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Preserving Our Documents

The following essay is intended to impart teachers and students with an understanding and appreciation of the process by which our nation’s documents are preserved. Preserving the Charters of Freedom By Mary Lynn Ritzenthaler, Supervisory Conservator, National Archives and Records Administration & Catherine Nicholson, Senior Conservator, National Archives and Records Administration Reprinted Courtesy of the National Archives and Records Administration

n 1952 the Declaration of Independence, For half a century, staff at the National Archives the Constitution of the United States, and monitored the condition and evaluated the Ithe Bill of Rights (collectively known as safety of the Charters to ensure their survival the Charters of Freedom) were first exhibited for future generations. As technology in the Rotunda of the National Archives Build- improved, new monitoring techniques were ing in Washington, D.C. Shortly before they used. In the late 1980s small irregularities were were displayed, the documents were placed observed on the inner surface of the encase- into protective encasements under the best ment glass. Closer examination revealed tiny conditions that science and technology surface cracks, crystals, and droplets. Glass could provide. experts advised that the irregularities are symptoms of glass deterioration. Although the documents are not in any danger, eventually the deteriorating glass will turn opaque, obscuring the documents.

1941 President Lend Lease Act— 8802: Franklin Roosevelt’s When war broke out in Europe in 1939, the United States Prohibition of Discrimination Annual Message to officially remained neutral. President Roosevelt, however, in the Defense Industry— Congress— believes the United States is obligated to assist Great Britain War is raging in Europe and This speech delivered by in its fight against Germany. Calling upon the United States Asia, and United States President Roosevelt on to be the “great ,” President Roosevelt defense-related industries Jan. 6 is known as his proposes a system for supplying England with war goods expand as the nation supplies “ Speech,” without requiring cash payment. The system allows the war goods to the fighting nations. A. Philip Randolph, due to a short closing lending or leasing of war supplies to any nation deemed President of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, portion describing the “vital to the defense of the United States.” Congress threatens to March on Washington if President Roosevelt President’s vision in approves the proposal as the Lend Lease Act on March 11, doesn’t make employment opportunities in the growing which the American and the United States immediately begins shipping war government-run defense industries available to African- ideals of individual supplies to England. Americans in addition to whites. In response, Roosevelt liberties extend issues Order 8802 in June, banning discriminatory throughout the world. employment practices by federal agencies and all unions and companies engaged in war-related work. The order also establishes the Fair Employment Practices Commission to enforce the new policy.

72 ■ www.ourdocuments.gov Design of each unit. The documents will be mounted so that glass never touches them. The new The National Archives and Records Adminis- design makes it possible to incorporate future tration and the National Institute of Standards conservation techniques as they are developed. and Technology are nearing the end of a multi- On page 75, is a cutaway view of the encase- year project to design and fabricate new ment that shows some of the design details. encasements for the Declaration Of Indepen- dence, Constitution, and Bill of Rights with funding provided from the United States Prototypes Congress and the Pew Charitable Trusts. The National Institute of Standards and The deteriorating glass in the existing units Technology has designed and fabricated proto- presents the opportunity to entirely redesign types of the new encasements. A manufactur- the encasement. Using the best technology ing model was created, followed by Prototype available, an interdisciplinary team of 1. Delivered in late 1999, Prototype 1 currently conservators, archivists, engineers, design and encases the transmittal page of the Constitu- exhibit specialists, architects, chemists, and tion. That prototype has been under constant physicists are working with materials and fab- monitoring since early 2000. The environment rication experts to design and build new, state- within the encasement is tested to ensure there of-the-art encasements that will preserve and is an airtight seal and that the document protect the Charters for generations to come. remains in the best condition possible. The existing encasements, which contain Prototype 2 was delivered in the fall of helium and a small amount of water vapor, are 2000, and it houses the second page of the soldered shut and cannot be opened without Constitution. Prototype 2 is the production breaking the seal. The design of the new model for the remaining encasements to be encasements permits conservators to open and delivered to NARA conservators in 2001. reseal them if it is ever necessary to examine Those encasements will house pages one, the documents or modify the special monitor- three, and four of the Constitution and its ing and preservation components that are part

1942 Joint Address to Congress Leading : to a Declaration of War Against Japan— Japanese Relocation Order— On Dec. 7, Japanese torpedo planes and dive- Following the bombing of Pearl Harbor, bombers kill almost 2,400 Americans and destroy Executive Order 9066 is issued. It hundreds of aircraft, battleships, cruisers, and authorizes the evacuation of all 1944 destroyers at the U.S. Naval Base at Pearl Japanese-Americans from the West General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s Harbor, Hawaii. In response, President Roosevelt Coast to relocation centers guarded by Order of the Day, June 6— asks Congress to declare war on Japan, to military police further inland. This order authorizes the D-Day invasion of the avenge what he calls a “date which will live in beaches of Normandy, by American troops, in an infamy” when “the United States of America was effort to liberate France, which had fallen to the suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and Germans earlier in the Second World War. air forces of the Empire of Japan.” He receives near-unanimous approval from Congress to Servicemen’s Readjustment Act— declare war on Japan, and the United States Also known as the G.I. Bill, this act, signed into enters the Second World War. law by President Roosevelt on June 22, provides veterans of the Second World War funds for college education, unemployment insurance, and housing.

www.ourdocuments.gov ■ 73 transmittal page, the Declaration of the Charters of Freedom, NARA’s conserva- Independence, and the Bill of Rights. tors finally reached the day that pages 2 and 3 of the U.S. Constitution, along with the Removing Transmittal Page, were transferred from their the Charters storage vault to the special, secure room from where the conservation treatment would be the Old carried out. The documents were removed Encasements from the vault in their old encasements for National Archives conserva- the last time. tors work very carefully The room in which the work is done is when handling archival designed to assure close control of the temper- records, especially so with ature and humidity to which the documents the Charters of Freedom. will be exposed when they are removed from These photos show conser- their old encasements. vators at work as they Parchment responds to changes in moisture remove the documents from by expanding and contracting. When it is their original encasements exposed to a moister atmosphere, it expands; and place them in the when it is exposed to a drier atmosphere, it new encasements. The documents undergo contracts. Because parchment is the stretched, painstaking conservation treatment before preserved skin of an animal (often a cow or a they are transferred. sheep), different parts of the same skin may After months of planning and coordination respond differently to changes in humidity, with colleagues throughout NARA and NIST causing unexpected ripples and bumps on for the construction of new encasements for the surface.

1945 Surrender of Germany— Manhattan Project Notebook— In France, on May 7, German General Alfred Johl United Nations Charter— The Manhattan Project, so-called signs the unconditional surrender of all German In Dumbarton Oaks, Washington, D.C., because it is run after 1942 by a forces on all fronts, ending the European phase and San Francisco the Allied powers section of the army code-named the of World War II. The official German surrender, create an international agency that “Manhattan District”, is assigned the scheduled to take effect on May 8, follows Nazi will resolve conflicts among members, task of developing an atomic bomb. leader Adolph Hitler’s suicide, Berlin’s surrender and discourage aggressor nations with This notebook records an experiment to the Soviet Army, and the surrender of several military force if required. This new agency is of the Manhattan Project, the all-out major German armies to British forces in known as the United Nations. but highly secret effort of the federal northern Europe. government to build an atomic bomb Surrender of Japan— during World War II. Recorded here On Sept. 2, Japanese representatives sign the is the world’s first controlled, self- official Instrument of Surrender, prepared by sustaining nuclear chain reaction, the War Department and approved by achieved on Dec. 2, 1942. President Truman. In eight short paragraphs, Japan surrenders to the Allies.

74 ■ www.ourdocuments.gov NARA understood what conditions the earlier encasements were designed to achieve — 25% to 30% relative humidity inside the helium-filled encasement. But NARA also knew that the glass of the encasement was beginning to show signs of deterioration that is consistent with much higher humidity. In the months open the Transmittal Page the first encasement Cross Section of preceding the move of the first three pages of selected for treatment. This would be the first New Encasement the Charters, NARA’s conservators explored a time in 50 years that anyone had actually number of analytical techniques that could be touched one of the pieces of parchment that used without breaking the seal to try to deter- make up the Charters of Freedom. mine the amount of moisture within the The encasements had been sealed with a lead encasement. NARA’s final attempt to get a han- ribbon soldered to the copper-coated surface at dle on the moisture was extraction of a small the edge of the glass that make up each box. This portion of the gas within the encasement that lead seal also included a sensor to allow for was analyzed to determine the components that checks of the helium in each encasement. The were present in the sample. But NARA only way to open an encasement is to break the never achieved consistent results with this seal, either by using heat to soften the metal or analysis, and because of this inconsistency, our by cutting through the lead ribbon with a sharp conservators were not sure what to expect tool. NARA’s conservators chose to use the sharp when the first encasement was actually opened. tool. One of the conservators working on the After all the preliminary testing, conserva- project made a tool with a hook-shaped blade tors selected a humidity level for the room that could be inserted into the lead. The tool was based on their best analysis and prepared to worked against the seal to cut it through without injuring the other parts of the encasement or the document. The team of conservators, a film crew documenting the process, and several observers settled in to the work. The process was

1947 1948 Truman Doctrine— Marshall Plan— Fears that Greece and On April 3 President Truman signs the Economic Recovery Act : Turkey might fall to the of 1948. It becomes known as the Marshall Plan, named for Desegregation of the communist Soviet Union Secretary of State George Marshall, who in 1947 proposed Armed Forces— prompt President Harry that the United States provide economic assistance to restore President Harry Truman Truman to articulate the the economic infrastructure of post-war Europe. establishes the President’s “Truman Doctrine.” This Committee on Equality of doctrine states that world Press Release Announcing U.S. Recognition of Israel— Treatment and Opportunity peace and the well-being of At midnight on May 14, the Provisional Government of Israel in the Armed Services, all Americans depends on proclaims a new State of Israel. On that same date, the United committing the government the containment States, in the person of President Truman, recognizes to racially integrating the of communism the provisional Jewish government as de facto military. around the authority of the Jewish state (de jure recognition is world. extended on January 31, 1949).

www.ourdocuments.gov ■ 75 slow, but deliberate. The conservators took turns easily. Now came the document itself, lifted cutting the seal, making steady progress until away with one of the sheets of backing paper finally the top and bottom pieces of glass were beneath it. The remaining sheets of backing separated and the conservators could lift the paper were quickly sealed in a special plastic parts away to remove the Transmittal Page itself. bag designed to retain any moisture present in The construction of the now-open encase- the paper. Conservators were still interested in ment included a piece of free glass resting the moisture of the encasement and hoped to directly on the surface of the parchment docu- learn something from the moisture content of ment, in addition to a top and bottom piece of the paper that had been directly behind the glass and several sheets of paper behind the document. Finally the last sheet of glass was document. The conservators feared that the boxed, and everyone breathed a sigh of relief. glass might have adhered to the surface of the The first encasement had been successfully document over the years. There was no indica- opened, and the document was removed. The tion that this had happened, but there was no parts of the encasement were retained for fur- evidence that it had not either, so the next ther examination and research at a later date. steps required great caution. If the glass were The conservators will examine the document stuck, too quick a move could cause the parch- itself, assessing its condition and proposing ment skin to tear or be damaged. conservation treatment to be executed before it First the conservators lifted away the top glass is sealed into the new titanium and aluminum and removed the retaining frame and the leak container. detector. Then they carefully placed each part of the encasement in an individual box pre- pared for it. Next the conservators carefully lifted away the glass resting on the surface of the parchment. As they had hoped, there were no points of adhesion and the glass came away

1953 1954 1956 Armistice Agreement for Senate Resolution 301, Censure Brown v Board of Education— National Interstate and the Restoration of the of Senator Joseph McCarthy— The Supreme Court’s decision in this case Defense Highways Act— South Korean State— In 1950 Senator McCarthy, spurred by overrules the “separate but equal” principle This act authorizes the This Armistice formally ends national fears of communism, begins set forth in the 1896 Plessy v Ferguson building of highways the war in Korea. North and making accusations against members of decision. The Court rules that “separate but throughout the United States, South Korea remain the government, the entertainment equal” is inherently unequal and promotes the biggest public works separate, and occupy industry, and business. Despite an inability racial supremacy. The unanimous decision project in the nation’s history. almost the same territory to produce evidence for his charges, states that state-sanctioned segregation of they had when the war McCarthy grows increasingly aggressive in public schools is a began. his accusations. By 1954, when the Senate violation of the 14th votes to censure him, much of his power Amendment and is has dissolved. This censure describes his therefore behavior as “contrary to senatorial unconstitutional. traditions.”

76 ■ www.ourdocuments.gov 1957 1961 Executive Order 10730: President Dwight D. President John F. Kennedy’s Desegregation of Central High School— Eisenhower’s Farewell Address— Inaugural Address— Although the Supreme Court rules the principle In his farewell address, President President John F. Kennedy calls for the service of a “new of “separate but equal” illegal in the Brown v Eisenhower warns against the generation of young Americans” to help protect liberty and Board of Education case, Little Rock, Arkansas’ establishment of a “military- freedom in the United States and throughout the world. Central High School refuses to comply with the industrial complex,” where power court. President Dwight Eisenhower sends in can easily be misplaced and Executive Order 10924: Establishment federal troops by Executive Order to maintain misused. of the Peace Corps— order and peace, allowing the integration of Following the ideals set forth in his inaugural address, Central High School to proceed. President Kennedy establishes the Peace Corps as a way for young Americans to assist developing nations by providing educational, technical, and medical assistance. Goals of the Peace Corps include: 1) To help the people of interested countries and areas in meeting their needs for trained workers; 2) To help promote a better understanding of Americans on the part of the peoples served; and 3) To help promote a better understanding of other peoples on the part of Americans. Timeline CONTINUED ON PAGE 88 www.ourdocuments.gov ■ 77 Selected Bibliography

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www.ourdocuments.gov ■ 81 The Civil War Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address and U.S. Colored Troops White Ronald C., Jr. Lincoln’s Greatest Speech: Berlin, Ira et al. Slaves No More: Three Essays on The Second Inaugural. New York: Simon & Emancipation and the Civil War. New York: Schuster, 2002. Cambridge University Press, 1992. Duncan, Russell. Where Death and Glory Meet: Articles of Agreement Relating Colonel Robert Gould Shaw and the 54th Massa- to the Surrender of the Army of chusetts Infantry. Athens, Ga.: University of Northern Virginia Georgia Press, 1999. Hendrickson, Robert. The Road to Appomattox. Hollandsworth, James G., Jr. The Louisiana New York: J. Wiley, 1998. Native Guards: The Black Military Experience During the Civil War. Baton Rouge, La.: Louisiana Lowry, Don. Towards an Indefinite Shore: State University Press, 1995. The Final Months of the Civil War, December 1864–May 1865. New York: Hippocrene Books, Miller Edward A., Jr. The Black Civil War Soldiers 1995. of Illinois: The Story of the Twenty-Ninth U.S. Colored Infantry. Columbia, S.C.: University of Marvel, William. A Place Called Appomattox. South Carolina Press, 1998. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. Washington, Versalle F. Eagles on their Buttons: A Black Infantry Regiment in the Civil War. Colum- bia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press, 1999. Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments Gettysburg Address Maltz, Earl M. Civil Rights, the Constitution, and Congress, 1863–1869. Lawrence, Kan.: University Hess, Earl J. Pickett’s Charge: The Last Attack at Press of Kansas, 1990. Gettysburg. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. Richards, David A.J. Conscience and the Constitu- tion: History, Theory, and Law of the Reconstruc- Wills, Garry. Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words tion Amendments. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton that Remade America. New York: Simon & University Press, 1993. Schuster, 1992. Vorenberg, Michael. Final Freedom: The Civil War, the Abolition of Slavery, and the Thirteenth Wade–Davis Bill Amendment. New York: Cambridge University Abbott, Richard H. The Republican Party and the Press, 2001. South, 1855–1877. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 1986. Purchase of Alaska Bond, James E. No Easy Walk to Freedom: Recon- Kushner, Howard I. Conflict on the Northwest struction and the Ratification of the Fourteenth Coast: American-Russian Rivalry in the Pacific Amendment. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1997. Northwest, 1790–1867. Westport, Conn: Green- Carter, Dan T. When the War Was Over: The wood Press, 1975. Failure of Self-Reconstruction in the South. Baton Mayer, Melanie J. and Robert N. DeArmond. Rouge, La.: Louisiana State University Press, Staking Her Claim: The Life of Belinda Mulrooney, 1985. Klondike and Alaska Entrepreneur. Athens, Ga.: Foner, Eric. Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Swallow Press/Ohio University Press, 2000. Revolution, 1863–1877. New York: HarperCollins, 1989. De Lome Letter Saville, Julia. The Work of Reconstruction: From Slave to Wage Laborer in South Carolina, Brands, H.W. The Reckless Decade: America in the 1860–1870. New York: Cambridge University 1890s. Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, Press, 1996. 2002. Gould, Lewis L. The Spanish-American War and President McKinley. Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 1982.

82 ■ www.ourdocuments.gov Milton, Joyce. The Yellow Kids: Foreign Correspon- dents in the Heyday of Yellow Journalism. New Zimmerman Telegram York:Harper & Row, 1989. Gannon, James. Stealing Secrets, Telling Lies: Trask, David. The War with Spain in 1898. How Spies and Codebreakers Helped Shape the Lincoln, Neb.: University of Nebraska Press, Twentieth Century. Dulles, Va.: Brassey’s Inc. 1996. Kahn, David. The Codebreakers. New York: Simon & Shuster, 1996. Platt Amendment Tuchman, Barbara. The Zimmermann Telegram. Perez, Luis, Jr. Cuba Under the Platt Amendment, New York: Random House, 1985. 1902–1934. Pittsburgh, Penn.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1986. Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points Ambrosius, Lloyd E. Woodrow Wilson and the Theodore Roosevelt/ American Diplomatic Tradition: The Treaty Fight Foreign Policy in Perspective. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1987. Collin, Richard H. Theodore Roosevelt, Culture, Diplomacy, and Expansion: A New View of Ameri- Ninkovich, Frank. The Wilsonian Century: U.S. can Imperialism. Baton Rouge, La.: Louisiana Foreign Policy Since 1900. Chicago, Ill.: University State University Press, 1985. of Chicago Press, 1999. Gould, Lewis L. The Presidency of Theodore Roo- Steigerwald, David. Wilsonian Idealism in Ameri- sevelt. Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, ca. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1994. 1991. Nineteenth Amendment Sixteenth Amendment Barry, Kathleen. Susan B. Anthony: A Biography of Brownlee, Elliott. Federal Taxation in America: a Singular Feminist. New York: Ballantine Books, A Short History. New York: Cambridge University 1990. Press, 1996. DuBois, Ellen Carol. Harriot Stanton Blatch and Buenker, John D. The Income Tax and the Progres- the Winning of Woman Suffrage. New Haven, sive Era. New York: Garland, 1985. Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997. Griffith, Elisabeth. In Her Own Right: The Life of Seventeenth Amendment Elizabeth Cady Stanton. New York: Oxford Uni- versity Press, 1985. Hoebeke, C.H. The Road to Mass Democracy: Original Intent and the Seventeenth Amendment. Lunardi, Christine A. From Equal Suffrage to New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, Equal Rights: Alice Paul and the National Woman’s 1995. Party, 1912–1928. New York: New York University Press, 1986. Rossum, Ralph A. Federalism, the Supreme Court, and the Seventeenth Amendment: The Irony of Muncy, Robyn. Creating a Female Dominion in Constitutional Democracy. Lanham, Md.: Lexing- American Reform, 1890–1935. New York:Oxford ton Books, 2001. University Press, 1991.

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www.ourdocuments.gov ■ 83 Tennessee Valley Act Second Grant, Nancy L. TVA and Black Americans: Gordon, Colin. New Deals: Business, Labor, and Planning for the Status Quo. Philadelphia, Penn.: Politics in America, 1920–1935. New York: Temple University Press, 1990. Cambridge University Press, 1994. McDonald, Michael J. and John Muldowny. TVA Leuchtenburg, William E. The FDR Years: On and the Resettlement of Population in the Norris Roosevelt and His Legacy. New York:Columbia Dam Area. Knoxville, Tenn.: University of Ten- University Press, 1995. nessee Press, 1982. Schwarz, Jordan. The New Dealers: Power Politics Nurick, Aaron J. Participation in Organizational in the Age of Roosevelt. New York: Vintage, 1994. Change: The TVA Experiment. New York: Praeger, 1985. Lend Lease Act Talbert, Roy, Jr. FDR’s Utopian: Arthur Morgan of Dallek, Robert. Franklin D. Roosevelt and Ameri- the TVA. Jackson, Miss.: University Press of can Foreign Policy, 1932–1945. New York:Oxford Mississippi, 1987. University Press, 1979. Dobson, Alan P. U.S. Wartime Aid to Britain, National Industrial Recovery Act 1940–1946. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1986. Bellush, Bernard. The Failure of the NRA. New Kimball, Warren. The Most Unsordid Act: Lend York:W.W. Norton, 1975. Lease, 1939–1941. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins Romasco, Albert. The Politics of Recovery: University Press, 1969. Roosevelt’s New Deal. New York: Oxford Universi- ______. Forged in War: Roosevelt, ty Press, 1983. Churchill, and the Second World War.New York: Waldrep, G.C. III. Southern Workers and the Morrow, 1997. Search for Community: Spartanburg County, South Carolina. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, Executive Order 8802: 2000. Prohibition of Discrimination in the Defense Industry National Labor Relations Act Anderson, Jervis. A Philip Randolph. New York: Huthmacher, J. Joseph. Senator Robert Wagner Harcourt Brace, 1973. and the Rise of Urban Liberalism. New York: Wynn, Neil. The Afro-American and the Second Charles Scribner’s and Sons, 1968. World War. London, England: P. Elek, 1976. Irons, Peter. The New Deal Lawyers. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1982. Declaration of War Against Japan Prange, Gordon W. with Donald M. Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon. At Dawn We Slept: The Andrew Achenbaum Social Security: Visions and Untold Story of Pearl Harbor. New York: Viking, Revisions. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1991. 1986. Prange, Gordon W. December 7, 1941: The Day Lobove, Roy. The Struggle for Social Security. the Japanese Attacked Pearl Harbor. New York: Pittsburgh, Penn.: University of Pittsburgh Press, McGraw-Hill, 1988. 1986. ______. Pearl Harbor: The Verdict of History. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1986. Slackman, Michael. Target: Pearl Harbor. Honolulu, Hawaii: University of Hawaii Press: Arizona Memorial Museum Association, 1990. Satterfield, Archie. The Day the War Began. Westport, Conn: Praeger, 1992.

84 ■ www.ourdocuments.gov Executive Order 9066/ Surrender of Germany Japanese Relocation Casey, Steven. Cautious Crusade: Franklin D. Daniels, Roger. Prisoners Without Trial: Japanese Roosevelt, American Public Opinion, and the War Americans in World War II. New York:Hill and Against Nazi Germany. New York: Oxford Wang, 1993. University Press, 2001. Burton, Jeffrey F., Mary M. Farrell, et al., eds. Offner, Arnold A. and Theodore A. Wilson. eds. Confinement and Ethnicity: An Overview of World Victory in Europe, 1945: From World War to Cold War II Japanese American Relocation Sites. Seattle, War. Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, Wash.: University of Washington Press, 2002. 2000. Irons, Peter. Justice At War: The Story of the Japanese American Internment Cases. Berkeley, Surrender of Japan Calif.: University of California Press, 1993. Sigal, Leon V. Fighting to a Finish: The Politics of Robinson, Greg. By Order of the President: FDR War Termination in the United States and Japan, and the Internment of Japanese Americans. Cam- 1945. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1988. bridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2001. Dower, John. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Smith, Page. Democracy on Trial: The Japanese Wake of World War Two. New York: W.W. Norton, American Evacuation and Relocation in World War 1999. II. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1995. Truman Doctrine Eisenhower’s Order of the Day Blum, Robert M. Drawing the Line: The Origin Hastings, Max. Overlord: D-Day and the Battle for of the American Containment Policy in East Asia. Normandy. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1984. New York: W.W. Norton, 1982. ______. Victory in Europe : D-day to V-E Freeland, Richard M. The Truman Doctrine and Day. Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown, and Co. 1985. the Origins of McCarthyism: Foreign Policy, Lewis, Adrian R. Omaha Beach: A Flawed Victory. Domestic Politics, and Internal Security, Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina 1946–1948. New York: New York University Press, Press, 2001. 1985. Leffler, Melvyn P. The Specter of Communism: Servicemen’s Readjustment Act The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1917–1953. New York: Hill and Wang, 1994. Bennett, Michael J. When Dreams Came True: McCullough, David. Truman. New York : Simon The G.I. Bill and the Making of Modern America. & Schuster, 1992. Dulles, Va.: Brassey’s, 1996. Offner, Arnold A. Another Such Victory: President Olson, Keith. The G.I, Bill, the Veterans, and the Truman and the Cold War, 1945–1953. Stanford, Colleges. Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Calif.: Stanford University Press, 2002. Kentucky, 1974.

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www.ourdocuments.gov ■ 85 Marshall Plan Armistice Agreement Cray, Ed. General of the Army: George C. Marshall, For the Restoration of Soldier and Statesman. New York: W.W. Norton, the South Korean State 1990. Lowe, Peter. The Korean War. New York: Donovan, Robert J. The Second Victory: St. Martin’s Press, 2000. The Marshall Plan and the Postwar Revival of Pierpaoli, Paul G. Jr. Truman and Korea: The Europe. New York : Madison Books, 1987. Political Culture of the Early Cold War. Columbia, Hogan, Michael J. The Marshall Plan: America, Mo.: University of Missouri Press, 1999. Britain, and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, Wainstock, Dennis D. Truman, MacArthur, and 1947–1952. New York: Cambridge University the Korean War. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1987. Press, 1999. Pisani, Sallie. The CIA and the Marshall Plan. Whelan, Richard. Drawing the Line: The Korean Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 1991. War, 1950–1953. Boston, Mass.: Little, Brown, and Co., 1990. U.S. Recognition of Israel Benson, Michael T. Harry S. Truman and the Censure of Joseph McCarthy Founding of Israel. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, Griffith, Robert. The Politics of Fear: Joseph R. 1997. McCarthy and the Senate. Amherst, Mass.: Ben-Zvi, Abraham. Decade of Transition: University of Massachusetts Press, 1987. Eisenhower, Kennedy, and the Origins of the Schrecker, Ellen. Many are the Crimes: McCarthy- American-Israeli Alliance. New York: Columbia ism in America. Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., University Press, 1998. 1998. Cohen, Michael. Truman and Israel. Berkeley, Steinberg, Peter L. The Great “Red Menace”: Calif.: University of California Press, 1990. United States Prosecution of American Commu- Christison, Kathleen. Perceptions of Palestine: nists, 1947–1952. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Their Influence on U.S. Middle East Policy. Berke- Press, 1984. ley, Calif.: University of California Press, 2000. Brown v Board of Education Desegregation of the Armor, David J. Forced Justice: School Desegrega- Armed Forces tion and the Law. New York: Oxford University Dalfiume, Richard M. Desegregation of the U.S. Press, 1995. Armed Forces; Fighting on Two Fronts, 1939–1953. Patterson, James T. Brown v. Board of Education: Columbia, Mo.: University of Missouri Press, A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy. 1969. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. King, Desmond. Separate and Unequal: Black Sarat, Austin., ed. Race, Law, and Culture: Reflec- Americans and the U.S. Federal Government. New tions on Brown v. Board of Education. New York: York:Oxford University Press, 1995. Oxford University Press, 1997. Wilson, Paul E. A Time to Lose: Representing Kansas in Brown v. Board of Education. Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 1995.

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86 ■ www.ourdocuments.gov President Eisenhower and John Glenn’s Official Communication Desegregation of Central High School, with the Command Center Little Rock, Arkansas Bilstein, Roger E. Flight in America: From the Duram, James. Moderate Among Extremists: Wrights to the Astronauts. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Dwight D. Eisenhower and the School Desegrega- Hopkins University Press, 1994. tion Crisis. Chicago, Ill.: Nelson-Hall, 1981. Lewis, Richard S. Appointment on the Moon; Huckaby, Elizabeth. Crisis at Central High, Little The Full Story of Americans in Space from Explorer Rock, 1957–58. Baton Rouge, La.: Louisiana State 1 to the Lunar Landing and Beyond. New York: University Press, 1980. Ballantine Books, 1969. McDougall, Walter. The Heavens and the Earth: Eisenhower’s Farewell Address A Political History of the Space Age. New York: Basic Books, 1985. Bowie, Robert R. and Richard H. Immerman. Waging Peace: How Eisenhower Shaped an Enduring Cold War Strategy. New York:Oxford Aerial Photograph of University Press, 1998. Missiles in Cuba Hooks, Gregory. Forging the Military-Industrial Beschloss, Michael. The Crisis Years, Kennedy and Complex: World War II’s Battle of the Potomac. Krushchev. New York: Edward Burlingame Books, Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1991. 1991. Perret, Geoffrey. Eisenhower. New York:Random Higgins, Trumbull. The Perfect Failure: Kennedy, House, 1999. Eisenhower, and the C.I.A. at the Bay of Pigs. New York:W.W. Norton, 1987. Kennedy’s Inaugural Address Scott, L.V. Macmillan, Kennedy, and the Cuban Missile Crisis: Political, Military, and Intelligence Bernstein, Irving. Promises Kept: John F. Kennedy’s Aspects. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1999. New Frontier. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. Thompson, Robert Smith. The Missiles of October: The Declassified Story of John F. Kennedy Burner, David. John F. Kennedy and a New and the Cuban Missile Crisis. New York:Simon Generation. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, & Schuster, 1992. 1988. White, Mark J., ed. Kennedy: the New Frontier Revisited. New York: New York University Press, Test Ban Treaty 1998. Seaborg, Glenn T., with Benjamin S. Loeb. Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Test Ban. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1981. Establishment of the Peace Corps Fischer, Fritz. Making Them Like Us: Peace Corps Volunteers in the 1960s. Washington D.C.: Smith- sonian Institution Press, 1998. Latham, Michael E. Modernization as Ideology : American Social Science and “Nation Building” in the Kennedy Era. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. Rice, Gerald. The Bold Experiment : JFK’s Peace Corps. Notre Dame, Ind.: University of Notre Dame Press, 1985.

www.ourdocuments.gov ■ 87 Program for the March on Tonkin Gulf Resolution Washington/Civil Rights Act/ Appy, Christian. Working Class War: American Voting Rights Act Combat Soldiers and Vietnam. Chapel Hill, N.C.: Bloom, Jack. Class, Rights, and the Civil Rights University of North Carolina Press, 1993. Movement. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana Moïse, Edwin E. Tonkin Gulf and the Escalation of University Press, 1987. the Vietnam War. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of Collier-Thomas, Bettye and V.P. Franklin. Sisters North Carolina Press, 1996. in the Struggle: African-American Women in the Siff, Ezra Y. Why the Senate Slept: The Gulf of Civil Rights-Black Power Movement. New York: Tonkin Resolution and the Beginning of America’s New York University Press, 2001. Vietnam War. Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 1999. Foster, Lorn S., ed. The Voting Rights Act: Consequences and Implications. Westport, Conn: Social Security Act Amendments Praeger, 1985. Achenbaum, W. Andrew. Social Security: Visions Garrow, David. Protest at Selma: Martin Luther and Revisions. New York: Cambridge University King, Jr., and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. New Press, 1986. Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1980. Schieber, Sylvester J. and John B. Shoven. Levy, Peter B. The . The Real Deal: The History and Future of Social Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1998. Security.New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Lischer, Richard. The Preacher King: Martin Press, 1999. Luther King, Jr. and the Word that Moved America. Tynes, Sheryl R. Turning Points in Social Security: New York: Oxford University Press, 1995. From “Cruel Hoax” to “Sacred Entitlement.” Loevy, Robert D. ed. The : Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1996. The Passage of the Law that Ended Racial Segregation. Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, 1997. Riches, William T. Martin. The Civil Rights Movement: Struggle and Resistance. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1997. Stern, Mark. Calculating Visions: Kennedy, Johnson, and Civil Rights. Piscataway, N.J.: Rutgers University Press,1992.

1962 1963 Transcript of John Test Ban Treaty— Glenn’s Official After the fears created by the Cuban Communication Missile Crisis, the Limited Test Ban with the Command Center— Treaty is signed by the United States, Great John Glenn conducts the first manned space Britain and the Soviet Union. After Senate orbit of the earth, increasing the prestige of the United approval, the treaty, which goes into effect States internationally. In this transcript he communicates on Oct. 11, bans nuclear weapon tests in the with Mission Control in Florida. atmosphere, in outer space, and under water.

Aerial Photograph of Missiles in Cuba— Official Program for the March on Washington— Instrumental in the early stages of the Cuban Missile crisis, On Aug. 28, approximately 250,000 people gather in front of the Lincoln these photographs show that the Soviet Union is amassing Memorial to march in support of expanding civil rights for African-Americans. offensive ballistic missiles in Cuba. President Kennedy The highlight of the march is Martin Luther King’s “I Have A Dream” speech, warns that any attempt by the Soviet Union to place in which he proclaims the Declaration of Independence applies to people nuclear weapons in Cuba will be seen as a threat to the of all races. United States.

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1964 1965 Civil Tonkin Gulf Resolution— Social Security Act Voting Rights Act— Rights Act— Passed by Congress after Amendments— This act outlaws the discriminatory voting Through the apparent attacks by the Amid rising concern for the practices adopted in many Southern states efforts of civil rights North Vietnamese on elderly and the poor, these after the Civil War, including literacy tests as activists throughout the American ships in the Gulf amendments are adopted. a prerequisite for voting. It also provides for 1950s and early 1960s, many of Tonkin, this act gives They establish federally supervised elections. Americans come to support President Medicare, a legislation that guarantees Johnson health civil rights for African- authority to insurance Americans, and President increase United program for Lyndon Johnson signs the States the elderly, Civil Rights act into law in involvement in and July. The act prohibits the war between Medicaid, a discrimination in public North and South health places, provides for the Vietnam. insurance integration of schools and program for other public facilities, and the poor. makes employment discrimination illegal.