FRUITS OF OCEANIA Annie Waiter and Chanel Sam with collaboration from Marie-Claire Bataille, Jean-Marie Bompard, Pascale Bonnemere, Serge Tcherkesoff
FRUITS OF OCEANIA
English translation by Paul Ferrar
with collaboration from Christine Moulet, Harry Ferrar and Klara Beresnikoff First published in Fra nce by IRD Editions as Fruits d' Oceanie. © IRD Editions. ISBN 2-7099-1430-1.
ACIAR Monograph Series This series contains the results of original research supported by ACIAR, or material deemed relevant to Australia's research and development objectives. The series Is distributed Internationally with an emphasis on developing countries.
This edition created in Australia with the express permission of IRD. © Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (this edition) Suggested citation: WaIter, Annie and Sam, Chanel. 2002. Fruits of Oceania. ACIAR Monograph No. 85. Canberra. [trs P. Ferrar from Fruits d'Oceanie) . ISBN 1 86320 331 1
Design and layout: Catherine Plasse and Design One Solutions Printed by: CanPrint Communications Pty Ltd - Canberra ACT Acknowledgments 7
Presentation 11
Glossary of terms 13
The four study regions 21
Introduction 31
Traditional alimentation in Oceania 37
Traditional arboriculture in Oceania 65
Ethnobotanical inventory of fruiting species 79
Bibliography 261
Fruits and nuts eaten from New Guinea to the Cook Islands 277
Species names and main synonyms 285
Vernacular names in detail 289
Index of scientific names 299
Index of common names 311
List of herbarium specimens 315
Index of species distribution maps 321
Index of botanical illustrations 323
Index of photographic plates 324
« z « w u o LL. o French edition drawings were comple Production of this book mented by those of was made possible with the F. Yoringmal and S. Seoule; assistance of the Ministry of B. Evans, who generously Foreign Affairs, which funded gave us the benefit of his the research in Vanuatu, knowledge of the nuts of Papua New Guinea, Tonga Solomon Islands; P. Ferrar and Samoa and also part of (ACIAR), for having funded the cost of publication. From chemical analyses of the Melanesia to Polynesia men fruiting species ofVanuatu; and women, heirs to and B. Aalbersberg (USP Suva), guardians of a long tradition for having conducted the of knowledge of the natural analyses and C. Dignan world, assisted our research (SPC) for having initiated and patiently passed on them; G. Philips and to us their comprehensive M. Alpers, respectively in knowledge of these fruiting charge of the laboratories species, so poorly known by and Director of the Papua the scientific community and New Guinea Institute of so full of potential for the Medical Research, Goroka; future. It is to these people, Haniteli '0 Fa'anunu, working in government Director of the Ministry departments or belonging of Agriculture of Tong a; to rural communities some D. Eastburn (Murray where in Oceania, that we Darling Basin Commission, convey our sincere thank;;. Canberra), for the very fine It is to these people also photographs that he kindly that this book is dedicated, provided showing the in the hope that this preparation of highland scientific presentation of pandanus(Pandanus their traditional knowledge jiulianettii); the botanists has not in any way detracted who identified our from its reality. herbarium specimens: Numerous colleagues M. Jebb (Barringtonia), and friends helped with A. Kostermans (Euia production ofthis work. dulcis), T. Pennington By name, for their time, (Sapotaceae) and M. Coode their advice and their (Terminalia). Final drafting assistance, we thank and editing ofthis work was particularly: M. Auffrey, undertaken at the Research linguist at the Institut des School of Pacific and Asian Langues Orientales, who Studies at the Australian during a two-month mission National University in supervised and managed the Canberra. The discussions entire linguistic part of the that we were able to have project; Alfreda Mabonlala, with the researchers of artist at ORSTOM in Port that institution, and the Vila, who with great talent comments that they and ability executed the provided, substantially majority ofthe botanical improved the earlier Cl: Z draft of the manuscript. Cl: illustrations, and whose w U o LL o Note on English edition Christine Moore also by translator provided valuable help I first learned of this work and Annie WaIter explained during a conference on various points of Pacific Pacific nuts in Vanuatu, and culture and other aspects of it seemed highly desirable to the work. Nevertheless, any have it available in English errors that remain are my as well as French so that all responsibili ty. countries ofthe Pacific could IRD kindly made available share its fascinating content. a full electronic copy of the I undertook the translation French text and all the as someone with training illustrations, and permitted in Botany but with only ACIAR to publish the a moderate knowledge of English translation. I am French. In this latter regard also most grateful to my I was helped greatly by colleague Peter Lynch my colleague and friend (Publications Manager of Christine Moulet, whose ACIAR) for his assistance assistance was talented and with technical production unstinting, and by my father of the work. Harry Ferrar, teacher of French and lexicographer. Paul Ferrar Klara Beresnikoff and ACIAR, Canberra
C( z C( w u o u.. o FRUITS OF OCEANIA
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The South pacific For key to French names see map on p, 82 The first two sections of the book deal with alimentation I in Oceania and with The fruits and nuts of traditional arboriculture; Oceania have been little they provide evidence of studied to date. This book the great differences in deals with those plants that utilisation of the local fruit are specifically Oceanian, trees between Melanesia i.e. were present in the and Polynesia. vVhile in region before the arrival Melanesia the strongly of the fi rst Europeans (in rural communities still the 16th century). It covers gTow and eat their local the woody species which, fruits to a great extent, in cultivated or wild, produce Polynesia these species are the gTeat majority of fl eshy less utilised and are tending and non-fleshy fruits of to disappear. The reasons, the Pacific. historical and social, and the practical details of this Four regions served as study progressive loss of interest areas for this work: Vanuatu in traditional foodstuffs, (the reference country for which in time could lead to the whole work), Papua nutritional imbalances, are New Guinea, Samoa and presented in broad terms. Tonga. These countries are introduced by capsule The last part of the book, summaries of general and the most important, information at the start is the ethnobotanical ofthe work (p. 21). inventory of individual species, arranged in The inventory of fruits that alphabetical order of we have given here is not genera. The entry for each exhaustive; for Papua species is introduced by: New Guinea, for example, the scientific name of the it concentra tes on fruits species and its family, the utilised by the Ankave, common names in English, a people in the interior French and Bislama (the of the country whose lingua franca ofVanuatu), nutrition depends largely its mode of consumption on the resources of the and its possible toxicity. forests. This society bears This is then followed by: testimony to the wealth the botanical description of the forest species in this and the morphological part of the world, and to variability ofthe species, the nutritional and cultural observations on the species, importance of certain plants the alimentary usages and such as pandanus. other usages, other edible This reference work thus species in the genus, and mainly covers the local finally a list of references fruiting species, and excludes cited for that species. The those introduced after geographical spread is European contact, palms, indicated in the form of shrubby plants and vines. a distribution map. The
""z ""w (J o u.. o 1 Alimentation is defined as the supplying of the necessities of life, including the processes of giving and receiving nutrition. It is therefore wider than just nutrition. botanical description a detailed listing of inevitably includes some vernacular names, an index technical terms, but of scientific names, an index a glossary provided of common names, and a immediately after the listing of herbarium present section will help specimens. to understand the meanings We hope that all who are of these terms. interested in the na tural The book concludes with resources of the Pacific, a series of summaries to whether it be to know them help the reader, whether better, to protect them or to amateur or specialist: a develop them, will find the bibliography, a list offruits information that they need eaten in the western Pacific, in this reference book. synonyms of species names,
LJ o LL o
I-'" each other (the alternative condition to this is opposite). Annular - banded or thickened in rings or circles.
The glossary for the French Apex - the tip of a leaf, text was taken mainly from flower or fruit, away from the Florence (1997)2. The glossary stalk or point of insertion. for the English translation Aril - an exterior covering has also drawn extensively or appendage of a seed as on Willis (1904l Some terms, an outgrowth that envelops already defined in the text, the seed to a greater or are repeated below for the lesser extent. sake of completeness. Aspermic - without seeds, not bearing seeds. Used here particularly in relation to breadfruit, to indicate varieties that produce fruits without seeds, which are thus sterile and must be reproduced vegetatively. Axil - the interior angle between a leaf and the Acumen - a narrow or branch from which it arises tapering point, variable in (or between a small branch shape, at the tip of a leaf. and a larger branch from Acuminate - ending which it arises). in an acumen, tapering Axillary - situated in, progressively to a long, or growing from, the axil fine point. of a leaf or bract. Acute - pointed (for example of a leaftip). Adventitious roots - root like structures on a plant that perform the functions of roots but are derived from stem or leaf tissue, i.e. are not true roots. Aerial roots - roots or root-like structures arising Bifurcating - dividing above ground. into two. Albumen - also called Blade - the broad, flat part endosperm - the part of of a leaf. the seed which is filled with Bract - a leafin whose axil nutritive substances, and a flower arises. which surrounds the embryo Buttresses - broadened, which it nourishes. basal expansions of a tree Alternate - where leaves trunk, standing out as are attached alternately thickened supports. along a stem, not opposite
u o u. o 2 Florence, J., 1997. Flore de la 3 Willis, J.C., 1904. A Manual and Polynesie francaise, Vol. 1. Paris, Dictionary of the Flowering Plants ORSTOM, coli. Faune et Flore and Ferns. cambridge, university tropicales 34, 394 pp. Press, 2nd Edition, 670 pp. Crenate - (ofleafmargin) - with rounded teeth and sharp notches between the teeth. Crown - the head of foliage of a tree or shrub. Calyx - the outer envelope Cuneiform - wedge-shaped. of the flower, comprising all Cupule - part of a plant the sepals either separate formed into a small cup, or joined. either as a single piece or Capitulum (plural capitula) made up of small scales. - a group of sessile flowers clustered together into a single, tight head. Carpel - the gynoecium (female component) of a flower, made up of a basal ovary containing the ovules, surmounted by a style and a stigma. Carpels may be separate, or fused into a Deciduous - of a plant syncarp. where all the leaves fall from Cauliflorous - (of flowers the plant at a particular time and fruits) - growing directly of year (e.g. in the dry season from the trunks or older or in winter). branches of a tree (as Decurrent - where a leaf opposed to growing out expansion is continued as of leafaxils). a wing down the stem. Compound - leaf in which Dehiscent - (of a seed pod the single leaf-stalk bears or container) - splitting open more than one separate when ripe. leaflet (the opposite Dentate - (e.g. ofleaf) condition is simple). with small teeth pointing Cordate - (ofleaf) - about outwards. twice as long as broad, and Dioecious - where male and heart-shaped at the base. female flowers are borne on Coriaceous - leathery. separate plants (the opposite Corolla - the inner envelope state is monoecious). of the flower, comprising all Drupe - a fleshy fruit the petals either separate containing one seed, the or joined. endocarp of which is hard Cotyledons - the "seed (i.e. a nut). leaves" which become the first leaf or leaves arising when an embryo germinates. Angiosperm seed plants are divided into the Dicotyledones (with two cotyledons per « seed) and Monocotyledones z « (with one cotyledon per seed). w u ...o o '".... Ellipsoidal - a solid object Fluted - (of a tree trunk) - (e.g. a fruit) which is oval in having a series ofverlical cross-section when cut across furrows or grooves. any plane. Follicle - a dry, dehiscent Elliptical- (ofleaf) - fruit consisting of one carpel tapering equally to base and and dehiscing along the tip, and somewhat narrow. ventral side only. Emarginate - apex of leaf Fusiform - spindle-shaped. with a deep and marked notch. Embossed - (of a surface) - having a raised design. Endocarp - hard shell or stone inside a fruit and surrounding the seed (see also under pericarp). Entire - (of leaf or leaflet) Glabrous - without hairs. - without notches in the margin. Globular - roughly spherical, having the shape of a globe Epicarp - (also sometimes or ball. called exocarp) - the outer skin of a fruit (see also under Gynoecium - the female pericarp). part of a flower comprising ovary, style and stigma Epidermis - the outer layer (see also carpel and pistil). of cells or skin (e.g. of a fruit). Epiphytic - growing on other plants rather than directly in soil, but not parasitic on those plants. Ethnobotany - study of the complex relationships between humans and their plants. Classifications, usages and modes of cultivation Hermaphrodite - are always studied from (of flowers) - having both the point of view of those male and female structures who utilise the plants and within the same flower. according to the particular cultural contexts. Exocarp - see epicarp.
""z w u"" o... o '"... Latex - a milky, usually white and often sticky fluid that exudes from cut or damaged stems ofleaves of a plant. Leaflets - the individual Imbricated - (of scales or leaf-like structures of a bracts) - arranged in rows compound leaf. that partially overlap each Lenticels - small resp other (e.g. like roof tiles). iratory pores in the stems Indehiscent - (of a seed pod of woody plants, appearing or container) - not splitting as a ::;eries of dots on the open when ripe. bark surface. Inflorescence - a grouping Luau - coconut milk salted of flowers on a plant. with seawater and cooked in young taro leaves. Infrutescence - a grouping offruits on a plant, deriving from an inflorescence.
Marcotting - a procedure I~ for vegetative multiplication of plant::> in which part of a Kava - a sedative, slightly branch of the plant (usually intoxicating drink, obtained a tree) is put into contact from the root of Piper with soil (often the soil is methy!>ticum and drunk bound to the branch surface by men at nightfall with plastic), and the branch throughout the Pacific. roots into the soil before being detached from the parent plant. Mesocarp - the central fleshy tissue of a fruit, between the outer skin (epicarp) and the hard shell or stone around the seed (endocarp) (see also under pericarp). Lanceolate - (ofleaf) - lance-shaped, about three Monoecious - where male times as long as broad, and female flowers are tapering gradually borne on the same plant towards the tip. (the opposite state is dioecious). Lap-lap - a type ofthick cake made by cooking a puree of Morphotype - refers to the ..: grated yam, taro, cassava, external shape or appearance z of a particular plant. ..: banana or breadfruit in leaves. w u o u. o
'"t- :::> D< u. Orbicular - (ofleaf shape) - circular in outline. Ostiole - a small aperture found on the fruit (fig) in the family Moraceae. Oval- (ofleaD - egg-shaped, Nakamal- Bislama with the broader portion at term indicating a building the base of the leaf (opposite (clan hut) for men. condition is oboval). N alots - small balls of Ovoid - (of a fruit) breadfruit paste cooked egg-shaped. in coconut milk.
Palmate - a compound Ob - (applied to an adjective, leaf in which all the leaflets it reverses the direction of arise from a single point tapering - see definitions of insertion (the opposite below). condition is pinnate). Oblanceolate - (ofleaD - Panicle - an inflorescence about three times as long composed of clusters of as broad, tapering gradually flowers, themselves arranged towards the base (in contrast in clusters on a central axis. to lanceolate, where the gradual tapering is towards Paripinnate - a pinnate the tip). leaf with an equal number ofleaflets on either side Oblong - (of leaf shape) - and without a ::;ingle extra with sides parallel for some leaflet at the end. distance, the ends tapering rapidly. Parthenocarpic - (of a fruit) - developing without Oboval- (ofleaD - egg needing to be fertilized. shaped, with the broader portion at the apex of the Pedicel - the individual leaf (opposite condition is stalk of each flower of a oval, where the broader group of flowers (see also part is at the base). peduncle). Obtuse - blunt, when Pedicellate - having applied to the shape of a pedicel. a leaf apex. Pedunculate - having a Opposite - where two peduncle (opposite: sessile). leaves are attached opposite Peduncle - the stalk of a each other on a ::;tem (the solitary flower or fruit, or alternative condition to the single stalk of a group this is alternate). of flowers of fruits cC Z (::lee also pedicel). cC u.o <..J o u. o Pendulous - hanging downwards. Pericarp - the part of a fruit that covers the seed. May consist of an epicarp (outer skin), mesocarp (a fleshy mass of tissue under the outer skin) Raceme - inflorescence and an endocarp (a hard made up of pedicellate flowers shell or stone around a seed). on an unbranched axis. Persistent - (of flowers Rachis - the elongated axis or flower parts) - remaining of an inflorescence, or the unwithered on or around the main axis of a composite fruit (as opposed to deciduous, leaf that bears the leaflets. where it shrivels and falls Rhizome - an underground as the fruit develops). stem or branch of a plant, Petals - the components of often thickened and the corolla, or inner envelope sometimes serving as a of the flower; the petals may storage organ; looking like be either separate or joined. a root but distinguished from a true root by the presence Petiolate - having a petiole of buds, nodes and often (opposite: sessile). scale-like leaves. Petiole - a leaf stalk. Rosette - the shape in Petiolule - the stalk of which a number of elements a leaflet. radiate symmetrically from Pinnate - describing a a central point. compound leaf in which the Rugose - ridged or wrinkled. leaflets arise from the sides of the central rachis (as in the leaf of a pea plant). The opposite condition is palmate. Pistil- the female part of a flower comprising ovary, style and stigma (see also carpel and gynoecium). Polymorphic - occurring in several distinct forms or Sepals - the components of shapes. the calyx, or outer envelope of the flower; the sepals may Pubescent - with fine, be either separate or joined. soft hairs. Sessile - without a stalk, attached directly at base (of leaf or fruit; opposite conditions are petiolate or pedunculate). Simple - a leaf with only one leaf on the leaf stalk (opposite condition is compound, where there cc are several leaflets on z Quadrangular - four-sided. cc each leaf stalk). w u o u. o
'"I- :::> ""u. Spherical - shaped like Terminal - at the furthest a sphere or ball. point away from the point of Stamen - the pollen attachment of anything. In producing structure of a the case of the crown of a flower, usually comprising a tree, the uppermost part filament bearing an anther. of the tree. Stigma - the part of the Trilobate - having three pistil of a flower that receives lobes. the pollen at fertilization. Tubular - (e.g. of a corollal Stipules - the pair of small - with the separate petals leaflike appendages arising joined together to form a at the base of the leaf in tube-like structure. many plants. Style - the part ofthe female flower connecting the stigma to the ovary. Sub - (as a prefix to any adjective) - nearly, e.g. subsessile = nearly sessile. Subglobular - almost globular. Undulate - (of leaf margins) - wavy. Sub-opposed - almost opposed. Subsessile - nearly sessile (e.g. with a very short leaf or fruit stalk). Syncarp - a fruit arising from a gynoecium made up offused carpels or a fruit made up of elements that are totally united into one. Whorl - a number ofleaves or flowers arranged in a circle around the same point on a stem or axis. Wing -lateral, flattened, somewhat leaf-like expansions on a stem or fruit.
Tapa - cloth made from tree bark beaten flat. Tarodiere - a taro garden, usually irrigated and comprising a series of small pits inside which flows water coming from a single source.
'"'z '"'w u o
LL o V> I- Reference country for the study: Vanuatu Papua New Guinea: the territory of the Ankave A kingdom of many islands: Tonga The archipelago of Samoa: western Samoa
vanuatu The chain of islands ofVanuatu, situated on the "belt of fire" (the chain of active volcanoes) of the Pacific, to the northeast of New Caledonia, stretches for close to 900 km. It is made up of about 68 islands, the surface areas of which vary from less than 1 km2 up to about 4,000 km2• The islands, which are recent and high, have an average altitude of 500-600 m, with the highest peak in the archipelago being Tabwamasana on Santo, which reaches 1,879 m. In fact, the complex geomorphology of the archipelago has produced quite a contrasting mixture of physical reliefformations in the islands, sometimes changing markedly over quite short distances. This process of division of the archipelago is mirrored by a fragmentation of the human societies, isolated one from another by natural barriers which were often terrestrial rather than maritime. Together with Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu represents Melanesia in this study.
Tropical, with two seasons - hot and very wet in summer (from November to March), followed by a winter which is dry and cooler. The leeward sides of islands suffer severe droughts, and the zones above 500 m are cold and dry. Finally, cyclones occur more or less regularly between November and April, particularly affecting the centre of the archipelago and the south. Their consequences may be catastrophic, and the destruction of gardens may force the populations to have recourse to foraged foods to ~ ensure their survival. z c:c w u o LL o The flora ofVanuatu is young, relatively poor (about 1,500 species), with a rather low level of endemicity. The north of the archipelago has received some contributions from the flora of Solomon Islands, while the south has received some from Fiji. The primary forest, terribly depleted by human activities, is mainly found above 500 m. The majority offorests in Vanuatu are secondary, containing gardens throughout and rich in species of practical use. Spread in a band down the length of the coastline there is a coastal forest made up of pan-Pacific species.
The population ofVanuatu is estimated as 142,419 inhabitants, with an annual growth rate of 2.8%. It includes numerous groups of peoples speaking over 100 different languages. Discovered by Quiros in 1606, placed under Franco-British administration in 1906 (the Condominium of the New Hebrides), Vanuatu became independent in 1980. The isolated populations of the interior of the islands were encouraged to resettle closer to the coast, but 82% of the population lives in rural areas. Nowadays one can see a continuous increase in the populations ofthe two main towns, Luganville and particularly Port Vila (annual increase of 7.3% in the urban population). • • The rural populations engage in subsistence agriculture augmented by fishing and rearing of livestock. Since the 19th century new cash crops have been introduced (cotton, cocoa, coffee, etc.), coconut plantations have been established, and small cash stores have been opened in all the villages. The main exports are copra, fish, beef and also cocoa and timber. Even though much transformed by modernisation, the main elements of the traditional horticulture are still in place. Territorial rights, passed down from father to son since the land was first cleared, may be exchanged or ceded, even given up altogether if there are no longer any descendants to claim them. This general statement, however, hides the fact that there are notable local differences in detail from one island to another or between one group and another. These distinctions serve also as defining characteristics of the separate society groups ofVanuatu, and as such have undoubtedly helped to preserve the diversity and the traditional customs and ways of life. Aware of the value of its natural resources, Vanuatu is trying nowadays to balance a policy of development with conservation of its environment.
o Mata Vanua~Lava t( Gaua LJ I N 15' Ambae \\ Maewa \J Malo 0\ Pentecote \; ~\Ambrym Malekula "--.~) Paama aQ Epi Tong08 17' Emae v, Sheperds Nguna Efate VANUATU Erromango 19' " Aniwa Tanna G " Futuna 0 50 10Qkm Aneityum c:z: 2: c:z: w u o u.. o ...V> Papua New Guinea: Situated in the South Pacific, Papua New Guinea comprises the eastern part of the island of New Guinea (the largest non-continental island in the Pacific), the Bismarck Archipelago (New Britain, New Ireland, the Admiralty Islands), the northern Solomon Islands (Bougainville and Buka), the Trobriand and d'Entrecasteaux Islands, the Louisiade Archipelago and Woodlark Island. The capital is Port Moresby. Together with Vanuatu, Papua New Guinea represents Melanesia in this study. Hot and humid, often cooler in mountainous areas. Average annual rainfall varies from 1,500 to 10,000 mm according to region. This is situated in Gulf Province, in the eastern central part of the independent nation ofPapua New Guinea. It comprises three enclosed valleys covered in forest, in which dwell about a thousand people. A dense network of watercourses traverses the region. The year is divided into two seasons: the less humid from May to October, the rainier from November to April. The average annual rainfall is about 3,000 mm, which is intermediate between the drier region of Menyamya and the wetter one of Kerema. The temperature ranges between 15 and 25-30°C in January and between 25 and 28°C in July. It varies with altitude. The feeling of cold is always severe when it rains above 2,000 m. Between December and February, storms are very frequent on the ridges and peaks that separate the valleys. The long chain of ridges (between 2,200 and 2,800 m) which mark the easterly boundaries of the main valleys, separate the territory of the Ankave from that of other Anga groups to which they belong, but with the great majority of whom they were in former times in a semi-permanent state of war. Nowadays, this line of ridges also marks the boundary that separates the Ankave from the modem world. c( z c( w u o LL o & 2260 Kotidanga K~nab e a o, Isolated in the heart of Gulf Province, and among the poorest people in the country, the Ankave are neglected by the authorities in Kerema who have the responsibility for administering them. The nearest road stops at Menyamya, in Morobe Province, and to reach this from any of the valleys of the Ankave is a walk of two to four days. Independence (in 1975) marked the end of the temporary migration to the plantations that had begun in the mid sixties. Nowadays the few Ankave who travel only leave their valleys to sell cloths of beaten bark to neighbouring communities, but scarcely ever reaching as far as the valley of Menyamya. They have very little contact with officialdom, missionaries or the market economy. In the complete absence of commercial production, their economy is scarcely monetarised and purchase offoodstuffs is rare. Nowadays there are still no schools, no hospitals and no market stalls in the valleys of the Ankave. In the valley of the Suowi - where the present study was carried out - the missionary presence has only been felt since the beginning of the 1990s. A census of the inhabitants of this valley was u D ll D taken for the first time in June 1990, which indicates just how isolated this population has been. The Ankave obtain from the forest most of their foodstuffs and the materials that they use for everyday living. They continue to utilise and to manage this environment in a way that is no different from when they first settled there, 150 to 200 years ago. Tonga Archipelago situated in the South Pacific, made up of 170 islands of which 36 are inhabited nowadays. Physically, this region is a mixture of low coastal areas and raised, emergent land masses. Situated to the west of the International Date Line, the archipelago had the old name of the Friendly Islands, thus christened by Captain Cook because of the perceived friendliness of the inhabitants. The low coral islands and the high volcanic islands are divided into three groups, spread over 800 km from south to north: in the south , the main island ofTongatapu (260 km\ in which is situated the capital Nuku'alofa, and 'Eua Island; in the centre the Ha'apai Islands (120 km\ in the north, Vava'u (140 km2). There are also Niuatoputapu and Niuafo'ou (called the Niuas, 18 km2 and 50 km2), which lie isolated to the north, and in the south of the archipelago the island of Ata, which has been uninhabited since 1910 because of its isolation and difficulty of access. ...... Semi-tropical, with a wet season from November to April and a dry season from May to October. Cyclones occur between December and March. Median temperature of 23°C, with an average annual rainfall of 1,870 mm and 77% humidity. In 1921,23,759 inhabitants of whom 43.5% were in Tongatapu and 'Eua; in 1986, 94,535 inhabitants of whom 67% were in Tongatapu (plus 35,000-50,000 who had emigrated to New Zealand, Australia and the United States of America). The population density is heterogeneous, with an average of 139 inhabitants/km2 but a concentration of 230 inhabitantslkm2 in Tongatapu. In 1986, 63% ofthe ""z population was under 24 years of age. w"" u o u.. o V> I- :::J '"u.. C1 Niuafo'ou .. Ta fahi 16" Niuatoputapu , TONGA 18" Fo nualei , '''" / )1t V~~~" .l,#;,", 20" TO/fua. ,', , ": -,' HA 'APAI • / .------.--...J....-., Samoa oq", •• iles Fiji .stl' ?-.c'lf ~"':..~ A .... / ~ he Tonga ~ .Euaikl I Tro i ue u apm;orne TONGATAPU~ Eua 22" , !o 100 km . • 'Ata ile du Nord NOUVELLE ZELAN OE lill-1.(.~'" A Kingd om by divine authority since 950 AD, the monarchy acquired constitutional status in 1875 with King Tupou L Tonga remains today the only kingdom in the Pacific where the sovereign Taufa a'hau Tupou IV exercises effective power, succeeding his mother Queen Salote Tupou III in 1967. The Kingdom, the only place in the Pacific to escape colonisation, was made a protectorate cc of Britain from 1900 to 1970. z cc w u o u.. o ....'" • ,,{IlIH I I 11"/ Over 50% of the working population is engaged in agriculture. The economy of self-sufficiency is based on the growing of tuber crops, but this is giving way to a capitalist type of economy, and subsistence cropping is giving way more and more to commercial cropping for export. Successively, such developments have been: banana (since 1908, with a progression in fits and starts, and a renaissance in 1940), then watermelons, pineapples, vanilla, tomatoes, capsicum, peanuts. For about the last five years or so it is the growing of squash for export to Japan which has monopolised all the effort, to the detriment of sub s~ s tence production and of other cash cropping. Far behind the primary production sector of the economy is the service sector in which public servants (officials; civil servants) predominate, and a secondary manufacturing sector that is quite weak. ...... western Samoa The archipelago of Samoa includes the islands of what was formerly Western Samoa, now Samoa, which are part of the present study, and American Samoa. The western part comprises mainly the two large islands Savai'i and Upolu, in the latter of which is located the capital Apia and the main airport. The islands are high and volcanic (highest peak 1,858 m), with patches of thick forest (often damaged by cyclones and by cutting for domestic and industrial use), and coastal plains that are narrow except in a few places where the flat, fertile land broadens out. The mountainsides are steep and precipitous. Humid tropical, with a drier, cooler season between April and September. The climate becomes milder with altitude. In 1980 there were 156,000 inhabitants, of whom 110,000 were on the island ofUpolu and 46,000 on Savai'i (plus 50,000 who had emigrated to New Zealand, American Samoa, the United States and Australia). The figure was the same in 1986 (the population increase having been balanced by emigration up to about 1992). The majority of villages are on the coast. -z ""w U o U o V> I- ::> U-'" SAVAII . F.al elatai A pia UPOLU o 15 km Samoa has 350 villages and no real town. The capital Apia is administratively a conglomerate of villages each governed by its council of customary chiefs. There are 35,000 people overall in this urban cluster, plus another 40,000 in the villages along the 30 km of road between Apia and the main airport. More and more the populations of these villages are living in a cash economy, based on salaries earned by various members of the extended families. The remainder of the population (80,000 people) lives in a rural manner, dependent entirely on their crops. Western Samoa was a German colony (1899-1914), then entrusted by the League of Nations to the guardianship of New Zealand. In 1962 it became the first independent nation of the Pacific and was endowed with a constitution based on the western parliamentary model. However, the members of parliament are chosen from among the chiefly families (matai) and are elected only by the latter. From within the parliament is chosen a cabinet and Prime Minister, by internal election. At Independence two heads of state, from the two highest families of the land, were installed for life: one has since died, the other has now remained in power for thirty-three years. On his death the new head of state will be elected from within the parliament, for a renewable term of five years. Since 1990 the parliamentarians have been elected by universal suffrage, but the eligibility to vote remains limited to the head of each family (about 15,000 people, of whom 90% I-'" :::> '"u.. (;lotewe ItlTJ Classed among the poorest countries because of its low income, little by way of exports, and the almost complete absence of local artisanal or industrial manufacturing, Samoa has nevertheless not starved. Until the most recent times, the country had a three-part economy: one third of resources came from cash remittances from expatriate Samoans, one third from international development assistance and one third from export crops. The main export commodities (copra, cocoa and banana) fell between 1980 and 1987. By 1990 exports oftaro to expatriate Samoans in New Zealand were so profitable that they led to a diminution in fishing and a change in consumption habits of the population. Since 1990 this trend has been reversed, attributable to a 10-20% fall in employment for expatriate Samoans, two cyclones that devastated the country, and in 1994 an epidemic that destroyed 95% of the taro. Cl: Z Cl: w u o LL o communi ties grew and extended, and the land around them became What did they look like, changed by the human the untouched islands that influence. Each new wave were discovered by the first of migrants that arrived human communities to land at an island ofOceania, on Oceanian shores? Which each contact made between species of plants were the islands, brought with it newly arrived people able to knowledge of new edible eat? We will doubtless never species that were from then know exactly, but it is likely on adopted and multiplied, that in these lands there though they may also were growing some food sometimes have been plants that were already abandoned or forgotten. known to the new migrants. Little by little the island Some fruit trees or littoral communities, ever more plants that are spread by settled into their new marine currents, wind or territories, developed the birds would have been land, accumulated plants present in these islands, with practical uses, and having arrived ahead of the developed eating habits first humans. Such virgin that, despite the extreme territory no longer exists, ecological and cultural having been taken over by diversity of this part of the peoples of the Pacific. the world, showed a But did it ever exist? Long certain homogeneity. before the arrival of Man The arrival, from the these islands had been 16th century onwards, of subject to indirect human European explorers brought influence, receiving seeds of nothing that was really new, new plants that were being because other significant utilised by Man in other waves of migration had distant lands. Plants with already spread across the practical uses, especially islands. Nevertheless, it did food plants, preceded intensify and speed up the humans, then accompanied processes that were already them and finally followed taking place. It brought them. Humans planted about extensive and rapid species that they brought movement of plant material with them by canoe in the throughout the Pacific, and earliest voyages, those that led to enormous introduction they acquired in the course of new species originating of subsequent journeys, and from other continents. Then those that they exchanged followed the adoption of new with neighbouring com agricultural practices, the munities; they also learnt introduction of commercial to use other species, those ised products and of that they already found currencies, and above all a in situ, and those that new philosophy, a new way continued to arrive, spread oflooking at the world. This by natural means. From one caused a profound upheaval century to another human to the relationship between cc z cc w u o LL o V>.... :::J '" humans and their environ a more complex whole. ment, which had been Feasts could be followed based on mythology, lore ?y periods of great scarcity; and techniques that were ill some societies the food now thrown into question. of the chiefs was not the All facets of this world same as that of the common that while not necessa~ily people; a traveller passing harmonious was certainly through would thus not in balance, but above all have the opportunity to was different, were noted, see the whole picture, which described, evaluated and would only be accessible to judged by the first someone who stayed for a Europeans and by those long time in the one place. who followed them. The The ideas that were formed alimentation of the island about Oceanian societies, peoples, the quality of their the judgements that were plant resources, their cuisine made on their practices and and their habits at the table the level of sophistication their knowledge and their ' of their knowledge, were myths were all sifted also influenced by the through the screens of development of European western thought of the knowledge and thought. 18th century and later. Only now are people The opinions that emerged reassessing the correctness from this evaluation were and importance of the modified over time: knowledge that had been sometimes favourably, developed by societies more often unfavourably. adapting to an environment that only they knew fully, The first accounts of the and only now are we travellers and the mission realising that the forests aries are themselves often of Oceanian islands hold contradictory. Some, like invaluable food resources Tasman (Dumont d'Urville for the peoples of the Pacific 1989) or Cook (1777), were' and for the whole world. impressed by the quality of the agricultural practices Even though some refused and the "refinement of the to credit Oceanian cuisine culinary art" (Mariner, 1806 with much subtlety, and in Martin, 1817,2: 333) though others denied which they observed in gustatory or nutritive merit Tonga. Others, visiting the in the foods of the Pacific same places, took an opposite there is in fact an Oceani~n and bleak view of the alimen alimentary style that is tation of the indigenous entirely original, and is peoples, whom they based on a choice of part described as "bands of icular plants, on modes of starving people, foraging cooking, on tastes, on rules for something to eat" (letter of hospitality, frequency of Father Calinon, October of meals and an under 1845, in Duriez-Toutain standing of food needs. 1994: 411). This came about This is what is described because each person saw by the term "traditional < alimentation", this O!! just a snapshot portion of < w U o LL o combination of practices and lime, guava, custard behaviour, which is quoted apple, orange, grapefruit, as the general situation mandarin, passionfruit, existing in pre-European avocado or watermelon. times, but in fact only However, it is much harder relates to a single point to define the centres of origin in time, namely that when and original distributions the first travellers made of other fruiting species the observations. Nowadays, because they were spread this traditional alimentation more widely by humans still exists to an extent in during earlier aboriginal societies that are in course migrations. of change in these countries. Thus a large number of The changes that are fruiting trees, to limit the happening have to do with scope of our study to this the type of plant or food group of plants, are present that is used as well as the over a vast area, from the mode of preparation or lndo-Malayan Region to the consumption. Traditional eastern Pacific. This is the alimentation is adaptive, case with the sea almond evolutive and creative. (Terminalia catappa), Adaptive, hecause it Indian mulberry (Morinda incorporates new plants citri{olia), Tahitian chestnut and techniques into a (lnocarpus {agiler) and combination of practices candlenut (Aleurites in a much wider cultural moluccanal. These species context, itself based on the have on occasions spread myths and beliefs belonging even more widely, such as to the particular society. to the islands of the Indian Evolutive, because this Ocean or those of the cultural complex is not set Caribbean, where they in stone, but may be altered have been flourishing for from contact with other hundreds of years. Other cultures or in relation to species are found from changes in environment, western New Guinea to resulting in different modes Vanuatu or Fiji: such is of alimentation. Creative, the case with canarium because of new ways to nut (Canarium indicum), the cultivate a plant, or to Melanesian fig (Ficus wassa) utilise it or prepare it, or and Gnetum gnemon. Some even of seeing the world species are distributed emerge in the course of roughly from Vanuatu (or these adaptations and even Solomon Islands) to evolutions, in response Samoa and Tonga. Among to practical problems these are the dragon plum and to an underlying and (Dmcontomelon vitiense), significant aesthetic sense. the Oceanian fig (Ficus It is relatively easy scab m) and Garcinia nowadays to list the fruits pseudoguttilera. Finally, that have been introduced some species are endemic to the Pacific since the 16th to certain islands, such century: fruits such as as the Vanuatu fig (Ficus < mango, pineapple, papaya, granatum) in Vanuatu or z cc w u o u.. o :::> QC u.. Pittosporum pullifolium in nuts remains regular and New Guinea. It therefore abundant in the countries appears that in Solomon that are still mainly rural, Islands and Vanuatu one such as Papua New Guinea, finds both the western Solomon Islands and species and the eastern Vanuatu. For example species, while the very the Ankave, who occupy rich flora of New Guinea an isolated area of forest in contains a considerable Gulf Province, throughout number of species that the year eat fruits and nuts are not found outside that collected from the forest or island. The more easterly cultivated. Likewise the islands of Polynesia either majority of societies in never acquired or have lost Vanuatu cultivate fruit a good number of fruiting trees and regularly eat species that are eaten in fruits and nuts. But when Melanesia. In this connection one reaches the islands it should be borne in mind of Polynesia, the situation that the richness of changes. Consumption individual floras decreases of fruits and nuts is often progressively from New replaced by consumption Guinea to Polynesia. of other, more modern foods This difference in that are nibbled in the same geographical distribution manner during the day. It is of species is also evident at noteworthy also that species the end of this work, in the introduced subsequent to list offruits eaten (p. 277), contact with Europeans and in the ethnobotanical are becoming ever more inventory of species (p. 79). dominant, to the detriment It explains the fact that of the local species. less information has been The Melanesian countries collected from Tonga and are thus the custodians of a Samoa than from Vanuatu heritage that is both unique and Papua New Guinea, and diversified in respect regions that are geo of plant species with fruits graphically and geologically and nuts. As is well known, different in nature, richer deforestation is occurring from the start in fruit in a number oflocations and and nut species, and less is causing these native fruit urbanised. This apparent and nut trees to disappear. imbalance of coverage in It is therefore becoming the text, in which there is urgent to learn how to almost constant reference know and protect these trees. to Melanesian distributions In this context of change, we but much less to those in may ask with some disquiet Polynesia, is thus only a what the future will be for reflection of the different traditional arboriculture situation between the in the Pacific, and for the geographical areas indigenous species that this considered in this involves. These practices comparative approach. and these species constitute cc In parallel with this, a heritage of Oceanian z consumption of fruits and societies. They are well cc w u o LL o adapted to local conditions this plant resource, which and represent resources has been bequeathed to them that could be developed, by their ancestors, and that improved and spread. They they will be able in the also provide an alternative future to preserve and to exploitation of the forests. develop this resource for We therefore hope that the their profit, according to peoples of the Pacific will their proper cultural and continue to be able to exploit aesthetic considerations. ~ z: ~ w (.) o u. o '"..... products such as sugar, flour, rice, canned fish or meat, even frozen products which sometimes - or in some places often - replace the natural products that were utilised in earlier times. Oceanian alimentation is based on root crops (roots or rhizomes) and on the Root crops starchy fruits of certain The two main root crops trees. These plants are that are characteristic of for the most part cultivated Oceanian diets are yams in gardens in land that is and taros. Later also came newly cleared, sometimes sweet potato and cassava. by burning a patch of forest Each society favours the or secondary vegetation on growing of one or two species an ancient fallow. These ofroot crops, around which are vegetatively propagated the calendar of cultivation is plants, which are multiplied organised. There is a marked by cuttings or planting of preference for one or other suckers, and which are root crop, which depends grown individually. Trees above all on what can be with starchy fruits are grown in the particular cultivated in villages or environment, but also on around gardens, and are cultural aspects of choice. multiplied either by The main root crop or crops vegetative means, as are in general those that with breadfruit, or by are the commodities of sexual means as with customary exchange and Tahitian chestnut. to which special status and These staple foods are prestige attach. They are complemented by leafy symbols of the abundance green vegetables, cooked and wealth, sometimes even fruits, seeds or inflorescences, of the virility, of those who meat or fish and other grow them. Each one of marine organisms. Finally, them is diversified into fresh or dried fruits are numerous clones or cultivars, eaten in season, outside which have slightly different normal mealtimes. Fruits appearances or tastes or and vegetables may be textures or nutritive cultivated in gardens or qualities, or even usages. around the villages. They are more often wild, and may Yams be the object of organised foraging expeditions or may Yams (Dioscorea spp.) are be gathered casually. grown in the great majority of Oceanian gardens. In addition to this alimentation, which is The most important is described as traditional, D. ala ta, the root crop .. there are nowadays in preferred by Tongans, .."" most regions commercial which is planted from w u o u.. o I-'" May to December and Taros harvested from December to Taros (Colocasia, June. It is also preferred by Alocasia, Xanthosoma certain societies in Vanuatu and Cyrtosperma) are which possess a hundred or grown with the same so different clones of it. The degree of importance as agricultural calendar of yams, and they assume the majority of Oceanian prime importance in for societies is organised example Samoa. around this culture. Far and away the most The yam D. esculenta common is Colocasia is likewise cultivated esculenta, which is planted throughout Oceania. It throughout the year in is predominant in certain Melanesian and Polynesian parts ofPapua New Guinea gardens, sometimes in and the Loyalty Islands. rainfed areas in humid The cultivars selected in the forests and sometimes Loyalty Islands are moreover under irrigation. Cultivated of such quality that they amongst yams, or in special have partly replaced the taro gardens or in a older local cultivars in 4 tarodiere , this is in Vanuatu certain parts ofVanuatu. the root crop of the peoples D. nummularia, incorrectly of inland areas. called "wild yam" in Vanuatu, Alocasia macrorrhiza is a is an ancient yam which is hardier taro, the root and grown in forest areas, at stalk of which are rich in the foot oflarge trees on crystals of oxalates that whose branches the yam irritate mucous membranes, vines can climb. requiring the plant to be D. bulbifera, without doubt cooked for a long time before the oldest of all Oceanian it is eaten. Its culture is yams, is a wild plant that important in western is unfit to eat without Polynesia (Samoa, Tonga, careful preparation. Wallis and Futuna), but it However, certain edible is little utilised elsewhere. cultivars have been selected In Tonga it is planted and are grown in gardens. from July to October and D. pentaphylla is a wild harvested from August to gathered yam that is little December, in other words exploited. just before Colocasia esculenta. Finally, D. trifida is sometimes encountered, Xanthosoma sagittifolium known in Vanuatu as the (or macabo, cocoyam, African yam even though tannia), originating from it originated in tropical America and introduced America from where it was during the European era, introduced to the Pacific. is a large taro found through out Melanesia and western z Polynesia. It is grown in the ...o lowlands of New Guinea (up ...c to 1,500 m altitude among z w the Ankave) and in Vanuatu ...:::!l c c z o 4 A taro garden, usually irrigated ..... and comprising a series of small o c pits inside which flows water r:o: coming from a single source...... " .. ~•..... -•.••. '0' < ~ ~" ="'"~ ~,,'f0"+' where it is called "taro Fiji". months to one year and In New Caledonia it is produces very good yields. known as "New Hebrides However, its nutritional taro". and in Fiji as ''Tanna value is poor. Its cultivation taro" CBarrau, 1962). In is more developed in New Guinea it is called western Polynesia (Wallis "taro kong-kong", thus and Futuna, Samoa, Tonga) indicating its origin as than in island Melanesia Hong Kong. Its cultivation (Vanuatu). In New Guinea is quite easy, and it is cassava is grown as a tending to replace supplementary food. Colocasia in many places. Cyrtosperma is the largest Wild gathered of the taros, and can reach root crops 4 metres in height. It is The forest also provides found mainly from the wild root crops, which it Philippines and Indonesia appears were eaten regularly to Cook Islands, via in earlier times and are Micronesia. Itis less still used in times offood common in Melanesia shortage. Alongside wild where its importance in yams (Dioscorea bulbiferal the subsistence economy one finds cordyline is slight. (Cordyline fruticosa) which is eaten in Sweet potato Polynesia, Amorphophallus Sweet potato (Ipomoea campanulatus, common in batatasl is grown throughout New Guinea but rare to Oceania, but it is in New extremely rare elsewhere, Guinea that its cultivation and Tacca leontopetaloides is most important because whose tuber provides a it is the staple food for the starch that is used to make people of the Highlands. a porridge. Consumption Elsewhere it is grown as ofthese wild-harvested root a complement to yams or crops is tending to disappear taros, being eaten in the nowadays. Cordyline, for period between the harvests example, is no longer eaten of these two main root crops. in Samoa and Tonga except Gardens in Vanuatu and in times of food scarcity. Tonga contain on average ten or so cultivars of sweet potato, while the Ankave of vegetables Papua New Guinea cultivate The original stock of twenty or so cultivars. vegetables, the composition of which varies from one Cassava (manioc) region ofthe Pacific to another, has been consid Cassava (Manihot erably enlarged since esculenta) is a plant of European contact which American origin that was with better communications introduced to Oceania at th allowed an enormous intro the beginning of the 19 duction of new species such century. Planted throughout as maize, tomato, cucumber, z the year, it grows in five -' er: z o I- c er: I-"" nibbling, or eating of food culturally so important that in small snack quantities, in many societies the same is an important part of word is used to indicate both overall nutrition. the food and the meal itself The rhythm and composition The starchy staple varies of meals varies according to according to season, but also circumstances, seasons and according to the particular years, but also according to society under consideration. the region. Food always has For example, in Vanuatu importance from the social taro is eaten more by inland point of view, but it may communities than by those acquire a value beyond just on the coast; it is the the social worth because predominant staple in it becomes the object and Samoa, while in Vanuatu it focus of formal exchanges as is eaten to about the same part of social and ceremonial extent as yams. Between obligations within and December and February between communities. In breadfruit becomes the this way it comes to have main food for coastal great value to individuals populations in Vanuatu. and to communities in Various dishes are served western Polynesia, where as accompaniments to this food plant resources were in main staple, the abundance earlier times more meagre and diversity of which varies than they were in Melanesia. according to the day, the season and the occasion. They comprise various boiled Rhythm and leaves, fruits of certain trees or other plants, fish, shellfish composition or meat. None of these by themselves constitutes a of everyday meal, but they break the meals monotony of the staple food and above all provide The rhythms of meals a balanced diet. Each fluctuate with the structure season brings its harvest of ofthe day of each society. particular wild or cultivated The composition of the plants, and the introduction meal, its methods of prep of new species has allowed aration and its timing fit significant enlargement of in with a particular way this choice of foods. of life, and in their detail they are the best adapted The most important and the to the particular human fullest meal, which may be community, evolving the only meal of the day in progressively according some regions, is taken late to the influences that in the afternoon, at nightfall bear on the community. or in the evening. It is hot, substantial and generally In Oceania, starchy foods comprises several dishes. form the staple of the diet, There is always a dish of a since cereal crops are root crop, banana or sago, absent from the region. ..: with one or more other z Their consumption is ..: dishes as accompaniments . w u o u.. o Vegetables are always This snacking provides an served; fish and meat much opportunity for short breaks less often. In Tonga, Samoa in the labours of gardening, and Vanuatu, pork is served for chat with people on Sundays or during feasts. encountered along the way, Other meats or fish are or for stops when returning eaten two or three times home. These snack foods a week, in small amounts. vary with season and with In Tonga, fish and crust - region; they provide indi aceans are eaten on the vidual intake that is hard spot, to an extent that is to measure in amount, not quantifiable, by men but that is important qualit as they fish and by women atively as a complement to and children as they forage the starchy staple through along the seashore. out the year. Another meal, hot but less Drinks are never taken elaborately cooked, is eaten during a meal, but a drink in the morning on getting is often served at the end. up. It usually consists of It may be fresh water, a dish of a root crop or sometimes livened up as bananas, sometimes livened in Tonga with the juice of up with cold leftovers from a golden apple (Spondias the day before. There are, cytherea), or coconut water however, some dishes that or a tea made from orange are typically served in leaves. Drinks, like fruits, the morning, such as in are taken outside mealtimes Vanuatu certain lap-la/ and mainly comprise fresh dishes of breadfruit. water or coconut water. At the end of the morning, The abundance and diversity labouring in gardens may of the diet varies according be broken with a light to the season. Monotonous snack, prepared and eaten during the period between on the spot or made up the two yam harvests, it of cold leftovers from the becomes gargantuan during morning. It may comprise major feasts. It may also a grilled root vegetable, come close to famine after roasted bananas, nuts for a violent cyclone, or in nibbling or freshly picked earlier times during wars. fruits, even just a coconut Periods of abundance may to slake the thirst and ease be followed by periods of the pangs of hunger. food scarcity, when collection Finally, the day is punctuated of wild foods and eating by constant picking offruits of snacks (nibbling) pre and nuts, or snacks of pieces dominates over consumption of root crop that the eaters of prepared meals. have brought with them. z o ...... <:( z w :E ..... <:( .... <:( z o 5 A type of thicK caKe made by .... cooKing a puree of grated yam. Q taro. cassava, banana or bread <:( fruit in leaves. ...."" In Polynesia, funeral Feasts and ceremonies can last meals in times for several days and are accompanied by conspicuous of scarcity consumption of food, much greater than that Feasts of normal days. Feasts are characterised above all by an abundance In Tonga, the meals of chiefs of the staple food, which have particular importance must be the most prestigious and are outside the normal of the root crops, and by a type. They are more frequent diversity of accompanying and more regular than those dishes and the presence of the common people. Each of meat or fish. of them is prepared by cooks whose status is among the The social and other lowest in the hierarchy. Each implications of the feast vary meal comprises a starchy according to its duration and food, together with a great to the abundance of dishes diversity of accompanying that are prepared and dishes. They are regulated, brought along, then eaten moreover, by strict protocol. and distributed. The feast always marks important In Melanesia, in contrast, social occasions and there is no difference accompanies all ceremonies between the food of people intended to maintain and of high rank and those who reinforce the mutual are commoners. Each person, relations between one whatever their status eats community and another. in the same way. No m~mber It is planned for long in of the community may lay advance, by cultivation claim to the food for them of a sufficient quantity of selves, and there is in fact root crops, and is prepared an obligation on all to see over several days. It is that the food is shared never in itself the purpose equitably. In the cuisine of of a social gathering, but it Vanuatu there is always a is the symbol of it and the pot filled with a cooked root achievement of it. crop that is intended to be nibbled during the day by Certain meals, while not children and by passing really falling under the adults. Likewise, a gift of definition offeasts. still have raw food, root crop, a packet wide social imp]ic~tions and of edible hibiscus leaves or are organised to ofler a dish a basket of fruits is always that is special and much made to a chance visitor, who appreciated. Thus the must always accept the gift. Ankave families of Papua In Samoa feasts centre New Guinea take turns to 6 organise collective meals around pork, taro and luau • during which are served There is no special meal for the oily red sauce prepared chiefs as such. Status is from red pandanus or that indicated by being served cc obtained by macerating the ahead of others (each guest z receives their food on a cc fruits of Pangium edule, according to season. platter made by plaiting a u'" o LL o 6coconut milk salted with seawater and cooked in young taro leaves. coconut leaf). Young people preparation before they do not have a place in the can be eaten. They are "circle of honour" of guests, utilised very little or not but wait at the edges and at all except during periods receive the leftovers, which of shortage, but they are are often plentiful. In fact carefully conserved in the platters for people of the forests in anticipation high status are quite of such times of scarcity. conspicuously provided with Among these may be listed a surfeit of food, but custom Pangium edule, Entada dictates that those of high phasealaides and Cycas status are given much but rumphii in Vanuatu. eat little, at least at the In Tonga and in coastal time. They continue eating villages of Samoa, in times after they have returned of shortage the men turn home, with food that has towards the sea and there been brought back from the gather seaweeds, shellfish, feast by younger members fish and seabird eggs, by ofthe family. means of which they are able to survive. It is then Meals in times that certain lesser plants, of shortage if they fruit at the right Periods offasting, the moment, may become significance of which seems important. Likewise, in to be greater in western earlier time the roots of Polynesia than in Melanesia, cordyline were baked in follow feasts during which ovens of hot stones. large quantities offood have The preserved products are been eaten. These periods fermented pastes of bread of shortage are generally fruit or taro, salted or caused by natural disasters, fermented pastes of banana, the most frequent and smoked nuts and dried regular of which are the breadfruit. These are advent of cyclones. In a few prepared during times of hours these can entirely plenty, when the harvest destroy food gardens and of seasonal fruits greatly ruin the harvests from exceeds the need of the fruiting trees. In earlier community, or immediately times wars, during which after a cyclone in order to one group of people would save some of the fruits that destroy the gardens and have fallen to the ground. fruit trees of another group, In fact the food shortage had the same effect. consequent upon a cyclone In such situations human does not occur during the communities have had days or even the week recourse either to products immediately after the event. that could be foraged or to At that time the villagers products that were have at their disposal the z preserved. Among the products of their gardens o foraged products would that have been able to be ...... ce be plants that are not very saved and an abundance z abundant or ones that are w of fruits that have been :::E toxic and require a long knocked to the ground, ...... ce ce z o .... Q ce ...."" IIJ. .... v ...... r~~- ~ many of which are not far off reaching maturity. Social Serious food shortages threaten a number of weeks aspects of later, when the plants in the gardens are dead and the fruits have rotted. nutrition It is then that the salted banana pastes begin to Gastronomy be used, and later the fermented breadfruit or the art pastes at> well as products of food of foraging. The pits of fermented breadfruit, and preparation the smoked nuts, keep for Oceanian cuisine is subject several years. While in to two main imperatives: Vanuatu a number of under normal circumstances communities continue to and particularly at the time prepare these preserved of feasts, it is necessary that products in the traditional large quantities offood can ways, in Samoa only some be prepared relatively old people can still recall quickly, capable of satisfYing the times when breadfruit the appetite of a family was fermented in pitt>. that is often extended, Finally, nowadays in or of honouring what may times offood scarcity the be more than a hundred communities of the Pacific guests; in times of scarcity, turn to imported products it must be capable of trans such as rice, tinned fish or forming foods that are often meat, and even bread. In toxic or unpalatable into Samoa, perhaps through edible dishes. Oceanian the influence of the Chinese food is not t>erved in portions, community, rice has been but as a large spread of present for a long time. It foods that can be divided is also the commodity that satisfactorily among a international aid distributes variable and often unpredict as a priority to disaster able number of guests. struck communities after The daily cuisine is every a cyclone. where done by women, who often help one another in the preparation of the main meals. In contrast in Tonga and in Samoa the cuisine, at least nowadays that for feasts, is the responsibility of men. In Samoa the traditional cuisine (cooking in an earth oven) is always a male task. Only cooking in pots (boiling in water), an additional method intro z duced by missionaries, is a cc w woman's job; before then u o LL o V>.... boiled dishes were cooked Modes of cooking by placing a hot stone into The mode of cooking that a bowl, and that was men's is best adapted to Oceanian work. cuisine is without doubt in an oven of hot preparation of foods stones, called an earth oven Root vegetables may be or a Polynesian oven, which peeled, by a motion from is done in two steps. First of the body outwards, then all a pit is filled with stones, cut up into large pieces and usually of volcanic origin, carefully washed. They may and with wood which is also be grated; in this case burned in order to heat the the intact root crops are stones. Later, the embers wiped clean. Large leaves of and some or the hot stones vegetables, such as those of are quickly pulled out, then cabbage and certain taros, the pit is lined with leaves are either cut into very thin on which are spread the food strips, or are left whole in items, themselves wrapped order to wrap a paste of in leaves. The whole is then banana or grated root covered with the hot stones vegetable. In every case that had previously been they are examined one removed, and finally some at a time, and every bit more leaves which seal the blemished or chewed by an chamber completely. As they insect is cut out. The fruits slowly cool, the stones give of Tahitian chestnut are out a constant heat which sometimes peeled before allows the food to cook over being boiled. It is then a number of hours. necessary to extract the This mode of cooking is seed of each one to avoid obligatory for feasts, because any bitterness. Fruits that it permits the cooking of can be cooked, such as impressive amounts of food those of the dragon plum and allows the preparation of (Dracontomelon uitiense), the traditional dishes served have their stones removed. on such occasions: either Small wild figs are washed a mixture of root crops, carefully and picked over. vegetables, and meat or fish, All the products thus sprinkled with coconut milk prepared are arranged (which is commonly called on banana leaves or food "le four"), or it may be large wrapping leaves (Heliconia cakes of grated root crops, spp.), and are covered to stuffed with leaves or meat avoid spoilage while and sprinkled with coconut waiting to be cooked. milk (the Zap-lap ofVanuatu). In everyday cuisine this method of cooking is used once or twice a week to make "fours" or lap-lap that is z smaller and less elaborate. o In such cases the cook uses .... ..... c :z 8A sedative, slightly intoxicating Cl l drink, obtained from the root Q Of Piper methysticum and drunk C by men at nightfall throughout I-"" the Pacific. in the act of eating, apart in which the guests are from feasts in the course served. Even within the of which the exchange and inner circle each guest distribution of food, as well must be served in turn, as the protocol, takes on following the hierarchy a major importance. Each that is already shown by person eats quickly, with the seating position that out any conversation. each one occupies. At the end of the meal, damp coconut fibre is passed around for cleaning Exchange the hands. The etiquette at of foods the table is very strict for Food products, raw or cooked, chiefs: a lesser person may form the basis of a network neither drink nor eat before and system of exchange a superior one. Nobody may between individuals and therefore eat before the groups. The giving and the chief, nor he before the distribution of these elders of his family. Like products is in most cases. wise, as a sister in this more important than th81r society is superior to her consumption, and they are brother, the latter will symbols of wealth and even never eat in her presence. of hierarchy. The importance In Tonga, as in Vanuatu, of the food is such "that it everyone may join without creates, maintains and directs invitation in a feast. The the social relationships" food is distributed by the (Young, 1971: 146). chief or by the host family Among the Ankave of Papua to all those invited. In New Guinea, the sauces Tonga the portions vary made from the fruits of qualitatively according to red pandanus and Pangium the status of the person edule are always eaten at (member of the group or the time of communal meals guest), but in Vanuatu the which each family organises portions are more or less in turn, and for which they the same. However, food is cook large quantities of root never refused when offered. crops in half-sunken ovens. In Samoa, feasts relate to Portions of cooked sweet a community (family or potato and taro are placed village). Those of high in leaves of Cominsia status are said to receive gigantea, which are lined more food than the others, up on the ground so that a but eat less there and then. man can pour the sauce over The main attention is given them. Although this relates to the order of seating to items of plant origin, this within the dwelling (the method of distribution important directions being closely resembles the rules opposite to the centre of governing the ceremonial he village and the forest), exchanges of pork in the to the right to sit within Western Highlands of the the first circle that is country. C formed and served, and :; very markedly to the order w u ...o o In Tonga, the sharing of a product existed, the pig or the distribution of commercial products were baskets of food give an rapidly adopted. This was indication of the social the case with salt and with importance of each person sugar. Other manufactured in the group according to products such as canned the pieces chosen or the fish or corned meat have size of the baskets. whith taken their places in the are offered publicly. ceremonies of exchange, insofar as they are now the products of value and New modes status, and the symbols of a new wealth. of nutrition But soon these new products replaced the traditional The factors relating to food products, because they were and feeding are subject to easier to prepare and better adaptations and changes that adapted to modem lifestyles. may partly or even wholly In Samoa canned fish and obscure the original modes of mutton flaps from New nutrition, or the old and the Zealand are found in all new may coexist together. the small village stalls, This diet of vegetable origin even those furthest away (80% of the foods are starchy from the capital, and they and combined with fruits. are what is eaten unless nuts and seeds of plants) has a chicken has been killed a low content of protein in (which is done mainly for the form of feathered and feasts) or someone has had furred game, poultry, pork, time to catch a fish. fish and shellfish. It can nowadays be seen to have transformed to varying A widespread degrees according to the region, the extent of western transformation presence and the extent of societies to which the process of A new range of foods based monetarisation has advanced, on preserved food, salted which may range from the or frozen meat and fish, initial stage of non-monetary rice and bread, sugar and exchange and barter to industrially made snack capitalist type economies. foods (cakes, sweets, fizzy sweetened drinks) have now made their appearance, New products mainly in urban areas. As The advent of new products, the medium for cooking, natural or processed, allowed butter and oil have at great considerable enlargement in expense replaced coconut the choice of vegetables and milk. This is very often poor fruits and increased the :2 quality oil that is not good o variety of species available for high temperature locally, as also in the variety cooking. Nevertheless, of animal protein. When frying is developing as no equivalent traditional a new mode of cooking. « :2 o .... c « ...."" Mainly in Polynesia and The changes to nutrition in urban Melanesian areas, are founded on changes imported products were affecting societies through eaten at first out of "food out Oceania, which are as snobbery" because they much economic or related were scarce, expensive and to urbanisation as they had a status value. Little are demographic. by little they spread into In Tonga, a parcel of land everyday cooking to the was normally allocated as point where they supplanted a garden to each young man traditional fresh products. at the age of sixteen years, The major transformation according to the Constitution of Oceanian nutrition does of 1875, but this has not not rest entirely with the been possible for a number introduction of new types of years now because of the offood, but also in the population increase. This excessive consumption has mainly impacted on of preserved products and people in the main island snack foods. Nutritional ofTongatapu, where 60% of imbalances have appeared, the entire population of the and local economies have archipelago lives, following become unbalanced through domestic migration from massive importation of outer areas towards the manufactured foodstuffs. centre. In many places land The use of such foods nowa is increasingly reserved for days has passed beyond cash crops (such as that of simple food snobbery and squashes in Tonga), to the seems connected with new detriment of traditional lifestyles and economic cultivation and the equi conditions. Indeed, in urban librium of gardens in which areas and for those on fixed the rotation of crops also salaries working to set hours, included periods offallow. the traditional snacking in Yams, taros and even the course of a day is no sweet potato are no longer longer satisfied by fresh affordable by ordinary fruit but has been replaced people and are replaced by by chips, soft drinks and rice, wheat flour, preserved chewing gum. It is nowadays foods and factory-made much cheaper to eat rice delicacies. than taro or yam, and a good In many families, cooking number oftown dwellers do in an oven of hot stones is not have access to a garden reserved for Sundays; the and must purchase almost little parcels of foodstuffs all their food needs in for braising are nowadays groceries or in the market wrapped in aluminium foil (apart from that brought rather than banana leaves to them by relatives living which take too long to collect in rural areas or that from gardens; corned beef exchanged between often replaces the fish communities). and the chicken that was formerly in the parcels cc prepared in this traditional z: cC method of cooking. w u ...o o A different alimentary It should not be thought repetitiveness has arisen that the peoples of Oceania with these imported are giving in passively to products, accompanied by this slightly exaggerated greater regularity in the situation that we have timing of meals, giving an depicted. First and foremost, impression of improvement nutrition in rural areas which belies the loss of (at least in Vanuatu and the original balanced diet Papua New Guinea) for which the imported remains largely based products are an inadequate on traditional root crops, substitute. consumption of fruits and Parallel to this, efforts to nuts and on local resources. improve the local species, In other ways Oceanian if poorly executed, risk societies are developing favouring species and several strategies for varieties liked by western adapting to the new palates to the detriment conditions. For example, of plants adapted to the the recent construction of tastes and needs of a covered market in Port Oceanians. The inevitable Vila nowadays permits loss of genetic diversity residents of Efate to obtain of these local species will fresh produce every day of increase alarmingly, and will the week. It seems quite progressively and insidiously likely that this market, by suppress the elements that offering the possibility of gave originality to Oceanian commercial sale of garden nutrition and permitted the produce, has stimulated survival of local communities. such fresh production Certain small regional both qualitatively and dishes, such as dragon quantitatively. Increasingly plums (tambol) in coconut products may be found milk or papaya stuffed with there that are more varied, canarium nuts, lap-lap more abundant and more filled with taro leaves or suited to the local purse: baked poire-tortue (the imported products, to be fruit of Burchella fijiensis) sure, but also plants of the will no longer be able to be forest whose attraction is so made because it will not great that the local people be possible to obtain the and even expatriates will ingredients. At the very get up early in the morning most they will become in to obtain them. Hot cooked their turn luxury dishes for dishes of the traditional well-to-do families before cuisine sold at affordable they disappear altogether prices may also be bought from the culinary repertoire there, which stimulates the of Oceania. They are still, creativity of the cooks and however, treats for village also indirectly protects the families who thanks to local gastronomy from the z: them can have a slight complete abandonment that o break from the monotony is feared...... < of the daily diet. z: w ::i! ..... < ..... < z: o ..... Q < ...."" For all that, the trans will inevitably be subject formation ofthese to evolution, like that which subsistence economies has already occurred in the towards the conditions past. The important thing of a capitalist economy is to enable the peoples of produces an illusion of Oceania to let this evolution abundance, and leads happen while fully pre to very real nutritional serving the equilibrium imbalances. This is why that has been characteristic the products and the until now, and the flavours cuisine of the Pacific must that have given Oceanian be recognised, valued and food its distinctiveness. protected. The nutrition ! .~ cC z cC w u 0 LL 0 I '".... ::;) ..."" From the simple gathering been established in the offruits in the forest to whole of Oceania since the the planting of cash crop second millennium B.C. It orchards, the exploitation widened out later on, as is of fruiting trees has under shown for example by the gone a slow intensification great abundance of pits for over the centuries, the con fermentation of breadfruit sequences of which have found in the Marquesas borne at the same time on Islands, an indirect sign the progressive selection of a major exploitation of of certain species and on breadfruit, from 1200 A.D. the modification of the (Kirch, 1984). landscape. It is quite difficult in the Traditional arboriculture existing state of knowledge is an important component to define precisely when of subsistence systems in and where arboriculture Oceania, but this importance began to appear. It was a varies with time and progressive process, from according to geographical simple picking of fruits in location. the forest, to protection of The traces found today from trees being utilised, then archaeological excavations to their transplantation reveal ancient utilisation close to domestic areas, of fruits and nuts. In East and finally their cultivation. Timor fragments of candle In ancient times it was not nut'! have been found that an important component date back to 3000 RC. of food production, though (Bellwood, 1985: 191). it was practised even in igs undertaken at Mussau ancient times in some areas have revealed an important such as the Santa Cruz assemblage of fruiting Islands (Yen, 1974) and the species (endocarp of islands surrounding Papua candlenut, Burckella, New Guinea. Arboriculture Canarium nut, coconut, then intensified progress golden apple, sea almond; ively, to the level seen seeds of taun tree, pericarp nowadays where it is a of Tahitian chestnut, etc.) major component of food dating from 1200 to 1800 RC. production. (Kirch, 1989). A complex of The development ofthese fruiting species, dating from practices seems to have a more recent period (from taken place very early in 50 B.C. to 1100 A.D.) have the islands situated around been brought to light on the Papua New Guinea, in southern coast ofViti Levu Solomon Islands and then (Bellwood, 1979: 204). in Vanuatu. In these island If it is difficult from these environments, less rich traces to conclude the in food resources, with existence of a real cultivation limited space and subject of fruiting trees rather than to the hazards of periodic a simple consumption of droughts and cyclones, the gathered fruits, it does seem communities were forced clear that arboriculture has to develop, if not to invent, .... < z o 9 The Identification of the species .... cited here under their English e names is given in the third part < of this work (p. 79). ...."" An index of common names is also given at the end of the book (P. 311). new practices for sub species were less numerous, sistence. It was then that or because a given species arboriculture, as a system no longer naturally produced for exploitation of a natural enough food, Arboriculture resource, had to be developed. thus became a more and It is noticeable even today, more important component throughout the islands of of subsistence systems. Melanesia, that the smaller Paradoxically, and doubtless the island the greater the for different reasons, arbori density of fruiting trees culture seems to have under and above all the better gone a net decline later in the quality of the cultivated the islands of Polynesia, fruits and nuts. Arboriculture so that nowadays it is less is thus better developed in important there than in the islands ofVanuatu than Melanesia. among the forest-dwelling populations ofPapua New The modes of utilisation Guinea (as among the of the land vary from one Ankave). In Vanuatu, society to another, and their certain small islands study is largely outside the situated opposite much scope of this book, We will larger islands (as with give, however, by way of Lamen Island opposite brief examples, the cases Epi) have been transformed of two rural societies of into veritable orchards. Melanesia, the Apma of Vanuatu (central Pentecost) It should likewise be noted and the Ankave of Papua that if the number of New Guinea, and then that cultivated fruit trees of more urbanised societies decreases from west to east of Tonga (in Polynesia), in in the Pacific, so too does the order to illustrate the very number of different species different contexts within involved in arboriculture. which arboriculture is From prehistoric times one practised nowadays, Then thus sees, from Papua New we will analyse the different Guinea towards Polynesia, aspects that this presents an impoverishment of the in Melanesia and more flora (since the beginning particularly in Vanuatu, of human settlement), an intensification of Not all fruit trees receive the arboriculture and a clear same amount of attention diminution in the number and not all profit from the of species cultivated. same degree of care, Some are scarcely protected at Everything has happened all, while others by contrast through the human are cultivated and are communities progressively concentrated near gardens intensifying the care given or villages, The majority to their trees, in order to receive some sort of care increase the production of and are the objects of food resources which had various practices, which become insufficient for depend on the abundance reasons not yet determined: of the species, its natural co: either because the available z co: w u o u. o V>... habitat, the nature and year or two before being degree of utilisation of the abandoned. Each family plant, and the strength of thus cultivates two or three the attraction that it holds gardens per year, one of for an individual or for a which is newly planted with society. yams. In general the piece ofland cleared is larger than is used in the first Modes of year, so that the next year yams may be planted on the adjacent land that has utilisation already been prepared, and the crops in the garden can of the land be diversified that year. The gardens are thus most The case of often situated close to one another. However, there the Apma comes a time when one The territory of the Apma, will be further away. This like that of many societies in is the case with rainfed northern Vanuatu, is made (non-irrigated) taro gardens, up of juxtaposed pieces of placed at slightly higher land on which each member altitude, or with certain ofthe community has a right strategic garden::; opened up of use. The villages are small at the limits of the territory in size, rarely exceeding simply to claim the rights fifty inhabitants, and that are held over that land. generally comprise one couple, their married sons, Thus the Apma horticult and the children of those urists do not move far, and sons. More or less at every spend almost all their time generation one son will in their villages, which they leave to found a new village, leave in the morning to go some distance from the first to the garden and to which one, on a patch of virgin they return in the evening forest or more often on to sleep there. The garden land previously the site areas are situated an hour's of an ancient hamlet or an walk away, rarely more. ancient garden. After that, Foraging offruits takes each hamlet is only occupied place in the area between for two or three generations the village and the garden. and is then abandoned. It may happen, however, that a temporary shelter In addition, each family is put up at a more distant clears a patch of forest yam garden, and this is annually for cultivating then occupied during the yams. In the second year period of harvest of these this garden diversifies, root crops. As for fruiting with taro, sugar cane, trees, they are generally maize and edible hibiscus transplanted or protected being planted in it. It is close to the domestic areas. then cultivated for another er: z o t o er: ""t- However, a continual breadfruits (Artocarpus rotation may be observed, altilis). As for the red over several generations, in pandanusCPandanus the occupation of the land conoideus), it grows at the by the villages, the gardens higher altitudes, and it is and the fallows. Abandoned this differential fruiting sites of settlement not more according to species and than a hundred years old altitude that causes the are clearly marked by an people to have to move assemblage of fruit trees around. which are occasionally In consequence, the Ankave harvested. It is there that spend half, even two thirds, one may find, for example, of their time away from old Canarium nut trees the hamlet that is their (Canarium spp.), large principal residence, even taun trees (Pometia though these may be pinnata) or large cut nut scarcely more than half an trees (Barringtonia spp.). hour's walk away. With this is associated a marked wish among Ankave families for The case of isolation, which wish they the Ankave nevertheless breach on several occasions: the Among the Ankave, things collective consumption are different. In establishing of red pandanus or of their hamlets and villages Pangium edule, the occasion between 1,000 and 1,400 m of ad hoc markets for selling in altitude, the Ankave of pork meat, the death of a are exploiting a series of near relative, an initiation ecological niches which are ceremony or the conclusion spread between 500 and of a period of mourning. 1,400 m, even in the hostile environments that are found With this annual mobility at altitudes of 2,000 m. is allied a second that These different zones are corresponds to the cycle of regularly visited according the gardens and stretches to the rhythms of maturation over several years. When and fruiting of the trees. a family opens up a new garden, every two or three From October to December, years, they frequently clear the people move to the a portion of their land highest parts of their opposite the preceding site. territory and they collect It may even happen that from the ground the fruits an Ankave opens a garden of the highland pandanus solely for the purpose of (Pandanus jiulianettii). affirming their right of From the months of April usage over a portion of May they install themselves forest. But, while the Apma for some weeks in the lower gardener truly does exploit parts of the land where the garden opened up in Pangium edule grows, in order to affirm the right order to macerate the fruits of use, cultivating it like of this tree. In June in the cc the others for three to four z same areas they go to eat cc years, the Ankave gardener w <.> o... c encloses it poorly, thus The traditional utilisation allowing pigs to get into it. ofland in these volcanic The garden, quickly ruined, soils, or coralline soils is then abandoned without enriched with volcanic ever having been tended ash, is as a mosaic of with any care. plots planted with a great diversity of species and associations of root crops. The case This cultivation is undertaken in an environ of Tonga ment of secondary vegetation In Tonga the first travellers at various stages of from outside (Tasman in regrowth, beneath the 1643, Cook in 1777, shade of a great variety La Perouse in 1787, of useful trees, protected Labillardiere in 1793) all or planted (Thaman, 1976). bore witness to a habitat In these gardens the scattered with a series of Tongans traditionally dwellings, mostly coastal, practise a rotation of crops surrounded by lands over a ten-year period (in cultivated in a manner the order: yam, taro, sweet that was "very dense and potato, cassava) and the carefully looked after". alternating of cultivation At the beginning of the on a third of the land and 19th century, civil strife fallow on the rest. Each forced the people to gather year they move the yam into villages to preserve cultivation to a regenerated and defend themselves. piece of fallow (reoccupied) This tendency was further and cleared by burning of encouraged by the arrival the secondary vegetation of missionaries and the that had grown back there beginnings of education (Crane, 1979). and of trade. In 1882 a Nowadays the massive subdivision of land was increase in population established in which every (which has increased male at the age of sixteen five-fold since 1920) and was given a space in the the development of cash village for building his cropping has meant that dwelling (an api kola of these periods of fallow have 0.125 ha) and a garden disappeared. This has led outside the village (an to intensive utilisation api uta of 3.34 ha) where of fertilizers which, as is he could grow root crops beginning to be evident, for food. presents certain dangers. even destroyed the gardens, Species the villagers need to have systematic recourse to the foraged foraged species to ensure their subsistence. This is perhaps the main interest and species in this type of plant. They represent reserves on hand, cultivated an emergency nourishment however long they take to prepare but available Species during times of hardship. foraged Thanks to these species The majority of plant species the gardener can maintain that produce edible fruits relative nutritional or nuts may be considered independence, and likewise as species that are foraged. economic and political Thus in Vanuatu, where independence. about forty species of edible In the forests of the Ankave fruits are known, about a number of trees with thirty species are never fruits or nuts grow cultivated. Disseminated spontaneously: Finschia by ocean currents, by birds, chloroxantha, Castonopsis by bats, these species acuminatissima, Gnetum reproduce spontaneously. gnemon, Sterculia, and also Their growth is, however, Ficus and Elaeocmplls. protected by humans Each species is only who leave in place the represented by a small germinating seedlings number of individuals, for and then the trees. These which most Ankave know species are each designated the location but without by a particular name, with giving any special care which a second term may to the trees. Their fruits sometimes also be associated are eaten, raw or cooked that is intended to distin according to the sort, in an guish the different forms. opportunistic manner as The territory exploited by the people move through each community is never the forest, and are only very large, and each person exceptionally picked to be knows the locations of all taken back to the village. the useful trees and is thus able to harvest them according to their needs. Species In season the harvest protected may occupy the entire The fruits and nuts of community. For most of the certain species are gathered time it is opportunistic and in abundance and eaten occurs randomly as people regularly. However, they walk in the forest or while are not the objects of real they are out on a hunt. cultivation. In Vanuatu, for However, when a cyclone example, the majority of C( or a particularly serious z sea almonds (Terminalia C( drought has damaged or w catappa), Burckella U o LL o I-'" (Burckella obouata) widest. The majority among and dragon plums them have a wide geo (Dracontomelon uitiense) graphical distribution: the grow spontaneously in Canarium nuts (Canarium their natural environment. spp.) are present (all species The sea almonds are situated considered together) from in open spaces on the shore, Indonesia to western which is generally where Polynesia; breadfruit is the villages are established, cultivated throughout the while the Burckella are Pacific to Southeast Asia; found in forest up to the Tahitian chestnut is 300 m altitude. found from Malaysia to These two species reproduce the Marquesas Islands. very well spontaneously, These fruits are staple and provide fruits that are foods for Oceanians, and destined to be eaten on the it is probable that their spot. The children from the distribution actually reflects villages gather sea almonds the geographical regions in in abundance, while the which the ancestors ofthe hunters in the forest regale island peoples of the Pacific themselves with Burckella. dwelt in earlier times. Their However, gardeners trans spread results, at least for plant seedlings closer to the most part, from human domestic areas, or to an activity. These are generally altitude where the species coastal species, which are is less frequent or absent scarcely found above 1,000 altogether, thus extending m, even 600 m. They are its distribution. One may ten in number: Artocarpus therefore encounter a altilis, Barringtonia edulis, Burckella in a village, B. nouae-hiberniae, or a sea almond above B. procera, Canarium 400 m altitude. harveyi, C. indicum, The main species exploited Spondias cytherea, in semi-cultivation by the Inocarpus {agi{er, Pometia Ankave is Pangium edule. pinnata and Syzygium Each season, after treatment malaccense. In Vanuatu of the fruits on the spot, all are found in the villages some seeds remain at the or close to domestic areas. foot ofthe trees and give Through the centuries rise to young trees, and in the cultivators have time to little orchards which progressively gathered are then looked after. together the better forms ofthese species, on which they have exerted a gentle Species but continuous selection pressure. Multiplication, cultivated even though it can occur Finally, certain species are spontaneously, is assured regularly cultivated. These by the planting of ripe fruits are the ones that are eaten or of germinated seeds, or most of all, that produce the by transplanting young most abundant harvests and seedlings of sufficient for which the availability is vigour. In the end the ..... cC z: ...o c cC ..."" care given to these trees is minimal: the young Selection seedlings are however protected from the sun , pressure and weeds are eli minated. Dead or damaged branches are cut off, and the tree is Intraspecific pruned in order to reduce its height. When a tree is no diversity of longer productive it may be cultivated fe lled, or it may be kept to attract flying foxes 10 which species are then captured more easily, except in Tonga All the cultivated species where their consumption comprise several forms to is banned by tradition. which the gardeners give particular names, which is The Ankave of New Guinea not the case with foraged really only cultivate two species. The number of species: red pandanus and cultivars varies from one Terminalia haernbachii species to another, and which fruit poorly in the from one region to another. high areas and are fou nd Certain communities in mostly in the eastern Vanuatu distinguish up valley of the territory, to a hundred different below 800 m altitude. cultivars of breadfruit, The fifteen cultivars of red twenty cultivars of canarium pandanus fruit at intervals nut and nineteen cultivars of several weeks apart, of Tahitian chestnut. The during the period of heavy Ankave distinguish fifteen rains from September to varieties of red pandanus April-May. In the overall according to the shape of diet their consumption the fruit and the period of proves important because fruiting, while the Wola of of their content of protein the Western Highlands of and fats. It is a very much Papua New Guinea only appreciated food to which distinguish four (Sillitoe, the Ankave attribute the 1983). property of regeneration Because reproduction is of the blood. sexual, there is systematic As for the nuts of redistribution of genes in Terminalia haernbachii, each generation of trees, they are in general eaten which makes it difficult grilled, but may be prepared to get identical multi like the kernels of Pangium plication of these forms. edule when the harvest is Only breadfruit and to a particularly abundant and lesser degree the golden the fruits are at risk of apple, which may be rotting before they can propagated by asexual be eaten. means, provide cultivars with stable names. z'" '"w u o LL o 10 A type of fruit-eating bat common in Oceania. However, it is undeniable in form, taste, colour and that repeated selection of size of fruits that they are the same forms, generation utilising, have a tendency after generation, has to conserve each distinct resulted in production of cultivar, from preference, particular cultivars, clearly necessity or prudence. identifiable by name and From preference because recognisable by the colour some individuals like to of their fruits, the shape build collections that oftheir nuts and all other include cultivars not morphological characters. known to other people. In the absence of any From necessity because genetic study, we ignore the different cultivars of the correlation between a single species are not all the genetic pool of these eaten in exactly the same cultivars and their rich manner: certain cultivars diversity of form. Since the of breadfruit cook more trees have a long life-span, quickly than others, all generally exceeding a Tahitian chestnuts do not human lifetime, it is quite have the same taste, each difficult to determine the among them is therefore genealogical complexity a slightly different food. of such vegetative forms. Finally from prudence Certain trees with fruits because certain cultivars of particular characteristics are available before or will nevermore provide after the others, or are exactly the same form and, more resistant to problems in the absence of vegetative than the others. multiplication, their names The most popular cultivars will disappear with them. are, however, propagated more frequently than the others and are therefore Management more abundant. If circum of diversity stances require it (most often through lack of However it has happened, available land), the least the repeated and continuous utilised cultivars are cut selection of the largest, out. There is therefore sweetest, least fibrous fruits, an ongoing erosion of the the nuts that are largest genetic stock in favour of or have the softest shells, cultivars that correspond the trees with abundant best to the tastes and the production or those that needs of the gardeners. fruit a little before or a Beyond the results provided little after the main season, by agronomic research, it has led to the improvement is these tastes and these and diversification of these requirements that need also species. to be taken into account if Generally the gardeners, the multiplication of certain aware of slight variations cultivars is undertaken. ...... : z o l Q ..: I-"'" Nowadays, because the Modification pressure on land i::; becoming ever greater from the of landscapes population explosion, these trees, spread between the cultivated plots, are often A place for felled. The gardeners tend increasingly to concentrate each species their fruit trees into plots These practices of selecting reserved for that purpose. and assembling the better In the forest, apart from forms have resulted, over the spontaneous species, time, in a profound trans one also finds habitually formation of the landscape. cultivated specie::; that have The fruiting trees are found reproduced spontaneously mainly in or near villages, or that are evidence of an gathered into small plant ancient place of settlement. ations, near the gardens It is there that new cultivars whose boundaries they may often be discovered. mark, along frequently The forest trees generally used footpaths, or in some possess fruits of poorer cases in the forests where quality, and they are mainly they are dispersed. utilised for their wood. The trees in the villages Each individual only plants are those that are used a certain number of trees the most. The smallest in their lifetime, but more like the cut nut, are pl~nted than half the fruit trees close to dwellings and counted in a village will are regularly collected by have been planted by the children. So too breadfruit current generation or the trees, whose dark foliage preceding ones. It is the adorns the village, and some cumulative effect over time sea almonds planted for of these small individual the shade afforded by their actions that progressively large crowns of horizontal modifies the environment branches. There is always and results in creation of a patch of land reserved for the existing landscapes. fruiting trees, at the edge of the village. There one finds among the coconut palms, , the cut nuts, the breadfruit Long term trees, the Tahitian chest management nuts, the golden apples, as well as species relatively of land recently introduced such In reality, arboriculture as grapefruit and oranges. is only one aspect of the The fruit trees are also considered management planted around the gardens. of the whole territory. The midday meal, a simple The domestic zones the snack eaten on the spot, cultivated spaces, the often comprises fruits assemblages of useful "" eaten raw or, in season, species which stand out .., a breadfruit quickly grilled. in the landscape and are ""w u o u.. o V> I- in harmony one with may have been planted by another in the exploited an ancient community. territory are not fixed and Arboriculture is thus bound may be abruptly modified. up with the fundamental For example, the com history of each community, munities living on small and with the historical islets opposite much larger events that the community islands may decide to open has been obliged to face. almost the whole of their gardens on the large island, following agreements with Conclusion the communities of the Arboriculture is a fragile main island or in order to activity, because it is split affirm their right of usage into a great number of over the land on which they small operations occurring are situated. In this case over a long period, and the islet is transformed into because it is protected a huge orchard, over the solely by the wisdom and span of a single generation. kuowledge that go with it. This situation must have lt is also made fragile by occurred quite often in virtue of the changes in the past since one can see usages linked to outside that these islets are often pressures (changes to modes veritable reservoirs of of nutrition, impact of the improved fruiting trees. cash economy). One illustration of such happenings is provided by Several thousand years old, the archipelago of Tong a of it must nowadays adapt to which the oceanic islands, new economic circumstances. denuded of populations, Among the species wisely were planted in the last conserved by successive century with coconuts generations of gardeners, exploited for copra. among the cultivars slowly selected by the ancestors, The migration of a which are the ones that community from the will survive the current interior to the coast is day transformations of accompanied by increased agriculture? planting of fruiting trees in the new site of habitation Which are the places where and the progressive and this rescue is still possible? partial abandonment of Melanesia, and particularly the genetic stock patiently island Melanesia, still built up in the course of possesses a living arbori preceding generations. In culture. Western Polynesia, this case, the trees at the which already started with ancient site of settlement a more limited, less diverse are used as a source ofliving inheritance of species and cultivars, seems material for replanting, and w clearance of new domestic by comparison to have "" temporarily forsaken the ::> land combines with pro I- tection of every useful tree traditional cultivation of that is found there, which the local species. Melanesia thus appears to be the .... cz: :z o .... Q cz: I-"" holder of an important existing surpluses in a genetic stock, and the commercially viable way, Melanesians are owners by processing them and of precious knowledge. selling them in local This biodiversity and markets. Demand from this knowledge must be consumers is strong, and protected and utilised for the first attempts at reintroduction into other commercialisation that islands of the Pacific, such were started in Solomon as Samoa and Tonga, of Islands and Vanuatu have fruiting species of good proved clearly that they quality, ideally adapted can succeed. The local to local conditions. fruiting species of Oceania At the same time, certain cannot by themselves alone species such as canari um improve the economies of nut, cut nut, sea almond, the countries of the western Burchella obouata, golden Pacific. Nevertheless they apple, Tahitian chestnut, are part ofthe local even Burckella fijiensis heritage, and if rapid and Finschia. have some attention is not paid to economic potentiaL Many them they are destined to among these are actually disappear, when they could, produced in sufficient by their diversity and their quantities for commercial good adaptation to local isation, at least locally, conditions, contribute to and could therefore provide diversifying the crops and supplementary incomes improving the standard of to local growers. It is not living of rural communities. desirable at this stage to We now describe these increase the planting of species one by one, while these species greatly, recommending that the particularly while their necessary research for agronomic characteristics are their protection and their still not well investigated; development be undertaken however, even now it would without delay. be possible to utilise the c z c w u o LL o The fruits (fresh or dried) vernacular names: which we present here A multitude of vernacular comprise the great majority names exist, thanks to the of species utilised in the variety oflanguages that western Pacific. Each occur in Oceania, especially species is treated in a in Melanesia. In the box separate entry, listed in entry for each species we alphabetical order of genus. quote (if it exists) the name Each entry starts with a in Bislama, the lingua box giving the name ofthe franca ofVanuatu which species, its botanical family, is the reference country common names in English for the whole of the present and French, the name in work. A list of the most Bislama (the lingua franca commonly used vernacular ofVanuatu), the nature of names in Papua New consumption of the species, Guinea, Solomon Islands, the part eaten, and whether Vanuatu, Fiji, Samoa and there is any toxicity known. Tonga is given at the end of the work (p. 289). This is followed by: the botanical description]], any morphological variability, Botanical description: ecology and modes of The descriptions given exploitation, alimentary are based for the most usage and other uses, other part on observation of edible species in the genus, living material studied and bibliographic references. in Vanuatu (not just on Geographical distribution herbarium specimensl. is presented by a series of maps. Below are explanatory Altitude notes on these categories The range of altitude of information. given for each species is that within which Common names: it is normally found. Common names given to Additional figures in species are so numerous brackets are extremes that it is impossible to list of altitude recorded. all. We indicate in bold type the names (in English Ceographical description: and French) that are best The maps indicate the established in the literature, distribution of the species and after them the names at the moment of first that are also quite often European contact; the used. With the French arrows indicate subsequent names, the name of the spread. fruit is given first followed by the name of the tree in Bibliographic references: brackets (Bizet & WaIter, The references, given in the 1996). Some species do not shortened form of author(s) have common names. plus date, refer to the > Bibliography at the end ""o ..,t of the work (p. 261). ... > z .... Cl: ..,u cc t o 11 The botanical descriptions ... unavoidably use technical ..,o botanical terms, but a clossary :x:.... near the start of this work w Ip. 13) should allow the terms to be easily understood. ..)~ .------~,~.~?~~~~.•~ FRUITS OF OCEANIA iles Midway CHI N E '" iles ,0 "'<> Haw., () 20' N - iles "- o Wake Mariannes °0 o o OC£'4 <:I Guam o 0 .... rv P4CIFIQUE ~ . 'il ~ \" D sri Lanka 0.:0loo'; 1., iles ',- Marshall ..50 ~ iles .~ Carolines Nauru " ·0o ~iribati o~ Irlande ~l) ~ .. _ ~:~uvalu iles.. °o .. IIc:d TOkelau ~d.. N..~ lesSalomon '. Marquises .. ~I> • retagne "'-'<:0 1:f... S~rJ]a-Cruz<> Samoa Clo • iles de o ''/! o "",_ t7 .~ .. &~ ~ ... " C''''" D~Vanuatu d' la Societe i .. ..:e • GO,;. '\) 0 ( .: 'f .. Niue "1- ,0 Tuamotu ", ... Ib Fiji (:> P- 0 iles <>.... . D ; 200 5 /1- Nouvelle- ·~oo• " Cook " " Tonga 0/ Cah3donie <> • <"1,- iles no" AUS T RALIE 160" Australes The South Pacific Key to French names: Australle Australia lies de la Societe Society Islands lies salomon Solomon Islands NeIoBretagne = New Britain Celebes sulawesl lies HawaI HawaII Inde = India N.... lrlande New Ireland Chine China lies Marlannes Marlana Islands Malalsle Malaysia Nouvelle caledonle New Caledonia lies Islands (Austral, Carollne, lies Marquises MarQueSasIslands MoluQues Maluku P.·N.... Gulnee papuaNew Cook, Marshall. Midway) Guinea • • Description Geographical distribution Indonesia, Papua New Small tree (6-15 m) with a straight Guinea, Solomon Islands, trunk. Leaves simple, lanceolate (6-11 x 2.5-3.5 cm), base rounded, Vanuatu. margins undulate; 6-11 pairs of secondary veins; petiole 0.5 cm Alimentary uses long. Flowers arranged In a In Vanuatu the fruits are pendulous raceme; calyx yellow eaten cooked in times of green, pubescent (2 cm); corolla food shortage. In Indonesia yellow and as long as the calyx. they are eaten raw or Fruits green, then dark red when cooked. mature, oval (3-5 x 2-3.5 cm), with 3-5 more or less distinct faces. References & Morphological variability Backer Bakhuizen van Wheatley (1992) indicated den Brinke (1963), Borrell the existence of trees with (1989), Wheatley (1992). white flowers, and Borrell (1989) noted trees with rose-coloured flowers. > D'" I :z w > :z ...... : u :z ..: l D III D Z :z: I w - Adenanthera· pavonlna Llnnaeus Fabaceae • • • Coral pea Red sandalwood Red bead tree La cardinale (cardinalier) • •• None in Vanuatu; occasional in Tonga; more regular in Samoa, as in India. Seeds. • Considered to be toxic in some places, but regularly eaten in others. Description and glossy, round or very slightly cordate (0.8 cm in diameter), Tree of medium height (6-20 m), flattened (0.5 cm thick) and hard. crown not very dense_ Leaves compound, long (15 -40 cm), made up of 3 to 6 opposite pinnate leaves (7-16 cm long); petiole 5-8 cm long; each pinnate leaf with 5-10 leaflets, alternate or sub-opposite, dark green, slightly glossy, elliptical (2-4 x 1_1-2.2 cm), base asymmetrical; veins invisible. Flowers grouped In dense spirals on an elongate axillary raceme; calyx minute; 5 bright yellow petals, lanceolate (4-5 mm); numerous stamens. The fruit is a brown pod, narrow and long, swollen at the parts where the seeds are, coiling cc round on Itself when ripening z and then opening to liberate cc w the seeds; seeds bright red Adenanthera pavonina. U ...o o '"..... Hawai' .....e> • ~ a( Qui se s ·~ •• ..;.... S OC i · · T~·II~~ ·: :;.: ~ Austrates Adenanthera pavonina: species indigenous to India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia including the islands of Indonesia to the Moluccas (Malukul. Also found as far as southern China, Vietnam, Cambodia, the Philippines and north·east Queensland in Australia. Probably introduced in ancient times to all the islands of Melanesia as far as Fiji, from the Indo· Malayan Region (Smith, 19851. Later aboriginal or European introduction to Fiji; European introduction further eastwards (as far as the MarqueSas) and to Micronesia (Marianas and Caroline Islands). Introduced to New Caledonia at a date unknown. Morphological variability tained nor transplanted. Nielsen (1983) recognised Its multiplication occurs two varieties. The first, through seeds dispersed by var. pavonina, is native birds, though germination to India, Sri Lanka and is slow. It fruits at the Myanmar. The second, height ofthe dry season ar. microsperma (T. & B.) (June to August). Flowering Nielsen, grows in South occurs three to four months East Asia and in western earlier, from February to Malaysia. Backer & ApriL Outside Vanuatu, the Bakhuizen van den Brinke tree is generally naturalised (1963) regarded this latter in all Pacific islands, as in variety to be a distinct Fiji where it occurs from species (Adenanthera sea level to 600 m altitude microsperma T. & B.). (Smith, 1985). It is cultivated The existence of these (from seeds or by cuttings) two species or varieties in India, in Guam and explains the different doubtless in other tropical alimentary uses from one regions. In northprn India Pacific island to another. it may be found up to 1,200 m altitude. Ecology and exploitation In Vanuatu the tree, Alimentary uses although not very abundant, In Vanuatu the seeds are is found in all the islands, not eaten except in certain from sea level to 400 m. It villages on Santo. In thrives in places that are Australia they are said to somewhat dry, in calcareous be toxic (Cooper & Cooper, soils, in open woodlands 1994). The roasted seeds are and in places disturbed by eaten in India, in Wallis and human activity. [L is much above all in Samoa where > rarpr in the south than in they are sold in markets. ""o the north. It is a naturalised Finally in Tonga children I Z tree that is neither main- nibble them raw. W > Z -' cO: u z cO: I o '"o z :J: I W other uses as a dye, and all parts of the The shiny red seeds of the plant (seeds, roots, leaves, red bead tree are used bark) are used in traditional everywhere for making medicine (The Wealth of necklaces and bracelets India, 1985). that are nowadays sold to tourists. other edible species In Guam, in southern India The genus Adenanthera, and in Sri Lanka the seeds distributed from southern are also used as weights, China to the Indo-Malayan being very uniform in size Region and Australia, and weight (0.26 g). comprises 12 species. A. pauonina is the most The timber is used for widely distributed species, making paddles and for and is the only one that above-ground frameworks is eaten. of houses. It is used for making artisanal objects such as kava bowls (Tonga), References or when cut into boards for Backer & Bakhuizen van carved furniture (Wallis). den Brincke (1963), Cooper The red wood is sometimes & Cooper (1994), Corner (1988), Dupuy & Guiot used as a substitute for red sandalwood (Pterocarpus (1992), Nielsen (1983), sanlalinus), which doubtless Parham (1972), Peekel (1984), Smith (1985), Stone accounts for its English name of red sandalwood (1970), The Wealth of India (1985), Whistler (1991), tree. In India it is used Yuncker (1971). cc Z Euphorbfaceae • • Candlenut CIUldlebeny tree La noix de Bancoul (bancouliet) • •• Two to three kernels at the most. • Cauaee nausea and vomitillg if conaum.ption is more than two to three kernels. ~ reduesOl' elimjna1ieB the toxic effect. Description Morphological variability The size of the nut contained lTee of variable height according within the fruit varies from to region (10-35 m). Leaves simple, one region to another, and alternate, furnished with a fine whitish covering that gives the may reach up to 4 cm in foliage a pale green appearance; diameter. A variety of oval or trilobate (8-22 x 3-10 cm), Aleurites moluccana is base cordate; petiole 5-16 cm found in Vanuatu (Maewo), long. Flowers numerous, grouped introduced from Solomon in terminal bunches, greenish, Islands, of which many small in size. Fruits green, then seeds can be eaten without chestnut-brown at maturity, any problem. It is therefore rounded (3-7 cm In diameterl; likely that several varieties peduncle less than 1 cm; of candlenut occur that are containing one to two rounded toxic to greater or lesser nuts (2 cm In diameterl, slightly extents. Montrouzier flattened, furnished with grooves (quoted by MacKee, 1994) and very hard; the nut encloses distinguished three > an oily, white, rounded kernel. o"" varieties, two of which I Z contained a purgative oil w > and one of which had seeds Z that were edible and non cz: toxic. According to Brown u z cz: l Q ID Q z :J: I W Aleurites moluccana: species present from India to the Marquesas Islands and from Guam to Australia. Wild in southern India, naturalised in the remaining countries. Undoubtedly introduced in very early times to Pakistan, China , north·eastern Australia, the Philippines, Malaysia, and all the islands from Sumatra to Tonga, including New Caledonia to where some authors believe that it could have been indigenous. Introduced by aboriginal peoples to the Society Islands, the Marquesas and Hawaii, and then by Europeans to Guam (from the Caroline Islands), to East Africa and more recently to America. (1935), the inhabitants of altitude (Bourke, personal Hivaoa and Fatuhiva also communication); in Fiji it is distinguish two forms of found from sea level to 825 m candlenut tree according altitude. The species is to the shape of the leaf. abundant and cultivated Finally, Cooper & Cooper in the Indo-Malayan Region, (1994) described the in Polynesia and in Hawaii. occurrence in Australia In the Pacific islands the (Queensland) of two culture of this species was varieties of candlenut: more important in earlier A. moluccana var. moluccana times than nowadays, and A. moluccana var. and it is more important rockinghamensis. The latter in Polynesia and in Hawaii variety is distinguished by than in Melanesia. In Fiji the presence of 3 to 4 nuts it is not found in forests, in the fruit. Both varieties but occurs close to villages are toxic, but a small number or at sites of ancient of nuts may be eaten after settlement; in Samoa it being- grilled. is not common except at particular spots; in Tonga EcolOgy and exploitation it is common; in New Present in all the itl\ands Caledonia it is protected or ofVanuatu, the species is planted; in Gua m it is rare. quite common. It grows spontaneously from sea Alimentary uses level to 200 m altitude, The seeds may be eaten on calcareous soil or damp raw in very small quantities ground. The tree is not (2-3 seeds). More than that planted because tleed causes nausea, and even g-ermination is poor, but vomiting and abdominal seedlings are protected. pains. The seeds may be The flowering and fruiting roasted, which renders seasons are difficult to define them letl::; toxic. In Vanuatu, precisely. In Papua New consumption of these toxic C( Guinea the species is found seeds is infrequent. In Java, z <[ from 0-1,800 (2,160) m on the other hand, they are w u ...o o V> t- Nut Burnt to produce soot tapa Samoa tattoos Samoa- Marquesas Malaysia Soot mixed with bark Tonga Internal bark JuiCe pressed from bark tapa Austral Is - Cook Is, Ibrown-red) Marquesas nets HawaII Seeds Ground and made Into tapa Wallls anink Roots Ground and made Into tapa FIJI a brown dye dyestuff Java Table 1, Different methods of preparing colouring agents from parts of candlenut tree crushed and made into The oil extracted from the a sauce to accompany seeds was used in Fiji for vegetable and rice dishes. polishing wood, in Tonga for Likewise they are used as making paints and varnish a condiment in Hawaii and then used for tapa cloths, in Malaysia, after being and in the Philippines for roasted, crushed and mixed making soap, and paints for with salt and chilli. These boats and artisanal objects. seeds have a delicious This oil is extracted in large flavour, but need to be quantities in the Philippines eaten with caution. and in China. Fijians use the oil as a cosmetic for the other uses hair and skin. Similar usage This species is greatly is found in Tonga, where the utilised in many regions, crushed nuts also provide a though not much in Vanuatu. substitute for soap, and in In earlier times the nuts Wallis where the crushed were threaded on to the seeds are used for softening midrib of a coconut palm leaf and scenting the hair. and lit. They burned slowly Medicinal uses are numerous one after another, producing throughout the area where a feeble light. This usage, this species is found. In Fiji, which has nowadays largely for example, an infusion of disappeared, was well known leaves or bark is used to in many regions where the treat mouth ulcers, crushed species was found, and gave seeds to treat skin lesions the popular name of and wounds, an infusion of candlenut to the plant. bark to treat fevers and diarrhoea (O'Rourke, 1995). A brown or black dye may be The fruit also plays an obtained from the fruits, the important role during bark or the roots. It is mainly childbirth (Seemann, 1862): used for producing designs on it is placed in the mouth of > materials and on beaten bark the newborn child so that (tapa cloth), but may also be '"o the juice cleans the throat of ...z used to colour fishing nets the child and helps it to cry. w and tattoos or as a cosmetic > The seeds are laxative, the Z (Table It ..... fruit is an expectorant, and c u Z C ...o m o z :x:.... w the leaves, bark and roots regions including Hawaii; are used in many medicinal produces an oil called tung preparations. oil; in Fiji cultivated at The wood is used in Rapa experimental stations; and the Austral Islands montana (Lour.) Wils.: for making canoes. Indochina and south-east In Hawaii the shell of China, known by the name the nut, which may be abrasin; produces an oil attractively polished, is identical to tung oil; used for making necklaces cultivated in Fiji at and jewellery (Neal, 1965). experimental stations; In the past the nuts were recently introduced to also first pierced and Hawaii and in many subsequently buried in taro tropical regions where pits (Brown, 1935). The seed it is cultivated; rotted, and the shell then trisperma Blanco.: acquired an attractive black indigenous to the colour. Some of them were Philippines; recently then carved. introduced to Hawaii. Other edible species References The genus comprises six Brand Miller et al. (1993), species present in Asia and Brown (1935, 1954), Burkill the Pacific. No other species (1966), Christophersen of Aleurites appears to be (1971), Cooper & Cooper edible. However, four of (1994), Corner (1988), the species produce an oil Dignan et al. (1994), Dupuy that is used in paints and & Guiot (1992), Hemsley varnish or for burning in (1894), MacKee (1994), lamps: Neal (1965), O'Rourke cordata (Thunb.) R. Br. (1995), Parham (1972), Ex. Steud.: Japan, recently Seemann (1862), Smith introduced to Hawaii and (1981), St John (1960), New Caledonia; Stone (1970), The Wealth of India (1985), Whistler fordii Hems!.: indigenous to (1984b), Wichman & St central and western China, John (1990), Wilder (1934), cultivated in many tropical Yuncker (1971). cC z cC w (,.) o u. o Description a small spiny point in the centre of the hexagon; pulp more or Tree of medium height (15-20 m), less dry, in colour cream to dark with a straight trunk, smooth yellow; seeds chestnut brown and massive, the diameter of and more or less abundant which may exceed 1 m. Leaves except absent In aspermic Simple, dark green and glossy on (seedless) varieties. their upper surface, light green and matt on the underside; large MOrphological variability (20-60 x 20-40 cm); base pointed Breadfruit is a species that or rounded; margins entire, or shows great diversity in deeply divided Into 6-9 lobes; Vanuatu, mainly in the petiole massive, less than 5 cm north of the archipelago. long. Flowers grouped in a male Each community recognises inflorescence (elongate and different cultivars according pendant) or a female inflor- escence (green, spherical or to the size of the tree, the oblong), the two present at shape of the leaves (more the same time on a single tree. or less divided), the size Fruits (syncarps) formed from or the shape of the fruit, the whole female inflorescence, the presence or absence pale yellow to yellow-orange in of spines on the epidermis >- colour, round, oval or oblong and its colour, the texture, '"Q I- and variable In size; outer colour and taste of the flesh, z w skin marked with hexagonal the numbers of seeds, or the > patternlng that Is more or less fruiting season of the tree_ z flattened, and with or without Some cultivars produce fruits « u z « l- We present here mainly Q 12 Breadfruit has been well Dl reported in the literature, observations made in vanuatu, Q because of a lack of information z to whic h we refer our readers :J: for more information_ available from other sources I- See in particular Ragone for that country. (1998,1991,1997>. Above: Artocarpus altilis: type with round fruits Below: Artocarpus altilis: type with ovoid fruits that can be kept for a long Ecology and exploitation time; others bear fruit for In Vanuatu the tree grows a longer period of the year. abundantly up to 600 m The number of different altitude. The adult tree morphological types likes the sun and is found recognised by horticulturists mainly in open spaces, ranges from 10 to 120. villages, gardens and the However, it is certain that edges offootpaths. It may identical cultivars are found be found in secondary forest, on more than one island, where it usually then and a genetic study will indicates a site of earlier br essential for classifying settlement. It is a cultivated them. Whatever the tree. Breadfruits in Vanuatu situation, Vanuatu appears always contain seeds, of to be an important centre varying numbers. There of diversity for breadfruit, exist some fruits, very rare, and a key locality in the that are considered seedless, domestication ofthis species. though they do in fact Seeded forms predominate contain some seeds. in Melanesia (New Guinea, Multiplication is by planting Solomon Islands and of fresh, ripe seeds, or Vanuatu), while seedless vegetatively by transplanting forms predominate in of suckers. Fruiting occurs Polynesia where the tree between December and is therefore propagated February, followed some by suckers. times by a further small production offruits in June to August. Some cultivars fruit out of season. In Papua New Guinea the species it; et typically found from 0-1, Z ...et 250 m altitude, but has <..) o... o ....'" Artocarpus altilis: the centre of origin of breadfruit, long thought to have been Polynesia, is probably in fact New Guinea. In the pre·European times the species was spread by human activity from New Guinea to the Society Islands, Hawaii and the Marianas, via all the islands of the Pacific. It was introduced to the Philippines in ancient times from Guam IRagone, 19911. Since then breadfruit has been introduced throughout the tropical world . been found up to 1,450 m or boiled. They are nibbled (Bourke, personal after being removed from communication). Among fruits that have previously the Ankave ofPapua ::-..Tew been cooked. Young leaves Guinea, fruiting occurs that have not yet unrolled in the month of June'. are also eaten, cooked by steaming. Pigs are fond Alimentary uses of the uncooked fruits. In In Vanuatu breadfruit is earlier times breadfruits cultivated for its fruits, were preserved all over which are' cooked in various Vanuatu by fermentation. ways. They may be grilled, ::-..T umerous techniques braised in an oven, some for preservation existed, times cut up and boiled, sometimes in pits dug and often grated and cooked out in the ground, some in a lap-lap. The mode of times in natural hollows cooking of each cultivar is in coralline rock. These according to the texture of methods of preserva tion its flesh. A fruit with softer, have tended to be lost, more flexible flesh lends though they are still itself well to being made practised by several into nalots, small balls of communities in Vanuatu, paste cooked in coconut such as those of the Banks milk; a large fruit with firm Islands, Pentecost, Malo, flesh is better roasted in Ambrym and Emae. In its skin and then cut into New Guinea it is the pieces. Further, some seeds of breadfruit that cultivars are eaten in the are eaten, generally morning, while others that grilled, by the Ankave. can be cooked quickly are kept for unexpected visitors. Other uses In fact the methods of In Vanuatu the sap of cooking and preparation breadfruit is used as bird > of breadfruit are very lime for trapping birds, for D"" I numerous, and form part covering damage to yams Z W of the local gastronomy. caused during their harvest > The seeds are sometimes ing, and for caulking the Z eaten separately, grilled timbers of canoes. The wood C( u z C( l D III D z :J: I- is used as firewood or as intestinal disorders, fever timber for craft work. It is and general aches and also used for making canoes, stiffness. The ash of burnt oars and outriggers. In Tonga leaves is mixed with coconut the bark of small branches oil, and the resulting paste was formerly used for making is applied to burns. In Wallis tapa cloth. Nowadays two the timber is used to make varieties (of the nine present cross-beams of houses and in the country) are used in poles of canoes. The sap is traditional medicine. An used for caulking canoes. infusion of leaves or bark is used to treai mouth References infections in children, Barrau (1957), Dignan et al. abdominal and stomach (1994), Dupuy & Guiot disorders, and skin (1992), Purseglove (1991), inflammations. A decoction Ragone (1988, 1991, 1997), of the bark is used to treat WaIter (1989). Cl: Z ....Cl: U o lOo o Description Tree of medium height (8-20 m), crown not very dense. Leaves simple, joined in rosettes at the ends of branches, shiny green, long and oboval (25-71 x 8-25 cm), thick and lightly undulate; petiole thick, less than 5 cm long. Flowers spirally arranged on a pendulous rachis (50-100 cm); calyx green or crimson, divided into 3-4 sepals, persistent; flower buds with an apical pore 2-4 mm in diameter; Barringtonia edulis. 4 cream or rose-coloured petals; numerous yellow or cream Morphological variability stamens, sometimes rosy at their In Vanuatu several forms tips; central style longer than of Barringtonia edulis occur, the stamens, persistent. Fruits according to the colour, size grouped along the rachis, red and shape of the fruit. Each or green, ovoid or elongate community possesses its (8 x 5 cm on average); sessile own collection of cut nut > or pedunculate; containing trees, and each morphotype '"Q one white kernel (2.5 x 1.5-3 cm!. I has its own particular Z W name_Future research > Z will be able to define the varieties that occur '"'u z l-'"' Q Dl Q z ::t: I- (j. HawSI 0 t" Kiribati • Marquise s· ••• ",,~a c oo:~.i· · T:a.. ~~::;.~ ~ Australes Barringtonia edulis: Solomon Islands, vanuatu , Fiji (but not Santa Cruzl. Introduced to New Guinea (Madang regionl. among these numerous 1'(pe Frequency morphotypes. One may RRWW Rare distinguish: RGWW Frequent • trees with red foliage, RGWR Exceptional quite rare (the foliage RGRW Rare of the cut nut tree is GRWW Exceptional usually dark green). GGWW Frequent These trees have GGRR Exceptional inflorescences that are entirely red - calyx and Table 2. Different types of Barringtonia eduli5 according to fruit colour petals - and red fruits; Key: • trees with very elongate R = red: W = white: G = green 1st letter = colour of epidermis fruits (7-11 cm long), and 2nd letter = colour of epicarp others with fruits that 3rd letter = colour of mesocarp are almost round, while 4th letter = colour of endocarp the majority havE' ovoid fruits; quite like those found in • trees with red fruits and Fiji, while in the north of trees with green fruits. Vanuatu one finds very The epidermis of the fruit elongate fruits, like those is red or green; the other found in Solomon Islands. parts (epicarp, mesocarp, endocarp) are mmally Ecology and exploitation beige or white, but may In Vanuatu B. edulis grows be red in certain cultivars. in all the islands, up to 600 m The combinations of altitude. The species is these colours have led found in a cultivated state to definition of several in villages, gardens and types (Table 2); along tracks and roads. In secondary forests the species • trees in which the shell generally indicates the sites of the fruit is flexible of former settlements. The and easy to break, while forests ofTanna and Efate typical trees have fruits contain many spontaneously with a very hard germinated trees, but it is mesocarp. difficult to be sure that Besides these, in the south they are really wild trees. of the archipelago B. edulis Cultivated for centuries, the z cz: generally has ovoid fruits, tree does germinate in the w u o LL o .,. .... wild from fruits dropped eaten raw, grilled or boiled. on the ground or spread by Sometimes they may be flying foxes. Such trees are crumbled into lap-lap. The less frequent in the north kernels, slightly dried, are of the archipelago. Humans sometimes threaded on the transplant young saplings, midrib of a coconut palm leaf or plant whole ripe fruits and then given to children directly into the ground close or sold in markets. In Gaua, to dwellings. The species is the cut nuts are peeled, carefully protected, and the bound up in a piece of the best varieties and also the bark of bourao (Hibiscus rare ones are selected. In tiliaceus), then smoked and Maewo, some horticulturists kept for several months over practise marcottingl3 of the hearth. Unsmoked, the B. edulis, with greater or kernels last at most for one lesser success, for propa or two weeks. gation of interesting forms. Flowering occurs several Other uses times per year, even Fallen branches or felled continuously, with the trees are used as firewood. flowering period varying The wood is of poor quality according to island and and is not used for manu individual tree. The fruits facturing purposes. In reach maturity during the traditional medicine the two months after flowering. leaves are used for treatment The period of availability of inflammation of the ear, of the fruits extends over the sap extracted from the several months in any bark for ciguatera poisoning, particular region, and over for coughs and for urinary the entire year throughout infections; the form with red the length of the archipelago. leaves is used for abortions Production varies greatly or as a contraceptive. from tree to tree. The flowers are fragile, and on certain Other edible species trees fall before fruiting. According to Payens (1967) Other trees with shorter the genus comprises 39 inflorescences may be more species. In the Pacific the productive. One note: this following species have tree flowers again and fruits edible kernels: very quickly after cyclones. B. novae-hiberniae Laut. Outside Vanuatu the species (cf. p. 114); is cultivated in Solomon Islands (from seeds, or B. procera (Miers) Knuth sometimes from cuttings); it (cf. p. 117); occurs wild, or occasionally B. seaturae Guppy: wild cultivated or semi-cultivated, species endemic to Fiji. in Fiji. References > Alimentary uses Evans (1991), Jebb & Wise tII: o Throughout the area of (1992), Payens (1967), I distribution of this species, Smith (1981). ...z: > the kernels of B. edulis are z: ..... <0: u z: <0: I the soil is bound to the branch o 13 A procedure for vegetative ... multiplication of plants in surface with plastic), and the o branch roots into the soil z: which part of a branch of the :J: before being detached from ... plant (usually a tree) is put W into contact with soli (often the parent plant. .. /~ ~ Barrlngtonla novae-hlbemlae Lauterbach Lecyt:hlclaceae • • Cut nut La velle (veUier) navele • Regular and abuDdant. Kernels. None. Description Small tree /7-15 m), open crown, denser than that of Barringtonia edulis. Leaves simple, jOined in loose rosettes at ends of branches, glossy green, oboval /23 -58 x 8-23 cm), flexible and flat, veins green or crimson, petiole slender, 2- 7 cm long. Flowers set spirally on a terminal or lateral, pendulous rachis, which is fairly short /25-76 cm long); calyx green or crimson, entire /sometimes divided) and annular, persistent, flower buds with a large, upper apical pore up to 4 mm in size; Barringtonia novae·hiberniae 4 pale green or cream petals, numerous stamens yellow tinged Morphological variability with rose; style persistent. Fruits The variability of this species arranged close together on the is less marked than that rachis , red or green, circular of B. edulis. Nevertheless or ovoid /4.2-6.7 x 5.2-9.0 cm) ; several types may be distin pedunculate; containing one guished, each with its own ..z white kernel /2-5 x 1.3-3.5 cm!. name in the local language. u o u.. o Barringtonia novae-hiberniae: New Guinea (north-east coast), Bismarck Archipelago, Solomon Islands, Santa Cruz, Vanuatu. In particular there are: Solomon Islands the fruits • trees with red foliage, are distinctly oblong and varying from dull red to elongate (8 x 4.2 cm on deep violet (the foliage average). of this species is usually Besides these, one cultivar glossy green) of B. novae-hiberniae found • trees with green fruits or in Ambrym produces fruits with red fruits. As with whose consumption induces B. edulis, several types a certain degree of dizziness may be distinguished like intoxication. These are according to the com therefore only eaten in small bination of colours of quantities. Yen (1974) different parts of the likewise noted that fruit (Table 3). consumption of seeds of B. novae-hiberniae in the • trees with very small Santa Cruz Islands led to fruits (4 cm in diameter) mild headaches in certain • trees with fruits whose people_ In this regard it shell is soft and easy to is noteworthy that certain break. species of Barringtonia n.re toxic, for example In Vanuatu B. novae B. asiatica (L.) Kurz, which hiberniae has fruits that is used as a fish poison. are relatively homogeneous, ovoid or circular, while in Ecology and exploitation In Vanuatu B. novae Type Frequency hiberniae grows from sea RRWW Rare level to 600 m altitude. RGWW Frequent It is found particularly in villages, in garden areas, in GGWW Frequent forests modified by humans, GGRW Rare and even in dense forest. Table 3. Different types of Barringtonia Abundant in the islands novae-hlberniae according to fruit colour ofEpi and Emae, it is Key: also present in Ambrym, > R =red; W = white; G =green Pentecost, Maewo and o'" 1st letter = colour of epidermis I more rarely in Efate. No Z 2nd letter = colour of epicarp W 3rd letter = colour of mesocarp specimen has ever been > Z 4th letter = colour of endocarp found in Erromango or cc u z cc I o '"o Z ::t: I- Tanna. This is a cultivated Islands from sea level to species, but wild-germinated 90 m altitude. Forest forms, plants are often found in probably wild, have been forests, spread by flying seen in the Santa Cruz foxes. Wild forms do exist, Islands (Ndeni), in Solomon but it is difficult to Islands and in New Guinea. distinguish them from wild The species is likewise germinated domesticated cultivated in these three plants. The tree is tolerant regions. In Solomon Islands of shade. Flowering tends and in the Santa Cruz to be continuous, fruiting Islands the species flowers following two months two to three times per year. after formation of flowers. Fruits are thus available Uses throughout the year. Identical to those of The fruits are generally B. edulis (er. p. 111). tightly packed on the infrutescence and the tree Other edible species is very productive. As with See B. edulis (p. 111). other Barringtonia with edible fruits, this species References fruits quickly after cyclones. Evans (1991), Jebb & Wise In New Guinea the species (1992), Payens (1967), grows from sea level to Peekel (1984), Smith 700 m altitude, in Solomon (1981), Yen (1974). c z c w U o LL o '"...... :::> u. !r:1IIII ~ Description Tree of medium height (8-20 m), trunk slender and thin, branching very little, crown narrow and very loose. Leaves simple, joined in rosettes at the ends of branches, shiny green, lanceolate and narrowing in the lower third (35-70 x 12-24 cm), coriaceous; margins undulate; petiole thick, less than 1 cm long or absent. Flowers set spirally on a long, pendulous rachis (42 -130 cm long); calyx green or red, divided into 2-3 lobes, perSistent; flower buds with an apical pore less than 2 mm in diameter; 4 yellow or cream Barringtonia procera petals; numerous yellow stamens; style central and longer than Morphological variability the stamens. Fruits red or The fruits of Barringtonia green, elongate or pear-shaped procera vary in size, shape > (5-13 x 3-6 cm), sessile; containing and colour. Thus in Vanuatu o'" one white kernel (2-6 x 2-4 cm). I may be found: Z W > Z ..: u z ..: I o '"o Z :J: I- • dwarf trees, the height Ecology and exploitation of which does not exceed In Vanuatu the species is 2 m. These trees are quite found mainly in villages rare, but are found in and in gardens, at low most islands ofVanuatu. altitudes. It is always They bear very poorly. cultivated, does not tolerate Improvement of their shade well, requires much productivity would care, and is rarely found as produce orchards with wild-germinated specimens. trees of reduced height, It is more frequent from the easy to harvest; Torres Islands to Pentecost and Malekula, but is still • trees with cylindrical fruits, 8 cm or longer well represented as far as (most fruits of this Efate. It is likewise present species are less than in Futuna, but has not been 8 cm), present in the recorded from Tanna or north ofVanuatu; Erromango where it is without doubt very rare. • trees with green fruits Flowering and fruiting or red fruits (Table 4). occur once per year, usually in the wet season from September to March. The RRRR number of trees that fruit RGWR in the off-season seems RGRW quite high. The trees are RGRR not very productive, being GGWW Frequent not much branched, slender and and bearing few GGWR infrutescences. Nevertheless, GGRR their fruits and their kernels Table 4. Different types Of Barrlngtonla are usually larger than procera according to fruit colour those of other edible Key: R = red; W white; G = green Barringtonia species. In 1st letter colour of epidermis Papua New Guinea it is 2nd letter", colour Of epicarp found from 0-500 (600) m 3rd letter", colour of mesocarP 4th letter colour of endocarP altitude (Bourke, personal communication). It is a species that is always In Vanuatu (Emae) a single cultivated, and no wild specimen is known that has specimens are known. on the same tree, though In Solomon Islands it not in the same infrut flowers twice to three escence, both green fruits times per year. and red fruits; In its entire area of distri • trees with a soft mesocarp bution, B. procera thus which is easy to cut. appears to be a cultivated In general B. procera in species, of which no wild Vanuatu has fruits that form is known. are longer and more cylindrical than those in Solomon Islands. cc z: cc w u ...o o V>..... :::> IX u. ... Haw ~1I 0 ":~. ~8rqUises·.,. ~ .. ' Cook >. T uamotu.. · '~:'; Barringtonia procera: Solomon Islands, Santa Cruz, vanuatu . possibly introduced to the Bismarck Archipelago and certainly to New Guinea Inorth·east_c_oa_s_tl_. ______ Uses References The same as those of Evans (1991), J ebb & B. edulis (er. p. 111). Wise (1992), Payens (1967), Smith (1981). Other edible species See B. edulis (p . 111). > '"D I Z W > Z c:r: u z c:r: l D '"D Z ::J: I- • La poire-tortue (pOirier-tortue) • • Localised in Futuna; abundant in season. Pulpy flesh . • None. Description Morphological variability In the various local Tree of medium height (10-20 m), languages there are no trunk straight and massive; crown tall and dense. Leaves simple, special names to distinguish alternate, oboval or oblanceolate different typeR of this tree; (14-25 x 6-10 cm), apex rounded, however, the species appears base narrow; 9-13 pairs of leaf to be very variable in size veins, petiole 3-4 cm long. Flowers and taste ofthe fruits and arranged 20 to 30 in a terminal their degree of sweetness; bunch; calyx green with 4 sepals also in the seed, which (2 internal and 2 externail, of large varies in the degree size (1 x 1 cm), with a brown, of indenta bon of the downy covering, persistent; m argin, and in the ventral 8 light green petals, lanceolate; protuberances which may 30-32 stamens. Fruits situated at vary in number and how the ends of branches, brown in pronounced they are. colour when ripe; pear-shaped and slightly concave (8 x 6 cm); Ecology and exploitation peduncle thick and 3 cm long; In Vanuatu this species is style persistent; fruit with abundant latex; 1-2 bulky, strictly localised to the island flattened seeds (6 x 5 x 3 cm), of Futuna, where it is very the dorsal part light brown and abundant from sea level glossy, the ventral part pale beige to 200 m altitude. Large and matt; margins irregular and plantations exist in the furnished with protuberances. vicinity of Mission Bay. The species is cultivated, but numerous self-germinated plants are also found. It was « probably introduced from Fiji z by the people of Futuna who « w came from the islands of the u o LL o I-'" central Pacific. The tree i~ very localised, and several local sources ofinfonnation indicated that when the plant is transferred to other islands it does not bear fruit. It is propagated using very ripe fruits, seeds or cuttings of the branches. Propagation by cuttings is, however, difficult to achieve. The tree is robust, coping with shade as well as full sun, and dryness as well as humidity. However, it is susceptible to cold. The fruits Burckella fijiensis reach maturity between October and December. In .F'iji the species grows from sea level to 825 m altitude. It is the most common Burckella in Fiji. Seeds of Burckella fijiensis. Illustration by F. Yorlngmal > Burckella fijiensis: Fiji. Aboriginal introduction to Vanuatu (Futuna and probably Aneityuml. '" ....o z w > Z cc u z ....cc o a> o z ....:J: Alimentary uses Maluku and Papua New The fruit of Burckella Guinea to Fiji, Samoa and fijiensis is edible and is Tongal, which others in eaten abundantly when in earlier times identified season. A ripe fruit can be as Chelonespermum. Only distinguished by its soft B. obovata and B. sorei were and fragrant pulp, and by mentioned as having edible its dark brown seed. The fruits: delicious flesh, which has B. obovata (G. Forster) a distinct and delicate taste, Pierre (cf. p. 123) is eaten fresh or roasted. Curiously, the edible nature B. sorei van Royen: species of this fruit has not been endemic to Solomon Islands noted in the Floras of Fiji (Guadalcanal, Malaita and (Smith, 1981; Parham, 1972). Santa Ysabel). Closely related to B. obovata, it Other uses can be distinguished by The wood is used for making the smaller leaves and the frameworks of houses flowers. Its edible nature in Vanuatu and Fiji. The is noted on sample BSIP leaves are medicinal. 2477 from Santa Ysabel. We also note two other other edible species species the fruits of In 1892 Hemsley mentioned which may be edible: for the first time the exist B. richii (A. Gray) Lam: ence of seeds collected in present in Tonga, more Fiji and Solomon Islands the rarely in Fiji, and in the shape of which resembled cultivated state in Samoa the shell of a small turtle. He where it is very rare. It is caIled these Chelonespermum, caIled kau in Tonga and and put them in a specific au in Samoa. No name classification. Later other has been noted for Fiji authors described as new (ef. also Cassidispermum the species that had already megahilum Hemsley, p. 127) been identified by Hemsley, to which they also added B. thurstonii (Hemsley) new species (van Royen, Lam: species endemic 1959; Whitmore, 1966; to Fiji, closely related to Parham, 1972). Smith (1981), B. fijiensis from which it and later Pennington (1991), may be distinguished by its incorporated the genus pilose corolla and its greater Chelonespermum into number (40) of stamens. Burckella, and made C. fijiensis Hemsley a References synonym of other described Gillespie (1930), Hemsley species. Those authors never (1892), Lam (1942), Lam & indicated the edible nature van Royen (1952), Parham of the fruits. Pennington (1972), Pennington (1991), (1991) then distinguished Smith (1981), van Royen 14 species of Burckella in (1959), Whitmore (1966), the western Pacific (from Yuncker (1971). c z cs: w u Cl... Cl ...'" => ....'" .,~: .. \ ~ - Burck· ella obovata (0. Forster) Pierre sapotaceae • • Burckella Bukbuk La doule (doulier) naduledule • •• Regular but not abundant. Pulpy flesh . • None. Description Morphological variability Two main types of this Tree of medium height 115-20 m) Rurchella fruit are found in in Vanuatu and tall 115-30 m) in Papua New Guinea; trunk straight Vanuatu - the elongate and and massive; crown dense_ the rounded, of which the Leaves simple, mid-green, oval latter may sometimes be 110-30 x 4-11 cm), apex rounded very large. The former are and slightly acuminate, narrowed commoner than the latter, at the base; 10-18 pairs of veins; and have the reputation of petiole 2-4 cm long. Flowers being sweeter. The rounded numerous 130-40) arranged in form may be further sub a terminal cluster; calyx green, divided into smooth fruits with 4 sepals 12 internal and and crenate (wrinkled) 2 external) that are small in size fruits, the former ofthese 10.2-0.4 cm), glabrous, persistent; always being cultivated. 8 white or cream petals joined The taste of the fruits at their bases 10.8-1.2 cm); 12-13 varies from tree to tree, stamens. Fruits green, rounded and villagers select and 15-12 x 4.5-9 cm) or elongate transplant those with sweet 18-14 x 4.6-7 cm), bearing fruits and juicy flesh. Inside > 5 longitudinal grooves. both types oflarge fruit, the '"o I elongate and the round, the Z W morphology of the different > parts is likewise variable. Z C( u z C( I o o'" z :z: t- Although it is not intensively cultivated in Vanuatu, this Burchella shows very great morpho logical variability. Yen (1974) distinguished three forms of the fruit in the Santa Cruz Islands, with elongate, round or cylindrical fruits. Ecology and exploitation In Vanuatu this Burchella is found in damp forests in zones of less than 300 m altitude. The species is wild but maintained by the villagers who know the locations of many of the trees. They may occasionally be replanted nearer to a village, using a seed from a very ripe Above fruit or one that has Burckella obovata: type vlith round. already germinated. It crenate fruits is particularly abundant Middle Burckella obovata: type with round. on Tanna and the Torres non·crenate fruits Islands. The species is Below er mainly spread by flying Burckella obovata: type with elongate fruits z er w u o u. o V> I- (j. ~8rqu;ses · .. ,. F ;;( .~~ · i ~.~m:·o'~";O\T: ;~~:: ; Tonga AU51rale s Burckella obovata: Maluku. Aru Islands, New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. Introduced to Fiji where it is rare and always in the cultivated state. foxes, which eat the flesh season. But they are of very ripe fruits and mainly a food of secondary thereby compete with importance, generally humans for this fruit. eaten away from the village. Flowering occurs between However, in Tanna where September and November the species is abundant, the and the fruits reach fruits are brought back to maturity at the ;;tart of the villages when in season the year (February to May). and are sometimes sold in Production is very variable the local markets. This forest from one tree to another. fruit is only sold very rarely In Papua New Guinea the in the markets of Port Vila. species grows up to 390 m Burckella fruits are likewise altitude (Bourke, personal eaten in New Guinea, in communication). It is wild, Mussau, in the Bismarck but sometimes planted in Archipelago, in Guadalcanal, villages. It is also cultivated in the Reef Islands, in in Southeast Asia, and in Malaita, in the Santa Cruz the coastal regions of the islands, in Anuta and in Santa Cruz Islands. In Tikopia. In the last two Solomon Islands the species of these islands, the fruits is not cultivated outside are conserved through Guadalcanal and Malaita. fermentation (Kirch & Yen, 1982) in pits identical to Alimentary uses those used for conservation Burckella fruits, together of breadfruit. In Solomon with the golden apple, are Islands the Burckella fruits the largest edible native are generally smaller and fruits ofVanuatu. They are have a bitter taste, so they harvested before maturity are rarely eaten except in (to beat the fruit bats) by the islands listed above. picking them directly from As in Vanuatu, the edible the tree, and then laying fruits are collected just them in baskets where before maturity and laid they ripen within a few in baskets to finish ripening > days. They are eaten raw (Henderson & Hancock, D< D between meals, occasionally 1989). In the ReefIslands I Z while walking in the forest the fruits are also eaten after w :> or more regularly when in being cooked in an oven. z z er l D '"D Z ::r:: I- other uses that communities on Santa In Vanuatu the wood is used Anna used the leaves of for making frameworks of Burckella for rendering houses, the cross-beams of their earth ovens water canoes, and paddles. The tight. For this reason the latex is used for "setting" or is much sought fixing the colour and design The flesh of the fruit of tattoos. Juice extracted produces a dye for certain from the grated bark is used communities ofPapua for treatment of asthma and New Guinea. for promoting the lactation of sows. In Hiu for treatment other edible species of sick people the leaves are See Burckella fijiensis crushed and then heated; (p.120). the person applying the treatment then puts the References leaf mixture in their mouth Foreman (1971), Henderson and spits it forcibly on to & Hancock (1989), Kirch the body of the patient. In & Yen (1982), Lam (1942), Solomon Islands the wood Lam & van Royen (1952), provides a good timber for Peekel (1984), Pennington all sorts of constructional (1991), Powell (1976), Smith work and for making of (1981), Whitmore (1966), canoes. Henderson & Yen (1974). Hancock (1989) recorded c :z c ....w o u. o .- Burckella sp. fcasslCllSpermum megahllum HemSley) 5apotaceae • Localised in the region ofLawa on Malekula. Pulpy flesh . • None. Description Tree of medium height (15-20 m); massive trunk; crown rounded. Leaves simple, grouped at the ends of branches, medium green above and light green below, oboval to oblong (10-14 x 3.6-5. 4 cm), apex rounded and slightly emarginate, base narrowing to a point; margins slightly undulate; 10-12 pairs of fine yellow veins; petiole slender and 2 cm long. Flowers not seen. Fruits yellow-green at maturity, shining, spherical (5 cm in diameter), epidermis smooth and glossy, covered with numerous vertical grooves; peduncle 3 cm long; calyx with Burckella sp. 4 sepals (2 internal and 2 external), small in size (0.3 x 0.5 cm); bulky seed (4 x 3 x 2.5 cm), the dorsal part dark brown and shiny, furnished with a slight median longitudinal ridge, the ventral part furnished with numerous hard spines and protuberances Seeds of Burckella sp. Illustration by (Herbarium specimen CSV10261. F. Yoringma l > Q'" I Z w :> z cc u z cc l Q '"Q z :J: I- Geographical distribution Alimentary uses Observed in Vanuatu The fruits are eaten (region of South-West Bay regularly when in season. in Malekula), but probably Cooked according to need, also occurring elsewhere they are baked on embers in the Pacific. Further slightly before or just as collections are needed, since they reach maturity. On the the material at our disposal other hand when fully ripe does not permit a more exact the fruits may be eaten raw definition of the species. between meals, most often at the foot of the tree from Ecology and exploitation which they came. This tree, common locally, grows at the sea's edge. It is Other uses wild, protected by humans The wood, of good timber and spread by fruit bats that quality, is used for feed on the flesh of the fruits. constructional carpentry. The production offruits is important, distinctly more Other edible species so than that of Burckella See Burckella {ijiensis obovata. This seems to be (p. 120). a species heading towards extinction, and the good References quality of its edible fruits Hemsley (1892), justifies rapid preservation van Royen (1959). of the germplasm. It is a species with very narrow distribution, since it is known only from a single village in Vanuatu. '"z '"w u o u. o \. .- Canarlum harvevl Seemann Burseraceae • • Canarium nut Pili nut La nangaille (nangailler) Noix de Kanari (noyer de Kanari) nangal Regular and abundant. Kernels . • None. Description at maturity, ovoid (3-6 x 2-4 cm) , slightly flattened on one side; Tree slightly smaller than the nut has 3 chambers of which Canarium indicum (15-20 m); two may contain a white Kernel trunK massive and straight; covered with a thick brown skin crown large, less dense than or membrane. that of C. indicum Leaves made up of 3-4 pairs of lateral leaflets Morphological variability and one terminal leaflet; petiole Botanists distinguish several 4-7 cm long; leaflets oPPosite, varieties of C. harueyi, two of oboval (11-37.5 x 4.5-15 cm), which are found in Vanuatu; partially deciduous at the time r. harueyi var. nova of fruit ripening; stipule situated hebridiense in the north on the petiole 1 cm from its and C. harueyi var. harueyi base, rounded (0.5-1.4 x 0.5-1 cm), in Erromango and more deciduous. Flowers arranged in axillary panicles (10-20 cm long), rarely in Futuna. They numerous; 3 cream petals; species are differentiated mainly naturally dioecious, but man over on the shape oftheir nut. A transverse section of th centuries has managed to select > trees that bear either ma le flowers e nut of the variety harveyi '"D and hermaphrodite flowers or is triangular, while that of ..... Z female flowers and hermaphrodite the variety nova-hebridiense w ::> flowers at the same time. Fruits shows three dorsal crests z in groups of 4-6, green then black and one ventral crest. z .....cc D D'" Z ::r:: ...... o· HaW3 1 • • ~ a rQui ses·, •• Canarium harveyi: present from Solomon Islands to Tonga. Introduced in European times to Nlue and Samoa. In reality there are also many intermediate forms, particularly common in the centre of the archipelago. The vegetative parts of the plant do not seem to show clear differences from one variety to another. The botanical status of these varieties is thus debatable. The species shows less variability than does C. indicum. There exist, however, forms with a shell that is easy to open, and very rarely forms with three kernels. Canarium harveyi Ecology and exploitation In Vanuatu the species is before that of C. indicum, found in all the islands, but between October and March. it is particularly abundant The production is less in the north (Banks and important than that of Torres Islands), in the C. illdiclUn. In Solomon centre (Epi, Emae and the Islands the species is Shepherd Islands) and in cultivated and fruits from Erromango. Numerous wild October. A certain number trees have been observed in of trees may fruit Erromango. The species is precociously during the likewise present in Futuna. year, or may fruit twice Elsewhere it is cultivated, in one year (Evans, 1991). but is harder to maintain than C. indicum. Propa gation is by planting the Uses endocarp of very ripe fruits The uses are the same as those of C. indicum. The of which the pericarp is black and soft. Some horticulturists kernels, which are oilier, prefer to dry the endocarp are nevertheless preferred to those of C. indicum for er slightly before planting. sprinkling on lap-lap. The z Fruiting occurs some weeks er w u o LL o very abundant sap ofthe C. pimela Leenh.: indigenous tree was used in earlier to southern China, in times as a fuel in small Indonesia and in Brunei; lamps. It is used nowadays edible flesh; to caulk the hulls of canoes. C. salomonense Burtt.: New Guinea and Solomon other edible species Islands; introduced Numerous other species of specimens can also be found Canarium have kernels or in Vanuatu; edible seed; flesh that is edible. We list here the species that occur C. schlechteri Lauterbach: in Southeast Asia and in indigenous to New Guinea, the Pacific (for further New Britain; edible seed; information see Verhe~j C. vanikoroense Leenhouts: & Coronel, eds, 1992). Solomon Islands (Vanikoro), C. album (Lour.) Raeuschel: Fiji, probably also the Banks Vietnam and southern Islands and the north of China; seed and flesh edible; Vanuatu (a single specimen collected: CSV945); edible C. decumanum (Rumph.) seed; Gaertn.: Borneo, Maluku, New Guinea; sometimes C. uitiense Gray: western cultivated, of little New Guinea, north importance; edible seed; Queensland, Vanuatu (CSV453), Fiji, Samoa C. hirsutum Willd.: New and Tonga; mesocarp Guinea, Solomon Islands, edible but little eaten; Philippines; C. urieseanum EngL: C. indicum L.: see p. 132; Indonesia and the C. kaniense Lauterbach: Philippines; edible seed; New Guinea; edible seed; C. uulgare Leenhouts: C. luzonicum (Blume) Sunda Islands, Sulawesi, A. Gray: endemic to the Maluku, New Guinea, Philippines; edible seed; probably Solomon Islands and Vanuatu (CSV686; C. oleiferum Baillon: New RMV5), Fiji and Cook Caledonia; edible seed; Islands; species abundant C. ouatum Engl.: species in Indonesia but from indigenous to the New Guinea progressive Philippines, known by the ly replaced by C. indicum; name of pili nut. Edible edible seed. seed. Second nut cultivated in the Philippines, of very References great economic importance; Aburu (1982), Corner C. patentineruium Miq.: (1988), Evans (1991), Thailand, Malaysia, Leenhouts(1955a,b,1956, Indonesia; edible seed; 1959), Malapa (1992), Smith (1985), Verheij C. pilosum Bennett: & Coronel, eds (1992), > Indonesia, Malaysia, e"" Whitmore (1966). I Brunei; edible seed; z UJ > Z z ..:: I e ca e z: ....::c UJ - Canarlum· Indlcum Llnnaeus Burseraceae • • Canarium nut Pili nut Java almond La nangaille (nangailler) NoD: de Kanari (noyer de Kanarl) nangal • • Regular and abundant. Description and then black at maturity, ovoid (4-8 x 3-4.5 cm); hard nut, Tree of medium height (15-20 m) ovoid and triangular or hexagonal but able to reach 30 m; trunk in cross-section, containing straight, buttresses often 3 chambers of which 2 are massive; crown large and dense_ generally sterile, and the third Leaves composite with 4-8 pairs contains a white kernel (3.5 x 2 cm) of lateral leaflets and a terminal covered with a thick brown skin leaflet; petiole 9 cm long; leaflets or membrane. opposite, oblong (13.5-36 x 4.4-21 cm), base rounded and Morphological variability Slightly asymmetrical, apex Canarium indicum is a acuminate; stipules Situated at species that shows great the base of the petiole, large morphological variability, and toothed, persistent. Flowers from one tree to another set in axillary panicles (15-30 cm and even within the same long), numerous; 3 cream petals; tree. Man has cultivated species naturally dioecious, but it for centuries, selecting man over centuries has managed to select trees that bear both and preserving forms with male flowers and hermaphrodite large fruits but also those flowers, or both female flowers with fruits of particular et and hermaphrodite flowers. characteristics. Nowadays Z et Fruits in groups of 6-12, green one can mainly distinguish w LJ o o en I- Canarium indicum: present from northern Sulawesi to vanuatu. possibly an early aboriginal introduction from the Solomon Islands. Introduced later and cultivated in other islands of the Pacific such as Fiji, samoa, Cook Islands, Hawaii, the Philippines and Guam. forms with round fruits. which are very much predominant in Vanuatu, and others with elongate fruits. The situation is the opposite in Solomon Islands where the majority offruits are of elongate form (Evans, 1991). It is noteworthy that a significant number of fruits cannot be classified. Measures oflength, width, thickness, weight and density made on more than 1,000 nuts obtained from different trees in Vanuatu did not reveal the existence of any clearly defined variety (de Riran, personal communication). The varia bility includes, as we have Canarium indicum seen, the shape ofthe fruits from Tanna. The tree, but also the number of protected in forests, is kernels in a shell (1 or 2), cultivated around domestic the colour of the kernels areas (villages' and gardens). (white or yellow), the rhythm People transplant spont of flowering (some cultivars aneously germinated with continuous flowering), seedlings or plant in shallow the productivity and the holes fruits that have ease of cracking of the nuts. reached full ripeness or have the endocarp slightly dried. Ecology and exploitation The cultivated trees are In Vanuatu the tree is found pruned to make the fruits in secondary forest up to easier to pick. In Vanuatu > 400 m altitude. Frequent in the fruits generally ripen Q"" the north of the archipelago, between October and .... z it becomes rare from March. Flowering occurs w > Erromango and is absent immediately afterwards, Z followed by a long period et U Z ....et Q Q'" z ....:J: of maturation of the fruits The hard shell of the nut is which finally become black. cracked between two stones The period of availability that hold the nut vertically. of the fruits varies slightly It is also advisable to remove from one year to the next, the thin brown skin that and also from one tree to the surrounds the white kernel, next, since human selection because this gives a slightly has produced some trees bitter taste to these nuts of that continue to fruit a little exquisite taste and delicate out of season. Generally the texture. They may be boiled, cultivated trees are very roasted or crushed and productive. Trees carrying sprinkled on the lap-lap. female flowers are more In certain regions, in productive than those with particular in the Banks male and hermaphrodite Islands, the nuts are flowers. Forest trees are less preserved by smoking, after productive, and are mainly the fleshy mesocarp has used for their timber. In been removed. They are Papua New Guinea the placed on racks over the species grows from 0 to hearth or inside little huts 700 (930) m altitude (Bourke, constructed for this purpose personal communication). and under which a small In New Britain fruiting fire is kept permanently occurs twice per year, burning. They dry slowly, between the months of and are then placed in August and November special baskets with a and then again from April narrow aperture in which to May. The species is they will keep for several cultivated throughout its months or even several area of distribution, but years. In Solomon Islands particularly from Papua the nuts are preserved as New Guinea eastwards. in Vanuatu on bamboo racks In Solomon Islands over the hearth. The seeds C. indicum is cultivated are also extracted from and often pruned. Young their shells and cooked trees survive cyclone in an oven with hot stones strength winds with little until they are dry, then damage (Evans, 1991). kept in closed containers for several months Alimentary uses (Henderson & Hancock, This is an important food 1989). The nutritional plant in New Guinea and importance of these nuts in Vanuatu. In Vanuatu and their potential for the nangai are eaten fresh, commercialisation has as soon as they are picked. led Solomon Islands and They are collected by Vanuatu to undertake knocking them down a some research on their little before maturity; just taxonomy and agronomy. as they begin to become Indeed, both countries black. At this stage they have started some local are less oily and are easier commercialisation successfully. c to digest. z c w u o u.. o ....'" ...:::> u. other uses Other edible species In Vanuatu the timber is See C. harveyi (p. 129). used for making canoes and paddles or for constructing References timber frameworks. The Aburu (1982), Brown (1954), buttresses are used for wood Corner (1988), Evans (1991), sculptures. The bark is used Henderson & Hancock in traditional medicine for (1989), Leenhouts (1955a, b, treatment of vomiting, 1956,1959), Malapa (1992), and the young leaves for Peekel (1984), Smith (1985), treatment of scabies and Whitmore (1966). ciguatera poisoning. In New Guinea and in Solomon Islands the wood is also used for making canoes and bowls. l> D< o I ...Z > z ..... ca: u z co: I o &XI o Z ....% w .- castanopsls acumlnatlsslma slance • •• Occasional. Seeds. Description of nuts each year. In the region of the Ankave, the Tall tree 110-36 m) with large trunk. Leaves simple, alternate, dark tree flowers in April to shiny green above and silvery May and bears ripe fruits brown beneath, oval, lanceolate in August. or even elliptical, 5-15 cm long. Flowers grouped in a male Alimentary uses inflorescence (narrow spikes, The seed, although edible, beige in colour! or a female is only eaten in some parts inflorescence 110 cm long rachis, of New Guinea. The fruits greenish in colour!, both present are, however, easy to collect together on the same tree. Fruits and the nuts can be broken formed from a single seed, held at without difficulty. They its base in a woody cupule, brown, are eaten raw or cooked ovoid or conical 11.2 x 0.8 cm), in bamboo containers by downy, longitudinally veined; the populations of Okapa seed containing a kernel formed (Eastern Highlands), boiled of two large cotyledons_ by those of Pomio (New Ecology and exploitation Britain), raw or grilled by Castanopsis acuminatissima the Karam (Madang), the is a common tree in outer envelope first having secondary forest in Papua been removed. The Enga of New Guinea from 600- the Western Highlands also 2,400 m altitude (Bourke, eat them. In season the personal communication). Ankave pick the seeds of This forest tree is wide C. acuminatis;;ima during spread in the highlands their walks in the forest. and produces, when mature, Brought back to the village, numerous new shoots. the women peel them by ..: It is a vigorous tree that means of a bone of a fruit z bat, then cook them and ..: produces large quantities w u o u. o V> I- . Hawai- ..I> ~ a IOm ? n ':1, •• ' ~arquiS 8 S · " •. Castanopsis acuminatissima: India (east Bengal!, Burma, China (Guizhou and Yunnanl, Taiwan, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, the Indo·Malayan Region (north sumatra, Java, north Borneo, Sulawesi, Maluku, New Guineal. Also in the islands of Japen, Mislma, Fergusson, Goodenough and New Britain lit is the only species of the family Fagaceae in the Bismarck Archipelago!. serve them with specific C. inermis (Lindley ex. edible leaves. Cockatoos, Wallich) Benth,: Sumatra cassowaries and wild pigs and Malaysia; eat the fruits when they C. lucida (Nees) Soepadmo: have fallen to the ground. Thailand, Malaysia and The seeds of Castanopsis Borneo; would have been an important food for earlier C. malaccensis Gamble: hunter-gatherers. The Thailand, Malaysia and mortars and pestles of Sumatra; seeds eaten in New Guinea seem to have small quantities; been mainly for the pounding C. megacarpa Gamble: of nuts, among which those Malaysia, Borneo; of Castanopsis featured. information on this species Nowadays the seeds are is contradictory, sometimes no longer pounded. saying that the seeds are edible and sometimes that Other uses they are toxic; The timber of this species is C. philippinensis (Blaneo) hard and the Ankave use it Vidal: Philippines; for construction, as do other highland communities of C. wallichii King ex. Hook. Papua New Guinea. F.: Malaysia. Other edible species References The genus Castanopsis Brown (1951), Corner comprises 120 species of (1988), Millar & Dodd which several are edible. (undated), Soepadmo With caution, however, (1972), Verheij & Coronel, because some may be eds (1992). toxic (Corner, 1988). C. costata (Blume) AD-C.: Thailand, Malaysia and > ""o Borneo; t Z w :> z cc u z cc t o ID o Z :J: t- - Castanospermum· australe Cunn. & Frazer ex. Hook. paplllonaceae • • Moreton Bay chestnut • •• Only in exceptional circumstances. Seeds. • Yes. Description Alimentary uses The seeds are toxic but may Tall tree (15-40 m); straight trunk, be made edible by cooking. In dense crown. compound leaves with 5-19 leaflets, sub-opposed, Vanuatu they are apparently dark green and glossy, oval to only eaten by a single family lanceolate (6 -16 x 2-5 cm); in the north of Efate, who petiolule 0.5 cm long. Flowers prepare them as follows. on erect racemes up to 20 cm The seeds, picked up from long; calyx yellow and tubular, the ground, are grilled for terminating in 5 lobes; 5 separate a long time, then scraped petals, yellow-orange or red to get rid of burnt parts_ (3 x 2 cm); 10 orange stamens They are then eaten hot. protruding beyond the corolla and Insufficient cooking leads curved upwards. Fruits composed to diarrhoea. Australian of a large, dark brown, hard husk aboriginals eat these seeds (18-22 x 5-6 cm), containing after macerating them in 3-5 dark brown, rounded seeds water for a long time and 13-4 cm in diameter!, slightly then roasting them. flattened, enveloped in white spongy material. Other edible species Geographical distribution This is the only species Originally from north in the genus. eastern Australia, this species has been introduced References to Indonesia, Malaysia, Backer & Bakhuizen van Solomon Islands, and den Brincke (1963), Brand probably New Guinea Miller et al. (1993), Cooper and Vanuatu. & Cooper (1994), Corner cc (1988), Wheatley (1992). z cc w u o u.. o - Citrus· macroptera Montrouzler Rutaceae Ghost-lime • •• Oc:caaional. Juice. • None. Description the archipelago, but it is particularly abundant in Small tree or shrub (3·6 m); crown Erromango. It generally not very dense. Leaves oval or lanceolate (6·13 x 3.2'5.5 cm); grows in small populations. margins slightly dentate; fine. It is not cultivated but parallel secondary and tertiary i!; at least protected. The veins; spines present on the axils species is naturalised and of the leaves; petiole with wings abundant in Fiji. Several that are almost as large as the authors (Smith, 1985; leaves. Fruits yellow. rounded Verheij & Coronel, eds, (6·7 cm in diameter!. with a thick 1992) have indicated that skin and pulp that is acid and not this species hybridises very juicy. with other species of Citrus. Geographical distribution Alimentary uses Species native to Thailand In Vanuatu this wild orange Malaysia, Indonesia, the ' is not really eaten, but it is Philippines, New Guinea and regularly used for its juice. the Bismarck Archipelago. Early aboriginal introduction to Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Other uses New Caledonia and In Guam, Samoa and Fiji, Polynesia. In Guam the the pulp of the fruit or species is either native or the macerated leaves were an aboriginal introduction. used in earlier times for the washing of hair. The pulp was also used in Guam for Ecology and exploitation washing linen. In Samoa In Vanuatu the species > the timber serves for making ""o grows from sea level to t axe handles and canes. Z 300 m altitude. It is found w :: in almost all the island!; of z cc u z cc t o In o Z :J: t W Other edible species Indo-Malayan Region. Many species of Citrus are Its exact centre of origin edible, but in the Pacific is unknown. C. macroptera seems to be the only local species. We References note also: C. hystrix D.C., Christophersen (1971), a species that is often Safford (1905), Smith confused with C. macroptera, (1985), Verheij & Coronel, which is localised to the eds. (1992). cC :z cC w u o .... o ..."" :::> ..."" .- Cordia 5ubcordata Lamarck Boraglnaceae • Sea trumpet Gommier Sebestier en coeur bourao blong soltwata • • Nibbled frequently by children; food in times of shortage. Description Morphological variability Peekel (1984) indicated two squat tree, low in height (less than types of Cordia subcordata 15 m); bark greyish and fissured, peeling off in rectangular pieces. occurring in the Bismarck Leaves Simple, alternate, light Archipelago. The commoner green, oval (6-8 x 9-16 cm); type has orange flowers margins slightly undulate; 4-6 while the other, much rarer, pairs of veins; petiole thin and has yellow flowers. Every 4-8 cm long. Flowers grouped where else, only the orange in terminal or axillary bunches, flowered form is found. not very many; calyx green and tubular (1-1.5 cm), lobed at Ecology and exploitation the apex (3-6 lobes), persistent; The tree grows close to 5-7 orange petals fused at their the sea in all Oceanian bases (2-4 cm long!. Fruits green, islands. In Vanuatu it is becoming yellowish and then less frequent in the south dark brown as they dry, hard, of the archipelago, and it round (2-3.5 cm in diameter!; disappears at altitude. It is containing a nut with 4 chambers; a wild tree, never cultivated each chamber containing and little protected. It is not > 1-2 kernels the size of a grain very abundant in Vanuatu, o"" of rice, difficult to extract. t Z but some fine specimens w ::> may be found, preserved z as shade trees, in coastal cc u z cc t o DJ o Z ::J: t- ~ ' r, ~ // ;' Cordia 5ubcordata: from tropical Asia to Hawaii and from southern China to northern Australia, via all the islands between. probably an aboriginal introduction to the Marquesas. Introduced to Madagascar and then the coasts of tropical Africa. Its floating fruits are dispersed by ocean currents. In certain islands of the Pacific, such as Hawaii , it could have been introduced by the polynesians. villages. Flowering and posts for houses, roofing, fruiting occurs throughout drums, oars for canoes, the year. The species is not and carved objects. This very common in Guam and major usage has led to the Samoa, but it is abundant progressive disappearance in the Caroline Islands, Fiji of the species from certain and Hawaii. It is likewise regions. Henderson & common in Solomon Islands. Hancock (1989) noted The species is rarely that the timber is also an cultivated. excellent fuelwood, and that it was used in earlier times Alimentary uses for making fire by rubbing In Vanuatu, children break small twigs together. The the fruits open and eat the flowers are used to make seeds, but this is quite a necklace:;. The leaves, fruits business because the seeds and bark have medicinal are very small. Adults do properties. In Vanuatu, collect them, however, in for example, an extract of times of food shortage. leaves diluted with water The seeds are also eaten soothes distension of the in Queensland and in Fiji. abdomen and aerophagia. In earlier times the bark other uses provided good quality ropes. Little used nowadays, In Tonga and in Wallis, the C. subcordata was probably leaves mixed with those of an important plant for certain Ficus provide a red Pacific peoples in olden pigment used for colouring times. Nowadays the species tapa cloths. The frequency mainly furnishes a high with which this species is quality timber for working. mentioned in the mythology In Vanuatu it is not really of Hawaii, Tonga and the abundant enough to be Tuamotu Islands (Neal, used in this way. However, 1929) emphasises its particularly in Solomon importance in traditional Islands, but also in Fiji, culture; Thaman (1990) also showed that this plant cC Wallis and Tonga, it is still occupied a central place in Z used for making supporting cC w U o LL o VI I- :::J '" the myths of Kiribati, tropical Australia. The flesh and it is the emblem of of the fruits is eaten in the the Karongoa tribe. Bismarck Archipelago, in Fiji and by Australian Other edible species aboriginals, but not in The genus comprises from Vanuatu where the juice 200 to 400 species according of the fruits is used as glue. to author, the majority of which are found in tropical References America. The seeds of Brand Miller et al. (1993), C. sebestena and the flesh Christophersen (1971), of the fruits of C. dichotoma Cooper & Cooper (1994), are eaten in the Pacific: Corner (1988), Dupuy & Guiot (1992), Heine (1976), C. sebestena L.: American species cultivated in Henderson & Hancock tropical regions, including (1989), Neal (1929), Parham in Fiji, Hawaii and Guam; (1972), Peekel (1984), Smith (1991), 8t John (1951, 1953, C. dichotoma Forster f: (syn. 1960,1974), Stone (1970), C. myxa L.): species present Thaman (1990), Wichman from India, southern China & 8t John (1990), Wilder and Taiwan to Fiji, via the (1934), Yuncker (1971). Indo-Malayan Region and ...> o ..... :z w > :z ..... cC u :z cC I o corynocarpaceae • •• Occasional; a food in times of scarcity. Pulpy flesh . • The alkaloid karakine is present in the seeds. Description ALeaves simple, dark green on the upper surface, light green under neath, oboval 18-20 x 4.5-10 cm); 6-10 pairs of veins; petiole 2-3.5 cm long. Flowers grouped in a terminal panicle 110 cm long), white and small in size; calyx with 5 sepals; 5 petals; 5 stamens. Fruits green, white or pale red, spherical or slightly ovoid 13-5 x 1.6-3 cm), flesh more or less juicy. Morphological variability A form with red fruits and a form with white fruits are known. These two forms are not present in all islands. Corynocarpus similis Of the two edible forms, the red which is less common is the more sought aftC'r. altitudE' (Wheatley, 1992). Ecology and exploitation Its fruiting period is little In Vanuatu the species known; Wheatley puto it is not very common. It is between September and found in all the i,;]ands, but February. becomes rarer towards the south. It is a tree that likes Alimentary uses humidity and shade. It is The fruit is edible, but is found wild under forest little eaten except in times canopies, near gardens and of food shortage. Only the along footpaths in areas communities ofTanna and of oecondary vegetation. the Torres Islands use it It gTOws up to 1,300 m regularly as food. In Torres ..,z w u o u.. o V> I- Corynocarpus similis: endemic to Vanuatu , this species was formerly Other edible species abundant, cultivated and C. laevigata Forster regularly eaten. The fruit & Forster f.: endemic to was eaten cooked, slightly New Zealand. Maoris eat before it was fully ripe, or the toxic seed, after long raw when it was completely preparation, and the flesh. ripe. In Malo only males ate This species, called karaka the fruit, because ingestion in New Zealand, was by females led to swelling of introduced to Hawaii the external genital organs. where it is now naturalised; In Maewo, the fruit must C. cribbianus WM. Bail.) never be picked with the L. S. Srn.: present in aid of a stick. Anyone who Solomon Islands where forgets this prohibition will itis called ibo (Kwara'ae) find himself struck in turn and also in New Guinea by the other fruit" which and Australia. The tree, will come to torment him in from which fruits with the night. In this island the edible flesh were gathered fruits are anyway not eaten in earlier times, has become but are used in traditional rare in Solomon Islands. medicine. The seed is very It is not eaten in Australia. toxic and contains karakine, identical to that of The fourth (;orynocarpus, Corynocarpus laevigata C. australusica C.T. White, which is found in New found in Australia (north Zealand and Hawaii. Queensland), in New Guinea and in the Aru Other uses Islands, is not edible, The leaves have medicinal properties, The timber is References used for making implement Cabalion & Poisson (1987), handles or digging sticks for Cooper & Cooper (1994), planting taro and yams. Henderson & Hancock (1989), van Steenis (1951), Wheatley (1992). > D'" I Z W > Z cc u z cc l D '"D z :I: I- ~ ' rJ ...-/ / ~ Dlospyros spp. This pantropical genus includes over 400 species, of still un.certain taxonomic status, that produce edible fruits (e.g. for New Guinea see Gorecki and Gillieson, 1989). By way of example we list two species, native to the Pacific and present in Tonga or Samoa. To our knowledge, no species of DiospyTOB with edible fruits is present in Vanuatu . .- - Dlospyros elllptlca (Forster) Oreen Ebenaceae • •• Occasional. Pulpy flesh . • None. Description Geographical distribution Fiji, Samoa , Tonga, Niue. Small tree 110 m on average!. Aboriginal introduction Leaves more or less elongate, to Tonga (Smith, 1981). small in size 12-16 x 1.5-9 cm), petiole short. Flowers in groups of 3-15 in male or female uses inflorescences, pale yellow In Tonga children nibble or rose according to variety; the fruits, which are small in calyx with 3 lobes 12-4 mm long) ::;ize. In time::; offood shortage Fruits yellow or red when ripe, the whole population uses ovoid 11-3 x 0.6-1.6 cm!. them as food. An infusion or a decoction of the bark Morphological variability is used to treat stomach Smith (1981) distinguished problems, abdominal pains seven varieties of this and constipation; an infusion species, of which five are of bark (only) to treat found in Fiji. internal haemorrhage or pains following childbirth. ""z ""w u o LL o '"t- .- Dlospyros major (Forster) Bakh. Ebenaceae • •• Occasional. Pulpy t1esh. None. Description uses In Tonga these fragrant Small tree (10 m on averagel. fruits are consumed, but Leaves alternate, grey green, elliptical or oval (10-15 x 7-9 cm), they are mainly used for apex rounded; petiole 1 cm long. making necklaces. An Flowers small in size, grouped In infusion of leaves is axillary bunches. Fruits elliptical, admini.stered in cases 4 cm long, furnished with of mouth and stomach small hairs. ailments, and also in cases of sterility and constipation. Geographical distribution In Wallis the immature Present in Fiji. Aboriginal seeds are eaten, and the introduction to Tonga. fruits, cut into quarters, Introduced and found in the for plaiting into necklaces. cultivated state in Samoa. Likewise present in Wallis. References Dupuy & Guiot ( 1992), Parham (1972), Smith (1981), Yuncker (1971). > '"D I Z W > Z ""u z l-"" D ""D z ::J: I- .- Dracontomelon vitiense Engler Anacardlaceae • Dragon plum Le tambol (tambolier) Prune dragon (prunier dragon) nakatambol • • Regular. Pulpy flesh . • None. Description Morphological variability The people ofVanuatu Tall tree (10-30 m); trunk large distinguish and name two (20-97 cm in diameter), furnished with thick buttresses; crown large types of this tree, according and dense_ Leaves compound, to the size ofthe fruit. One with 4-9 pairs of alternate leaflets is the large-fruited type and plus one terminal one; petiole one the small-fruited type. 4-10 cm long; leaflets glossy This species, essentially green, oblong or lanceolate wild but protected by (8-15 x 3-5 cm), base asymmetrical; humans, does not show petiolule 0.4-1 cm long. Flowers much variability, but there grouped in panicles, white, small is a slight and continuous in size. Fruits yellow or orange, selection pressure towards round and flattened (1-3.5 cm trees with fruits that are in diameter), embellished with larger, fleshier and sweeter, 5 small depressions; a single stone, flattened and circular, with 5 oval Ecology and exploitation marks of variable size on its dorsal In Vanuatu the species surface; margin of stone irregular; grows up to 200-300 m 5 minute seeds. altitude, in stands of primary forest. It is also found near villages and cc gardens, and in foreRtR z altered by human activity. cc w U o o V) I- ::::> '"