Writing Life in Chinese Literature 1918–1937 Gal Gvili
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In Search of the National Soul: Writing Life in Chinese Literature 1918–1937 Gal Gvili Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 2015 © 2015 Gal Gvili All rights reserved ABSTRACT In Search of the National Soul: Writing Life in Chinese Literature 1918–1937 Gal Gvili This dissertation offers a new perspective on the birth of modern Chinese literature by investigating the following question: How did literature come to be understood as an effective vehicle of national salvation? The following chapters locate the answer to this question in intertwining ideas on religion and realism. The late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries saw an upsurge of vernacular literature portraying contemporary life in China alongside deliberations on the meaning of a newly introduced term: “religion” (zongjiao). This process launched a long lasting perception of literature as effective—capable of turning a country in flux to a strong nation. The story of modern Chinese literature’s rise to such prominence forms part of a transnational history, linking national literatures and Christian modernity. Across the colonial world, Protestant missionaries introduced the idea that a true-to-life literary portrayal can mobilize readers into action by appealing to their natural sympathy towards human suffering. These theories found a seedbed in China, Japan, India and Africa, where various authors modified the Christian evangelical message into a thorough critique of imperialist thought. Chapter One begins with the global rise of “Life” in the 1910’s as a new epistemology for understanding the human. In China, deliberations over the meaning of life hinged upon interactions with social Darwinism, American Protestant ideas on religious experience, Bergsonian vitalism, critiques of materialism in German Lebensphilosophie, and Chinese Neo-Confucian ethical thought. “Life” became the main axis pivoting debates on how to save China from its plight: Could evolutionary biology account for the truth of life? Could religion explain aspects of life that biology cannot? The task of representing the truth of life was entrusted upon the fledgling modern Chinese fiction and poetry. Chapters Two and Three trace this conviction in the powers of literature to nineteen-century missionary essay contests. Held in sites of imperial encroachment around the world, these contests promoted fiction writing as a miraculous endeavor. Similar to the way that reading the scriptures was supposed to produce a sense of connection to the great beyond, so too was the spiritual message of literary texts believed to ignite a “sympathetic resonance” (gongming) between authors and readers that would propel the latter to social action. The religious concept of sympathy inspired Chinese authors to further explore the connections between man and the universe in search of the perfect representation of life. This search led to an important encounter with the Bengali Renaissance Movement, explored in Chapters Four and Five. Rabindranath Tagore’s visit in China (1924) serves as a point of departure to investigate how prominent Chinese authors experimented with concepts such as “Eastern Spirituality” “The Poet’s Religion” and “Folktales”. Such literary interactions added important dimensions to the formation of Chinese realism, by envisioning Pan-Asian literary sympathies, which redefined the meaning of religion, life, and the nation. By foregrounding the transnational collaborations and interactions of religion, realism, and Asian solidarity in shaping Chinese literature, this dissertation offers a multi- sited perspective on the unmatched significance of modern literature to China’s national revival and, in turn, delivers a new understanding of China’s role in a global deliberation over the meaning of human life. TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES..…………………………………………………………………………….ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………………………...iii INTRODUCTION……………………………….………………………………………..1 CHAPTER ONE Rensheng: The Biotheological Turn in China …………………………………..27 CHAPTER TWO From National Theology to National Salvation…………………………………58 CHAPTER THREE Literature to the Rescue: The Power of Sympathy………………………………91 CHAPTER FOUR “What is revealing there in the East?” Rabindranath Tagore and The Rise of Relational Poetics.………………………………………………………………131 CHAPTER FIVE Return of the Barbaric: Folklore, (Il)Literacy, and Cyclical Realism………….173 EPILOGUE .……………………………………………………………………………215 BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………224 i LIST OF FIGURES 1. Zhao Zichen and Liu Tingfang, leaders of the Christian Literature Society…….58 2. Hymns of Universal Praise, 1936, Shanghai…………………………………...127 3. Cover of the special Tagore Issue, Fiction Monthly……………………………139 4. Cover of the first edition of Gitanjali (Song Offerings), 1912, Macmillan…….139 5. cover of 1912 edition of Folktales of Bengal, Macmillan……………………...171 6. Hademen cigarettes advertisement, circa 1930…………………………………199 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It feels both strange and exhilarating to be writing below the title of this page, a moment one eagerly awaited for a long, long time. As lonely as writing a dissertation may sometimes feel, this end product with only one author’s name on it, feels now, more than ever, as a collaborative endeavor. So much of the thoughts, ideas and wording in these pages were formed in communication with many wonderful people that I am blessed to have in my life. Here is the place to mention at least some of them. My foremost gratitude is to my advisor, Lydia H. Liu. She fulfilled two of my dreams: to come to Columbia and obtain a PhD. Prof. Liu, as I will probably always call her, inspired this project in many ways. Throughout the long process of research and writing she often steered my boat in radically different directions than I initially had in mind. Yet, time and time again, I discovered that she had the map all along and understood the path I was taking even better than myself. Prof. Liu’s constant intellectual stimulation has made my years in graduate school a truly thoughtful journey. I will always be in debt to her for pushing me to challenge my own boundaries, drift away from my comfort zones and think boldly. Eugenia Lean has been an unwavering source of intellectual guidance and support. Always willing to read more and more drafts, always finding the time to meet despite insane schedules, Eugenia has been an ear and an eye without which this project would certainly never seen the light of day. Gil Anidjar graciously offered to read my work at a very early stage. His scathing critique, always overwhelmingly on point, as well as his unbelievable breadth of knowledge on literature, religion, and life have proven invaluable in guiding me through mazes of readings and thoughts. I am grateful to Stathis iii Gourgouris who always reminds me to pay attention to what literature actually is, and to think comparatively and broadly, beyond my own case studies. Shang Wei has provided immensely helpful comments through the final stages of writing, as well as much needed support, emotional as well as practical, which made my progress in the program much easier and pleasurable. Haruo Shirane has been incredibly generous with his time and guidance, and a true role model of teaching and mentoring. I was fortunate to have studied with Weihong Bao during the years she spent at Columbia. Her theoretical rigor is something I can only aspire to emulate. Rebecca Karl offered insightful, and no less important (if not more) practical comments on most of my chapters, which I was able to present in her amazing Columbia-NYU Dissertation Workshop. Supported by a Columbia GSAS as well as a Confucius Institute grant I spent 2011–2012 conducting dissertation research in China. I am thankful to these institutions for facilitating my stay and helping me make connections and present my work. I am grateful to Wang Zhongchen from Tsinghua who first pointed me in the direction of exploring the Chinese Christian literature project. Wu Xiaodong from Beida and his students provided much needed feedback on chapter outline and abstract. Yang Huilin from Renmin inspired me to examine the traditional roots of modern Chinese theology. Pan Jianguo from Beida offered untiring support throughout my stay and introduced me to Lin Huibin, a colleague and a friend with whom I discussed different versions of my ideas many many times. Columbia has a unique graduate program. It is not only huge, but also actively encourages collegial collaborations, often facilitated through drinking and laughing. So much free advice, editing services, work-shopping opportunities, home cooked meals, iv shoulders to cry on, and real on-site support and encouragement these people have given me. I am thankful to my dear friends Yurou Zhong, Myra Sun, Anatoly Detwyler, Arunabh Ghosh, Greg Patterson, Liza Lawrence, Sayaka Chatani, Brian Lander, Brian Tsui, Jenny Wang Medina, Nate Shockey, Buyun Chen, and Yvonne Zivkovic. My parents Joseph and Esther Gvili have always supported what must have seem at times, though they hide it pretty well, as an odd career choice. They are my backbone and my life-line, even more so now that I am a parent myself. My sisters Michal and Tal Gvili made me laugh through many moments of emotional turmoil. My grandmothers, Ines Gvili and Lea Avrech shower me with love that connects me to my home and my history even when I am oceans away. Last but in no way least. I consider myself very very