 1959

196 Mugilidae Agonostomus loaloa = Fiji Whitley 1927 Cestraeus plicatilis Mugilidae Crenimugil crenilabis Lau Island Apr 82 USNM 00259713 Mugilidae Mugil tade = Crenimugil Suva Fowler 1928 and 1959 crenilabis Mugilidae Mugil tade = Crenimugil Nukulau Island Fowler 1949 crenilabis Mugilidae Mugil decimradiatus = Kandavu = Kadavu Schmeltz 1869 and Pöhl 1884 Crenimugil crenilabis in Fowler 1959 Mugilidae Mugil Kandavensis = Fiji Whitley 1927 Crenimugil crenilabis Mugilidae Mugil kandavensis = Kandavu = Kadavu Herre 1936 Crenimugil crenilabis Mugilidae Mugil macrolepis = Liza Suva Fowler 1928, 1931, 1934 and macrolepis 1949 Mugilidae Liza troscheli = Liza Fiji Whitley 1927 macrolepis Mugilidae Liza troscheli = Liza Suva Seale 1935 and Herre 1936 macrolepis Mugilidae Liza macrolepis Tobou Creek, Lakeba Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Mugilidae Liza melinoptera Kadavu Island BMNH 1877.4.18.2 Mugilidae Liza melinoptera Waimanu River Dec-02 48 FIT Collections 2002 Mugilidae Liza melinoptera Rewa delta Lewis and Pring 1986 Mugilidae Liza melinoptera Suva Jordan and Dickson 1908 and Herre 1936 Mugilidae Liza melinopterus = Liza Fiji Whitley 1927 melinoptera Mugilidae Mugil vaigiensis = Liza Fiji Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1934 melinoptera Mugilidae Mugil melinopterus = Liza Suva Fowler 1949 and 1959 melinoptera Mugilidae Liza subviridis Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Mugilidae Liza subviridis Nalase Creek Waqairatu 2003 Mugilidae Mugil dussumieri = Liza Fiji Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1959 subviridis Mugilidae Mugil dussumieri = Liza Suva Harbour Herre 1936 subviridis Mugilidae Liza vaigiensis Lau Island Apr 82 USNM 00259712 Mugilidae Liza vaigiensis Rewa River mouth May-82 USNM 00259679 Mugilidae Liza vaigiensis Fiji Whitley 1927 Mugilidae Liza vaigiensis Reef between Suva and Nukulau Island Herre 1936

197 Mugilidae Mugil vaigiensis = Liza Suva Fowler 1928, 1931, 1934 and vaigiensis 1959 Mugilidae Ellochelon vaigiensis = Liza Suva Fowler 1949 vaigiensis Mugilidae Mugil cephalus River flowing into Suva Harbour Mar-29 CAS 24817 Mugilidae Mugil cephalus Vakano Creek, Lakeba Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Mugilidae Mugil cephalus Tobou Creek, Lakeba Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Mugilidae Mugil cephalus Nukunuku Creek, Lakeba Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Mugilidae Valamugil buchanani Waimanu River Dec-02 115 FIT Collections 2002 Mugilidae Valamugil seheli River flowing into Suva Harbour Ryan 1980 Mugilidae Liza caeruleamaculata = Suva Jordan and Dickerson 1908 Valamugil seheli and Whitley 1927 Mugilidae Mugil seheli = Valamugil Suva Fowler 1928, 1931, 1934, seheli 1949 and 1959 Mugilidae Liza seheli = Valamugil Suva Harbour Herre 1936 seheli Mullidae Parupeneus indicus Rewa River mouth May-82 USNM 00259955 Mullidae Pseudupeneus indicus = Fiji Whitley 1927 and Fowler Parupeneus indicus 1959 Mullidae Upeneus sulphureus Kubuna Creek May-65 USNM 00267688 Mullidae Upeneus sulphureus Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Mullidae Upeneoides sulphureus = Suva Kendall and Goldsborough Upeneus sulphureus 1911 in Fowler 1959 Mullidae Upeneus sulphureus Fiji Whitley 1927 Mullidae Upeneus sulphureus Suva Fowler 1932, 1934 and 1959 Mullidae Upeneus vittatus Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00259943 Mullidae Upeneus vittatus Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00259941 Mullidae Upeneus vittatus Kubuna Creek Aug-63 USNM 00267658 Mullidae Upeneus vittatus Kubuna Creek May-65 USNM 00267724 Mullidae Upeneus vittatus Ovalau Island BMNH 1879.5.14.161 Mullidae Upeneus vittatus Fiji Whitley 1927 Mullidae Upeneus vittatus Suva Fowler 1932, 1933, 1934 and 1959

Mullidae Upeneoides vittatus Suva Fowler 1928 and 1931 =Upeneus vittatus Muraenesocidae Muraenesox cinereus Suva Jordan and Dickerson 1908 Muraenesocidae Muraenesox cinereus Fiji Whitley 1927

198 Muraenesocidae Muraenesox arabicus = Fiji Fowler 1934 and 1959: 52 Muraenesox cinereus Muraenesocidae Muraenesox cinereus Fiji Islands Lewis and Pring 1986 Muraenidae Lycodontis favaginea = Narokorokayawa Creek Fowler 1931, 1934 and 1959: Gymnothorax favagineus 76 Muraenidae Gymnothorax favagineus Suva Harbour Herre 1936 Muraenidae Gymnothorax pictus Rewa River mouth May-82 USNM 00257412 Muraenidae Gymnothorax pictus Suva Jordan and Dickerson 1908 Muraenidae Gymnothorax pictus Nukulau Island Herre 1936 Muraenidae Gymnothorax (Siderea) pictus Fiji Whitley 1927 = Gymnothorax pictus Muraenidae Lycodontis picta = Suva Fowler 1928 and 1959 Gymnothorax pictus Muraenidae Gymnothorax polyuranodon Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Muraenidae Gymnothorax polyuranodon Ovalau Island BMNH 1879.5.14.456 Muraenidae Lycodontis polyurandon = Fiji Islands Mar-29 Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1959: Gymnothorax polyuranodon 575 Muraenidae Gymnothorax polyuranodon Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 103 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village Boseto 2003 Muraenidae Gymnothorax polyuranodon Fiji Whitley 1927 Muraenidae Lycodontis undulate = Suva Fowler 1928, 1931, 1934 and Gymnothorax undulata 1959: 76 Muraenidae Gymnothorax undulates and Fiji Whitley 1927 G. stellatus = Gymnothorax undulata Muraenidae Gymnothorax undulates = Suva and Nukulau Island Herre 1936 Gymnothorax undulata Muraenidae Uropterygius concolor Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00259877 Muraenidae Uropterygius concolor Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Ophichthidae Caecula bicolor = Namusi = Namosi Province Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1959: Lamnostoma bicolor 62 Ophichthidae Sphagebranchus bicolor = Namusi = Namosi Province Schmeltz 1869 in Fowler Lamnostoma bicolor 1959 Ophichthidae Ophichthys bicolor = Fiji Whitley 1927 Lamnostoma bicolor

Ophichthidae Achirophichthys kampeni = Dobuilevu River near research station Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Lamnostoma kampeni Ophichthidae Lamnostoma kampeni Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002

199 Ophichthidae Achirophichthys kampeni = Sovi River Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Lamnostoma kampeni Ophichthidae Pisodonophis schapii = Namusi = Namosi Province Fowler 1928, 1931, 1934 and Pisodonophis cancrivorus and 1959: 60 Ophichthidae Pisodonophis schapii = Namusi = Namosi Province Schmeltz 1869 in Fowler Pisodonophis cancrivorus 1959 Ophichthidae Pisodonophis cancrivorus Fiji Whitley 1927 Ophichthidae Caecula lumbricoides = Namusi = Namosi Province Fowler 1928 and 1959: 63 Yirrkala lumbricoides Ophichthidae Sphagebranchus lumbricoides Namusi = Namosi Province Schmeltz 1869 in Fowler = Yirrkala lumbricoides 1959 Ophichthidae Yirrkala lumbricoides Suva Seale 1935 Poeciliidae Gambusia affinis Upper Rewa River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Poeciliidae Gambusia affinis Waimanu River Dec-02 FIT Collections 2002 Poeciliidae Gambusia affinis Naduruloulou research station ponds Sep-01 USP 4949 Poeciliidae Gambusia affinis Waisere Creek, Tailevu Sep-01 USP 5299 Poeciliidae Gambusia affinis Upper Ba River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Poeciliidae Gambusia affinis Mid Ba River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Poeciliidae Gambusia affinis Suva Jul 75 USNM 00246459 Poeciliidae Poecilia mexicana Confluence of Wainivodi and Wainsavulevu May-77 Inst Nat. Resources = IAS River Poeciliidae Poecilia mexicana Suva Ryan 1980; Andrews 1985; Lewis and Pring 1986 Poeciliidae Poecilia reticulata Suva Ryan 1980; Andrews 1985; Lewis and Pring 1986 Poeciliidae Xiphophorus helleri Suva Lewis and Pring 1986 Poeciliidae Xiphophorus helleri pond at Tamavua Ryan 1980: 67; Lewis and Pring 1986 Polynemidae Polydactylus microstoma Fiji Islands Lewis and Pring 1986 Polynemidae Polydactylus plebeius Rewa River mouth May-82 USNM 00278193 Polynemidae Polydactylus plebeius Suva Jordan and Dickerson 1908 Polynemidae Polydactylus plebeius Fiji Fowler 1928, 1931, 1934 and 1959

Polynemidae Polynemus plebeius = Fiji Whitley 1927 Polydactylus plebeius Scatophagidae Scatophagus argus Naikorokoro Creek Ryan 1980 Scatophagidae Scatophagus argus Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00259383

200 Scatophagidae Scatophagus argus Dravo Village Feb-02 CAS 216854 Scatophagidae Scatophagus argus Waimanu River Dec-02 77 FIT Collections 2002 Scorpaenidae Dendrochirus brachypterus Rewa River mouth May-82 CAS 64787 Scorpaenidae Dendrochirus brachypterus Fiji Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1934 Scorpaenidae Brachyrus brachypterus = Fiji Fowler 1959:347 Dendrochirus brachypterus Scorpaenidae Brachyrus brachypterus = Kandavu = Kadavu Schmetlz 1879 in Fowler Dendrochirus brachypterus 1959 Scorpaenidae Pterois sausualele = Suva Jordan and Dickerson 1908 Dendrochirus brachypterus Scorpaenidae Pterois (Brachirus) Fiji Whitley 1927 sausualele = Dendrochirus brachypterus Scorpaenidae Dendrochirus zebra Rewa River mouth May-82 CAS 64790 Scorpaenidae Dendrochirus zebra Kadavu Island May 82 USNM collection Scorpaenidae Dendrochirus zebra Fiji Fowler 1928 and 1931 Scorpaenidae Brachyrus zebra = Fiji Fowler 1959:346 Dendrochirus zebra Scorpaenidae Brachyrus zebra = Viti Levu Schmeltz 1879 in Fowler Dendrochirus zebra 1959 Scorpaenidae Pterois (Brachirus) zebra = Fiji Whitley 1927 Dendrochirus zebra Scorpaenidae Scorpaenopsis macrochir Rewa River mouth May-82 USNM 00266242 Scorpaenidae Tetraroge niger Kubuna Creek May-65 CAS 31257 Serranidae Promicrops lanceolatus = Fiji Whitley 1931 in Fowler 1959 Epinephelus lanceolatus and Fowler 1955 and 1959 Serranidae Serranus lanceolatus = Fiji Fowler 1928 and 1931 Epinephelus lanceolatus Serranidae Epinephelus lanceolatus Fiji Islands Lewis and Pring 1986 Serranidae Epinephelus malabaricus Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00269102 Serranidae Ephinephelus pantherinus = Fiji Whitley 1927 Epinephelus malabaricus Serranidae Serranus malabaricus = Fiji Fowler 1931 and 1934 Epinephelus malabaricus Siganidae Siganus vermiculatus Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00256555 Siganidae Siganus vermiculatus Kubuna Creek May-65 USNM 00317584 Siganidae Siganus vermiculatus Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Siganidae Siganus vermiculatus Rewa River mouth May-82 USNM 00256554

201 Siganidae Siganus vermiculatus Fiji Whitley 1927 and Fowler 1928 and 1931 Siganidae Siganus vermiculatus Suva Fowler 1932, 1934 and 1959 Siganidae Tenthis vermiculata = Kandavu = Kadavu Schmetlz 1869 in Fowler Siganus vermiculatus 1959 Siganidae Tenthis vermiculatus = Kandavu = Kadavu Schmetlz 1879 in Fowler Siganus vermiculatus 1959 Sphyraenidae Sphyraena obtusata Fiji Günther 1877 in Fowler 1959 and Whitley 1927 Sphyraenidae Sphyraena obtusata Suva Fowler 1928 and 1959 Syngnathidae Hippichthys cyanospilos South Draunibota Island May-65 USNM 00217481 Syngnathidae Hippichthys cyanospilos Fiji Dawson 1985 and Kuiter 2000 Syngnathidae Hippichthys spicifer Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00235766 Syngnathidae Hippichthys spicifer Kubuna Creek May-65 USNM 00217490 Syngnathidae Hippichthys spicifer Kadavu Island May 82 USNM 00235758 Syngnathidae Hippichthys spicifer Lau Island Apr 82 USNM 00235757 Syngnathidae Micrognathus suvensis = Suva Herre 1953 in Kuiter 2000 Hippichthys spicifer Syngnathidae Syngnathus spicifer = Suva Fowler 1928, 1932, 1934 and Hippichthys spicifer 1959 and Seale 1935 Syngnathidae Microphis argulus Wainibau Creek, Taveuni 1980 Ryan 1980, 1981 Syngnathidae Microphis argulus Fiji Kuiter 2000 Syngnathidae Microphis brachyurus Lower Sigatoka River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and brachyurus Boseto 2003 Syngnathidae Microphis brachyurus Naikorokoro Creek Ryan 1980 brachyurus Syngnathidae Microphis brachyurus = Ovalau Island Fowler 1959: 136 Microphis brachyurus brachyurus Syngnathidae Microphis brevidorsalis Mid Rewa River Apr-53 USNM 00163542 Syngnathidae Microphis brevidorsalis Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00235770 Syngnathidae Micrognathus brevidorsalis = Suva Herre 1936 Microphis brevidorsalis Syngnathidae Micrognathus brevidorsalis = Fiji Fowler 1959 Microphis brevidorsalis Syngnathidae Microphis brevidorsalis Fiji Kuiter 2000 Syngnathidae Microphis leiaspis Lower Wainikoro River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003

202 Syngnathidae Coelonotus leiaspis = Suva Fowler 1928, 1931 and 1959: Microphis leiaspis 134 and Seale 1935 Syngnathidae Microphis leiaspis Lower Nasavu River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Syngnathidae Microphis leiaspis Waimanu River at Sawani 86 Ryan, 1980; Lewis and Pring 1986 Syngnathidae Microphis leiaspis Koroivonu River, Nala Village (Natewa Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Penisular) Boseto 2003 Syngnathidae Microphis leiaspis Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 90 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village Boseto 2003 Syngnathidae Microphis leiaspis Fiji Dawson 1985 and Kuiter 2000 Syngnathidae Microphis retzii Tavuki Creek in Kadavu Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Society Syngnathidae Microphis retzii lower Wainikoro River near Nasasa Village Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Syngnathidae Microphis retzii Wainibau Creek, Taveuni 1980 Ryan 1980 Syngnathidae Microphis retzii Waisere Creek, Tailevu Sep-01 USP collection Syngnathidae Microphis retzii Koroivonu River, Nala Village (Natewa Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Penisular) Boseto 2003 Syngnathidae Microphis retzii Mid-Upper Nakawakawa River near Aug-03 52-60 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Nakawakawa Village Boseto 2003 Teraponidae Mesopristes kneri Suva Ryan 1980 Teraponidae Mesopristes kneri Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00257173 Teraponidae Mesopristes kneri Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00257174 Teraponidae Mesopristes kneri Suva Feb-51 USNM 00112737 Teraponidae Mesopristes kneri River flowing into Suva Harbour Mar-29 CAS 24935 Teraponidae Mesopristes kneri Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Teraponidae Mesopristes kneri Rewa River mouth 1981 AMS I .22644-001 Teraponidae Mesopristes kneri Nalase Creek Waqairatu 2003 Teraponidae Mesopristes kneri Kadavu Island May 82 USNM 00235958 Teraponidae Mesopristes kneri Lau Island Apr 82 USNM 00235957 Teraponidae Therapon argenteus = Fiji Whitley 1927 and Fowler Mesopristes kneri 1931 Teraponidae Therapon argenteus = Suva Harbour Herre 1936 Mesopristes kneri Teraponidae Therapon kneri = Suva Fowler 1928 Mesopristes kneri Teraponidae Therapon maculates = Suva Kendall and Goldsborough Mesopristes kneri 1911 in Fowler 1959

203 Teraponidae Terapon kneri = Mesopristes Suva Fowler 1931 and 1959 kneri Teraponidae Terapon jarbua Lau Island Apr 82 USNM 00235956 Teraponidae Terapon jarbua Lower Sigatoka River Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Teraponidae Terapon jarbua South Draunibota Island May-65 USNM 00332627 Teraponidae Terapon jarbua Kubuna Creek May-65 USNM 00332635 Teraponidae Terapon jarbua Kubuna Creek Aug-63 USNM 00332647 Teraponidae Terapon jarbua Suva Fowler 1931, 1932, 1934 and 1959 Teraponidae Therapon jarbua = Terapon Suva Jordan and Dickerson 1908 jarbua Teraponidae Therapon jarbua = Terapon Fiji Whitley 1927 and Fowler jarbua 1928 Teraponidae Therapon jarbua = Terapon Suva Harbour Herre 1936 jarbua Tetraodontidae Arothron immaculatus Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00269115 Tetraodontidae Arothron immaculatus Small creek at Laucala Bay Ryan 1980 Tetraodontidae Tetrodon immaculatus = Suva Fowler 1928, 1931, 1934 and Arothron immaculatus 1959: 555 Tetraodontidae Arothron immaculatus Rewa River mouth May-82 USNM 00269144 Tetraodontidae Tetraodon immaculatus = Fiji Whitley 1927 Arothron immaculatus Tetraodontidae Tetraodon immaculatus = Suva Herre 1936 Arothron immaculatus Tetraodontidae Arothron reticularis Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Tetraodontidae Tetrodon reticularis = Suva Fowler 1928, 1934 and 1959: Arothron reticularis 552 Tetraodontidae Tetraodon reticularis = Suva Herre 1936 Arothron reticularis Tetraodontidae Tetrodon reticularis = Creeks behind Orchid Island, Pacific Habour Ryan 1980 Arothron reticularis Tetraodontidae Sphoeroides lunaris = Suva Fowler 1928 and 1959: 550 Lagocephalus lunaris and Seale 1935 Trichiuridae Trichiurus lepturus Fiji Islands Lewis and Pring 1986

204 Appendix 4. Freshwater fishes collected from Fiji from other sources, identified only to genus.

Family Species collected Locality (numbered west to east, south Month & Source of Informations to north) year collected Ambassidae Ambassis sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00259387 Ambassidae Ambassis sp. Waibau Creek, trib of Waimanu River Aug-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Ambassidae Ambassis sp. 26. Mid Rewa River Apr-53 Ambassidae Ambassis sp. 27. Rewa River mouth USNM 00163541 Ambassidae Ambassis sp. 39. Nakasaleka Creek near Nakoronawa Dec-03 Wildlife Conservation Village in Kadavu Society Apogonidae Archamia sp. 15. Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00261088 Apogonidae Archamia sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00261084 Eleotridae Butis sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00256508 Eleotridae Butis sp. 19. Kubuna Creek May-65 USNM 00341025 Eleotridae Butis sp. 20. Kubuna Creek Aug-63 USNM 00341022 Eleotridae Butis sp. 16. Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00241792 Eleotridae Eleotris sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00256522 Eleotridae Eleotris sp. 18. South Draunibota Island May-65 USNM 00353681 Eleotridae Eleotris sp. Lau Island Apr 82 USNM 00256509 Eleotridae Eleotris sp. Ovalau Island BMNH 1856.9.4.81 Eleotridae Eleotris sp. Confluence of Wainivodi and May-77 Inst Nat. Resources = IAS Wainsavulevu River Eleotridae Ophiocara sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00256562 Eleotridae Ophiocara sp. Lau island Apr 82 USNM 00256505 Engraulidae Stolephorus sp. 16. Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00261623 Gereidae Gerres sp. 27. Rewa River mouth May-82 USNM 00259705 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Amoya sp. 16. Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00241798 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Bathygobius sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00261772 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Callogobius sp. 37. Kadavu Island May 82 USNM 00235959 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Coryogalops sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May USNM 00266324 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Coryogalops sp. 15. Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00266323

205 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Ctenogobiops sp. Nabukavesi, billabongs beside creek Fowler 1959: 612; Ryan 1980 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Drombus sp. 1 19. Kubuna Creek May-65 USNM 00352747 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Drombus sp. 1 20. Kubuna Creek Aug-63 USNM 00352857 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Drombus sp. 1 16. Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00241742 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Drombus sp. 1 18. South Draunibota Island May-65 USNM 00352749 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Drombus sp. 1 13. Naikorokoro Creek May USNM 00261773 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius sp. 1 34. Sovi River Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius sp. 1 50. Mid Buca River (Natewa Penisular) Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius sp. 1 15. Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00259740 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius sp. 1 23. Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius sp. 1 23. Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Glossogobius sp. 1 28. Nalase Creek Waqairatu 2003 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Mahidolia sp. 1. 18. South Draunibota Island May-65 USNM 00346615 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Pandaka sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00261775 Gobiidae, Gobiinae Oxyurichthys sp. 20. Kubuna Creek Aug-63 USNM 00265086 Gobiidae, Gobionellinae Oxyurichthys sp. Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00241799 Gobiidae, Gobionellinae Oxyurichthys sp. 16. Naqara Island Jun 82 USNM 00241799 Gobiidae, Gobionellinae Redigobius sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00261774 Gobiidae, Gobionellinae Redigobius sp. 53.Mid Wainunu Aug-03 J. Pogonowski in Jenkins and Boseto 2003 Gobiidae, Gobionellinae Redigobius sp. 19. Kubuna Creek May-65 USNM 00341231 Gobiidae, Sicidiinae Sicydium sp. Confl of Wainivodi & Wainsavulevu May-77 Inst Nat. Resources = IAS River Gobiidae, Sicidiinae Sicyopterus sp. Nabukavesi River, E Last River Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Gobiidae, Sicidiinae Sicyopterus sp. Waibau Creek, tributary of Wainamu Feb-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 River Gobiidae, Sicidiinae Sicyopterus sp. Nayarabale River Sep-86 Boren 1986 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus sp. 28. Nalase Creek Waqairatu 2003 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus sp. 19. Kubuna Creek May-65 USNM 00294337 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus sp. 20. Kubuna Creek Aug-63 USNM 00294327 Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus sp. 23. Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Kuhliidae Kuhlia sp. Lau Island Apr 82 USNM 00236691

206 Leiognathidae Leiognathus sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00259711 Leiognathidae Leiognathus sp. 27. Rewa River mouth May-82 USNM 00259701 Moringuidae Moringua sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00259690 Mugilidae Liza sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00259715 Mugilidae Liza sp. Lau Island Apr 82 USNM 00259714 Mugilidae Liza sp. 27. Rewa River mouth May-82 USNM 00259687 Mugilidae Mugil sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00259723 Mugilidae Mugil sp. 15. Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00259707 Mugilidae Mugil sp. Lau Island Apr 82 USNM 00259722 Mugilidae Mugil sp. 37. Kadavu Island May 82 USNM 00245636 Mugilidae Mugil sp. 27. Rewa River mouth May-82 USNM 00259719 Muraenidae Gymnothorax sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00259863 Muraenidae Gymnothorax sp. 1 15. Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00259851 Muraenidae Gymnothorax sp. 2 15. Wainadoi River Jun 82 USNM 00259852 Poeciliidae Gambusia sp. 1. Dobuilevu River near research station Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Poeciliidae Poecilia sp. 1. Dobuilevu River near research station Sep-86 Lewis and Pring 1986 Poeciliidae Poecilia sp. 23. Tamavua River Waqairatu 2003 Poeciliidae Poecilia sp. 28. Nalase Creek Waqairatu 2003 Siganidae Siganus sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00256556 Sphyraenidae Sphyraena sp. 13. Naikorokoro Creek May-82 USNM 00259720 Syngnathidae Microphis sp. Ba River Sep-86 Syngnathidae Microphis sp. Waidina River Mar-86 Syngnathidae Microphis sp. Savura Creek Nov-02 Tetraodontidae Arothron sp. 27. Rewa River mouth May-82 USNM 00269140 Tetraodontidae Canthigaster sp. 15. Wainadoi River Jun 82 CAS 57132

207 Appendix 5. Summary of Fijian estuarine and freshwater fishes. This list was presented in the fish family alphabetical order. All the names that are used in this list are the recent valid fish names. Note: Species with? see Section 3.4.3. and * denotes the introduced freshwater aquarium fishes.

ALBULIDAE Albula glossodonta (Forsskål, 1775) AMBASSIDAE Ambassis miops Günther, 1872 ANGUILLIDAE ?Anguilla australis Richardson, 1841 Anguilla bicolor bicolor McClelland, 1844 Anguilla marmorata Quoy & Gaimard, 1824 Anguilla megastoma Kaup, 1856 Anguilla obscura Günther, 1872 APOGONIDAE Apogon amboinensis Bleeker, 1853 Apogon lateralis Valenciennes, 1832 Sphaeramia orbicularis (Cuvier, 1828) BALISTIDAE Rhinecanthus aculeatus (Linnaeus, 1758) CARANGIDAE Caranx ignobilis (Forsskål 1775) Caranx papuensis Alleyne & Macleay, 1877 Caranx sexfasciatus Quoy & Gaimard, 1825 Caranx tille Cuvier 1833 Scomberoides tol (Cuvier, 1832) CARCHARHINIDAE Carcharhinus leucas (Müller & Henle, 1839) CENTRARCHIDAE Micropterus salmoides (Lacepède, 1802) CHANIDAE Chanos chanos (Forsskål, 1775) CHIROCENTRIDAE Chirocentrus dorab (Forsskål, 1775) CICHLIDAE Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters, 1852) Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) CLUPEIDAE Sardinella fijiense (Fowler & Bean, 1923) CYPRINIDAE Barbonymus gonionotus (Bleeker, 1850) Ctenophyaryngodon idella (Valenciennes, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1844) Rhodeus ocellatus (Kner, 1866) DIODONTIDAE Diodon liturosus Shaw, 1804 ELEOTRIDAE Amblyeleotris guttata (Fowler, 1938) Belobranchus belobranchus (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837)

208 Bostrychus sinensis Lacepède, 1801 Bunaka gyrinoides (Bleeker, 1853) Butis amboinensis (Bleeker, 1853) Butis butis (Hamilton, 1822) Eleotris fusca (Forster, in Bloch and Schneider, 1801) Eleotris melanosoma Bleeker, 1852 Giurus hoedti (Bleeker, 1854) Giurus margaritacea (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837) Hypseleotris guentheri (Bleeker, 1875) Ophiocara porocephala (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valencienne, 1837) Oxyeleotris marmorata (Bleeker, 1852) ENGRAULIDAE Stolephorus indicus (van Hasselt, 1823) Thryssa baelama (Forsskål, 1775) EPHIPPIDAE Platax orbicularis (Forsskål, 1775) GERREIDAE Gerres longirostris (Lacepède, 1801) GOBIIDAE GOBIINAE Acentrogobius caninus (Valenciennes in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837) Acentrogobius suluensis (Herre, 1927) Bathygobius fuscus (Rüppell, 1830) Bathygobius hongkongensis Lam, 1986 Bathygobius padangensis (Bleeker, 1851) Caragobius urolepis (Bleeker, 1852) Ctenogobiops aurocingulus (Herre, 1935) Glossogobius bicirrhosus (Weber, 1894) Glossogobius sp.1 Oplopomus oplopomus (Valenciennes, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837) Palutrus scapulopunctatus (de Beaufort, 1912) Psammogobius biocellatus (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837) Yongeichthys nebulosus (Forsskål, 1775) GOBIONELLINAE Awaous guamensis (Valenciennes, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837) Awaous melanocephalus (Bleeker, 1849) Awaous ocellaris (Broussonet, 1782) Mugilogobius notospilus (Günther, 1877) Oxyurichthys ophthalmonema (Bleeker, 1856-57) Oxyurichthys tentacularis (Valenciennes, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837) Redigobius bikolanus (Herre, 1927) Redigobius leveri (Fowler, 1943) Redigobius roemeri (Weber, 1911) Redigobius sp.1 Schismatogobius vitiensis Jenkins and Boseto, 2005 Stenogobius sp.1 ?Stigmatogobius sadanundio (Hamilton, 1822) OXUDERCINAE ?Periophthalmodon barbarus (Linnaeus 1766) Periophthalmus argentilineatus Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1837 Periophthalmus kalolo Lesson, 1831

209 SICYDIINAE Lentipes kaaea Watson, Keith and Marquet, 2002 Sicyopterus lagocephalus (Commerson, in Lacepède, 1800) Sicyopus zosterophorum (Bleeker, 1856-57) Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp. Stiphodon rutilaureus Watson, 1996 Stiphodon sp. 1 Stiphodon sp. 2 New genus, new species HAEMULIDAE Plectorhinchus gibbosus (Hombron and Jacquinot, 1853) HEMIRAMPHIDAE Hyporhamphus dussumieri (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1847) Zenarchopterus dispar (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1847) KUHLIIDAE Kuhlia marginata (Cuvier, in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1829) Kuhlia munda (De Vis, 1884) Kuhlia rupestris (Lacepède, 1802) LACTARIIDAE Lactarius lactarius (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) LEIOGNATHIDAE. Gazza minuta (Bloch, 1795) Leiognathus equulus (Forsskål, 1775) Leiognathus fasciatus (Lacepède, 1803) Leiognathus splendens (Cuvier, 1829) LETHRINIDAE Lethrinus harak (Forsskål, 1775) Lethrinus reticulatus (Valenciennes, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1830) LUTJANIDAE Lutjanus argentimaculatus (Forsskål, 1775) Lutjanus fulviflamma (Forsskål, 1775) Lutjanus fulvus (Forster, in Bloch and Schneider, 1801) Lutjanus gibbus (Forsskål, 1775) Lutjanus johnii (Bloch, 1792) Lutjanus lunulatus (Park, 1797) Lutjanus rivulatus (Cuvier, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1828) Lutjanus russellii (Bleeker, 1849) MEGALOPIDAE Megalops cyprinoides (Broussonet, 1782) MONODACTYLIDAE Monodactylus argenteus (Linnaeus, 1758) MORINGUIDAE Moringua abbreviata (Bleeker, 1863) Moringua macrocephalus (Bleeker, 1863) Neoconger tuberculatus (Castle, 1965) MUGILIDAE Cestraeus plicatilis Valenciennes in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836 Liza macrolepis (Smith, 1846) Crenimugil crenilabis (Forsskål, 1775) Liza melinoptera (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836) Liza subviridis (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836)

210 Liza vaigiensis (Quoy & Gaimard, 1825) Mugil cephalus Linnaeus, 1758 Valamugil buchanani (Bleeker, 1853) Valamugil cunnesius (Valenciennes, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1836) Valamugil engeli (Bleeker, 1858) Valamugil seheli (Forsskål, 1775) MULLIDAE Parupeneus indicus (Shaw, 1803) Upeneus sulphureus (Cuvier, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829) Upeneus vittatus (Forsskål, 1775) MURAENESOCIDAE Muraenesox cinereus (Forsskål, 1775) MURAENIDAE Gymnothorax favagineus Bloch and Schneider, 1801) Gymnothorax pictus (Ahl, 1789) Gymnothorax polyuranodon (Bleeker, 1853) Gymnothorax undulata (Lacepède, 1803) Uropterygius concolor Rüppell, 1838 OPHICHTHIDAE Lamnostoma bicolor (Kaup, 1856) Lamnostoma kampeni (Weber & de Beaufort, 1916) Pisodonophis cancrivorus (Richardson, 1848) Yirrkala gjellerupi (Weber & de Beaufort, 1916) ?Yirrkala lumbricoides (Bleeker, 1853) POECILIIDAE Gambusia affinis (Baird & Girard, 1853) Poecilia mexicana Steindachner, 1863* Poecilia reticulata Peters, 1859* Xiphophorus hellerii Heckel, 1848* POLYNEMIDAE Polydactylus microstoma (Bleeker, 1851) Polydactylus plebeius (Broussonet, 1782) SCATOPHAGIDAE Scatophagus argus (Linnaeus, 1766) SCORPAENIDAE Dendrochirus brachypterus (Cuvier, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829) Dendrochirus zebra (Cuvier, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829) Scorpaenopsis macrochir Ogilby, 1910 Tetraroge niger (Cuvier, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829) SERRANIDAE Epinephelus lanceolatus (Bloch, 1790) Epinephelus malabaricus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) SIGANIDAE Siganus vermiculatus (Valenciennces, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1835) SPHYRAENIDAE Sphyraena obtusata (Cuvier, in Cuvier & Valenciennes, 1829) SYNGNATHIDAE Hippichthys cyanospilus (Bleeker, 1854) Hippichthys spicifer (Rüppell, 1838) Microphis argulus (Peters, 1855) Microphis brachyurus brachyurus (Bleeker, 1853)

211 Microphis brevidorsalis (de Beaufort, 1913) Microphis leiaspis (Bleeker, 1853) Microphis retzii (Bleeker, 1856) Microphis sp.1 TERAPONIDAE Mesopristes kneri (Bleeker, 1876) Terapon jarbua (Forsskål, 1775) TETRAODONTIDAE Arothron immaculatus (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Arothron reticularis (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) Lagocephalus lunaris (Bloch & Schneider, 1801) TRICHIURIDAE Trichiurus lepturus Linnaeus, 1758

212 Appendix 6. Fish counted into the quartiles and representing common, moderate to occasionally common and less common species.

My collections Other collections Combine the two collections Common fish species A. marmorata H. guentheri A. marmorata E. fusca K. rupestris K. rupestris A. marmorata Moderate to occasionally S. lagocephalus K. marginata S. lagocephalus common fish species K. rupestris Glossogobius sp. 1 K. marginata K. marginata S. lagocephalus E. fusca S. rutilaureus K. munda H. guentheri A. ocellaris A. ocellaris A. ocellaris B. belobranchus E. melanosoma Glossogobius sp. 1 Stiphodon sp. 1 S. rutilaureus Stiphodon sp. 2 E. melanosoma Stenogobius sp. 1 Stiphodon sp. 1 A. guamensis Stiphodon sp. 2 A. obscura K. munda Z. dispar Stenogobius sp. 1 A. miops O. mossambicus S. rutilaureus A. guamensis O. mossambicus A. miops G. hoedti R. leveri P. biocellatus Z. dispar L. argentimaculatus R. leveri C. sexfasciatus M. kneri G. affinis M. leiaspis M. retzii O. niloticus O. aporos A. reticularis Less common fish species O. mossambicus S. zosterophorum A. obscura G. polyuranodon G. polyuranodon C. sexfasciatus E. fusca B. gyrinoides G. polyuranodon E. melanosoma T. jarbua M. kneri Stiphodon sp. 1 P. Kalolo G. hoedti R. leveri U.vittatus P. biocellatus Stiphodon sp. 2 S. vermiculatus S. zosterophorum C. sexfasciatus O. marmorata G. affinis S. zosterophorum M. cyprinioides L. argentimaculatus K. munda M. cephalus M. leiaspis G. affinis H. spicifer B. belobranchus S. vitiensis A. immaculatus S. vitiensis H. guentheri S. vitiensis M. retzii Glossogobius sp. 1 L. fulvus O. niloticus Stenogobius sp. 1 M. brachyurus brachyurus B. gyrinoides A. guamensis O. margaritacea O. aporos A. miops L. kampeni L. fulvus L. fulvus A. lateralis M. brachyurus brachyurus M. brachyurus brachyurus O. porocephala T. jarbua O. margaritacea S. argus A. reticularis M. kneri C. leucas P. Kalolo G. hoedti C. chanos U. vittatus P. biocellatus C. dorab L. kampeni L. argentimaculatus S. fijiense S. vermiculatus M. leiaspis P. argentineatus A. lateralis

213 B. gyrinoides L. equulus O. porocephala T. jarbua L. russullii O. marmorata L. kampeni M. argenteus L. russullii Z. dispar M. brevidorsalis M. cyprinioides S. vermiculatus B. gonionotus M. argenteus L. russellii B. sinensis M. cephalus M. argenteus R. bikolanus S. argus M. brevidorsalis A. australis H. spicifer L. subviridis M. salmoides M. brevidorsalis Z. dispar C. idella A. immaculatus P. reticulata B. butis C. leucas S. (c.f. juxtastiphodon) sp. T. baelama C. chanos 1 A. caninus C. dorab N. genus. n. species B. fuscus S. fijiense M. retzii S. sadanundio B. gonionotus A. reticularis P. barbatus B. sinensis P. kalolo L. harak O. margaritacea U. vittatus C. plicatilis R. bikolanus A. lateralis L. melinoptera P. argentineatus O. porocephala L. vaigiensis L. equulus S. argus U. sulphureus L. subviridis S. fijiense M. cinereus P. reticulata B. gonionotus U. concolor A. australis B. sinensis P. mexicana A. megastoma R. bikolanus X. hellerii M. salmoides L. equulus D. zebra C. idella A. megastoma L. subviridis B. butis L. kaaea P. reticulata T. baelama P. gibbosus A. megastoma A. caninus G. minuta L. kaaea B. fuscus L. fasciatus P. gibbosus S. sadanundio M. abbreviata G. minuta P. barbatus N. tuberculatus L. fasciatus L. kaaea C. macrolepis M. abbreviata S. (c.f. juxtastiphodon) sp. V. buchanani N. tuberculatus 1 U. sulphureus C. macrolepis N. genus n.species T. niger V. buchanani P. gibbosus A. amboinensis T. niger G. minuta D. liturosus M. argulus L. fasciatus S. indicus A. glossodonta L. harak G. longirostris S. orbicularis M. abbreviata L. splendens R. aculeatus N. tuberculatus V. cunnesius C. ignobilis C. plicatilis V. engeli C. papuensis C. macrolepis Y. gjellerupi C. tille L. melinoptera S. obtusata S. tol L. vaigiensis R. ocellatus V. buchanani A. guttata U. sulphureus B. amboinensis M. cinereus P. orbicularis U. concolor A. suluensis P. mexicana B. hongkongensis X. hellerii B. padangensis D. zebra C. urolepis T. niger C. aurocingulus A. glossodonta G. bicirrhosus A. amboinensis O. oplopomus S. orbicularis P. scapulopunctatus R. aculeatus Y. nebulosus C. ignobilis A. melanocephalus C. papuensis M. notospilus C. tille O. ophthalmonema S. tol

214 O. tentacularis R. ocellatus R. roemoeri D. liturosus Redigobius sp. 1 A. guttata H. dussumieri B. amboinensis L. lactarius S. indicus L. splendens P. orbicularis L. reticulatus G. longirostris L. fulviflamma A. suluensis L. gibbus B. hongkongensis L. johnii B. padangensis L. lunulatus C. urolepis L. rivulatus C. aurocingulus M. macrocephalus G. bicirrhosus C. crenilabis O. oplopomus V. seheli P. scapulopunctatus P. indicus Y. nebulosus G. favagineus A. melanocephalus G. pictus M. notospilus G. undulata O. ophthalmonema L. bicolor O. tentacularis P. cancrivorus R. roemoeri Y. lumbricoides Redigobius sp. 1 P. microstoma A. bicolor bicolor P. plebeius H. dussumieri D. brachypterus L. lactarius Microphis sp. 1 L. splendens S. macrochir L. reticulatus E. malabaricus L. fulviflamma E. lanceolatus L. gibbus H. cyanospilos L. johnii L. lunaris L. lunulatus T. lepturus L. rivulatus A. bicolor bicolor M. macrocephalus C. crenilabis V. cunnesius V. engeli V. seheli P. indicus G. favagineus G. pictus G. undulata L. bicolor P. cancrivorus Y. gjellerupi Y. lumbricoides P. microstoma P. plebeius D. brachypterus S. macrochir E. malabaricus E. lanceolatus S. obtusata H. cyanospilus M. argulus Microphis sp. 1 L. lunaris T. lepturus

215 Appendix 7. Fishes categorised into different water habitats namely freshwater, freshwater/brackish, freshwater/brackish/marine and brackish/marine. Some lagoonal fishes that are found in any of the below categories during this survey or from previous studies are classified into those categories. This is done for this study only inorder to differenciate the fresh water fish from the estuarine and the marine species.

Freshwater Freshwater/Brackish Freshwater/Brackish/Marine Brackish/Marine Micropterus salmoides Apogon amboinensis Ambassis miops Albula glossodonta

Barbodes gonionotus Oreochromis mossambicus Anguilla australis Sphaeramia orbicularis Ctenopharyngodon idellus Oreochromis niloticus Anguilla bicolor bicolor Rhinecanthus aculeatus Rhodeus ocellatus Belobranchus belobranchus Anguilla marmorata Caranx ignobilis Bunaka gyrinoides Oxyeleotris marmorata Anguilla megastoma Caranx papuensis Hypseleotris guentheri Acentrogobius suluensis Anguilla obscura Caranx sexfasciatus

Redigobius leveri Glossogobius bicirrhosus Apogon lateralis Caranx tille

Redigobius sp. 1 Glossogobius sp. 1 Carcharhinus leucas Scomberoides tol Schismatogobius vitiensis Awaous melanocephalus Chanos chanos Chirocentrus dorab

Lamnostoma kampeni Stenogobius sp. 1 Bostrychus sinensis Sardinella fijiense Yirrkala gjellerupi Stigmatogobius sadanundio Butis amboinensis Diodon liturosus Microphis brevidorsalis Kuhlia munda Butis butis Amblyeleotris guttata Microphis retzii Kuhlia rupestris Eleotris fusca Stolephorus indicus Microphis sp.1 Cestraeus plicatilis Eleotris melanosoma Thryssa baelama Moringua macrocephalus Giurus hoedti Platax orbicularis Gambusia affinis Giurus margaritacea Gerres longirostris Poecilia mexicana Ophiocara porocephala Acentrogobius caninus

Poecilia reticulata Bathygobius fuscus Bathygobius hongkongensis Xiphophorus helleri Yongeichthys nebulosus Bathygobius padangensis Microphis leiaspis Awaous guamensis Caragobius urolepis Awaous ocellaris Ctenogobiops aurocingulus Mugilogobius notospilus Oplopomus oplopomus Redigobius bikolanus Palutrus scapulopunctatus Redigobius roemeri Psammogobius biocellatus Periophthalmodon barbarus Oxyurichthys ophthalmonema Lentipes kaaea Oxyurichthys tentacularis Sicyopterus lagocephalus Periophthalmus argentilineatus Sicyopus zosterophorum Periophthalmus kalolo Sicyopus (cf Juxtastiphodon) sp. Plectorhinchus gibbosus Stiphodon rutilaureus Hyporhamphus dussumieri Stiphodon sp. 1 Lactarius lactarius Stiphodon sp. 2 Gazza minuta New genus, new species Leiognathus fasciatus Zenarchopterus dispar Leiognathus splendens Kuhlia marginata Lethrinus harak Leiognathus equulus Lethrinus reticulatus Lutjanus fulvus Lutjanus argentimaculatus Megalops cyprinoides Lutjanus fulviflamma Monodactylus argenteus Lutjanus gibbus

216 Liza macrolepis Lutjanus johnii Liza melinoptera Lutjanus lunulatus Liza subviridis Lutjanus rivulatus Mugil cephalus Lutjanus russellii Valamugil buchanani Moringua abbreviata Valamugil cunnesius Neoconger tuberculatus Muraenesox cinereus Crenimugil crenilabis Gymnothorax polyuranodon Liza vaigiensis Pisodonophis cancrivorus Valamugil engeli Scatophagus argus Valamugil seheli Tetraroge niger Parupeneus indicus Hippichthys cyanospilos Upeneus sulphureus Microphis argulus Upeneus vittatus Microphis brachyurus brachyurus Gymnothorax favagineus Mesopristes kneri Gymnothorax pictus Terapon jarbua Gymnothorax undulata Uropterygius concolor Lamnostoma bicolor Yirrkala lumbricoides Polydactylus microstoma Polydactylus plebeius Dendrochirus brachypterus Dendrochirus zebra Scorpaenopsis macrochir Epinephelus lanceolatus Epinephelus malabaricus Siganus vermiculatus Sphyraena obtusata Hippichthys spicifer Arothron immaculatus Arothron reticularis Lagocephalus lunaris Trichiurus lepturus

217 Appendix 8. Gazetteer of fish collections in Fiji from other sources. Coordinates were obtained by using the Fiji Map series (1:50, 000 & 1:250, 000). Note some localities are West longitude. David Boseto's Collection locality Source Gazetteer East Gazetteer South A. Site 1, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.19” 180 07’.32” A. Site 2, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.01” 180 06’.15” A. Site 3, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.07” 180 06’.23” A. Site 4, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.02” 180 06’.10” A. Site 5, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 27’.20” 180 06’.19” A. Site 6, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 25’.59” 180 05’.53” A. Site 7, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.37” 180 05’.45” A. Site 8, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.09” 180 05’.43” A. Site 9, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.22” 180 05’.41” A. Site 10, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.26” 180 05’.29” A. Site 11, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.46” 180 05’.16” A. Site 12, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.44” 180 05’.07” A. Site 13, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.54” 180 05’.08” A. Site 14, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.36” 180 04’.59” A. Site 15, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.56” 180 06’.33” A. Site 16, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.59” 180 05’.28” A. Site 17, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.32” 180 04’.52” A. Site 18, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 27’.22” 180 04’.03” A. Site 19, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.51” 180 05’.22” A. Site 20, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.26” 180 04’.49” A. Site 21, Tamavua River system David Boseto 1780 26’.26” 180 04’.45” B. Site 43, Upper Navua River David Boseto 1770 57’.12” 180 07’.43” B. Site 44, Upper Navua River David Boseto 1770 57’.22” 180 07’.49” C. Site 45, Sovi River David Boseto 1780 15’.23” 170 55’.38” D. Site 46, Lower Wainadi Creek David Boseto 1780 26’.26” 180 04’.52” D. Site 47, Mid Wainadi Creek David Boseto 1780 26’.26” 180 04’.49” D. Site 52, Upper Wainadi Creek David Boseto 1780 14’.12” 170 56’.03” E. Site 48, Wainivobo River David Boseto 1780 13’.25” 170 33’.07” F. Site 49, Wainasa Creek David Boseto 1780 15’.24” 170 36’.03” G. Site 50, WanivaLau IslandRiver David Boseto 1780 13’.25” 170 54’.46” H. Site 52, Waibasaga Creek David Boseto 1780 26’.26” 180 04’.45” I. Site 53, Waiveikovi Creek David Boseto 1780 02’.13” 170 35’.13” J. Site 54, Wabu Creek David Boseto 1780 02’.16” 170 35’.27” K. Site 60, Wairoko Creek David Boseto 1780 24’.50” 170 45’.40” L. Site 61, Lower Wailotua River David Boseto 1780 24’.01” 170 45’.34” L. Site 62, Mid Wailotua Creek David Boseto 1780 24’.29” 170 45’.36” 0 0 Q. Site 55, Wasali Creek David Boseto 179 14’.13'' 16 33’.33'' 0 0 Q. Site 56, Wasali Creek David Boseto 179 14’.11'' 16 33’.33'' 0 0 Q. Site 57, Wasali Creek David Boseto 179 14’.06'' 16 33’.30'' 0 0 Q. Site 58, Wasali Creek David Boseto 179 13’.27'' 16 33’.24'' 0 0 Q. Site 59, Wasali Creek David Boseto 179 13’.20'' 16 33’.19'' R. Site 63, Upper Ba River David Boseto 1770 54’.31” 170 42’.53” S. Site 64, Nukunuku Creek David Boseto 1770 56’.30” 170 38’.36” T. Site 65, Nadala Creek David Boseto 1770 59’.57” 170 37’.13”

218 David Boseto's Collection Continued locality Source Gazetteer East Gazetteer South U. Site 66, Qaliwana Creek David Boseto 1770 59’.58” 170 37’.13”

West locality Source Gazetteer West Gazetteer South 0 0 M. Site 22, Tavoro Creek David Boseto 179 52’.31'' 16 49’.50'' 0 0 M. Site 23, Tavoro Creek David Boseto 179 52’.28'' 16 49’.57'' 0 0 M. Site 24, Tavoro Creek David Boseto 179 52’.36'' 16 50’.00'' 0 0 M. Site 25, Tavoro Creek David Boseto 179 52’.38'' 16 49’.58'' 0 0 M. Site 26, Tavoro Creek David Boseto 179 52’.42'' 16 49’.56'' 0 0 M. Site 27, Tavoro Creek David Boseto 179 52’.44'' 16 49’.57'' 0 0 M. Site 28, Tavoro Creek David Boseto 179 52’.47'' 16 49’.57'' 0 0 M. Site 29, Tavoro Creek David Boseto 179 52’.51'' 16 49’.56'' 0 0 M. Site 30, Tavoro Creek David Boseto 179 52’.53'' 16 50’.00'' 0 0 M. Site 31, Tavoro Creek David Boseto 179 53’.01'' 16 50’.00'' 0 0 M. Site 32, Tavoro Creek David Boseto 179 53’.09'' 16 49’.59'' 0 0 M. Site 33, Tavoro Creek David Boseto 179 53’.11'' 16 49’.59'' 0 0 M. Site 34, Tavoro Creek David Boseto 179 53’.29'' 16 50’.02'' 0 0 N. Site 35, Navaka Creek David Boseto 179 53’.20'' 16 49’.46'' 0 0 N. Site 36, Navaka Creek David Boseto 179 53’.06'' 16 49’.43'' 0 0 O. Site 37, Wailevu Creek David Boseto 179 53’.06'' 16 51’.25'' 0 0 O. Site 38, Wailevu Creek David Boseto 179 53’.08'' 16 51’.09'' 0 0 O. Site 39, Wailevu Creek David Boseto 179 53’.39'' 16 51’.36'' 0 0 O. Site 40, Wailevu Creek David Boseto 179 53’.38'' 16 51’.35'' 0 0 P. Site 42, Waitavala Creek David Boseto 179 59’.46'' 16 48’.12'' 0 0 P. Site 41, Waitavala Creek David Boseto 179 59’.43'' 16 48’.17''

John Pogonowski's Collection Locality Source Gazetteer East Gazetteer South 0 0 Lower Sigatoka John Pogonowski 177 31’.31'' 18 07’.48'' 0 0 Upper Nadi, Vaturu dam John Pogonowski 177 40’.23'' 17 45’.27'' Middle Ba River, Near Navala Village John Pogonowski 1770 49’.01'' 170 40’.32'' Upper Rewa River, Naqelewai Village John Pogonowski 1780 05’.13'' 170 43’.01'' 0 0 Upper River, near Navai Village John Pogonowski 177 59’.58'' 17 37’.13'' 0 0 Upper Ba, near Koro Village John Pogonowski 177 54’.31'' 17 42’.53'' 1790 52’.45'' 160 34’.03'' Lower Nala River, Koroivonu River John Pogonowski 0 0 Lower Nala River, Koroivonu River John Pogonowski 179 49’.29'' 16 34’.08'' 0 0 Mid Buca River, Waidamudama Creek John Pogonowski 179 49’.29'' 16 38’.50'' 0 0 Mid Navonu River, Navakamotolu Creek John Pogonowski 179 47’.26'' 16 41’.24'' Mid Nakawakawa River, near John Pogonowski 1790 20’.28'' 160 39’.48'' Nakawakawa Village 0 0 Mid Wainunu River, Davutu River John Pogonowski 178 55’.16'' 16 49’.45'' 0 0 Upper Dama River, near Driti Village John Pogonowski 178 43’.28'' 16 53’.21'' 0 0 Upper Lekutu River, near Kavula River John Pogonowski 178 45’.21'' 16 44’.02'' 0 0 Lower Nasavu River, near Vitina Village John Pogonowski 179 42’.49'' 16 19’.28'' Lower Wainikoro River, near Nasasa John Pogonowski 1790 34’.27'' 160 23’.12'' Village Upper Labasa River, near Sueni Village John Pogonowski 1790 21’.14'' 160 34’.38'' Upper Dreketi River, near Saivou Village John Pogonowski 1790 09’.03'' 160 36’.14''

219 GAZETTEER OF FIJI FW/EST LOCALITIES

Locality Island group/area South East West

Ba River Viti Levu 170 42’.53” 1770 54’.31” Bouma Creek Taveuni 160 50’.00'' 1790 53’.02'' Buca River Natewa Penisular 160 38’.50'' 1790 49’.30'' Bureta River Ovalau Island 170 39’.20'' 1780 45’.14'' Dama River Vanua Levu 160 53’.21'' 1780 43’.28'' Dravo village, east of Nausori ('Daun') Viti Levu 180 01’.04'' 1780 03’.28'' Davutu River Vanua Levu 160 49’.45'' 1780 55’.16'' Dobuilevu River Viti Levu 170 36’.31'' 1780 14’.41'' Dreketi River Vanua Levu 160 36’.14'' 1790 09’.03'' Driti Village Vanua Levu 160 53’.21'' 1780 43’.28'' Duveita Bay (Not traceable from the map) Hippichthys spicifer Ellington Penang Viti Levu 170 21’.02'' 1780 12’.24'' Interior, 705 m not traceable Kabariki Village Kadavu 190 08’.44'' 1780 02’.00'' Kadavu Island Kadavu 180 51’.20'' 1770 56’.28'' Kanacea Island Lau 170 16’.02'' 1790 08’.00'' Kauvula River Vanua Levu 160 44’.03'' 1780 45’.21'' Kauvula Village Vanua Levu 160 44’.03'' 1780 45’.21'' Koro Village Viti Levu 170 42’.53'' 1770 54’.31'' Koroivonu River Vanua Levu 160 34’.03'' 1790 52’.45'' Korolevu Viti Levu 180 12’.36'' 1770 41’.24'' Kubuna Creek Viti Levu 180 00’.54'' 1770 20’.16'' 0 Labasa River Vanua Levu 16 34’.38'' 1790 21’.14'' Lakeba Island Lau 180 56’.00'' 1780 44’.59'' Lekutu River Vanua Levu 160 44’.03'' 1780 45’.21'' Lami River Viti Levu 180 05’.27'' 1780 23’.46'' Lau Islands Lau 180 56’.00'' 1780 44’.59'' Laucala Bay, USP lower campus Viti Levu 180 07’.41'' 1780 29’.17'' Levuka Town Ovalau Island 170 33’.29'' 1780 46’.38'' Lokia Creek Viti Levu 180 06’.02'' 1780 32’.56'' Matuku Harbour Matuku Island 190 06’.30'' 1790 45’.00'' Monasavu Dam/Reservoir Viti Levu 170 44’.58'' 1780 04’.24'' Nabitu River Viti Levu 170 37’.51'' 1770 25’.31'' Nabukavesi Creek Viti Levu 180 10’.09'' 1780 14’.41'' Nadi River Viti Levu 170 45’.27'' 1770 40’.23'' Nadala Creek Viti Levu 170 37’.13” 1770 59’.57” Nadarivatu River Viti Levu 170 33’.00'' 1770 58’.24'' Nadarivatu station Viti Levu 170 33’.00'' 1770 58’.24'' Nadroga Province Viti Levu 180 13’.23'' 1770 47’.10''

220 Naduruloulou Station Viti Levu 170 58’.34'' 1780 30’.39'' Naikorokoro Creek Viti Levu 180 05’.00'' 1780 19’.00'' Nairai Island Nairai Island 170 48’.41'' 1790 24’.36'' Naivucini River Viti Levu 170 50’.17'' 1780 15’.41'' Nakabuka Creek Taveuni 160 49’.56'' 1790 52’.51'' Nakoronawa Creek Kadavu 190 12’.26'' 1780 23’.14'' Nakoronawa Village Kadavu 190 12’.26'' 1780 23’.14'' Nakavu Creek Viti Levu 180 11’.17'' 1780 06’.31'' Nala Village Vanua Levu 160 34’.03'' 1790 52’.45'' Nalase Creek Viti Levu 180 06’.41'' 1780 34’.36'' Namara Village Kadavu 190 02’.09'' 1780 13’.54'' Namoli Creek Viti Levu 170 36’.06'' 1770 27’.51'' Namosi Province Viti Levu 180 10’.32'' 1780 11’.54'' Naqalewai Village Viti Levu 170 43’.01'' 1780 05’.13'' Naqara Island Naqara Island 180 10’.44'' 1780 16’.12'' Narokorokoyawa River Viti Levu 180 51’.00'' 1780 06’.10'' Narokorokoyawa Village Viti Levu 180 51’.00'' 1780 06’.10'' Nakawakawa River Vanua Levu 160 39’.48'' 1790 20’.28'' Nakawakawa Village Vanua Levu 160 39’.48'' 1790 20’.28'' Nasasa Village Vanua Levu 160 23’.12'' 1790 34’.27'' Nasegai Village Kadavu 190 09’.00'' 1780 04’.41'' Nasova Creek Viti Levu 180 09’.26'' 1780 26’.00'' Nasavu River Vanua Levu 160 19’.28'' 1790 42’.49'' Natewa Penisular Vanua Levu 160 38’.50'' 1790 49’.29'' Naululumudulevu Creek Viti Levu 170 35’.59'' 1770 28’.32'' Nausori Town Viti Levu 180 01’.58'' 1780 31’.59'' Navaka Creek Taveuni 160 49’.43'' 1790 53’.06'' Navakamotolu Creek Vanua Levu 160 41’.24'' 1790 47’.26'' Navai Village Viti Levu 170 37’.13'' 1770 59’.58'' Navala Village Viti Levu 170 40’.31'' 1770 49’.01'' Naviti Resort Viti Levu 170 05’.00'' 1770 15’.00'' Navonu River Vanua Levu 160 41’.24'' 1790 47’.26'' Navua Gorge Viti Levu 180 07’.43” 1770 57’.12” Navua River Viti Levu 180 10’.32'' 1780 11’.54'' Navula Creek Kadavu 190 02’.09'' 1780 13’.54'' Navutu Settlement Viti Levu 180 07’.49” 1770 25’.50” Nayarabale River Vanua Levu 160 27’.09'' 1790 30’.27'' Nukulau Island Viti Levu 180 10’.28'' 1780 30’.48'' Nukunikula Creek in Korogaga Viti Levu 180 12’.02'' 1780 28’.58'' Nukunuku Creek on Lakeba Island Lau 180 56’.00'' 1780 44’.59'' Ono-I-lau Island Lau 200 36’.30'' 1780 42’.18'' Orchid Island Viti Levu 180 06’.43'' 1780 21’.44'' Ovalau Island Ovalau Island 170 33’.29'' 1780 45’.34'' Pacific Harbour Viti Levu 180 15’.38'' 1780 04’.01'' Qaliwana Creek Viti Levu 170 37’.13” 1770 59’.58” Qawa River Vanua Levu 160 27’.00'' 1790 24’.10''

221 Rabi Island Rabi Island 160 29’.20'' 1790 57’.15'' Rakiraki V iti Levu 170 21’.02'' 1780 12’.24'' Rewa River Viti Levu 180 06’.10'' 1780 33’.22'' Rewa River mouth Viti Levu 180 08’.20'' 1780 31’.22'' Saivou Village Vanua Levu 160 36’.14'' 1790 09’.03'' Savuqoro Creek Vanua Levu 160 33’.19'' 1790 13’.20'' Savura Creek Viti Levu 180 05’.07” 1780 26’.44” Sawani area Viti Levu 180 01’.10'' 1780 29’.29'' Serua Harbour Viti Levu 180 13’.06'' 1780 11’.12'' Sigatoka River Viti Levu 180 07’.48'' 1770 31’.31'' South Draunibota Island Viti Levu 180 07’.26'' 1780 22’.37'' Sovi Basin Viti Levu 170 55’.38” 1780 15’.23” Sovi River Viti Levu 170 55’.38” 1780 15’.23” Suva City Viti Levu 180 08’.15'' 1780 25’.27'' Suva Harbour Viti Levu 180 06’.54'' 1780 25’.01'' Suva Point Viti Levu 180 09’.31'' 1780 25’.48'' Tailevu District Viti Levu 170 56’.14'' 1780 30’.07'' Tamavua River Viti Levu 180 06’.07'' 1780 26’.20'' Tavoro Creek Taveuni 160 49’.59'' 1790 53’.11'' Tavoro Fall Taveuni 160 50’.00'' 1790 53’.01'' Tavuki Creek Kadavu 190 05’.14'' 1780 06’.49'' Toberua Island Toberua Island 170 82’.15'' 1780 42’.17'' Tubou creek Lau 180 14’.00'' 1780 51’.38'' Totoya Island Totoya Island 180 10’.34'' 1790 50’.34'' Vatulele Island South west of 180 30’.55'' 1770 40’.23'' Kadavu Vakano Creek on Lakeba Island Lau 180 14’.00'' 1780 52’.33'' Vanuakula Island Off Kadavu 190 44’.00'' 1780 30’.18'' Vago Creek Viti Levu 180 06’.33” 1780 26’.56” Vago Falls Viti Levu 180 05’.22” 1780 26’.51” Vaturu Dam Viti Levu 170 45’.27'' 1770 40’.23'' Vitina Village Vanua Levu 160 19’.28'' 1790 42’.49'' Vunimoli Creek Kadavu 190 08’.44'' 1780 02’.00'' Vutia Creek Viti Levu 180 07’.26'' 1780 32’.41'' Vutini Creek Viti Levu 160 19’.28'' 1790 42’.49'' Wabu Creek Viti Levu 170 35’.27” 1780 02’.16” Waibasaga Creek Viti Levu 180 04’.45” 1780 26’.26” Waibau Creek, Viti Levu Viti Levu 180 00’.56'' 1780 23’.54'' Waibau Creek, Taveuni Taveuni 170 42’.17'' 1790 54’.51'' Wailevu Creek Taveuni 160 51’.25'' 1790 53’.06'' Wailotua River Viti Levu 170 45’.36” 1780 24’.29” Waidamudama Creek Vanua Levu 160 38’.50'' 1790 49’.30'' Waimanu River Viti Levu 180 01’.10'' 1780 29’.29'' Waimilamila Creek Viti Levu 170 49’.14'' 1780 13’.20'' Wainadi Creek Viti Levu 180 04’.49” 1780 26’.26” Wainavobo River Viti Levu 170 33’.07” 1780 13’.25”

222 Wainivalau River Viti Levu 170 54’.46” 1780 13’.25” Wainibau Creek Taveuni 160 51’.20'' 1790 55’.15'' Wainadoi River Viti Levu 180 09’.14'' 1780 15’.37'' Wainikai Creek Viti Levu 170 49’.53'' 1780 22’.46'' Wainikavika Creek Viti Levu 180 12’.15'' 1780 09’.09'' Wainikoro River Vanua Levu 160 23’.12'' 1790 34’.27'' Wainimala River Viti Levu 170 50’.50'' 1780 21’.12'' Wainimarovi Creek Kadavu 190 09’.00'' 1780 04’.41'' Wainasa Creek Viti Levu 170 36’.03” 1780 15’.24” Wainisavulevu River Viti Levu 170 48’.19'' 1780 06’.31'' Wainisusu River Viti Levu 180 11’.24'' 1780 07’.32'' Wainivesi River Viti Levu 180 06’.49'' 1780 27’.54'' Wainivodi River Viti Levu 170 48’.19'' 1780 06’.31'' Wainunu River Vanua Levu 160 49’.45'' 1780 55’.16'' Wairiki Creek Viti Levu 180 09’.00'' 1780 16’.37'' Wairoko Creek Viti Levu 170 45’.40” 1780 24’.50” Waisai Creek Viti Levu 170 26’.53'' 1770 56’.57'' Waisali Creek Viti Levu 160 33’.33'' 1790 14’.11'' Waisere Creek Viti Levu 170 56’.14'' 1780 30’.07'' Waitavala Creek Taveuni 160 48’.12'' 1790 59’.46'' Waivase River Viti Levu 180 06’.49'' 1780 27’.54'' Waivau Creek Viti Levu 180 08’.20'' 1780 31’.22'' Waiveikovi Creek Viti Levu 170 35’.13” 1780 02’.13” Yadua Island Yadua Island 160 50’.49'' 1780 16’.54'' Yanuyanusau Island Off Kadavu 190 46’.42'' 1780 30’.06''

223 Appendix 9. Habitat type preferences of Fiji fish collected during this study. The x denotes fish species collected from different habitat types during this survey. The letters of the alphabetical represents a - mouth of creeks with sand substrates with coastal plants on the bank, b - mouth of creeks with silt in substrate mangrove forest, c - midreach of river with muddy substrate and riparian plants overhanging on the stream edge usually slow flowing and often dead logs and tree roots in the creek, d - midreach of river with sand, gravel and boulders substrate with riparian plants on banks usually fast flow and riffle, e - riffles, fast flowing water with fused rocks substrate and rock wall sides and f - deep pools with sand and gravel substrate and riparian plants on side.

Families/Species/Habitat a b c d e f types Ambassidae Ambassis miops x x x Anguillidae Anguilla marmorata x x x x Anguilla megastoma x Apogonidae Apogon amboinensis x Apogon lateralis x Carangidae Caranx sexfasciatus x x Cichlidae Oreochromis mossambicus x x Clupeidae Sardinella fijiensis x Cyprinidae Barbonymus gonionotus x Diodontidae Diodon liturosus x Eleotridae Belobranchus belobranchus x x Bostrychus sinensis x Bunaka gyrinoides x Eleotris fusca x x Eleotris melanosoma x x

224 Giurus hoedti x x Hypseleotris guentheri x x Giurus margaritacea x Ophiocara porocephala x Engraulidae Stolephorus indicus x Gerreidae Gerres longirostris x Gobiidae, Gobiinae Psammogobius biocellatus x x Gobiidae, Gobionellinae Awaous guamensis x x Awaous ocellaris x x Glossogobius sp. 1 x Redigobius bikolanus x Redigobius leveri x x Schismatogobius vitiensis x Stenogobius sp. 1 x Gobiidae, Oxudercinae Periophthalmus kalolo x Gobiidae, Sicydiinae Lentipes kaaea x Sicyopterus lagocephalus x x x x Sicyopus zosterophorum x x Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) x sp. New genus, new species x Stiphodon rutilaureus x x Stiphodon sp. 1 x x Stiphodon sp. 2 x x Haemulidae Plectorhinchus gibbosus x Hemiramphidae Zenarchopterus dispar x x Kuhliidae Kuhlia marginata x x

225 Kuhlia munda x x x Kuhlia rupestris x x Leiognathidae Gazza minuta x Leiognathus equulus x x Leiognathus fasciatus x Leiognathus splendens x Lutjanidae Latjanus argentimaculatus x x Lutjanus fulvus x Lutjanus russellii x Monodactylidae Monodactylus argenteus x Moringuidae Moringua abbreviata x Mugilidae Liza macrolepis x Liza subviridis x x Valamugil bachanani x Valamugil cunnesius x Valamugil engeli x x Mullidae Upeneus sulphureus x Upeneus vittatus x Muraenidae Gymnothorax polyuranodon x x Ophichthidae Lamnostoma kampeni x x Yirrkala gjellerupi x x Neoconger tuberculatus x Poeciliidae Gambusia affinis x x Poecilia reticulata x x Scatophagidae Scatophagus argus x Scorpaenidae

226 Tetraroge niger x Siganidae Siganus vermiculatus x Sphyraenidae Sphyraena obtusata x Syngnathidae Microphis brachyurus x brachyurus Microphis brevidorsalis x x Microphis leiaspis x Microphis retzii x x Teraponidae Mesopristes kneri x Terapon jarbua x Tetraodontidae Arothron reticularis x

227 Appendix 10. Some of the habit types surveyed during this study.

Plate 2. A. Tamavua River, Site 1, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 3. A. Tamavua River, Site 4, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

228 Plate 4. A. Savura Creek, Site 7, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 5. A. Vago Creek, Site 21, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto) oto- David Boseto)

229 Plate 6. G. Wainivalau River, Site 50, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 7. J. Wabu Creek, Site 54, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

230 Plate 8. L. Lower Wailotua River, Site 61, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 9. S. Nukunuku Creek, Site 64, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

231 Plate 10. M. Tavoro Fall, Site 33, Taveuni. (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 11. O. Wailevu Creek, Site 38, Taveuni. (Photo-Clare Morrison)

232 Plate 12. P. Waitavala Creek, Site 42, Taveuni. (Photo- Aaron Jenkins)

Plate 13. Q. Savuqoro Creek below the fall, Site 58, Vanua Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

233 Appendix 11. Some freshwater and estuarine fishes caught during this study. The fish presented in alphabetical order as in Appendix 5 except for the introduced species that are placed at the end.

Plate 14. Ambassis miops, 70.3 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 15. Anguilla marmorata, 814.3 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

234 Plate 16. Anguilla megastoma, 420 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 17. Apogon amboinensis, 67 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

235 Plate 18. Sardinella fijiensis, 150.2 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 19. Belobranchus belobranchus, 87.7 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni. (Photo- David Boseto)

236 Plate 20. Eleotris fusca, 72.9 mm SL, Wailotua River, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 21. Giurus hoedti, 65 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- Aaron Jenkins)

237 Plate 22. Giurus margaritacea, 101.5 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 23. Hypseleotris guentheri, 61 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu (Photo- Aaron Jenkins)

238 Plate 24. Gerres longirostris, 12.7 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 25. Glossogobius sp. 1., 101.7 mm SL, Wailotua River, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

239 Plate 26. Awaous ocellaris, 99.3 mm SL, Wailotua River, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 27. Redigobius leveri, 38.7 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu. (Photo-Aaron Jenkins).

240 Plate 28. Schismatogobius Vitiensis, 34.5 mm SL, Nasekawa River, Vanua Levu (Photo- John Pogonowski)

Plate 29. Stenogobius sp. 1, 74.8 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

241 Plate 30. Lentipes kaaea, 37.2 mm SL, Waitavala Creek, Taveuni. (Photo-Aaron Jenkins).

Plate 31. Sicyopterus lagocephalus, 106 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto)

242 Plate 32. Sicyopus zosterophorum, 85.4 mm SL, Wailevu Creek, Taveuni. (Photo-Aaron Jenkins).

Plate 33. Sicyopus (c.f. Juxtastiphodon) sp., 85.4 mm SL, Waitavala Creek, Taveuni. (Photo- Aaron Jenkins).

243 Plate 34. Stiphodon rutilaureus, 31.8 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni. (Photo-Aaron Jenkins).

Plate 35. Stiphodon sp. 1. 35.1 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni. (Photo-Aaron Jenkins).

244 Plate 36. Stiphodon sp. 2, 25.3 mm SL, Waitavala Creek, Taveuni. (Photo-Aaron Jenkins).

Plate 37. Zenarchopterus dispar, 68.3 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

245 Plate 38. Kuhlia marginata, 98 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 39. Kuhlia munda, 67 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto)

246 Plate 40. Kuhlia rupestris, 135 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 41. Leiognathus equulus, 4.2 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

247 Plate 42. Leiognathus fasciatus, 135 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 43. Lutjanus argentimaculatus, 225.3 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

248 Plate 44. Lutjanus fulvus, 12.6 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 45. Lutjanus russellii, 12.6 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto)

249 Plate 46. Monodactylus argenteus, 5.3 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 47. Liza subviridis, 15.9 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto)

250 Plate 48. Upeneus sulphureus, 89.1 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 49. Upeneus vittatus, 15.5 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto)

251 Plate 50. Lamnostoma kampeni, 230 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 51. Yirrkala gjellerupi, 150 mm SL, Savura Creek, Viti Levu. (Photo- David Boseto)

252 Plate 52. Tetraroge niger, 4.4 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 53. Siganus vermiculatus, 13.2 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

253 Plate 54. Sphyraena obtusata, 270.4 mm SL, Tamavua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 55. Microphis brachyurus brachyurus, 280 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni. (Photo- David Boseto)

254 Plate 56. Mesopristes kneri, 17.2 mm SL, Tavoro Creek, Taveuni (Photo- David Boseto)

Introduced Species

Plate 57. Oreochromis mossambicus, 140.5 mm SL, Wailotua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

255 Plate 58. Barbonymus gonionotus, 88.6 mm SL, Wailotua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

Plate 59. Poecilia reticulata, 61.3 mm SL, Wailotua River, Viti Levu (Photo- David Boseto)

256