アニメーションにおける生態学的哲学 Animated Ecosophy A dissertation by Alexander Forsey BA (Hons) Graphic Design Still from Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984). Published by Alexander Forsey in Falmouth, England March 2020 Type used is Ghibli by Eyad Al-Samman Designed & produced by the author Animated Ecosophy: To what extent is ecosophical theory published in the 20th century applicable to animated media produced by Studio Ghibli between 1984–2015. (6289 words) Chapter 1: Introduction of theory 1.1 - Ecology, ecosophy & kinship (p.2) 1.2 - The Gaia Hypothesis & animism (p.3) 1.3 - Land Ethic (1949) & Silent Spring (1962) [p.6] Chapter 2: Application of theory 2.1 - Historical context & eco-cosmopolitanism (p.14) 2.2 - Studio Ghibli & Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (1984) [p.14] 2.3 - Animism & Pom Poko (1994) [p.18] 2.4 - Further animism within Spirited Away (2001) & Princess Mononoke (1997) [p.22] 2.5 - Nature & Ronja, the Robber’s Daughter (2014–2015) [p.25] 2.6 - The ocean & Ponyo (2008) [p.26] 2.7 - Conclusions (p.29) Parting notes (p.35) Further watching (p.36) 第 1章：理 論 の 紹 介 Chapter 1: Introduction of theory 1.1 - Ecology, ecosophy & kinship viewpoint of the Earth and its resources existing purely for our benefit; whilst Deep Ecology argues that every living organism has inherent worth irrespective of Author’s note: The addition of images to Chapter 1 was potential benefit, though this is up to interpretation, done post-submission for the sake of publication. with Næss writing in 1990 “I do not think it is desirable to do more than tentatively suggest what might be the In the following dissertation I will be exploring the essential ingredients of a deep ecology theoretical point recurring theme of ecological coexistence within Studio of view” (Devall and Næss, 2010). An example of a Ghibli’s animated portfolio (1984–2014), and comparing deep ecological relationship can often be observed best it against philosophical and ecosophical theories within indigenous tribes and communities, untouched proposed throughout the 20th century, identifying by consumerism and greed, but perhaps most notably direct correlations and potential applications. within aboriginal tribes, where anthropomorphism of the natural environment plays a key role in illustrating The term ecology refers to a branch of biology that their belief system. This extension of the moral compass specialises in the interactions and relationships beyond anthropocentrism towards the subjectivity of between living organisms to both each other and nature is referred to as philosophical post-humanism, their environment (Random House, 2005). The an antithesis of humanism (emphasis on human value) roots of ecology can be traced back to Aristotelian [English Wiktionary, Unknown]. observational philosophy in the 4th century, before evolving into a more scientific realm in the 18th and The fundamentals of deep ecology and philosophical 19th centuries (Egerton, 2001). Charles Darwin is post-humanism for some imply an associative kinship, widely known for nurturing the notion of evolution and a belief that all nature maintains commonality ecology in its infancy (Darwin 1859) and growing it into (Cambridge University Press, 1995) and therefore value a form more closely related to what people understand (to some). Whilst perhaps an idealistic notion, it also today. It’s important to note the relationship between faces challenges from the viewpoint that if everything ecology and environmentalism when discussing either. holds equal value, then it also holds no value at the However whilst a distinct overlap exists, the terms are same time. If an expensive/luxury item is suddenly not interchangeable. Ecology refers to a more scientific made free and widely available to the masses, by viewpoint, while environmentalism refers to a more definition it doesn’t maintain its luxury status. The philosophical one. The term ecosophy (ecological + attribution of value to an object is arguably a social philosophy) has instead been proposed as a middle construct, but by the same logic attribution of value to ground, being described by Norwegian philosopher a river, a plant, or even a person is too. If one foregoes Arne Næss (one of the key figures attributed with the idea of equal value, and instead looks at it from coining and developing the term) as a philosophy of a quantitative perspective, then how can value be “ecological harmony or equilibrium” (Drengson and measured? By the pleasure it gives us (utilitarianism)? Inoue, 1995). In cultures that practice Hinduism cows are regarded Næss (1912–2009) is widely associated with fathering as sacred, but in the UK 2.6 million are slaughtered the modern Scandinavian environmental movement, each year for meat (Humane Slaughter Association, but also for his teachings relating to the relationship unknown). Which attribution of value is correct? In between Earth and its inhabitants. When illustrating the context of cultural relativism- the idea that a ecosophy Næss described a distinct difference in how culture’s traditions and beliefs cannot be judged from we interact with our home, separating approaches the position of another, invalidating the existence of or into either shallow or deep forms of ecology (Næss need for external moral absolutes (Oxford, Unknown), and Sessions, 1984). Shallow Ecology refers to a more neither is; but if the idea of cultural relativism was exploitative and surface-level relationship, with a 2 created out of a necessity to address disparities regarded to scientists as a weak and unfounded between cultures from an ethical standing, is kinship argument, with little evidence of self-regulation even possible in the face of sometimes very stark existing. Unlike the credibility of the theory however, cultural differences? One prominent thinker, French the fantastical and sometimes horrific notion of an anthropologist (study of humans) Claude Lévi-Strauss adaptive and self-sustaining planet became a popular proposed that all cultures are connected by immutable trope across many international creative sectors structures. Later referred to as structural anthropology, throughout the latter half of the 20th century. Lévi-Strauss’ theory suggested that as a result of these inherent structures, seemingly unique cultural The attribution of essence to an inanimate object traditions often had equivalent practises elsewhere, is often referred to as animism (derived from the often as a result of homology (independently developed Latin word anima, translated loosely to life or spirit) systems derived from common ancestors) [Lévi-strauss, [Oxford Latin Dictionary, 1982], and despite being 1974]. In the context of ecology and kinship, despite observed predominantly in religious cultures has our sometimes immeasurable differences, cultures are seen a resurgence within modern environmentalist linked by a deeper, hereditary connection. movements as a vehicle for positive change, and in one case, resulted in the attribution of personhood 1.2 - The Gaia Hypothesis & upon a lake. In February 2019, following decades of abuse at the hands of local farmers, Lake Erie in Ohio animism became a legally recognised person. Local residents of Toledo drafted an impassioned plea advocating for the The view of the planet as a whole, living being can be necessity of action before the lake became unsaveable, traced back to Greek and Roman mythology, but would after water access was stopped during a heat wave later be revisited in the 20th century within the work following a phosphorous leak in 2014 (Macfarlane, of James Lovelock & Lynn Margulis, who in the 1970’s 2019). In a capitalism-dominated, western civilisation put forward the Gaia Hypothesis (Lovelock, 1967). with little presence of more environmentally conscious Named after the Greek goddess and personification religions such as Buddhism, the action of the Toledo of the Earth, it proposes that the Earth exists and residents to protect the lake stands out a notable operates as a unified and complex system, built up of victory for the validity of contemporary western both living and non-living organisms. Living in synergy environmentalism. Similar application of personhood with its inhabitants, the Earth is able to self-regulate its to natural objects has been observed globally, ranging conditions to maintain a state of habitable homoeostasis from cultural reasons, such as the Whanganui River irrespective of adversity (Lovelock and Margulis, 1974). in New Zealand, ancestral home to many Maori tribes Under this theory, it’s sometimes proposed that in (Warne 2019); to a necessity to protect the entirety the face of human-caused ecological stress the planet of nature, as included in the constitution of Ecuador can adapt accordingly. This observation is inherently (GARN, 2008). harmful and to an extent promotes the sustainability In Articles 71–74 of their 2008 Constitution, the of a shallow ecological belief system. There’s also a country decreed that “nature, or Pacha Mama [Mother distinctly selfish and anthropocentric narrative woven Nature], where life is reproduced and occurs, has into the Gaia Hypothesis, leading to the question of who the right to integral respect for its existence and for the optimal conditions for survival are for? Humans? the maintenance and regeneration of its life cycles, Animals? Bacteria? Given the irreversible harm humans structure, functions and evolutionary processes.” have caused to the planet, could climate change be (Ecuadorian Constituent Assembly, 2008) Drafted over the