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Empowerment of American Indians and the Effect on Political Participation

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Empowerment of American Indians and the Effect on Political Participation EMPOWERMENT OF AMERICAN INDIANS AND THE EFFECT ON POLITICAL PARTICIPATION by Jennifer L. Robinson A dissertation submitted to the faculty of The University of Utah in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Political Science The University of Utah December 2010 Copyright © Jennifer L. Robinson 2010 All Rights Reserved The University of Utah Graduate School STATEMENT OF DISSERTATION APPROVAL The dissertation of Jennifer L. Robinson has been approved by the following supervisory committee members: Matthew J. Burbank , Chair May 12, 2010 Date Approved Susan M. Olson , Member May 12, 2010 Date Approved Lauren Holland , Member May 12, 2010 Date Approved Richard Green , Member May 12, 2010 Date Approved Gregory Thompson , Member May 12, 2010 Date Approved and by Matthew J. Burbank , Chair of the Department of Political Science and by Charles A. Wight, Dean of The Graduate School. ABSTRACT Previous studies of minority political behavior have demonstrated that empowerment, as measured by the election of a minority person to public office, has positive effects on participation among the members of the minority community. Although the empowerment theory has yet to be applied to American Indians, it shows much promise in explaining participation rates among this minority group because of the theory’s emphasis on political context and attitudinal factors. This dissertation explored the role of empowerment on American Indian participation, first by comparing turnout prior to empowerment to turnout post empowerment in three counties in the West: San Juan County, Utah; Big Horn County, Montana; and Roosevelt County, Montana. The findings indicate that turnout among Indians after empowerment, as defined by an Indian holding elected office, was higher than turnout prior to empowerment because of the positive effect of empowerment on perceptions and attitudes among American Indians. The election of an Indian to county office was a major contextual change in each of the three counties, and the change had a positive impact on voter participation among Indians by influencing perceptions of government and attitudes of American Indians. Furthermore, the positive effect of empowerment on American Indian voters is both immediate and long-lasting. The positive effect on American Indian political behavior is evident immediately after empowerment, that is, Indians vote at higher rates in the first election following empowerment than prior to empowerment. Turnout continues to increase over time for American Indians, in contrast to non-Indian populations, indicating the long-lasting, positive effects of empowerment on Indian political behavior. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................................... iii LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES .........................................................................................................................x Chapters 1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................1 2 THE RIGHT TO VOTE FOR AMERICAN INDIANS .............................................................5 History of Voting Rights for American Indians ............................................................6 Voting Rights Act of 1965 ...........................................................................................22 The Voting Rights Act and Supreme Court Rulings ...................................................27 Voting Rights Cases in Indian Country .......................................................................35 The Impact of the Voting Rights Act on American Indians .......................................38 3 UNDERSTANDING POLITICAL PARTICIPATION ...........................................................41 The Traditional Model and Individual Characteristics ................................................43 Empowerment Theory .................................................................................................54 Applying the Empowerment Theory to American Indians ..........................................58 4 METHODS ...............................................................................................................................61 San Juan County, Utah .................................................................................................63 Big Horn County, Montana..........................................................................................63 Roosevelt County, Montana.........................................................................................64 Limitations of This Study ............................................................................................70 Ethical and Political Considerations Related to Methods ............................................71 5 SAN JUAN COUNTY, UTAH..................................................................................................75 San Juan County, Utah Background ............................................................................75 History of Voting Discrimination in San Juan County, Utah ......................................78 Voting Rights Act Case in San Juan County, Utah .....................................................81 Findings for San Juan County, Utah: Election Turnout Data ......................................83 Findings for San Juan County, Utah: Interview Data ................................................102 Conclusion .................................................................................................................105 6 BIG HORN COUNTY, MONTANA .....................................................................................107 Big Horn County, Montana Background ...................................................................107 History of Voting Discrimination in Big Horn County, Montana .............................109 Voting Rights Act Case in Big Horn County, Montana ............................................111 Findings for Big Horn County, Montana: Election Turnout Data .............................114 Findings for Big Horn County, Montana: Interview Data .........................................132 Conclusion .................................................................................................................136 7 ROOSEVELT COUNTY, MONTANA .................................................................................137 Roosevelt County, Montana Background ..................................................................137 History of Voting Discrimination in Roosevelt County, Montana ............................138 Voting Rights Act Case in Roosevelt County, Montana ...........................................140 Findings for Roosevelt County, Montana: Election Turnout Data ............................141 Findings for Roosevelt County, Montana: Interview Data ........................................157 Conclusion .................................................................................................................159 8 CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................................161 San Juan County, Utah ...............................................................................................164 Big Horn County, Montana........................................................................................165 Roosevelt County, Montana.......................................................................................167 American Indians and the Empowerment Theory .....................................................168 Voting Rights Literature ............................................................................................170 Final Remarks ............................................................................................................172 Appendices A: AMERICAN INDIAN VOTING RIGHTS ACT CASES ......................................................174 B: SECTION 5 COVERED JURISDICTIONS ...........................................................................178 C: SECTION 203 COVERED JURISDICTIONS FOR AMERICAN INDIAN AND ALASKAN NATIVES, EFFECTIVE 2002 .......................................................182 D: SAN JUAN COUNTY, UTAH, PRECINCT MAP, 1986-2008 ............................................186 E: SAN JUAN COUNTY, UTAH, POPULATION DENSITY FOR AMERICAN INDIANS, WITH AN OVERLAY OF THE PRECINCTS, MAP .......................188 F: BIG HORN COUNTY, MONTANA, PRECINCT MAP, 2008 .............................................190 vi G: BIG HORN COUNTY, MONTANA, POPULATION DENSITY FOR AMERICAN INDIANS, WITH AN OVERLAY OF THE PRECINCTS, MAP ..............................................192 H: ROOSEVELT COUNTY, MONTANA, PRECINCT MAP, 2008 ........................................194 I: ROOSEVELT COUNTY, MONTANA, COMMISSION DISTRICTS AND PRECINCT LINES MAP, 2002-2008 ...............................................................................196 J: ROOSEVELT COUNTY, MONTANA, POPULATION DENSITY FOR AMERICAN INDIANS, WITH AN OVERLAY OF THE PRECINCTS, MAP, 2008 .............198 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................200 vii LIST OF TABLES Table Page
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