Delivering a Mega-Science Project for the World

THE SKA OBSERVATORY DELIVERING A MEGA-SCIENCE PROJECT FOR THE WORLD SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020 “With the SKA, you see how Contents astronomy brings together the Introduction: Next-generation radio astronomy 5 worlds of science and diplomacy. 1 SKAO - the SKA Observatory 13 2 Science 17

It shows that you can have inclusive 3 Impact 21 scientific, cultural and societal 4 Big Data 30 5 Establishment and delivery of the Observatory 32 development all together.” 6 Construction 34

7 Baseline budget 38

8 Baseline schedule 39

Dr Marga Gual Soler Science Diplomacy Expert and 2020 Young Global Leader of the World Economic Forum

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Next-generation radio astronomy

The Square Kilometre Array (SKA) is a One array of 197 dishes, each 15m next-generation radio astronomy-driven in diameter, with a 150km maximum Big Data facility that will revolutionise our separation between the most distant understanding of the Universe and the dishes, located in South Africa. SKAO Global Headquarters laws of fundamental physics. Enabled by One array of 131,072 smaller antennas in the UK is home to cutting-edge technology, it promises to more than 120 experts grouped in 512 stations, with up to have a major impact on society, in science in science, engineering, 65km maximum separation between project management, policy, and beyond. the most distant stations, located in international law and many This publication presents a €1.99 Western Australia. other specialisms. The purpose-built HQ is neighbour billion (2020 €), 10-year project for the to Jodrell Bank Observatory, a construction and early operations of UNESCO World Heritage Site. the first phase of the SKA telescopes. The facility will be built, operated and maintained by SKAO (SKA Observatory), an inter-governmental organisation (IGO) being established to bring together nations from five continents under a single entity. Constructing and operating the SKA will position SKAO as the leading research infrastructure (RI) for radio astronomy globally, providing science capabilities to the international astronomical community for decades to come.

The proposal is to construct two world- The SKA telescopes will initially comprise almost 200 dishes in South Africa, class complementary arrays of telescopes incorporating the existing MeerKAT radio operating in the radio regime of the telescope, and more than 130,000 antennas electromagnetic spectrum: in Western Australia. This image blends real hardware already on the ground on both sites with artist’s impressions of the future SKA antennas. L-R: SKA dishes and the existing precursor MeerKAT dishes in South Africa, and the existing AAVS2.0 prototype station with SKA-Low stations in Western Australia. 4 5 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020

SKA in numbers

The two telescopes will operate separately The 10-year deployment strategy allows but will, along with the data processing a degree of flexibility and ensures that €1.282 131,072 710 centres and the UK-based headquarters, the scientific return on investment begins form a single observatory. This proposal as early as possible – the astronomical BILLION ANTENNAS PETABYTES covers the initial phase of the SKA performance of the SKA telescopes will deployment, known as SKA Phase 1 (SKA1). already surpass that of other state-of-the- CONSTRUCTION IN WESTERN OF SCIENCE DATA DELIVERED The long-term ambition for SKAO is to art facilities mid-way through construction. COST (2020 €) AUSTRALIA TO SCIENCE USERS eventually expand on the first deployment This flexible approach assists with the by increasing the number of dishes across management of potential financial other African countries and the number constraints in SKAO Member States, of antennas in Australia. This prospect is the ongoing growth of the partnership, viable due to the intrinsic scalable nature and unexpected changes in global of the SKA telescope arrays, also known as circumstances, as the COVID-19 pandemic €0.704 197 1 GLOBAL interferometers. has shown can happen. The SKA will be constructed on existing radio Due to the sheer number of antennas, the BILLION DISHES NETWORK observatory sites, which will be expanded SKA telescopes require significant data FIRST 10 YEARS IN SOUTH AFRICA OF DATA CENTRES TO DELIVER and enhanced to accommodate the new processing both on and off-site to manage OF OPERATIONS (INCLUDING 64 infrastructure. The details of how the SKA the extremely large volume of information SCIENCE-READY DATA telescopes will be deployed, and initial science they will collect. This deluge of data will COST (2020 €) MEERKAT DISHES) PRODUCTS TO END-USERS exploitation enabled, are provided in two be distributed to the user community via a documents: The SKA Construction Proposal global network of data centres called SKA and the SKA Observatory Establishment and Regional Centres (SRCs) located in Member Delivery Plan. States. The SRCs will act as windows to the Observatory for the scientists to collect and analyse their data, enabling the 8 15 50+ The SKA’s low-frequency world-leading science it promises. antennas in Western Australia will number more than 130,000, enabling YEARS COUNTRIES YEARS astronomers to see further than ever before into the TO CONSTRUCT PARTICIPATING IN 2020 OF TRANSFORMATIONAL SCIENCE history of the Universe. Shown here are SKA-Low prototype antennas. Credit: ICRAR/Curtin

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As the world’s largest radio-frequency interferometer, SKA will establish itself as the radio astronomy Significant return on component of a suite of major facilities spanning the electromagnetic spectrum, on the ground and in space. investment for Members Membership of SKAO and SKA Mid & Low JWST XRISM SKAO will work in close partnership participation in SKA construction with the Commonwealth Scientific and The astronomical performance of the and operations offers a range Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) SKA telescopes will already surpass of high-level benefits: in Australia and the South African Radio LUT CTA Access to world-leading science, Astronomy Observatory (SARAO) in that of other state-of-the-art facilities with access to the facility South Africa to build and operate the ALMA broadly assigned in proportion Observatory and its telescopes. CSIRO mid-way through construction. to a Member’s investment. already operates the ASKAP telescope at the SKA site in Western Australia. SARAO Opportunity to be involved in a operates the MeerKAT telescope at the global scale RI providing a framework SKA site in South Africa. CSIRO and for government-to-government SARAO will employ many of the staff in This has been taken into account within the sources of RFI), optical (due to reflecting interaction, using SKAO as the focal Australia and South Africa who will build overall architecture of the telescopes as sunlight) and infrared (due to trapping point and basis for international and operate the SKA telescopes. well as in the detailed designs. heat) wavelengths. In the case of the SKA, relations and dialogue in many other the RFI emitted by these constellations The two sites have been chosen due to The recent boom in satellite mega- areas, outside astronomy or science. risks the loss of some observations. their radio quietness. These sites enjoy constellations involving very large numbers the national regulatory status of radio of satellites is posing additional challenges Mitigations are possible and thanks to Access to innovation arising RADIO MICROWAVE INFRARED VISIBLE ULTRAVIOLET X-RAY GAMMA RAY quiet zones (RQZ) that protect them from for professional astronomy because of constructive engagement with satellite from SKAO, with likely ground-based interference, making them their impact on observations at radio (as operators so far, SKAO has identified applications in other areas. ideal for radio astronomy observations, as a path that limits the impact on the the SKA precursor telescopes MeerKAT SKA telescopes while imposing limited Guaranteed minimum contractual A VIEW FROM INSIDE SKA in South Africa, and ASKAP and MWA in constraints on satellite operators. Strong return on investment for Australia, have already demonstrated. commitments from industry and Member Members, as defined in SKAO GRAVITATIONAL State governments will be needed in policies on procurement. WAVES DETECTORS To ensure maximum benefit from the natural environment, a great deal of effort the months and years to come to take LISA LIGO The SKA is a dream that is has been applied to the design of both these proposals forward and ensure the Opportunities for return on SKA telescopes to ensure that very little becoming true. By building investments are safeguarded and the investment throughout the lifetime radio frequency interference (RFI) is self- it, we are really contributing skies remain a sustainable resource for all of SKAO during operations and stakeholders, including SKAO. through further developments. ROMAN ASTROSAT-1 & -2 generated and that it is controlled by the to the history of astronomy infrastructure as much as possible. and technology. SKA PRECURSORS & PATHFINDERS VIRGO KAGRA Broader benefits through skills, Dr Maria Grazia Labate ATHENA ELTs SKA-Low Telescope Engineer outreach and education opportunities.

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The unprecedented technical challenges Moulds for the A major IT endeavour in Assembly of the the SKA must overcome in the fields of SKA prototype science, technology and German funded SKA- A new frontier in dish panels at networking, Big Data and high-performance MPG prototype dish CETC-54 factory engineering computing and the subsequent development on-site in South Africa. science diplomacy in Shijiazhuang, of new technologies, cloud processing, data Credit: SARAO China. Credit: Partnerships between institutes, universities Global collaboration is at the heart of the SKA Organisation and industry have already formed to build analysis and visualisation tools are likely to SKA Observatory. The project is unique and plan the scientific exploitation of the yield substantial benefits in other areas of among major research infrastructures telescopes, their systems and instruments. everyday life. in the scale of its international Some technologies and innovations being As the world’s largest facility of its kind, collaboration, involving countries on five developed for the SKA have already found, the SKA will establish itself as the radio continents that collectively represent and will continue to find, wider applications astronomy component of a suite of major 40% of the world’s population. SKAO within industry and broader society. observatories spanning the electromagnetic Ready for construction welcomes new national communities to the field, and breaks down the In addition to the breakthrough science spectrum, on the ground and in space, The work carried out to date, backed by a traditional divide between developed the SKA telescopes will deliver, the addressing the highest priority science number of successful independent reviews and developing countries. scale and technological challenge of the challenges. In an era when multi-messenger, by experts around the world, with deep project ensures it will have a significant multi-wavelength astronomy will be Encouraging government-level knowledge of the science, engineering, economic, cultural and societal impact. accelerated by access to a new generation interaction and fostering international programme management, and the delivery The development of the SKA will generate of highly capable facilities, the SKA will connections, SKAO acts as a vehicle for A VIEW FROM INSIDE SKA of large-scale RIs, has significantly reduced knowledge, jobs, provide inspiration, be in the prime position to deliver surveys collaboration, as exemplified in similar the risks associated with both the technical increase our skills base and develop of the sky, find new types of objects global RIs such as CERN and ITER. demands and the management of the industrial capacity. and provide targets of opportunity for programme and confirmed that the project Such scientific and engineering follow up with optical extremely large One of the key areas where SKA will have is on solid ground. The project is in an collaborations required by world-leading I’m fascinated by the power telescopes and many other facilities, a significant impact is in the field of Big excellent position to move into construction, international research infrastructures of radio astronomy and how it taking full advantage of the discoveries Data. The SKA will transport, process, store and the timing of delivery will ensure that have their own inherent value, for can blend with cutting-edge made at other wavelengths/frequencies. and distribute to the global community of SKAO assumes a world-leading position example in developing human capital, technologies to solve cool astronomers a deluge of data – giving the amongst the most capable astronomical encouraging innovation and the transfer mysteries like the possibility SKA the reputation of being one of the facilities and will deliver the resulting of that innovation internationally for the of extra-terrestrial life, and leading big data challenges and a RI which research and discovery benefits. good of humanity. fundamental unanswered exemplifies the new challenges of data questions of our Universe. science.

Snehal Valame Software Engineer

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Anti-clockwise from top left, the SKA precursor facilities: 1 MWA and ASKAP in Australia; MeerKAT and HERA in South Africa. Credits: MWA – Pete Wheeler (ICRAR); SKAO - the SKA ASKAP – Alex Cherney; MeerKAT and HERA – SARAO Observatory Built on the shoulders of giants

In the lead up to the SKA, many new Overall, these facilities are also playing a groundbreaking radio astronomy facilities key role in training a new and more diverse SKAO will consist of one observatory, have sprung up around the world in the generation of astronomers, engineers and operating two telescopes, across three past 15 years. These facilities, known as SKA technicians who will be ideally placed to continents, for a global scientific community. pathfinder and precursor telescopes, are make use of the SKA but also contribute to SKA Global HQ, part of a global effort to design and build building a knowledge society. A truly global enterprise Jodrell Bank, UK ever-more sensitive instruments to provide The knowledge and experience gained by SKAO is achieved through the committed further insights into the radio sky and grow the precursor and pathfinder telescopes collaboration of its participating Member new scientific and technical communities. will guide SKAO through construction and States and institutions. Only through this These telescopes are allowing astronomers operation, and will be at the heart of a combined capacity in resources, knowledge, to develop improved techniques and productive and groundbreaking use of the and experience (industrial, technical, scientific explore new phenomena, as exemplified SKA telescopes in the years to come. and at policy level) will the SKA be realised. recently by exciting discoveries they’ve SKAO is being established as an inter- enabled. This includes the sharp rise in the governmental organisation. It will undertake detection – and, in some cases, localisation the construction, operation and maintenance SKA-Low Site, Murchison, – of fast radio bursts using ASKAP, CHIME, Western Australia of the SKA telescopes. The Observatory SKA-Mid Site, FAST, e-MERLIN and other pathfinders; the Karoo, South Africa has a global footprint and will consist of the solving of the mystery around X-shaped SKA Global Headquarters in the UK, the two galaxies by MeerKAT; the detection of SKA telescopes at radio-quiet sites in South the biggest explosion since the Big Bang Africa and Australia, and the associated data using MWA; a new way to study exoplanet processing facilities. environments thanks to LOFAR; the SKA Partner Countries (includes current Members of the SKA Organisation and future SKAO Member States) detection of atomic hydrogen content of SKA Member States galaxies seen as they were eight billion years ago (the earliest epoch in the Universe for are located on five A P C which there is such a measurement) using continents and in both SKA African Partner Countries upgraded GMRT; to list just a few examples SKA O of ground-breaking science undertaken hemispheres under a by such facilities. At the same time, these unique partnership PotentialT SKA Future O Members O SKA O telescopes allow engineers to develop new SKA technical and innovative solutions. of nations.

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Location of SKAO facilities

SKAO facilities will be distributed across Both telescope sites will have a large three host countries. Central Processing Facility, housing state- SCIENCE OPERATIONS CENTRE ENGINEERING OPERATIONS CENTRE of-the-art technology (such as correlators, SKAO Global Headquarters, from PERTH AND CAPE TOWN GERALDTON AND KLEREFONTEIN beamformers, pulsar search and timing which development, construction and All telescope-specific science operations These will function as the administrative SKA-LOW SKA-MID engines, and timing and power-distribution operations of the telescopes will be activities will be based here. This includes bases for telescope site activities and will THE SKA’S LOW-FREQUENCY TELESCOPE THE SKA’S MID-FREQUENCY TELESCOPE equipment) necessary for the functioning of overseen, is a neighbour to the historic telescope control and observation also host mechanical/electrical/instrument the telescopes. Jodrell Bank Observatory near Manchester execution by the telescope operators, workshops and RFI measurement in the UK, a UNESCO World Heritage Each host country will also host facilities carrying out quality assessment to ensure chambers. site noted for its contribution to the external to the telescope sites, where critical the data collected are of sufficient quality LOCATION: LOCATION: INTEGRATION TEST FACILITY development of human knowledge. scientific and technical support for SKAO for delivery to the global network of SKA GERALDTON AND CAPE TOWN operations will take place. Regional Centres (SRCs). Software support AUSTRALIA SOUTH AFRICA The array of SKA dishes (comprising the and most administrative functions will During construction, these facilities will telescope known as SKA-Mid) will be also be based at the relevant Science be used to test as much of the telescope centred in the Karoo Central Astronomy A VIEW FROM INSIDE SKA Operations Centre. system as possible in a stable and Advantage Area in the Northern Cape controlled laboratory environment ahead FREQUENCY RANGE: FREQUENCY RANGE: province of South Africa. It will be about SCIENCE PROCESSING CENTRE of assembly on-site. They aim to reduce 150km in extent. PERTH AND CAPE TOWN risks during site deployment, enable 50 MHz– 350 MHz– The array of SKA log-periodic dipole The SKA Member States are These high-performance computing early feedback, and allow the interfaces antennas (comprising the telescope known inherently diverse, and as a centres will host the Science Data between products to be tested with 350 MHz 15.4 GHz Processors, two powerful supercomputers. real hardware. as SKA-Low) will be built at the Murchison result, the SKA could be a model WITH A GOAL OF 24 GHz Radio-astronomy Observatory in Western for how world observatories Australia and will be about 65km in extent. tackle issues related to equity, Telescope operators will sit in Operations will provide portals to data products, diversity and inclusion. That Control Centres for each telescope, platforms/forums for advanced scientific stems not only from engaging at either the Science or Engineering analysis, and user support and training for 131,072 197 DISHES (INCLUDING 64 MEERKAT DISHES) with Indigenous and local Operations Centre. The Global astronomers using data collected by the ANTENNAS Headquarters will contain an Operations SKA telescopes. The SRCs will operate as populations where the SKA SPREAD ACROSS 512 STATIONS will be built, but also from Monitoring Centre for monitoring a fully integrated network to ensure that all using the SKA as a vehicle for telescope operations. A global network of SKA users are able to access data products SKA Regional Centres in Member States and the tools to analyse them. addressing systemic inequalities MAXIMUM BASELINE: MAXIMUM BASELINE: in all of the Member States. ~65km 150km Prof. Kristine Spekkens SKA Canada Board Director

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The SKA will be a transformational scientific time on the telescopes. The remainder will facility. It will tackle some of the most be allocated to smaller-scale studies led by Measure of SKA fundamental scientific questions of our time, individual astronomers and smaller teams. ranging from the birth of the Universe to Access to the telescopes will be based scientific success the origins of life. primarily on scientific merit, prioritising 1 Over-subscription of observing science proposals from astronomers from time on the telescopes The SKA’s science goals are broad and the Observatory’s Member States. ambitious, looking back into the history of 2 Number of publications featuring the Universe as far as the Cosmic Dawn, The history of astronomy is replete with SKAO observations and results when the very first stars and galaxies unexpected discoveries. Astronomy is or enabled by SKAO resources formed, in order to seek answers to not conducted in laboratories; it is an some of the biggest remaining questions observational science in which facilities in astrophysics. The SKA telescopes with very broad capabilities have delivered 3 Number of citations to qualified themselves, building on and enhancing enormous scientific impact in ways that SKAO publications the great science highlights of the SKA could not be foreseen when they were precursor and pathfinder facilities, will designed and built. 4 Number of publications or deliver a profound impact. For some citations per facility cost Many of the most important discoveries studies, they will also be working in astronomy fall into this category of together with other world-leading 5 Usage and reproducibility of exploratory science. A guiding design astronomy facilities. SKAO science data products principle of the SKA has been to enable The SKA will devote a substantial fraction the broadest possible range of science, This list is not exhaustive and is of its time to Key Science Projects – including even currently unanticipated expected to evolve over time. major surveys targeting ground-breaking observations. transformational science discoveries that require considerable amounts of observing The SKA will monitor the sky The SKA will look back to when the first in unrivalled detail and map it stars and galaxies formed, providing a unique view of the Universe in this pivotal period. Credit: NASA,ESA, tens of times faster than any M. Robberto and the Hubble Space Telescope Orion Treasury Project Team current radio facility. 16 17 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020 Science Drivers

Cosmic Dawn and the Cosmology and Forming stars Galaxy evolution Cosmic magnetism The bursting sky The cradle of life Challenging Einstein: epoch of reionisation dark energy through cosmic time gravitational waves

WHERE DID IT ALL BEGIN? CAN WE UNCOVER THE MYSTERIOUS HOW AND WHEN WERE THE FIRST WHAT IS THE LIFE-CYCLE OF A HOW DID THE UNIVERSE BECOME WHAT ARE THE COUNTERPARTS OF HOW DO YOU MAKE A PLANET WAS EINSTEIN RIGHT ABOUT NATURE OF DARK ENERGY? STARS BORN? GALAXY? MAGNETIC? THE FAST AND FURIOUS BURSTS OF FROM SPACE PEBBLES? GRAVITY? HOW AND WHEN DID THE FIRST RADIO WAVES? STARS, GALAXIES AND BLACK HOLES HOW AND WHY HAS IT BECOME THE HOW HAS THE RATE OF STAR WHERE DO THEY COME FROM, WHERE WHERE AND WHEN DID MAGNETISM ARE WE ALONE IN THE UNIVERSE? CAN WE FIND AND UNDERSTAND FORM? MAJOR PLAYER IN OUR UNIVERSE? FORMATION CHANGED OVER TIME, DO THEY GO? ORIGINATE? WHAT CAN THEY TELL US ABOUT WHERE GRAVITATIONAL WAVES AND WHY? THE CONSTITUENTS OF THE The SKA will have sufficient resolution to COME FROM? The SKA will uniquely enable the The SKA will fundamentally advance our WHAT ARE THE PROPERTIES OF THE UNIVERSE? HOW HAS IT EVOLVED? watch the assembly of planets in Earth- measurement of a complete time sequence understanding of the mysterious dark There is evidence that star formation MYSTERIOUS DARK ENERGY? The SKA will use our entire galaxy to SKA will enable us to associate like orbits about their parent stars. of images from the onset of Cosmic Dawn components by measuring the equation was fundamentally different in the early detect and measure gravitational waves The SKA will, for the first time, allow galaxy The SKA will enable the creation of the thousands of individual fast radio bursts The telescopes will also make it possible, to the end of reionisation, using the of state of dark energy with percent-level Universe, often occurring within intense from the merger of super-massive black evolution, as traced by the accumulation first three-dimensional magnetic map of (FRBs) with the objects that host them, for the first time, to detect emissions faint radio light coming directly from the precision; constraining possible deviations concentrations of super star clusters that holes at the centres of galaxies that are and utilisation of atomic hydrogen, to be the Universe. allowing us to map out the plasma from planets associated with nearby hydrogen itself. from General Relativity on cosmological have few, if any, counterparts today. impossible to detect with Earth-based observed throughout cosmic time. This will be done by measuring the content of the Universe. stars that are comparable to those detectors. The resulting movie of the Universe’s first scales; and mapping the structure of the The SKA will play a key role in learning It will have the raw sensitivity to study individual magnetic components along This will allow us to study the so-called generated by human activity on Earth, 700 million years will answer a multitude Universe on the largest accessible scales, more about this mode of star formation. The detection method involves using the hydrogen concentrations that are the sightline toward extremely large “missing baryons”, determine the opening the possibility of detecting of questions about this vital chapter in the thus constraining fundamental properties very rapidly spinning neutron stars associated with galaxies even in the samples of sources distributed in all ionisation history of the Universe, and technologically-active civilisations history of the Universe. such as isotropy and homogeneity. with radio beams emanating from their distant, early Universe. elsewhere in our galaxy. directions on the sky and extending give us new and independent measures poles, known as millisecond pulsars, these measurements to sources at of the main drivers of cosmic expansion – as a system of high precision clocks varying distances. the mass of the Universe and dark energy. located throughout our galaxy. 18 19 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020 3 Impact

The SKA project has an unprecedented Value of large research opportunity to position itself as the global infrastructures research infrastructure with the broadest Research infrastructures (RIs) form an overall impact of any currently in planning Research infrastructures or implementation. increasingly large component of national research investments. Although these are a magnet for talent and Building on investments made by project facilities are primarily designed to support knowledge-intensive companies. partners over many years, and through research needs, their impact goes beyond By collaborating with science on exploitation of policies and procedures the production of scientific results and new technologies, industry can under development now, the SKA is knowledge. Their conception, construction expected to deliver significant benefits expand or improve its existing and operation are almost always associated for Member States’ research landscape, expertise to introduce new with unique technological developments, economy, society, sustainability and technologies to existing markets data management systems and highly culture. These impacts span industry skilled staff. or enter new markets. Investing in return and innovation, human capital RIs therefore also means investing development, inspiration and education, Large-scale facilities offer rare or unique in new key enabling technologies geopolitics and diplomacy. research tools, which permit new research questions to be posed and for future solutions to societal increase the likelihood of breakthroughs challenges and new prosperity.

in understanding, and such insight may Ingrid van Engelshoven have profound social benefits. Similarly, The Netherlands Minister of Education, Culture and Science (2019) large-scale RIs provide access to unique equipment, data or services for a diverse A VIEW FROM INSIDE SKA user base, including businesses working with academic groups or carrying out their own proprietary research and innovation, and can provide a focal point for clusters of The impact of the SKA will be The SKA is a ground-breaking scientists and engineers, along with high- felt in all SKAO Member States build, the products of which value, high-technology service companies. and beyond, inspiring future generations and driving education could fundamentally change our and training opportunities. understanding of the Universe. Credit: SARAO Nathaneal Morgan Mechnical Engineer

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Contribution to the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals The SKA is helping to address global challenges by contributing to some of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all by 2030.

In particular, the SKA is contributing to:

3 Good Health and Well-being

4 Quality Education

5 Gender Equality

6 Clean Water and Sanitation

7 Affordable and Clean Energy

8 Decent Work and Economic Growth

9 Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure

10 Reduced Inequalities Credit: United Nations 11 Sustainable Cities and Communities

12 Responsible Consumption and Production

13 Climate Action Heritage ‘walkover’ at the SKA site in Western 15 Life on Land Australia to identify and preserve sacred sites and cultural areas of relevance for the Wajarri people, 16 Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions traditional owners of the land. Led by Wajarri Elders, the team also includes archaeologists 17 Partnerships for the Goals and an anthropologist, with support from the Australian Government’s SKA Office. Credit: CSIRO

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Radio astronomy as a driver of innovation Economy

From its humble beginnings in the early As the flagship international radio The SKA will have direct economic electronics. The Big Data challenge will 20th century, radio astronomy has grown astronomy project of the coming decades, benefit to Member States in terms of itself drive an ecosystem of transferable in the space of 90 years into a major the SKA will fuel further technological contracts to industry, commerce and knowledge and capabilities that will be felt field of research, enabled by cutting- advances with the potential to impact research institutes. The value of available in other sectors. edge technology. Radio telescopes and areas of society far removed from radio construction contracts for the first phase The scale of the SKA, and the inherent their instrumentation are technically astronomy. of the SKA is expected to exceed €900 requirement to ‘productise’ and mass- challenging, and very often employ million and will be shared between the The SKA project’s partners have produce many of its components, requires solutions from other sectors that further project partners in a procurement process considered its impact on society as core new and innovative levels of industry improve the technology. In return, that ensures an acceptable return on to its mission since its inception. Beyond participation far exceeding that generally astronomy offers solutions and techniques contributions to Member States. These its significant contribution to academic required in other astronomy projects. which are transferable to other areas of direct investments will be felt in the local, research, the SKA will have impact in The construction of the SKA requires society. Astronomers also have a long regional and global economies, injecting four core areas: the economy, society, collaboration between researchers tradition of sharing technology through investment into local and national industry, sustainability and culture. The impact of and manufacturers to produce new or Students at the first Advanced Student Event for both DARA and DARA Big Data. The event was open platforms, making it available to and they will create hundreds of jobs in a the SKA is both direct and indirect, with improved instruments, which will allow held at Goonhilly Earth Station, a radiocommunication site in Cornwall, UK. Credit: DARA other users. variety of sectors. visibility at local, regional, national and industry to gain cutting-edge knowledge Technology used in radio astronomy has international levels. The SKA will also produce indirect and expertise, and offer opportunities Building radio astronomy and data science expertise given rise to many spinoffs, including the returns, driving innovation in electronics, for R&D, which will subsequently provide invention of WiFi communication, medical communications, computing and data the platform for wider sales or even The Development in Africa with Radio The projects’ reach extends far beyond imaging and reference systems for space science. It is pushing industry to the new product lines. This is an area of Astronomy (DARA) and DARA Big Data radio astronomy, with graduates finding navigation and GPS, among many others. technological limit, requiring creativity considerable business potential. projects are training young Africans work in areas as diverse as using Big Data Together, these developments have made The impact of the and exploration. It is expected that to take advantage of the enormous to personalise breast cancer treatment an enormous contribution to daily life, technological developments in SKAO opportunities radio astronomy and data and improving soybean breeding. science will bring. global GDP and social wellbeing. SKA and its return Member States and/or the SKA itself will Highly competitive DARA and DARA Big to Member States generate several by-products that will DARA is training the first generation of Data scholarships have also supported contribute to innovation in our society, radio astronomers in SKA African partner 50 students to study Masters or PhD will be monitored in areas such as antennas, receivers, countries Botswana, Ghana, Kenya, qualifications at UK and South African continuously, assessed high-performance computing, signal Madagascar, Mauritius, Mozambique, universities. Together, the projects have processing, data transfer and low power Namibia and Zambia. DARA Big Data received £6.3m (~€7m) from the Newton regularly and is training students in data science and Fund as part of the UK’s overseas aid machine learning. budget for scientific collaborations with Sir Bernard Lovell standing in front of the Lovell presented through Telescope at The University of Manchester’s developing countries, with matched Jodrell Bank Observatory. Credit: UoM periodic reports. resources from South Africa.

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Supporting the global fight against COVID-19 Society Sustainability

Skills honed on mega-science projects In Australia, astronomers at Swinburne Astronomy is well-known for its ability Sustainability is considered a foundational traditions are respected, preserved and such as the SKA are readily transferable to University developed a symptom- to attract young people to science and value of the Observatory, underpinning all celebrated as an intrinsic part of the SKA. meet immediate societal demands. SKA tracking app. technology careers, and drive education Astronomical research continues to other activities. SKAO is designed to deliver The SKA sites are located in extremely partner institutions have played an active and training that can also help solve major offer significant benefits to the nation transformational science for at least 50 remote locations with an almost pristine role in the COVID-19 pandemic response: societal challenges and answer immediate years. The Observatory’s aim is to build and In India, the National Centre for Radio beyond astronomical discoveries. radio frequency environment. Protection crises. It plays a role in science, technology, operate a sustainable infrastructure, and Astrophysics contributed to a public These benefits include its role in from terrestrial sources of interference that engineering, and mathematics (STEM) work to minimise negative environmental In South Africa, the government appointed information campaign to combat capturing the public’s attention and could disturb the astronomical observations education and encourages science literacy and other impacts of the construction and the South African Radio Astronomy misinformation. thereby promoting general science is provided by the site location together in the population as a whole. operation of the telescope over its entire Observatory (SARAO) to manage the literacy and proficiency, its service with strict laws to regulate the use and lifetime. This includes conservation of design and production of respiratory In Italy, the National Institute for Taking advantage of its size, diversity and as a gateway to science, technology, installation of equipment in radio quiet ventilators nationally, because of the resources, minimising waste generation, Astrophysics (INAF) developed high profile, SKAO will be a proactive and engineering, and mathematics careers, zones around the radio telescopes. maximising the use of renewable energy, engineering, project management and educational online resources for children. progressive voice in society, to address However, satellites and aircraft will still and a number of important and often and minimising the use of potable systems engineering skills honed on the global challenges and emergencies, pass over the sites, potentially producing unexpected technological spin-offs. water during construction, among other MeerKAT SKA precursor telescope. In Portugal, the ENGAGE SKA high- inspire the next generation, contribute to interference in the SKA frequency bands. New Worlds, New Horizons in Astronomy measures. To this end, SKAO has included performance computing infrastructure progressing the global agenda around and Astrophysics, National Research Working closely with other astronomy sustainability as a requirement within its In the UK, the Science and Technology was selected to support AI initiatives that equality, diversity and inclusion, and Council of the National Academies (USA) organisations as well as industry and procurement policy. Facilities Council (STFC) produced aim to improve the response of public build strong relationships with local and international regulatory bodies, SKAO’s 3D-printed personal protective administration bodies to the impact of Indigenous communities. For instance, SKAO’s partners have also been working spectrum management activities CSIRO’s MRO hybrid solar-diesel power station. An array of 5280 silicon solar panels, covering an area of equipment, developed online educational COVID-19 and future pandemics. the land on which the SKA telescopes very closely with the local populations coordinate with industry and negotiate three hectares, generates up to 1.6MW of renewable power. An additional 250kW solar array is built into resources to support home schooling and will be constructed, in both Australia and around the telescope sites, including special agreements to ensure satisfactory the base diesel power station, to deliver a total peak solar generation of 1.85MW – enough to power the allocated computing resources to study In Canada, a team of physicists, led by Dr South Africa, has strong ties to Indigenous Indigenous communities. SKAO is solutions to mitigate the impact of satellite ASKAP telescope without any input from the diesel generators for many hours each day. Credit: CSIRO the virus. Art McDonald (Nobel Prize in Physics for heritage. Respecting Indigenous cultures committed to building on these various constellations and keep the night sky a his work on solar neutrinos), was called and the local populations and engaging initiatives already in place and to sustainable resource for all. Renewable energy In Spain, the Institute of Astrophysics in to design a ventilator to help in the positively with them has been a key developing new ones, in particular ensuring SKAO has put the use of renewable energy comes from 100% renewable sources. joined a national effort to develop a treatment of the disease. that Indigenous history, culture and consideration since the inception of the A VIEW FROM INSIDE SKA at the core of its ambitions from the early Charging points promote the use of portable detector capable of detecting SKA project. stages and has identified an opportunity electric vehicles for SKAO HQ staff. COVID-19 on surfaces. to use electricity generated by solar In Australia, a hybrid power plant photovoltaic panels at the SKA telescope consisting of 5280 solar panels and a sites in both Australia and South Africa. Radio astronomy has always hovered huge lithium-ion battery storage system The Observatory is also exploring ways to on the boundary between science was built for the Australian SKA maximise the use of sustainable power for and engineering, and the SKA Pathfinder telescope ASKAP. the computing facilities. exemplifies the interdisciplinary In Portugal, ENGAGE SKA is bringing In the UK, electricity for SKAO’s Global nature of that relationship. Green ICT concepts such as those Headquarters is provided by the used in Green Smart Data Centres to Prof. Anna Scaife University of Manchester and already Radio astronomer radio astronomy. 26 27 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020

A dot painting titled “The Jewellery Box” by Barbara Merritt for the Culture Shared Sky Exhibition. Shared Sky

Science and culture have been intimately Tens of thousands of people around the connected throughout history. As an world have experienced Shared Sky, an integral part of society and its aspirations Indigenous art-astronomy exhibition to understand the Universe, SKAO has commissioned by SKAO that raises developed and will continue to develop awareness of the rich heritage and strong links with culture by influencing art, culture of Indigenous peoples around poetry, writing and pop culture in myriad the SKA sites. It features Indigenous ways, whether it is the SKA science Australian and South African artists in a inspiring artworks, the project appearing collaborative exhibition that celebrates in fiction novels or elements of pop culture humanity’s ancient cultural wisdom. This such as TV ads, science fiction movies or embodies the spirit of the international political cartoons. science and engineering collaboration that is the SKA project itself, bringing Astronomy and its use of remote, pristine together nations to study the same sky. locations also offers many tourism opportunities (astrotourism), and there is a Shared Sky has been touring the world growing awareness of its potential to boost since 2014, and has been exhibited Last, but not least, the SKA and precursor local economies by regional stakeholders at venues including the European telescopes generate thousands of media around professional observatories. The SKA Commission Headquarters in Brussels, articles a year, extending the reach of will harness such potential by collaborating John Curtin Gallery in Perth, Iziko astronomy research and improving science with the local communities near Carnarvon South African National Gallery in Cape literacy around the globe. As the profile in South Africa and Geraldton in Western Town, Manchester Library, Jodrell of the SKA grows, the breathtaking nature Australia, benefiting from the uniqueness of Bank Discovery Centre and the Genoa of the telescope sites and the images that the dark skies around the telescope sites. Science Festival. The exhibition has the telescopes will start to produce late in also given rise to artist workshops and the 2020s, will increase the Observatory’s collaborative artworks, teaching the prominence in mainstream and prestigious public techniques such as Aboriginal media, helping to cement the SKA’s dot painting. position in popular consciousness.

A collaborative painting from Aboriginal Yamaji artists from Western Australia. Credit: Yamaji Art Centre 28 29 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020

4 SKA-Low SKA-Mid Big Data

Due to the sheer volume of data it will have From the SDP supercomputers, data to transport, process, store and distribute will be distributed via intercontinental Data transfer to its end users around the globe, the SKA telecommunications networks to SKA rates between the SKA telescopes, is considered by many the ultimate Big Regional Centres in the SKA Member States processing facilities Data challenge. where science products will be stored for and regional centres. access by the end users, the astronomers. An average of 8 terabits per second of data will be transferred from the SKA telescopes In order to help Member States to in both countries to Central Processing prepare their infrastructures in terms of 7.2 T b/s 8.8 Tb/s Facilities (CPFs) located at the telescope data transfer, processing and storage, sites. This is approximately 1,000 times and also to ensure the community of the equivalent data rate generated by the users are prepared for how to handle and Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter maximise the potential of SKA data, the CENTRAL SIGNAL PROCESSORS Array (ALMA), a €1 billion joint European/ Observatory has developed the SKA Data USA/East Asia facility in the Chilean Andes, Challenges. These challenges are aimed and 100,000 times faster than the projected not only at radio astronomers, but the global average home broadband speed broader astronomy, physics and computing for 2022 (Source: CISCO). The data will spheres. The challenges aim to develop the ~5 Tb/s ~5 Tb/s travel along hundreds of kilometres of techniques and skills required of both the fibre-optic cables to high-performance users and the facilities for when SKA data supercomputers called Science Data begin to flow. Processors (SDPs), to be located in Perth SCIENCE DATA PROCESSORS ~135 PFLOPS EACH Overall, the boom in Big Data and high- and Cape Town. performance computing for big science The To process this enormous volume of data, projects like the SKA is driving a revolution, the two SDP supercomputers will each have fostering links with industry, creating a processing speed of ~135 PFlops, which jobs and generating growth globally. ~350 PB/yr ~350 PB/yr would place them in the top three of the Unprecedented technical challenges must ultimate Low noise amplifiers in the band 1 receiver for SKA. The Gothenburg company ‘Low fastest supercomputers on Earth at the be overcome, particularly in the fields of Noise Factory’ developed the unique low noise present time (Source: Top500; June 2020). networking, Big Data and high-performance amplifiers (LNA) for SKA band 1 that are In total, the SKA will archive 710 petabytes computing, and the development of new Big Data SKA REGIONAL CENTRES visible in the middle of this image. They are technologies, cloud processing, data specially designed for optimal performance of data per year. This would fill the data without the need for cooling the feed. storage capacity of about 1.5 million typical analysis and visualisation tools is likely to Credit: Chalmers/J. Bodell laptops every year by today’s standard. have major applications in everyday life. challenge 30 31 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020 5

The Council Chamber at SKA Global Establishment and delivery Headquarters during the inauguration of the building in July 2019 by Prof. Dame of the Observatory Jocelyn Bell Burnell. Credit: SKAO SKAO high-level principles An inter-governmental organisation for radio astronomy The SKA Observatory will undertake the The staff who will manage the construction The SKA Observatory Development SKA OBSERVATORY OPERATIONS SKAO SCIENCE PROGRAMMES COUNCIL construction, operation and maintenance of of the telescopes, and who will operate and Programme will seed technology SKAO is being established as an inter- SKAO will be operated as a Time allocation will be based on the SKA telescopes. oversee the Observatory for the next 50 and capability studies by institutes in governmental organisation (IGO). The The governing body of the Observatory – scientific merit and technical feasibility, years or more, will be employees of one of Member States, and ultimately fund the single organisation, with a Global Observatory is the legal entity responsible the SKAO Council – will comprise The Observatory will be operated as a evaluated via a common time allocation three organisations: SKAO itself, CSIRO in implementation of new capabilities for the Headquarters (GHQ) near Jodrell Bank for constructing, operating and maintaining representatives from each Member State. single organisation, with corporate and process. Australia, or SARAO in South Africa. CSIRO telescopes, data systems and software to Observatory in the UK and facilities in the SKA telescopes in Australia and South The Council is responsible for the overall cross-observatory functions primarily each of the Host Countries. Africa. The SKA Observatory Convention, strategic and scientific direction of SKAO, and SARAO also have responsibilities ensure that it can continue to facilitate the The Director-General is responsible located at the Global Headquarters, and establishing the Observatory, was signed in good governance and attainment of conveyed on them by the governments most challenging science over its lifetime. OPERATION OF SKAO IN THE for time allocation, advised by a Time staff responsible for the operations and March 2019 by representatives of Australia, purpose. of Australia and South Africa connected The Development Programme will involve HOST COUNTRIES Allocation Committee (TAC). administration of the two SKA telescopes China, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, to the provision of the sites in Western both a Technology Roadmap and a Science Operations of SKAO in the Host DIRECTOR-GENERAL located in Australia and South Africa. Time will be made available for Key South Africa, and the United Kingdom, with Australia and in the Karoo on which the Roadmap which will feed into an integrated Countries will be performed The Council will appoint a Director- Science Projects, Principal Investigator- more countries expected to follow. SKAO In order to deliver on its ambitious goals, SKA telescope receptors and associated Development Plan. other areas – of the Observatory, as well as cooperatively between SKAO and General who will lead the construction and led projects and Director-General’s will be only the second IGO in astronomy, SKAO draws on the global expertise instruments are located. contributing to the UN SDGs. operating partner organisations in operation of the Observatory, working Discretionary Time. present across the Member States and the Open science and those countries. the other being ESO, the European The design of the SKA telescopes, the Open research data and methods result with a Leadership Team spanning the UK, scientific and engineering institutes and open source SKAO will operate on the principle that Southern Observatory. plans for their operation, and the observing in better science. It makes it possible SKA REGIONAL CENTRES Australia and South Africa. industry within the Member States. access is proportional to Member States’ programmes that will be conducted once The Observatory’s operations will be to conduct new, innovative research, It is expected that SKAO Member and share in the project. This multi-cultural, multi-national they are operational, are all fundamentally guided by principles to maximise impact sometimes used for purposes other than Associate Member States will either collaboration is by nature diverse, and driven by the scientific priorities of the and availability while ensuring the data is originally planned. It also helps move individually, or working together, Observatory data products are to be Staffing profile (FTE) for SKAO for the three host countries its diversity is a source of strength for global community of professional research accessible to the largest number. Being a the field forward more quickly, prevents establish SKA Regional Centres to made openly available after a suitable CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS the Observatory. Equality and diversity astronomers. The design, operations plan publicly funded project, SKAO is committed duplication of effort, increases research support the user community in their proprietary period to be determined by are enshrined in the SKAO Convention, and resourcing for the Observatory have to the FAIR (Findability, Accessibility, transparency and visibility, and allows country, region or scientific field. the SKAO Council. committing the organisation to adhere to results to be reproduced - which is at the 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 all been developed with substantial input Interoperability, and Reusability) and open OPEN TIME AND ACCESS FOR values of equality, diversity and inclusion from experts from across the relevant science principles, making all of its science core of the scientific method. In addition, NON-MEMBERS in its leadership and at all levels through communities and subjected to extensive data publicly available after a proprietary open data/source facilitates innovation, Telescope time will primarily be UK 133.1 150.4 150.4 156.4 169.4 179.4 183.9 167.6 152.4 151.9 the Observatory, encompassing gender period. For the same reason, SKAO is and offers opportunities for governments, independent reviews. To ensure the SKA available to SKAO Member States, but AUSTRALIA 10 44.3 60.6 79.5 100 119.5 134.3 137.3 135.5 128 balance, nationality and representation of continues at the forefront of science over also committed to open source for all businesses and entrepreneurs to harness it provision will be made for Open Time SOUTH AFRICA 10.5 51.8 65.6 82.5 105.5 124 141.8 145.3 143 136 traditionally underrepresented groups. the decades to come, it is essential that software development, except where this for economic, social and scientific gains. available to astronomers from anywhere there is a forward-looking programme is prevented by unavoidable intellectual in the world, at a level to be determined focused on future capabilities. property issues. These principles of open by the SKAO Council. TOTAL 153.6 246.4 276.6 318.4 374.9 422.9 459.9 450.1 430.9 415.9 access are fundamental to maximising the scientific impact – and the impact in

32 33 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020 6 Construction Telescope design

Designing the SKA telescopes was a global Nine of the consortia focused on The two SKA telescopes differ in design SKA LOG-PERIODIC DIPOLE ANTENNAS effort by 12 international engineering components of the telescope, each critical to SKA design consortia and are complementary by their very IN WESTERN AUSTRALIA consortia, representing hundreds of the overall success of the project, while three nature. Both are interferometers: arrays of The Design Baseline for the Australian- engineers and scientists in 20 countries over others focused on developing advanced COMPONENTS ADVANCED receptors which when linked together act based SKA telescope (also known as six years. SKAO and the global team are instrumentation for the telescopes and future INSTRUMENTATION Assembly, Integration Infrastructure Australia as one enormous telescope, bigger than SKA-Low) comprises initially 131,072 now approaching readiness for construction, systems. Each consortium had a designated and Verification Wideband Single would ever be possible in a traditional low-frequency antennas with no moving having successfully passed all major reviews. lead institution, and operated in conjunction Low-Frequency Pixel Feeds single-receptor design. parts, spread across 512 antenna stations with a specialist project manager, domain Central Signal Aperture Array Pre-construction Processor Mid-Frequency SKA DISHES IN SOUTH AFRICA and steered electronically. Each station specialists at SKA Headquarters in the Signal and Data Aperture Array will comprise 256 dual-polarised log- development UK, and science working groups. Overall, Dish Transport The Design Baseline for the South African- periodic antennas randomly distributed some 600 experts were involved around Phased Array Feed based SKA telescope (also known as The engineering design consortia were Infrastructure Science Data Processor in a 38m-diameter circular area. At low the world in designing the SKA telescopes, SKA-Mid) comprises initially 197 dishes. responsible for the look and functionality South Africa Telescope Manager frequencies, ‘wire antennas’, such as including all systems and sub-systems. Of these, 64 are already in place and form of the different elements of the SKA and dipoles, are much more efficient than SARAO’s MeerKAT precursor telescope, ensuring that they will all perform together. reflectors. The challenge to cover the itself a world-class facility, which will frequency range from 50 to 350 MHz in one eventually be integrated into the SKA band constrained the choice to only a few telescope after conducting science for designs. The SKA telescope in Australia will several years. SKAO has selected a 15m be constructed using wire antennas of a Pre-construction dates projected-diameter, offset Gregorian so-called “log-periodic dipole” design that optics design with the feed on the low side 2013 2015–2016 2016 2018–2019 DECEMBER EARLY 2020 MID 2020 couple many dipole antennas, each tuned of the reflector. The telescope will initially DESIGN ELEMENT SYSTEM ELEMENT CRITICAL 2019 INDEPENDENT OPERATIONS to a specific frequency range, to a single cover the frequency range from 350 MHz CONSORTIA PRELIMINARY PRELIMINARY DESIGN REVIEWS SYSTEM CRITICAL COST REVIEW REVIEWS transmission line. to 15.4 GHz. FORMED DESIGN REVIEWS DESIGN REVIEW The proposed DESIGN REVIEW An independent Independent Consortia Consortia presented External experts design for each An independent review by consulting reviews of both the commenced detailed proposals assessed the SKA’s element was panel of external firm Arup concluded array operations design of telescope for assessment system design, assessed against reviewers endorsed that the schedule and the business- elements. by an expert ensuring it was the project’s the SKA’s overall and approach to enabling functions Top right: The AAVS2.0 prototype station in panel from the mature enough tough engineering design, including construction follows were successfully Western Australia. SKA and external to enable the requirements. how all parts of logic and evidences concluded in the Bottom right: The main organisations. start of detailed the SKA will work good practice first half of 2020. reflector and pedestal of design work. and interact with across both SKA- the prototype SKA-MPG one another. Low and SKA-Mid. dish in South Africa, during on-site construction.

34 35 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020

Design features Comparative performance

In order to reach the sensitivity necessary Moreover, by forming sub-arrays which can SKA’s sheer size and large number of for the SKA, the two telescopes use the be configured and operated independently antennas means it will, in comparison to LOA LA interferometer concept in which multiple of each other, the SKA telescopes will be existing state-of-the-art telescopes, provide connected ‘receptors’ work together as a able to conduct simultaneous, unrelated a significant leap in sensitivity, resolution and single antenna. For both telescopes about observations at the same time. survey speed, the three principal measures half of the receptors are arranged in a by which astronomers assess performance. The telescopes’ design is scalable and relatively compact core with a diameter of upgradable, allowing future improvements While higher resolution makes images less ~1 km, and the rest are spread out in three to maintain their world-leading capabilities, blurry, akin to putting on reading glasses, spiral arms. and also to align with available funding. the SKA’s exceptional sensitivity will allow The maximum separation between antennas This includes state-of-the art scientific and it to see far deeper into the Universe than is 65km and 150km respectively for SKA- computing infrastructures, designed to current telescopes, revealing far fainter Low and SKA-Mid. Notwithstanding the progressively exploit the capabilities of details than ever observed before. It will Simulated image quality of SKA-Mid (left) versus the best current facility operating in the selection of radio-quiet sites, the SKA the Observatory as computing technology also see more of the sky at once, providing same frequency range, the Jansky Very Large Array (JVLA) in the USA (right). telescopes will be equipped with additional continuously improves over coming SKA-Mid’s resolution will be 4x better than VLA. vastly improved survey speeds. SKA LOW SKA MID design features to reduce the impact of decades. The SKA Observatory will require radio frequency interference. ~12MW of power; it is the goal of SKAO to maximise the use of sustainable, renewable SKA LOW SKA LOW SKA LOW The SKA telescopes are designed to be energy to deliver its power requirements. as efficient and as flexible as possible, to SKA MID SKA MID SKA MID maximise their scientific impact. Operating around-the-clock, the goal is for each A VIEW FROM INSIDE SKA telescope to be available for science RESOUTO SURE SPEE SESTT observations for at least 80% of the time. The SKA requires continuous contributions from the community. Knowledge Simulated image quality of SKA-Low (left) versus the best current facility operating in the propagation and education same frequency range, the Low Frequency ARray (LOFAR), in the Netherlands (right). SKA-Low‘s resolution will be similar to LOFAR. of young scientists is a

Note that all images are simulated “dirty” snapshots of bright objects, that is without any vital part of that. deconvolution applied. Dr Tao An Astronomer

36 37 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020 SKAO PROSPECTUS 2020

7 8 Scope contingency Baseline budget Baseline schedule Key project milestones A tremendous amount of work has been Nevertheless, since each of the two undertaken throughout the design phase SKA telescopes is an interferometer SKA-Low SKA-Mid and validated by external reviews to and is therefore inherently extensible, in The construction of SKA1 is estimated to cost €1.282 billion (June 2020). Construction of the SKA telescopes will take eight years 1ST JULY 1ST JULY ensure that the cost, risk assessment and most such instances capability could be Start of construction (T0) A further €0.704 billion (June 2020) will support the first 10 years of SKA (including 18 months contingency), planned to begin in 2021 2021 management processes to deliver the restored at a later stage to deliver the Observatory operations. July 2021 following approval by the SKAO Council. project over the eight-year duration of the nominal performance that is the target of AUGUST AUGUST The graph below shows the expenditure over the 10-year period, outlining The formal end of construction will be signified by a Earliest start of major contracts (C0) construction are grounded and based on this ambitious project. The design of the 2021 2021 solid data. telescopes has been very carefully matched construction capital cost, construction support, operations and business successful Operations Readiness Review (ORR). This review to delivering the capabilities required in enabling functions, and the Observatory Development Programme cost. will demonstrate the ability of the Observatory to execute Array Assembly 0.5 finish (AA0.5) The Construction Plan for SKA1 involves a a set of key observing modes, illustrated by end-to-end FEBRUARY MARCH order for SKAO to deliver on the highest SKA-Low = 6-station array staged approach, progressing through the 2024 2024 priority science objectives identified by SKA Phase 1 (2021-2030) total costs (€m) tests of representative Science Verification projects from delivery of a series of Array Assemblies, SKA-Mid = 4-dish array the global astronomy community. Any proposal preparation to (public) data delivery. This process each bigger than the last and with a confirms compliance to Level 0 requirements and the reduction in the scope of the construction 350 Array Assembly 1 finish (AA1) growing suite of technical and scientific ability to execute high-priority science cases. FEBRUARY FEBRUARY project will materially reduce the realisation SKA-Low = 18-station array capabilities. In the unlikely scenario that 300 2025 2025 of those science goals. However, handover of the commissioned and verified system SKA-Mid = 8-dish array the contingency funds built-in for this 250 purpose are insufficient to manage the While it is not expected that the full for scheduled observing will be gradual. It is expected that 200 risks encountered during the execution commitment of funds needed for the specific modes will be released in sequence, starting with Array Assembly 2 finish (AA2) FEBRUARY DECEMBER 150 basic (and commonly used) modes, and allowing particularly SKA-Low = 64-station array of the project, or if there are issues with Design Baseline of the SKA will be 2026 2025 funding availability, the project plan has identified by the start of construction 100 difficult and more esoteric modes to be added over time. SKA-Mid = 64-dish array, baselines mostly <20km flexibility to manage across a short-term activities given the size of the project, the 50 funding situation, to pause at the point of array-concept of the SKA Observatory Array Assembly 3 finish (AA3) 0 JANUARY SEPTEMBER SKA-Low = 256-station array, including long baselines completion of an Array Assembly stage, or naturally leads to working systems at an 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2027 2026 in an extremely serious situation to deliver a early stage, and as such holds little risk SKA-Mid = 133-dish array, including long baselines reduced set of capabilities. for even permanent funding shortfalls in Construction (Capital) providing a functioning observatory, albeit Array Assembly 4 finish (AA4) NOVEMBER JUNE Construction Support SKA-Low = full Low array with a reduced performance. 2027 2027 Operations/Business Enabling SKA-Mid = full Mid array, including MeerKAT dishes

Observatory Development JANUARY DECEMBER Operations Readiness Review (ORR) 2028 2027 Total JULY JULY End of construction 2029 2029

Square Kilometre Array @SKA_telescope