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LEXICAL AND ONOMASIOLOGICAL CONCORDANCES ΑMONG GREEK DIALECTS OF MAGNA GRECIA, , AND SOUTH

DORIS K. KYRIAZIS

Abstract

Taking into account that Balkan Sprachbund was probably formed during the medieval period, the history of the contacts of the two Ionian shores may be divided in its pre-Balkan and Balkan periods. Consequently, in order to approach these two periods, we must have this methodological issue in mind. The examination of the linguistic material of the Greek (and occasionally supplemental of the Albanian) language in these areas indicates that there is a diachronic continuum with pockets of partial discontinuity/diversification, resulting from the network of contacts of the west and east coasts of the Ionian Sea.

0. Introduction The objective of this paper is to reveal information, unknown to the present date, that reinforce the idea that the provinces of South Italy, Ionian Islands, the coastline of Epirus and South Albania are part of a language continuum with separate lexical, onomasiological and grammatical isoglosses. By language continuum we understand a broad geographical area characterized by a language tissue, however, this does not exclude the presence of various elements (continuum in the non- continuum). Having in mind that Balkan Sprachbund was probably formed during the medieval period, the history of the contacts of the two Ionian shores may be divided in its pre-Balkan and Balkan periods. Consequently, in

2 Chapter Number order to approach these two periods, we must have this methodological issue in mind. The examination of the linguistic material of the Greek (and occasionally supplemental of the Albanian) language in these areas indicates that there is a diachronic continuum1 with pockets of partial discontinuity/diversification, resulting from the network of contacts of the west and east coasts of the Ionian Sea. Besides the common and barely traceable ‘Mediterranean’ substratum (see the place names Maja e Karosit in the Qeparó region of Chimara (Sotiri 2001: 269), which survives as a common noun in Southern Italy: κάρρος “cerro” (attested by 1056), see also καρρός· φυτόν found in Hesychius as well as the noun kárru “cerro” in Bova, that Caracausi 1990: 1982 considers as “termine del sostrato”), there is also a shared Doric substratum. Although we have a more complete view of said substratum regarding Magna Grecia (Rohlfs, Καραναστάση et al.), related data on the coastline of contemporary Southern Albania has neither been exhaustively collected, nor systematically studied.

1. Lexical and/or onomasiological concordances Before we go on with the presentation of the material, it is necessary to clarify that, as we shall see, it is hard to distinguish between common nouns and place names, since in one area they be saved as common names and in another as place names. For instance, the word βράχλο (< βλάχρον, Hesychius) is found either as a common noun or as a place name in Southern Italy: to láhri, Lahríto (Rohlfs 1964: 87, w. βλάχριον, and *λάχριον 291, Rohlfs 1972: 96); in Arta-Avlona: βράχους ο∙ in the village of Chimara: βράγχνα η (Μπόγκας 1966: Β΄ 82); in : το βράχλο, η βλάχλα, η βράχλα∙ in the islands of : ο βράχλος (Andriotis 1974: 177, w. βλάχνον); in Othoni and Ereikoussa (near Corfu): βράχλο and βραχλαριά / βραχλιά / αβραχλιά (Λουκάτου 2012: 170, 393, 396); in Politsiani, Pogoni and Douviani, Dropoli: Βράχλα (Κουλίδας 2005: 73, 168); in Droviani: Βλαχούρια (Κουλίδας 2005: 264); in Divri: Βλάχουρας (Κίτσιος 2006: 186); in Kakodiki, Delvino: βλάχαρος (Shiko 2006: 116).

1 “Wenn wir mit Genauigkeit die Geschichte der griechischen sprachlichen Präsenz in Unteritalien beschreiben wollen, dürfen wir nicht einfach von einer Kontinuität sprechen, sondern von einer ‘dynamischen Kontinuität’”. (Tzitzilis 2004: 481). 2 See also κάρ-ρο ο (*κάρρος) “type of large oak”. (Καραναστάση 1988: 85).

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The word κνύζα is also traced to the particular area in types that originate in the Doric κνῦζα “Flöhkraut” (Rohlfs 1964: 257, w. κόνυζα), such as kliza, kriza, klisa (Southern Italy, Rohlfs ibidem), γρούζο, γρούζα in Epirus and κρούζα in Corfu (Tzitzilis 1997: 204). It is also found in Albanian-speaking villages close to Chimara as grúzë, krúzë (Qeparό) as well as onogrúzë (< *ονόγρουζα < *ονόκνυζα, Κυριαζής 2007: 208). See also the place name Kriza in Shalës, Konispol (Rrapaj 1995: 124). In this way, two characteristic plant names indicate to us one of the future research directions regarding the idioms under examination. Additionally, the existence of words that might possibly retain the digamma in the village of Chimara and in Arta-Avlona: βρόζος “ρόζος/knot” and βράγα “ρώγα σταφυλιού/grape”, that are also found respectively in Macedonia3 and Southern Italy4, suggest the archaic character of these idioms. In general, in the case of the place names of the specific region, G. Rohlfs’s observation on the material of Southern Italy (Salento) which states that place names accented on the last syllable derive from the existing Greek linguistic substratum5, usually applies. See for instance, the name Παγά (a Doric form of πηγή “spring”, Alb. Pagá) which is found in three different points along the coastline of Chimara (Bajrami 2004: 262) and in the isle of Kefalonia (Μηλιαράκη 1890: 19). At Qeparó village of Chimara, apart from the name itself with the suffix –ηρός, there is a plethora of oxyton place names such as: Argilé < αγριλιά < αγριελαία, Cparté < σπαρτιά < σπαρτέα, Goné < γωνιά < γωνέα, Kakoná < Κακωνάς, Kastrí < καστρί, Litharé < λιθαριά < λιθαρέα, Lizikó < ριζικό, Ngallatá < γαλατάς, Orotó < αροτός etc. (Sotiri 2001: 250, 255, 258, 259, 261, 267, 268, 272, 272 respectively). The place name Strakëná, which is heard in folk Albanian songs of Chimara and refers to the islands of Ereikoussa and Othoní, is also found in Kallarat: Vafsh në Strakëna! and in Drymades: Να πας σ(τ)α Σ(τ)ραχνά! (Go to hell/ Go to the place where there is no coming back!). Τhe attested type Aστακονήσι, which is another name for the isle Othoni, allows us to

3 See Tzitzilis 2008: 234, where based on the word βρόζος of the idiom of mountainous Pieria, the issue of retaining the digamma is discussed. 4 Rohlfs 1964: 435, w. ῥάξ (ῥάγα), notes the words vráva, vrá, grá “chicco di uva” (Otranto), relating them with anc. Gr. *βράγα (vielleicht aus ϝράγα ?). See also Rohlfs 1972: 99. 5 “Fra gli elementi più sicuri che parlano in favore di un sostrato greco nella toponomastica del Salento si possono citare i toponimi con accentuazione ossitona.” (Rohlfs 1972: 41).

4 Chapter Number reconstruct a Doric type *Οστ(ρ)ακονάσιον6, from which the Strakëná (< *Strakoná) might derive, as in the case of place name Karavastá < Καραβοστάσιον (SW Albania). Another etymological approach of this name is based on the plural of the adjective οστρακινόν / οστρακινά, which most probably expresses one of the qualities of these islands. The plural form confirms indirectly that “… the small islands Othoni and Ereikoussa … in the area of Chimara are known under the names of Dymal [two mountains] and Strakëna.”7. Τhe place names Hostón (“the eastern part of the coast, where the rocky part emerges”) < χωστός, -ή, -όν “made by earth thrown up”8, Orotó “a place with vines in the past and olive grove today” < αροτός, -ή, -όν “arable”9 in Qeparó, Petastó “mountain located between Krórëzα /Ακρόρριζα and Kakomé/Κουκαμιά” (< *πεταστός < πετάζω), Plakotó “flat” (< πλακωτός) in Hundecovë, and many other oxytones (Hamalló, a mountain in Ag. Saranda, < ομαλός “smooth”, Soroné10, Greek Σορωνιά, Σορωνέα “a place full of oaks close to Ag. Saranda”, etc) confirm the presence of the in these regions. The place name Σορωνιά is also found in Corfu (Χρυσικόπουλου 2009: 28111), probably in Crete (Sagrogna, dated by 1590, Αρακαδάκη 2000: 116) and in Rhodes (Σορωνή, η) meaning “holm oaks forest” (Παπαχριστοδούλου 1951: 66), and is linked to the ancient σορωνίς, ἡ, and σαρωνίς, -ίδος “old holm oak with a hollow”, see Hesychius σαρωνίδες∙ πέτραι. ἣ αἱ διὰ παλαιότητα κεχυνυῖαι δρύες, σορωνίς∙ ἐλάτη παλαιά, as well as with the ancient place name Σόρων, -ωνος, ὁ “oak forest in Arkadia” (Συμεωνίδης 2010: Β΄ 1292-93, making reference to Pape – Benseler 1911). The place name Σορωνιά (Soroniá) in Douviani, Dropolis is remarkable given that the village name Δούβιανη (Douviani) refers to the Slavic *Dǫbjane “residents of an area with holm oaks” < Old Slavic dǫbъ “holm oak”, see econyme Δουβιανά (Douviana) in Nikopolis and Parga

6 “Τα λέγανε [τους Οθωνούς] φιδόνησα και αστακόνησα.” (Λουκάτου 2012: 284). 7 “… ishujt e vegjël grekë Erikusa e Othonus (që në krahinën e Himarës njihen me emrat Dymal e Strakëna), përkatësisht 18 e 20 milje larg brigjeve tona të Jonit.” (Andoni 2001: 147). 8 Liddell & Scott, Greek-English Lexicon, Oxford 1968. 9 Liddell & Scott, Greek-English Lexicon, Oxford 1968. 10 See Albanian popular verses Vetëtin në Sorone, / merre brucin, mos e le. / Vetëtin në Amallo, / merr qetë, ec e puno. (Rrapaj 1991: 64). 11 In a document of 1557, from Corfu, we read that “έδωσεν ένα κομμάτι τόπον άγριον και λογκώδη … εις την περιοχήν χωρίου Σπαρτερού εις τόπον λεγάμενον εις το Σορωνιά…” (Χρυσικόπουλου 2009: 280).

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(Συμεωνίδης 2010: Α΄ 487). It should be added that the village name Φράστανη (Frastani) next to Douviani goes back to the Slavic *chvrastino “with holm oaks” (Συμεωνίδης 1992: 47). The west feet of the mount Μπουρέτο (Buréto) is the natural East border between Dropolis and Pogoni and there can be found the place name Οψέλλα12 “name of the second mineral water spring and of the place around it, north of the village’ (Glina 5713), whereas on the East side of Bureto there used to be a village rich in waters, Οψάδα (Sopikí). These place names referring to springs or places with waters is most probably related to the names of other springs in the broader area: Κάκοψος (Theologos, Ag. Saranda), Κάλοψος (Theologos, Ag. Saranda), Καλόψη “a very beautiful and green place full of fruit-bearing trees and spring water, between the church of Ag. Andreas and of Kontorachio” (Ag. Andreas – Ag. Saranda, Kourtis 2009: 73), Κάλοψον, Κάκοψον (Chimara, Βαγιακάκος 1983: 19, without distinguishing whether it is about sources or fields), but also Σανερό (a spring in Paliassa), Εφτάβρυσος (Βαγιακάκος op.cit.) and Αφτάς14 (σον Αφτά), probably Φιτάς as well, if we consider an Albanian folk song of the area15. The above names most probably refer to the verbs ἔψω and ὀπτάω, and more specifically to the ancient adjectives *κάλοψος (καλός + ἔψω, Andriotis 1974: 292), *κάκοψος, and ὀπτός (Andriotis 1974: 413), included in Modern Greek idioms. So, in , they use the adjectives κάκοψος “δύσβραστος/not easy-to-boil” and κάλοψος (place) “the soil producing easy-to-cook legumes and cabbage” (Τσιτσέλης 1875: 211, 214 respectively), however, in Corfu, κάλοψος means “tasty, nutritional”, and the substantive κάκοψος means “dry nut with tasteless nut and hard shell” (Χυτήρης 1992: 69, 71 respectively). To interpret the place names Σανερό (<*οψανερό) we are assisted by the adjective ψανός “easy-to-boil, tender, good quality” (, Λάζαρη 1970: 206). The word οφτός (πτ > φτ) is found in medieval texts (Κριαράς XIV 21), as well as in Modern Greek idioms (Andriotis 1974, w. ὀπτός). As for the meaning of the roots οψ- and οφτ- in the previously mentioned place names, it is most probably to refer to the “hardness” of spring water or to the “easy-to-cook” cultivation produce. Regarding the water, in the areas of Ag. Saranda and Delvino, the word χωνευτικός “digestive” is frequently used: Καλλιστάς ‘spring with excellent digestive water’ (Divri, Kitsios 2006: 20).

12 We keep the orthography of cited works. 13 References on Κουλίδας 2005. 14 For place names with suffix –άς see Amantos 1903: 35. 15 …për ujë të Fitait. (Veizi 1998: 192).

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The case of the place name Palortó, which is the name of a suburb in the city of Gjirokastër, also presents some interest. Starting from the fact that the other suburbs have names such as Cfákë (< σφάκα) and Granícë (Bulg. granitsa “type of oak”, see name γρανίτσα “type of tree [=oak]” in Droviani of Epirus, Μπόγκας 1966 : Β΄ 17), both being place names based on plant names, we can assume that Palortó refers to the Greek word παλιουρωτό. The place name Παλιουρωτός (< παλιούρι + -ωτός) is found in Corfu (Καρύδης & Τζιβάρα 2009: 119), but also in a document of Ali Pasha archive which refers to the city of Gjirokastër (doc. 1500, date 28.4.1804, of the 5th volume, under publication). Besides, in nearby Greek speaking villages of Dropolis, we find the place names Παλιουριά and Παλιουρίδα (Κουλίδας 2005: 52, 63), that reinforce the suggested etymology.

2. Some special cases: suffixal concordances All the above reveal the relation of the Ionian Islands with the opposite coasts of Epirus and more specifically with Chimara, Delvino and Ag. Saranda. Their close contacts with Corfu and other nearby islands is also known. They are conclusive to this observation along with some other place name comprehensive suffixes such as -ήλας/-ίλας16, found exclusively in Corfu and the opposite coasts of Epirus: Dropolis (Κουλίδας 2005): Ντριζίλας < Alb. drizë ‘undergrowth’ (Kossovitsa 131, Longos 156), Vourkos, Delvino: Κοκκίλας, Γραβίλας, Σπαρτίλας (Krania, Αναγνώστης 2007: 209, 210), Γραβίλας, Κοκκίλας, Μποτσίλας (Divri, Κίτσιος 2006: 186), Αγρίλας “was the name for Agrilas and the numerous agriliá” (Divri, Κίτσιος 2006: 125), Ετίλας “place with willows” (Germa Ag.Saranda). Also see Αρίλας, Σπαρτίλας (Corfu, Amantos 1903: 7)∙ - ωνιά: Μελισσωνιά in Droviani, Βατωνιά in Corfu and Ροδωνιά in Cephalonia, etc. (Andriotis 1974: 613). Special note should be made for the comprehensive place name suffix –έος, which, as we have stated (Κυριαζής 2007: 205), is exclusively found in the three Greek speaking villages of Chimara and is one of the particular characteristics of the local idiom. In modern consideration, comprehensive place names, such as Δραλέος, Ελατέος, Κασανέος, Παπρέος “place, respectively, with oaks, fir trees, chestnuts, papyrus” etc., are considered to be nominatives and are usually found in accusative: σον

16 I. Thomopoulos (Θωμόπουλου 1986: 196-200) refers to the ancient Doric suffix -ῆλος. Symeonidis (Συμεωνίδης 1992: 41) initially adopted this view but later on he suggested a different etymology (Συμεωνίδης 2005).

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Κασανέο, σον Δραλέο, which, in turn, were the basis to form the types of Kastané and Dhralé of the local Albanian idiom. This interpretation should be reviewed under the light of new data which we came across recently. The wealth of the place names offered by

Πρακτικόν της αγιωτάτης επισκοπής Κεφαληνίας εκτεθέν και πληρωθέν επί άρχοντος μεν κόντε Ρεκιάρδου, αρχιερατεύοντος δε Ενρίκου τινός το όνομα από κτίσεως κόσμου έτει εξακισχιλιοστώ επτακοσιοστώ εβδομηκοστώ δευτέρω ινδικτιώνι εβδόμη δωδεκάτη ισταμένου ιουλίου μηνός by which, as Miklosich and Müller (V 16-67) notes,

Comes Palatinus Ricardus Orsini dominus Cephaloniae, Zacynthi’ et Ithacae confirmat possessiones ecclesiae Zacynthi ad instantia episcopi Henrici the diachronic approach of the matter is made feasible. At the text of Praktikon17, dated from the middle of 13th century, (mainly) place names based on plant names appear with an unusual frequence, in the genitive, such as του Σπαρτέως, του Δαφνέως and, apparently, the ασυνίζητον/asynizeton was widespread in the Ionian Islands; then, it progressively receded and was preserved in peripheral areas (S. Italy, Chimara). We can assume that from the uses του Δραλέως, του Κασανέως, του Παπ(υ)ρέως, του Μυρτέως and through the re-analysis we came up with types such as σον Δραλέο, σον Κασανέο, σον Παπρέο, σο Μυρτέο and then formed their nominatives in -έος. We believe, that in the same category fall other proprietory place names such as Λογαράς, found in Praktikon (Τζαννετάτου 1965: 151) and in medieval documents in S. Italy (Caracausi 1990: 342, attested by year 1102). Through this last one, we can interpret the place name Λογαράς/Λογοράς (Alb. Llogará, Llogorá) in the area of Chimara, as well as other place names which shall be the object of a later special study. For instance, Praktikon confirms the existence of the common name δρυάλιο, appearing to be a place name (χωράφιον του Δρυαλίου)18 and the Κριαράς Lexicon refers to it as “αμάρτυρο/non attested”19. This

17 See, i.e, το μεν αρμάκιν καλείται του Δαφνέως, εν τη θέσει του Θρομβέως, του Μαρανθέως, του Μυρτινέως, του Πρινέως, του Πτερέως etc. (Τζαννετάτου 1965: 144, 146, 152, 153, 156, 157 respectively). 18 Τζαννετάτου 1965: 144. 19 δρύαλος (ο) “(prob.) holm oak” < s. δρυάριον (found in Eυστάθιος) < *δρυάλιον and magn.suffix –ος. (Κριαράς Ε΄ 223).

8 Chapter Number substantive is found in the place name Δραλέος/Dhralé in Δρυμάδες/Drymades Chimara. Same for the place name Βιγλατόριον (Praktikon, Τζαννετάτου 1965: 142), plural Βιγλατόρια, appearing in Chimara as Bλατόρια (< σα Βλατόρια) also found in the Albanian version as Bregu Avllatójt (Asllani 1999: 159). In the area of Dropolis, Gjirokastër, we find the place names Ταρανίδα (Vrissera 50, Pepeli 165), Ταρανίδες “narrow places that do not produce much” (Vodhino 28), Ταροΐνα “name of fields in the plain” (Ano Episkopi 81, Radates 176), Τραγανή “small hill with trees around, kermes oak and elms” (Longos 159)20, etc. From the above names, Ταρανίδα, Ταρανίδες, Ταροΐνα, Τραγανή are found at the same time as Τράχωνας in Chios, and Τράχωνες in Attica (Amantos 1903: 25), Τραχώνιν in Cyprus (Andriotis 1974: 557, τραχών ο sgr. Rauhe, steinige Gegend), Τααγών [Τaaγóń] in Samothrace (Katsanis 1996: 236), Trahè in S. Italy (Rohlfs 1964: 509, τραχύς “felsig”), Τραχεία “dry rock” in (Λουκάτου 2012: 107), Ραχώνες (<σ(τ)Ραχώνες, changing st > s) in Chimara, where we can also find the place name Κακο[τ]ραχώνες. We believe that the place name Ταρανίδα is the basis of the Αlb. place name Taronínë (definitive form Taronína), found to the north of Dropolis, at the village Fushëbardhë (Burimi i Taroninës “spring of Τ.”, Qafa e Taroninës “passage/narrow mountain pass of Τ.”), the name of which (fushë “plain”, e bardhë “white”) is most probably due to the rocky ground (Muho & Norra 2009: 8, 62). This etymology is also founded to the existence, around the area of Fushëbardhë, of place names such as Stavrói/Stravói (< σταυρός), Pillói (< πηλός) and Luadhëró, Luvadhorói (< λιβαδερό). Regarding the suffix –ίδα of Ταρανίδα, we take a note that it is found in other place names of Dropolis as well (Παλιουρίδα “place with dense palourus spinus” Sofratika 241, and Droviani 266), but also in the Albanian speaking area of Rrëzómë (Ριζά, Ριζώματα), NW of Delvinο: Te Rrapi në Platanidhë (Kondi 1986: 57).

3. Diachronic lexical concordances Concerning the relations between the two coasts, it is worth noting the findings from Arta-Avlona, where the words μάχτρα “utensil for the preparation of bread” (Hesychius, Andriotis 1974: 364, w. μάκτρα) and βρούκουλους “grasshopper” (βροῦκος· ὰκρίδων εἶδος. Hesychius, Andriotis 1974: 188, w. βρούκος), which, according to present data, are traced only in the Greek dialect of Southern Italy and not in the rest of the Greek idioms of the broader region (Κυριαζής 2012). Similar lexical

20 References on Κουλίδας 2005.

Chapter Title 9 concordances exist between Chimara and Southern Italy such as: αθέρας “beard of the wheat”, θερμός “boiled water” (Μπόγκας 1966: Β΄ 80, 84 respectively) and aθéra “id.” (Rohlfs 1964: 16), termó “id.” (Καραναστάση 1988: Ε΄ 139), onogrúzë “γρούζο” (*ονόκνυζα) Chimara, see w. anápoδo “Art hohe Distel” (< ονόπορδον, Rohlfs 1964: 363), as well as gruzëgomáre “*ονόγρουζο” (Qeparό), and fëndëdosë “kind of grass” (fëndë “πορδή/fart” + dosë “γουρούνα/sow”), see also γουρνιόπο[ρ]δας “kind of plant” (Corfu) < Anc.Gr. κορωνόπους (Κρεκούκιας 1982: 100). Regarding the diachronic contacts of the Greek and the Albanian languages, mention should also be made of the Albanian word puhí/-a “αύρα/aura”, which probably derives from the Greek απογεία (αύρα), and found in the types puía, pujía etc. in Southern Italy (Rohfs 1964: 47). On the other hand, the word άχαλα (τα) “vagliatura di grano”, which is traced to Southern Italy and Corfu and whose source remains unclear (Rohlfs 1964: 72), seems to be associated with the Albanian hála-t “beards”, which derives from the IE root *skolnā (Çabej SE IV 1996: 350). The same word is also found in Greek speaking villages of Delvino as άχαλα, and in Thesprotia region as τσάχαλο (Μήτση 2002: 139). Finally, the occasionally common historical heritage of the two coasts is illustrated, for instance, by the traces of Arabic not only in Southern Italy but also in the Greek and Albanian idioms of the South-West Albania. The appellative harcë-a “sharp rock, or sharp stones” is probably of Arabian descent and is also found as a place name in Piqeras, Maj’ e Harcës. We find the same root in the word harcale -ia “place with sharp rocks”, which is also found as a place name Harcále (Kadafiqi me Harcale, Çorraj). This last word is comparable to the Greek idiomatic χάρτσαλο “place with rocks and stones” (Delvino, Argyrokastro), which was probably formed from the w. *χάρτσο and the suffix –αλο (Ανδριώτης 1983: 14). We connect the Albanian word harcë to its counterpart χαρσία [or χάρσια] of the Greek of Sicily (attested by 1141), “terreno roccioso, non coltivabile” < Arab. haraš “scabrosita”, harš “bosco, foresta” (Caracausi 1990: 618). Alternatively, Çabej (1996: 355) interprets the word by relating it to the Alb. verb harr, har “sarcler, émonder, leaguer”. Another word, this time of Italian-Venetian origin, is Alb. rrumpállë “noise, mess”, mainly found in the area of Chimara, which responds here to the local Greek idiom as ρούμπαλα “mess, catastrophe”. The two words of both the Greek and the Albanian idiom of Chimara are most probably related with the word ρουμπαραρούμ in Corfu “expressing catastrophe,

10 Chapter Number turmoil, demolition, upside down” (Αγγελόπουλος 2008: 256), most probably going back to the Italian verb rubare “plunder”. Among the aforementioned idioms, certain grammatical isoglosses are observed, which we intend to present in some other paper.

References

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