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ARTICLE in PRESS EPSL-09719; No of Pages 8 Earth and Planetary Science Letters Xxx (2009) Xxx–Xxx ARTICLE IN PRESS EPSL-09719; No of Pages 8 Earth and Planetary Science Letters xxx (2009) xxx–xxx Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Earth and Planetary Science Letters journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/epsl 1 Regular articles 2 Could Pantheon Fossae be the result of the Apollodorus crater^-forming impact within 3 the Caloris Basin, Mercury? 4 Andrew M. Freed a,⁎, Sean C. Solomon b, Thomas R. Watters c, Roger J. Phillips d, Maria T. Zuber e 5 a Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA 6 b Department of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, DC 20015, USA 7 c Center for Earth and Planetary Studies, National Air and Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC 20560, USA 8 d Planetary Science Directorate, Southwest Research Institute, Boulder, CO 80302, USA 9 e Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA 10 article info abstract OOF 11 12 Article history: 25 The ^~40^-km-diameter Apollodorus impact crater lies near the center of Pantheon Fossae, a complex of 13 Accepted 20 February 2009 radiating linear troughs itself at the approximate center of the 1500-km-diameter Caloris basin on Mercury. 26 14 Available online xxxx Here we use a series of finite element models to explore the idea that the Apollodorus crater-forming impact 27 15 induced the formation of radially oriented graben by altering a pre-existing extensional stress state. Graben 28 16 Editor: T. Spohn in the outer portions of the Caloris basin, which displayPR predominantly circumferential orientations, have 29 191718 been taken as evidence that the basin interior was in a state of horizontal extensional stress as a result of 30 20 Keywords: fi 31 21 Mercury uplift. If the Apollodorus crater formed at the time of such a stress state, impact-induced damage to basin ll 22 Caloris basin material would have caused basin material to move radially outward, leading to a decrease in the radial 32 23 Pantheon Fossae extensional stress and an increase in the circumferential stress. If this change in differential stress was 33 24 Apollodorus crater sufficient to induce failure, the predicted style of faulting would be radial graben extending outward from the 34 exterior crater rim. The ~230-km radial extent of Pantheon Fossae implies, by this scenario, that the 35 Apollodorus impact generated a large damage zone, extending to perhaps three crater radii (~60 km) or 36 more. The calculations also suggest, under this scenario, that the Caloris basin fill had greater strength than 37 the surrounding crust and that the basin uplift and extensional stress field prior to the Apollodorus impact 38 were close to azimuthally symmetric. The location of Pantheon Fossae very near the center of the Caloris 39 basin appears to be coincidental; any crater similar in size to Apollodorus and located within ~300 km of the 40 basin center could have produced a radiating set of graben by the mechanism explored here. 41 424344 © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 45 46 1. Introduction is the ~40-km-diameter Apollodorus crater. The near-coincidence of 62 the center of symmetry for Pantheon Fossae and Apollodorus crater 63 47 One of the most remarkable surface features imaged by the raises the question as to whether the two features are causally related. 64 48 MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry, and Ranging Although explanations for Pantheon Fossae unrelated to Apollodorus 65 49 (MESSENGER) spacecraft during its first Mercury flyby (Solomon crater have been suggested (Head et al., 2008; Murchie et al., 2008; 66 50 et al., 2008) was Pantheon Fossae (Fig. 1), a complex of troughs Watters et al., 2009-this issue), in this paper we examine the 67 51 radiating from a location near the center of the Caloris impact basin hypothesis that the two features are physically linked. Specifically, 68 52 (Murchie et al., 2008; Watters et al., 2009-this issue). The troughs are we explore whether the Apollodorus crater-forming impact modified 69 53 interpreted as simple graben formed in response to near-surface the state of stress within the central Caloris basin floor in a manner 70 54 extensional stresses in the basin interior. The radially oriented graben that led to the formation of many, if not all, of the graben of Pantheon 71 55 appear to be part of a larger pattern of extensional features within the Fossae. 72 56 basin floor; beyond about 300NCORRECTED km radial distance from the basin We begin with a brief overview of the imaging observations of 73 57 center the graben are more typically circumferential to the basin Pantheon Fossae, Apollodorus crater, and their geological relations to 74 58 rather than radial, although radial trends are also seen and the distal other features within the floor of the Caloris basin. We then explore 75 59 graben in places formU a polygonal pattern (Watters et al., 2005). 76 constraints on and models for the state of near-surface stress within 60 Pantheon Fossae is noteworthy as well because within a few the Caloris basin at or near the time of the Apollodorus crater-forming 77 61 kilometers of the projected center of the radiating pattern of troughs impact. We apply the concept of impact-induced damage to estimate, 78 by means of finite element models, the change in lithospheric stress 79 80 ⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 765 496 3738; fax: +1 765 496 1210. and strain that would accompany such an impact. We investigate the E-mail address: [email protected] (A.M. Freed). affect on those solutions of different assumptions regarding the 81 0012-821X/$ – see front matter © 2009 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.02.038 Please cite this article as: Freed, A.M., et al., Could Pantheon Fossae be the result of the Apollodorus crater^-forming impact within the Caloris Basin, Mercury? Earth and Planetary Science Letters (2009), doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2009.02.038 ARTICLE IN PRESS 2 A.M. Freed et al. / Earth and Planetary Science Letters xxx (2009) xxx–xxx Fig. 1. (A) Tectonic map of the Caloris basin showing graben (black) and wrinkle ridges (red), overlaid on a high-resolution narrow-angle camera mosaic constructed from MESSENGER and Mariner 10 images. (B) MESSENGER image of Pantheon Fossae; the area of the image is indicated by the white box in (A). (C) Close-up of Apollodorus crater and its relation to the proximal graben of Pantheon Fossae. Adapted from Murchie et al. (2008). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) 82 detailed state of stress at the time of impact, the radial extent of 3. Pre-Apollodorus stress state 125 83 damage, the thickness of the mechanical lithosphere at the time of 84 impact, and any contrast in strength between different rock types If the Apollodorus crater is relatedOOF to the formation of Pantheon 126 85 within the Caloris basin floor. We also explore the sensitivity of the Fossae, a likely explanation is that the Apollodorus impact modified a 127 86 models for stress state change to the particular location of the pre-existing state of stress. We presume that the stress state 128 87 Apollodorus impact relative to the center of the basin. We conclude immediately prior to the formation of the Apollodorus crater may 129 88 with an assessment of the likelihood that the formation of the be specified by one of the recent models of Kennedy et al. (2008) for 130 89 Apollodorus crater led to the formation of the graben of Pantheon stress and deformation in and around the Caloris basin. In that study a 131 90 Fossae, as well as the future observations that would permit the idea series of axisymmetric finite element models were used to test a range 132 91 to be tested further. of lithospheric loading scenarios to account for the observation from 133 Mariner 10 images that predominantly basin-concentric contractional 134 92 2. Observations of faulting within Caloris basin features predate dominantly basin-concentric extensional features on 135 the outer floor of the basin (neither the innermost portions of the floor 136 93 Pantheon Fossae consists of more than 200 linear troughs that nor the entire western half of the basin were imaged during the 137 94 radiate out from a locus near the center of the Caloris basin (Fig. 1, Mariner 10 flybys). From these axisymmetric models, it was shown 138 95 Murchie et al., 2008; Watters et al., 2009-this issue). The graben range that the earlier contractional features on the basin floor are consistent 139 96 in length from about 5 to 110 km and in width from less than 1 km to with subsidence accompanying a flexural response to partial basin 140 97 as much as 8 km (Murchie et al., 2008). A large number of graben infilling by smooth plains deposits, presumed to be volcanic in origin. 141 98 extend outward from the center of the Caloris basin in virtually all A variety of fill thicknesses, emplacement scenarios, and lithospheric 142 99 directions to radial distances as great at 230 km. Some graben thicknesses are consistent with the observed pattern of interior 143 100 continue outward to greater distances within limited azimuthal bandsECTEDcontractional faulting associated PR with subsidence. 144 101 (Murchie et al., 2008; Watters et al., 2009-this issue), and the distal Models that accounted for the locations of contractional features to 145 102 portions of some of the radiating graben were seen in Mariner 10 500-km radial distance from the basin center required surface loading 146 103 images and mapped as part of the polygonal pattern of basin- of nearly uniform thickness over most of the basin.
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