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History...... 64 Antarctica...... 136 . . . . . 209 ...... 286 ...... 338 In Popular Culture. . . . 66 Great Barrier Reef. . . 138 . . . . 210 ...... 287 Borrelly...... 340. The Amazon Rainforest. . . 140 ...... 288 /1861 G1 Thatcher. . 341 Universe ...... 68 Ngorongoro Conservation ...... 212 Shepherd . . . . 289 Churyamov- Orientation...... 72 Area...... 142 Orientation...... 216 Gerasimenko . . . . . 342 Contents Magnetosphere. . . . . 73 Great Wall of China. . . 144 ...... 217 ...... 290 -Bopp...... 343 History...... 74 History...... 218 Orientation...... 294 Halle ...... 344. BepiColombo Mission. . 76 The ...... 146 . . . . 222 Magnetosphere. . . . 295 Hartley 2...... 345 In Popular Culture. . . . 77 Orientation...... 150 System...... 224 History...... 296 ONIS ...... 346. . . . . . 79 History...... 152 Surface...... 225 In Popular Culture. . . . 299 ’Oumuamua...... 347. In Popular Culture. . . 156 Shoemaker-Levy 9 . . . 348 Foreword...... 6 . . . . 80 ...... 226 Surface/Atmosphere. 301 ...... 81 Apollo 11...... 158 Oceans ...... 227 Ring ...... 302 Swift-Tuttle...... 349 Orbital Gateway. . . . 160 Tempel 1...... 350 Introduction to the . . 82 Magnetosphere. . . . 228 ...... 303 Universe...... 8 Caloris Montes. . . . . 83 Lunar ...... 161 Mission ...... 230 ...... 304 Tempel-Tuttle. . . . . 351 Scale of the Universe. . 10 of Tranquility. . . . 163 ...... 232 ...... 306 Wild 2...... 352 Modern Observing ...... 84 Pole-Aitken ...... 234 Other Moons ...... 308 Crater ...... 164 Methods...... 12 Orientation...... 88 ...... 236 Oort ...... 353 Copernicus Crater. . . 165 Today’s . . . 14. Atmosphere...... 90 ...... 238 Non-Planetary Montes Apenninus . . . 166 How to Use This Book. 16 History...... 91 Objects ...... 310 ...... 354 Oceanus Procellarum .167 Naming Conventions . . 18 In Popular Culture. . . . 94 Saturn ...... 242 2MASS J2126-814b. . . 360 s Highlight ...... 20 2 ...... 95 Orientation...... 246 Belt/. 312 ...... 361 ...... 168 Magellan Mission. . . . 96 History...... 248 Bennu ...... 314 ...... 362 Orientation...... 172 The Solar System. . . . . 22 Signs of Life...... 98 Mission. . . . 253 ...... 316 ’s b . . . . 364 Mapping Mars . . . . . 173. Baltis Vallis...... 101 Saturn's Rings. . . . . 254 Chariklo...... 317 CoRoT-7b...... 366 Martian Moons...... 174 Transits & Eclipses. . . . . 28 Maat Mons...... 102 Magnetosphere. . . . 256 EH1...... 318 CVSO 30b and c . . . . 368 Atmosphere & ...... Eros...... 320 . . . . . 370 Alpha Regio ...... 103 Magnetosphere. . . . .177 Surface...... 257 Introduction to Ida ...... 321 b...... 372 Maxwell Montes. . . . 104 History...... 178 ...... 258 the ...... 30 Itokawa...... 322 b, c & . . . 373 Aphrodite Terra. . . . 105 In Popular Culture. . . 182 ...... 260 Phaethon ...... 323 ...... 374 Investigating Mars. . . 184 , & .262 Manned Space Flight . . . 48 Psyche...... 324 b...... 375 ...... 106 Rover . . . . 188 ...... 263 The Quest for . . . 48 Vesta ...... 325 Gliese 504 b...... 376 Orientation...... 110 InSight Lander. . . . . 190 ...... 264 Race to the Moon. . . . 50 Gliese 581 b, c & . . . 378 Atmosphere...... 112 Travelling to Mars. . . 194 Phoebe ...... 265 Shuttle Programme . . . .51 Belt...... 326 Gliese 625b ...... 380 Magnetosphere. . . . .113 Polar Caps ...... 196 The Present . . . . 52 cb & cc . . . 381 History...... 114 Montes . . . . 198 ...... 266 The International Space . . Dwarf Planets ...... 328 Gliese 832 b & c . . . . 382 Station...... 53 NASA Earth Science. . 120 . . . . . 200 Orientation...... 270 ...... 330 b, c, d & e. 383 Mt Everest...... 124 . . . . 201 History...... 272 Farout ...... 331 Gliese 3470 b. . . . . 384 The ...... 54 Challenger Deep. . . . 126 . . . . . 202 Surface/Atmosphere. 275 The Goblin ...... 332 GQ Lupi b...... 385 Orientation...... 58 Atacama Desert. . . . 128 Bagnold Dune Field. . . 203 Aurorae...... 276 a Haume ...... 333 HAT--7b...... 387 Atmosphere...... 60 Mauna Kea...... 130 Crater...... 204 Magnetosphere. . . . 277 ...... 334 HAT-P-11b...... 388 ...... 61. Chicxulub Crater. . . . 132 . . . . . 206 Ring Systems...... 280 Plut ...... 336 HD 40307 g...... 390 Solar Flares ...... 62 a Silfr ...... 133 . 208 ...... 284 Death Valley ...... 134 ...... 285 Farout ...... HD 69830 b, c & d . . . 391

2 | The Universe Contents 3 HD 149026 b . . . . . 391 1E 2259+586. . . . . 454 Owl ...... 495 NGC 1512 ...... 544 Antennae . . . 559 Cluster. . . . . 578 HD 189733 b...... 394 ...... 455 s Pleiade ...... 496 NGC 3370...... 545 Arp 273...... 561 Pandora’s Cluster. . . 579 HD 209458 b. . . . . 396 ...... 456 ...... 497 Pinwheel . . . . 546 Mayall’s Object . . . . 562 Cluster. . . . 581 HIP 68468 b & c. . . . 398 ...... 457 ...... 498 Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical NGC 2207 & IC 2163. . 563 Cluster. . . . 583 & c . . . . . 399 ...... 458 RCW 86...... 499 y Galax ...... 548 NGC 2623...... 565 Cluster . . . . . 584 KELT-9b...... 400 A. . . . 459 ...... 500 Galaxy. . . . . 549 NGC 3256...... 566 -10b & c. . . . . 402 Alpha Centauri B. . . . 460 ...... 501 . . . . 550 Glossary...... 590 Kepler-11b to g. . . . . 403 ...... 461 Ring Nebula...... 502 Sunflower Galaxy . . . 551 Galaxy Clusters . . . . . 567 Kepler-16 (AB)-b. . . . 404 ...... 462 . . . . 503 Tadpole Galaxy. . . . 552 Abell 1689...... 568 Index ...... 596 Kepler-22b...... 405 ...... 463 Sagittarius A*...... 504 Galaxy . . . 553 Bullet Cluster. . . . . 569 Kepler-62b to . . . . . 406 Barnard’s Star. . . . . 464 206462...... 505 W2246-0526 . . . . . 554 El Gordo ...... 571 Acknowledgements. . . . 605 Kepler-70b & c. . . . . 407 ...... 465 SDSSJ0927+2943. . . . 506 Whirlpool Galaxy. . . . 556 Cluster. . . . . 572 Kepler-78b ...... 408 . . . . 466 SGR 1806-20. . . . . 507 ...... 574 Author Biographies. . . . 607 Kepler-90b...... 409 ...... 467 ...... 508 Colliding Galaxies . . . . 558 . . . 576 Kepler-186b to f. . . . 410 ...... 468 a Spic ...... 509 Kepler-444b to f . . . . 412 Cat’s Eye Nebula. . . . 469 Tabby’s Star...... 510 Kepler-1625b . . . . . 413 ...... 470 Tauri...... 511 Kepler-1647 (AB)-b. . . 414 -1 ...... 471 ULAS J1120+0641. . . 512 Lich System (PSR . . . . . ...... 472 UY Scuti ...... 513 A star being distorted by its close passage to a supermassive at the centre of a galaxy . B1257+12)...... 416 . . . . 473 ...... 514 Methuselah’s . . 418 . . . . 474 ...... 515 © S C Pi Mensae b & c. . . . . 420 Eta Carinae...... 475 VY Canis Majoris. . . . 516 IEN C E P b...... 421 Ghost of Jupiter. . . . 476 W40...... 517 HO T O Proxima b...... 422 I GRS 1915+105. . . . . 477 B A R

PSO J318 5-. 22. . . . . 424 Y HE 1256-2738 . . . . . 478 Galaxies...... 518 / ALAMY 128 b ...... 425 HE 2359-2844. . . . . 479 Galaxy. . . 522 S T

TRAPPIST-1...... 426 O ...... 480 Black Eye Galaxy. . . . 525 CK P

TrES-2b...... 428 HO

Herschel’s Garnet Star.481 Bode’s Galaxy . . . . . 526 T O WASP-12b...... 430 HLX-1...... 482 Dwarf. . . 528 WASP-121 b...... 432 Horsehead Nebula . . . 483 Cartwheel Galaxy . . . 529 b, c & d. . . 434 HV 2112...... 484 A...... 530 YZ Ceti b, c & d . . . . 437 IGR J17091-3624. . . . 485 Cigar Galaxy...... 531 Iris Nebula ...... 486 Galaxy. . . . 532 Stellar Objects...... 440 Kepler’s . . . 487 Condor Galaxy. . . . . 533 Nebula & . . 442 Kes 75...... 488 Grand . . 534 Sequence .443. Little Dumbbell Hoag’s Object. . . . 535 Giant Stars...... 444 Nebula...... 489 Large and Small Binaries & Clusters. . . 445 ...... 490 Magellanic Clouds . . . 536 End of Life ...... 446 MY . . 491 Malin 1 Galaxy. . . . . 539 Life Cycle of Stars. . . . 450 .492 Markarian 231 . . . . . 540 Spectra Classification .453 Omega Centauri . . . . 493 M77 ...... 541 Nebula...... 494 M87 ...... 542

4 | The Universe Contents 5 © DESIGN PICS INC / ALAMY STOCK PHOTO Welcome to the Universe

Bill Nye

Lonely Planet’s The Universe gives us more perspective, often breathtaking, more insight, often deep – and more unusual facts, often ones you can’t find anywhere else, regarding the profound happenstance of our existence. Simply put, the remarkable sequence of cosmic acci- dents required to enable us to be here on this planet and publish books like this one is astonishing. Unique to these pages are wonderful comparisons of Earth with the other worlds of our solar system and even those exoplanets orbiting other stars. They NGC 1300. drive home the jaw-dropping idea that you and I, and everything we can observe millennia, we can see that, if we’re going like Earth’s, but the environments of these winds moving at fantastic speeds. All of around us, are made of the dust and gas to continue to thrive, we must preserve our other worlds are completely different. The these other worlds in our solar system, the blasted spaceward by exploding ancient environment. Otherwise, we’ go extinct, text and pictures here will help you under- ones that are not Earth are different, . And from the stardust and drifting like 90% of the species that gave it a go on stand why. The unique chemical composi- very interesting – and utterly hostile. gas, the extraordinary diversity of living Earth before we showed up. tion of the rocks, craters, and sands of the As you turn these pages, learning the things, including animals like you and me, This cosmic perspective induces all of other worlds in the solar system has caused facts of everything from our solar system emerged. You and I are at least one way us to compare Earth to our neighbouring these extraterrestrial environments to have to the far reaches of intergalactic space, that the cosmos knows itself. An utterly worlds out there. It’s one thing to consider chemistries that are literally other worldly. consider that there’s no other planet that amazing idea that fills me with reverence Earth as a pretty big place, especially if These processes have conspired to produce we know of anywhere, upon which you every time I think on it. you tried to walk around it. It’s another radically different surface on could even catch a breath to be taken While you are going about your business thing to think that 1300 would Mars and Venus. Our discoveries in plan- away, or seek a deciliter of to be every day, thinking about what’s happen- fit inside a the size of Jupiter, and etary science offer us a planet-sized lesson sipped – let alone be afforded an opportu- ing on Earth right now, this book will help over a million Earths would fit inside the in the importance of the greenhouse effect, nity to live long and prosper. The Earth is you think about a much grander timeline volume of the Sun. While we’re appreciat- how our planet became habitable, and how unique, amazing, and our home. as well. From the comfortable surface of ing the visible differences of the tradi- the biochemistry of life changed the chem- From a cosmic perspective, we are a Earth, our deep-thinking ancestors ob- tional planets, what you might call their istry of the atmosphere and sea. pretty big deal. We’ve changed the climate served our planet and its relationship, their qualitative differences, this book helps us The story carries out away from the of a whole planet. Run the numbers for relationship, to the and the Sun. take it all in by the numbers, the planets’ Sun, where we find the gas-giant plan- yourself. Climate change is our doing. If They learned where to live and how to sur- (and exoplanets') quantitative differences, ets: Jupiter and Saturn. They don’t seem we’re going to make it much farther on vive. From the icy blackness of space, our and beyond that, the differences between to even have surfaces as such. There’s this world, we’re going to have to engage , built by our best scientists and our own Sun and the uncountable stars nowhere to stand, but they’re so massive in some un-doing. Right now, it’s our engineers, make further observations that above, visible and invisible. In here, these that, if you got too close, their chance to change things. We are but a relentlessly show us Earth is like no other essential distinctions are spelled out – or would crush you quick. On out further speck in the cosmic scheme. But it’s our place in the solar system, and remains the counted up. from the Sun we find Uranus and Nep- speck, and the more we know and appreci- only place we can live and thrive. By un- The rocky and metallic compositions of tune. They’re very large and very cold, ate it, the better chance we have keeping derstanding the changes here over recent Mars, Venus, and Mercury are very much with enormous icy storm systems and it hospitable for species like us.

| 6 FOREWORD 7 Our Universe began in hundred million the mini-galaxies had a tremendous explosion later, when the first objects merged to form mature known as the Big Bang flooded the Universe with galaxies, including spiral Introduction about 13.7 ago. . The first stars were galaxies like our own We know this by observing much bigger and brighter . It had also light in our Universe than any nearby today, expanded, racing under to the which has travelled a great with about 1000 the force of the so-called distance through space times that of our Sun. Hubble constant. Now, 13.7 and time to reach us today. These stars first grouped billion years from the Big Universe Observations by NASA’s together into mini- Bang, our planet a Wilkinson Anisotropy galaxies; the Hubble Space middle-aged Sun in one Probe (WMAP) has captured arm of a mature galaxy With 2 trillion estimated galaxies and uncountable stars, revealed microwave light stunning pictures of earlier with a supermassive black our Universe is filled with wild examples of exoplanets, from this very early , galaxies, as far back in hole in the middle. Our stars, black holes, nebulae, galaxy clusters and more, about 400,000 years after time as ten billion light own solar system orbits the the Big Bang. years away. Milky Way's centre, while which scientists are still probing. A period of darkness By about a few billion our galaxy itself speeds ensued, until about a few years after the Big Bang, through space. © MAVENVISION / ALAMY STOCK PHOTO

Under the Milky Way in San Pedro de Atacama, .

| 8 INTRODUCTION TO THE UNIVERSE 9 Scale of the Universe © SCIENCE PHOTO LIBRARY / ALAMY STOCK PHOTO

Throughout history, It was Edmund , and the Sun to the Earth. humans have used a variety famous for predicting the This rare event, the of techniques and methods return of the that of Venus, occurred again to help them answer the bears his name (p. 344), recently on June 8, questions ‘How far?’ and who three centuries ago 2004. It was knowing this ‘How big?’. Generations found a way to measure fundamental distance from of explorers have looked the distance to the Sun the Earth to the Sun that deeper and deeper into and to the planet Venus. helped us find the true the vast expanse of the He knew that the planet scale of the entire solar Universe. And the journey Venus would very rarely, system for the first time. continues today, as new every 121 years, pass When we leave the methods are used, and new directly between the solar system, we find our discoveries are made. Earth and the Sun. The star and its planets are In the third century BC, apparent position of the just one small part of the Aristarchus of Samos asked planet, relative to the Milky Way Galaxy. The the question ‘How far away disc of the Sun behind it, Milky Way is a huge city is the moon?’ He was able is shifted depending on of stars, so big that even to measure the distance where you are on Earth. at the speed of light, it by looking at the shadow And how different that would take 100,000 years of the Earth on the moon shift is depends on the to travel across it. All the during a lunar . distance from both Venus stars in the night sky, This Hubble image captures the effect of gravitational lensing by in a . including our Sun, are galaxies we discover. There So how big is the

© COURTESY NASA/WMAP SCIENCE TEAM just some of the residents are billions of galaxies, Universe? No one knows if of this galaxy, along with the most distant of which the Universe is infinitely millions of other stars too are so far away that the large, or even if ours is the Dark energy accelerated faint to be seen. light arriving from them only Universe that exists. expansion Development of galaxies and planets The further away a star on Earth today set out And other parts of the Dark is, the fainter it looks. from the galaxies billions Universe, very far away, Afterglow light ages pattern Astronomers use this as of years ago. So we see might be quite different Inflation a clue to figure out the them not as they are today, from the Universe closer distance to stars that are but as they looked long to home. At the time of very far away. But how do before there was any life publication using our most you know if the star really on Earth. advanced technology and is far away, or just not Finding the distance given the current size very bright to begin with? to these very distant of the ever-expanding This problem was solved galaxies is challenging, Universe, scientists Quantum in 1908 when Henrietta but astronomers can do so estimate it is roughly fluctuations Leavitt discovered a way to by watching for incredibly 46 billion light years, or tell the ‘wattage’ of certain bright exploding stars 440 sextillion km (274 stars that changed their called supernovae. Some sextillion mi). If it’s hard First stars about 400 million years pulse rate linked to their types of exploding stars to wrap your head around wattage. This allowed their have a known brightness – that number, welcome to Big Bang expansion distances to be measured wattage – so we can figure the club. The Universe is 13.77 billion years all the way across the out how far they are by almost inconceivably big, Milky Way. measuring how bright they and we have only observed Beyond our own galaxy appear to us, and therefore a small portion of it lies a vast expanse of the distance to their home (astronomers estimate we galaxies. The deeper we galaxy. These are called have observed roughly 4% see into space, the more ‘standard candles’. of the known Universe). A timeline of the Universe since the Big Bang. | 10 INTRODUCTION TO THE UNIVERSE 11 © JURGEN FALCHLE/ALAMY STOCK PHOTO

Modern Observational Methods

In 1609 an Italian physicist and astrono- mer named became the first per- son to point a telescope skyward. Al- though that telescope was small and the images fuzzy, Galileo was able to make out mountains and craters on the moon, as well as a ribbon of diffuse light arch- ing across the sky – which would later be identified as our Milky Way Galaxy. After Galileo’s and, later, Sir Isaac ’s time, astronomy flourished as a result of larger and more complex telescopes. With advancing technology, astronomers discovered many faint stars and the cal- in orbit. © ALEXANDER CASPARI/SHUTTERSTOCK© ALEXANDER culation of stellar distances. In the is absorbed or distorted. Therefore, the view 19th century, using a new instrument would be a lot sharper than that from even called a spectroscope, astronomers the largest telescope on the ground. gathered information about the In the 1970s the European Space Agency chemical composition and motions of (ESA) and the National Aeronautics and celestial objects. Space Administration (NASA) began work- Twentieth century astronomers de- ing together to design and build what would veloped bigger and bigger telescopes become the Hubble Space Telescope. On 25 and, later, specialised instruments that April 1990, five astronauts aboard the space could peer into the distant reaches of shuttle Discovery deployed the eagerly an- space and time. Eventually, enlarging ticipated telescope in an orbit roughly 600 telescopes no longer improved our km (380 mi) above the Earth’s surface. That view, because the atmosphere which deployment and, later, the unprecedented helps sustain life on Earth causes images that Hubble delivered represented substantial distortion and reduction the fulfillment of a 50- dream and more in our ability to view distant celestial than two decades of dedicated collaboration objects with clarity. between scientists, engineers, contractors, That’s why astronomers around the and institutions from all over the world. world dreamed of having an observa- Since Hubble was launched, a number of tory in space – a concept first proposed other space telescopes have been success- by astronomer Lyman Spitzer in the fully deployed to advance our knowledge 1940s. From a position above Earth’s of the Universe. These include the Spitzer atmosphere, a telescope would be able Space Telescope, named for the man whose to detect light from stars, galaxies, and idea sparked a new era in telescopes and other objects in space before that light observation. Today's observatories have significantly larger apertures than the basic telescopes of Galileo's day, but the principle is the same.

| 12 INTRODUCTION TO THE UNIVERSE 13 © LISSANDRA MELO/SHUTTERSTOCK pollution, and often high altitude to reduce the impact of the atmosphere on Today’s observations. Generally, you’ll find the world’s top observatories on mountains, in deserts, and/or on islands – sometimes Telescopes a combination of all three. Well-known locations with multiple ground-based telescopes include Mauna Kea in Hawaii, Around the world, astronomers, space the Atacama Desert in Chile, and the scientists and astrophysicists plying the Canary Islands. depths of the Universe work in a variety Space-based telescopes are, as their of scientific fields, combining physics, name suggests, located outside the chemistry, biology and other sciences Earth’s atmosphere in orbit. As such, to advance human knowledge of space. they often have much greater ability Much of their work relies on data from to capture high-resolution images of telescopes devoted to the observation celestial objects, unaffected by the in- of celestial objects. These can be either terference of our atmosphere. The most ground-based (located here on our popular space telescopes include the planet) or space-based, rotating in orbit Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes, around Earth. both operated by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Ground-based telescopes are typically Lab (JPL) in California. Other space tel- located in places around the world that escopes include the Transiting meet a certain set of observing condi- Survey (TESS) and forthcoming tions. Broadly speaking, this includes James Webb Space Telescope (which will locations with good air quality, low light Observatory in Arizona. replace the Hubble).

© CHECUBUS/SHUTTERSTOCK Types of Telescopes Astronomers gain knowledge by looking across the spectrum of light frequency. Typically, the tools they use fall within two broad categories: optical telescopes and radio telescopes. The instruments used to gather this data comb across the entire . Visible light rays (what we see when we view the stars with the ) are actually only a small part of this spectrum; radio waves, , , X-rays and -rays are all also examined for the information they contain about far- off objects. Ground-based observatories often focus on radio waves, which can be captured by antennas, and visible and infrared light, which are gathered at large optical telescopes. The technique of can help parse the informa- tion encoded in these rays. Other electro- magnetic waves such as X-rays are best received in space, and these are moni- tored by telescopes in orbit where Earth’s atmosphere doesn’t get in the way.

For non-professional astronomers, the Zeiss Telescope at Griffith Observatory, CA, offers a glimpse at the heavens.

| 14 INTRODUCTION TO THE UNIVERSE 15 © COURTESY NASA/JPL-CALTECH

How to Use This Book

Like its namesake, the book you hold is big – and like our understanding of the Universe, it is also, by necessity, incom- plete. Astronomers continue to explore the Universe with ever-improving technology, unlocking previously unknown secrets and mysteries. In these pages, you’ll dis- cover some you likely don’t already know, and undoubtedly have questions and hy- potheses about what we’ll discover next. As you work through this text, the gen- eral organisation of the book will lead you from home on our Earth out into the far reaches of the solar system, then into our neighbouring stars and planetary systems and finally into the rest of our galaxy and the Universe as a whole, via carefully selected examples of known exoplanets, stars, nebulae and galaxies, as well as

An artist's concept of our Milky Way Galaxy. © COURTESY NASA, ESA, AND . KORNMESSER (ESO) even more exotic deep-sky objects. You’ll Finally, the book steps out to the edge discover as much as we know about our of the observable Universe – at least what celestial neighbourhood, and our place in we’ve observed with the technology avail- it. In addition to planets and moons, get able today. You’ll get to know the struc- to know our Sun, explore the ture of the Milky Way as well as an orien- and the , and learn what lays tation to neighbouring galaxies like the beyond, in interstellar space. which is visible from Outside our solar system, the book Earth. You’ll explore other galactic forma- guides you to some of the notable neigh- tions and zoom even further out to learn bouring stars, stellar systems, and exo- about galactic clusters and . planets we’ve discovered. You’ll under- By the end of the book, you’ll have a sense stand how we search for planets where life for the structure of the entire Universe as might exist and the stars they orbit. Some well as some of the big questions we still of these are located within the Milky Way; have as we ponder our place in it. You may others we’ve observed from our particular not be able to plan your next vacation on perspective in the Universe though they the basis of the planetary moons, exoplan- live far beyond the boundaries of what we ets and stunning nebulae featured, but consider our galaxy. you'll find lots to amaze and awe. This artist's illustration gives an impression of how common planets are around the stars in the Milky Way.

| 16 INTRODUCTION TO THE UNIVERSE 17 © R. STOCKLI, A. NELSON, F. HASLER, NASA/ GSFC/ NOAA/ USGS EARTH © COURTESY NASA ) The first Earthling to see the subject of heated de- DISTANCE FROM SUN its home from orbit was a bate. Quite literally. 1 AU PLANET TYPE terrier named Laika, who The fate of Earth is Terrestrial circled the planet in 1957 inextricably linked to that LIGHT-TIME TO THE SUN aboard Sputnik 2. Although of the Sun. Models predict 8.25 minutes NUMBER OF MOONS she did not survive the that, in around 5 billion One trip, two subsequent Soviet years, the Sun will become OF DAY space dogs – Belka and a . It will increase 24 hours Strelka – became, in 1960, to 100 times its present the first living creatures size, reaching a luminos- LENGTH OF ORBITAL to return from orbit alive, ity 2000 times its current YEAR paving the way for human level. At that point it will 365.25 days explorers. Popular culture vaporise the Earth, whose has generated countless water will have already ATMOSPHERE alternative views of Earth, evaporated. But that leaves Nitrogen, , with the planet and its plenty of time to take in trace gases population governed by Earth’s natural wonders: everything from apes to a oceans, mountains, deserts stone monolith. But how and jungles – all teeming, much longer travellers, exclusively in the entire canine or otherwise, will be known Universe, with an Top Tip able to thrive on Earth is extravagant abundance of life. Visitors to Earth should plan their itinerary while there’s still

© ZOLTANKATONA/SHUTTERSTOCK time. Venice is sinking, Machu Picchu is collapsing and the lush Congo Basin could be two-thirds gone by 2040, while experts say at least 27 species go extinct each day. Sobering facts, only partly offset by the regular new discoveries being made of countless new species in the Amazon and deep ocean. Earth as seen from space. Getting There P Earth at a Glance & Away Despite the number of planets, not to mention universes, which With commercial space travel astrophysicists and astronomers now believe might exist, one fact remains: imminent, be sure you know Earth is the only planet we know of that sustains life. what you’re signing up for. The Earth’s moon can be reached in about three days, while suborbital flights can pass in The word ‘Earth’ is at least 1000 years old, is in fact a star, at a distance of 150 million under an hour. But travelling to an amalgam of the Saxon ‘ertha’, the Dutch km (93 million mi) and one orbit takes 365 the former ninth planet from the ‘aerde’ and the German ‘erda’ – all of which days. Earth is the only world in our solar Sun, , took , mean ‘ground’. (Earth is the only planet not system featuring liquid water on its surface. launched in 2006 and the named after a Greek or Roman deity.) The But, along with its fellow terrestrial planets, fastest probe ever to leave third-closest planet to the Sun, our home Earth is composed of a molten core, a rocky Earth, nine and a half years. For is the fifth-largest planet in the solar sys- mantle and a solid crust. With one moon and now, leaving our home planet is tem. If the Sun were the size of the average no rings, the Earth is protected from incom- only for a rare few. household door, the Earth would be the size ing by its atmosphere, which of a nickel. The Earth orbits the Sun, which breaks up incoming debris. Laika, the first dog in orbit, lives on in countless commemorations.

108 | EARTH 109 © DESIGNUA/SHUTTERSTOCK Earth’s axis is an imagi- reduced solar heating in the Earth’s Seasons Earth vs nary pole going right through south induces winter. Six Fun Fact: the Planets the planet’s centre from months later, the situation top to bottom. Earth spins is reversed. At the beginning Guest from -- Radius -- around this pole, making one of their respective spring Above 11x complete turn each day. That and fall seasons, both hemi- ) SMALLER is why we have day and night, receive roughly In November 2018, NASA Polar day than Jupiter and why every part of Earth’s equal amounts of heat glaciologists discovered -- -- surface gets some of each. from the Sun. Today, the a prime example of just SUMMER When Earth was young, it Earth’s axis is tilted 23.5 what can happen when the 17x is thought that something degrees from the plane of atmosphere is off its game: WINTER Sun LESS big hit Earth and knocked its orbit around the sun. But a large hid- than Neptune it off-kilter. So instead of this tilt changes. During a ing beneath more than a -- Volume -- rotating with its axis straight cycle that averages about half-mile of in northwest up and down, it leans over a 40,000 years, the tilt of the Greenland. The crater, 1321x Polar night bit. As Earth orbits the sun, axis varies between 22.1 under the Hiawatha Glacier, ) LESS its tilted axis always points and 24.5 degrees. As the was created by a meteorite than Jupiter in the same direction. This axis changes, the seasons estimated to have struck -- -- means that throughout the as we know them can be- at least 12,000 years ago. year, different parts of Earth come exaggerated. The crater is 300 m (1000

2.5x get the sun’s direct rays. This Distance from the Sun, ft) deep and 13 km (19 mi) H LESS Earth’s axis determines how the seasons change throughout the year. tilt causes the yearly cycle of however. doesn’t impact in diameter. NASA’s Opera- than Jupiter the seasons. our experience of the sea- tion Icebridge discovered Orientation year as 365 days. To keep -- Mean -- Roughly speaking, the sons. While the difference the crater’s existence using yearly calendars consistent northern hemisphere is between perihelion (when radar data gathered on If there is anybody else out with Earth’s orbit around -466°C tilted towards the Sun Earth is closest to the Sun) polar flights. . (-808°F) there, what would they see the Sun, every four years between the months of and aphelion (our farthest COLDER looking at Earth? A planet sees the addition of one April and September, while point from the Sun) is over than Venus whose radius of 6371 km extra day, a leap day, more the 4.8 million km (3 million (3959 mi) makes it the commonly expressed by the -- Surface area -- is tilted away. With the Sun mi), relative to our total throughout the year. The biggest of the terrestrial year in which it is added – a higher in the sky, direct distance from the Sun it other major factor affect- + 6.8x planets and the fifth-largest leap year. solar heating is greater in isn’t much, and has no ap- ing the planet’s climate and MORE planet overall. With an aver- In fact, the length of the north, creating summer preciable impact on how short-term local weather is than Mercury age distance of 150 million Earth’s day is increasing. conditions. Conversely, Earth’s weather changes Earth’s own atmosphere. km (93 million mi), Earth When Earth was formed, -- Surface pressure -- is exactly one astronomi- 4.6 billion years ago, its day H 92x © COURTESY NASA/JOHN SONNTAG cal unit away from the Sun would have been roughly LESS because one astronomical six hours long. Around 620 than Venus unit (abbreviated as AU), is million years ago, this had the distance from the Sun increased to 21.9 hours. -- -- to Earth. This unit provides Today, the average day is 24 ) 8x an easy way to quickly com- hours long, but its length is DENSER pare other planets’ relative increasing by about 1.7 than Saturn distances from the Sun. It milliseconds every century. takes about eight minutes This is caused by the moon, --Length of Day -- for light from the Sun to whose gravity slows Earth’s + 1.41x reach Earth. rotation through the tides LONGER As Earth orbits the Sun, it helps create. Earth’s spin than Uranus it rotates once every 23.9 causes the position of its hours. It takes 365.25 tidal ocean bulges to be -- Orbit Period -- days to complete one trip pulled slightly ahead of the ) 53% around the Sun. That extra Moon-Earth axis, which cre- SHORTER quarter of a day presents a ates a twisting force that in than Mars challenge to our calendar turn decreases the speed of system, which counts one Earth’s rotation. Hiawatha Glacier in Greenland, seen by NASA.

110 | EARTH 111 Bjoraker, Gordon L 229 Marius, Simon 241 481, 486 Caloris Basin, Mercury 26, Bode, Johann Elert 272, 526, Mascareño, Alejandro Suarez B 437, 490, 541 74, 83 Index 531 380 black holes 447–449 Circinus 499, 532 Caloris Planitia, Mercury Cassini, Giovanni 43, 262–263 Mayall, Nicholas 562 -1 449, 471 525, 539 78–79, 80, 81 A Cassini, Jean-Dominique 249 Méchain, Pierre 495, 541, 546, GRS 1915+105 477 559 Chicxulub Crater, Earth 122, Cochran, William D 374 550–551 HLX-1 441, 482 Cygnus 387, 388–389, 132 asterisms, see also constella- Colombo, Giuseppe (Bepi) 76 Meléndez, Jorge 398 IGR J17091-3624 485 400–401, 403, 404, Copernicus Crater, Moon tions, galaxies, star Copernicus, Nicolaus 65, 165 Messier, Charles 470, 473, 489, Sagittarius A* 58, 482, 504 405, 407, 408, 410–411, (Earth) 162, 165 clusters Crabtree, William 93 495, 502, 542–543, SDSSJ0927+2943 506 413, 414–415, 471, 472, Crater, Mars 207 546 Curtis, Heber 524, 543 585, 586 ULAS J1120+0641 512 492, 510, 515 Gale Crater & Bagnold Dune Northern Cross 472 de Pellepoix, Antoine Darquier Montanari, Geminiano 458 373, 536–538 Field, Mars 188–189, Spring Triangle 509 502 Nevski, Vitali 346 380, 402, 409, 428–429, 195, 203–205 472, 514 Disney, Mike 539 Novichonok, Artyom 346 C 469, 552 Hellas Planitia, Mars 195, 197, 468, 498, 501 Doyle, Laurence 415 Oberth, Hermann 53, 156 canyons & channels, see also 370–371, 456, 534 202 498 Dunlop, James 530, 544 Oort, Jan 353 craters Fornax 572–573 Herschel Crater, Mimas, Saturn Asteroid Belt 311, 312–313 Eddie, Lindsay 207 Orosz, Jerome 415 Baltis Vallis, Venus 35, 100–101 421 43, 264 asteroids, see also comets, Edgeworth, Kenneth 326 Parker, Eugene 61 Boreale, Mars 197 382 Hiawatha Glacier, Earth 111 meteor showers Endl, Michael 374 Pickering, Edward Charles 458 Death Valley, Earth 122, 392–393 Ngorongoro Conservation Area, 16 Psyche 324 Farrell, Sean 482 Pickering, William 265 134–135 Horologium 544 Earth 123, 142–143 2010 TK7 313 Flammarion, Camille 208 Pigott, Edward 525 Grand Canyon, Earth 127 476, 478 Pantheon Fossae, Mercury 33, Bennu 314–315 Fleming, Williamina 483 Poppenhaeger, Katja 395 Mariana Trench, Earth 37, 536–538 78, 80 Chariklo 311, 3177 Gale, Walter Frederick 195 , Claudius 42, 65, 493 126–127 375, 500, 506, 512, 545 Rachmaninoff Crater, Mercury EH1 318–319, 327 Galilei, Galileo 31, 33, 40, 42, Puckett, Tim 557 Valles Marineris, Mars 24, 26, 378 74, 78, 82 Eros 320 65, 75, 93, 148, 152, 216, Ross, Jerry 51 195, 201 385, 505 Raditladi Basin, Mercury 78, 81 Ida 321 219, 232, 237, 240–241, , Carl 498 Verona Rupes, Miranda, Uranus 406, 412, 502, 514 Sacajawea Patera, Venus 86 Itokawa 322 249, 250, 297, 298, 496 Scheiner, Christoph 65 26 420, 536–538 South Pole-Aitken Crater, Moon Phaethon 323, 327 , Johann Gottfried 46, Schiaparelli, Giovanni 39, 173, comets 338–353, see also 366–367, 503 (Earth) 155, 162, 164 Vesta 312, 316, 325 298, 304 179, 202, 208, 349 asteroids, meteor Norma 578 Stickney Crater, , Mars astronauts Gassendi, Pierre 75 Shoemaker, Carolyn and showers 360 174 Aldrin, Buzz 24, 50, 154, 156, Gilmore, Gerry 548 Eugene 348 9P/Tempel 1 345 364–365, 434–435, Tycho Crater, Moon (Earth) 153 158–159, 163 Goddard, Robert H 156 Showalter, Mark 309 Borrelly 339, 340 464, 487 Utopia Planitia, Mars 27, 195, Anders, Bill 50 Goodricke, John 458 , Vesto 523 C/1490 Y1 317 Orion 369, 465, 483, 494, 501 209 Armstrong, Neil 24, 31, 50, 145, Hall, Asaph 38, 174, 180 Strabo 119 C/1861 G1 Thatcher 341 533 149, 154, 156, 158–159, Halley, Edmond 137, 344 Taylor, Patrick 323 Chariklo 311, 317 361, 396–397 163 Harding, Karl Ludwig 480 Thorne, Kip 471, 484 Churyumov-Gerasimenko 342 Perseus 458, 466, 489, D Auñón-Chancellor, Serena 53 Harriott, Thomas 32, 65, 75 von Braun, Wernher 53 Hale-Bopp 311, 343 581–582 dwarf planets 326–327 Borman, Frank 50 Hartley, Malcolm 345 Wild, Paul 352 Halley’s Comet 339, 344 Phoenix 482, 571, 583 Ceres 27, 311, 316, 326 Chaffee, Roger 50 Hawking, Stephen 471 Wolf, Max 435 Hartley 2 345 390, 399 Eris 311, 328, 330, 336 Chang-Diaz, Franklin 51 Herschel, Caroline 281, 549 Wolszczan, Alexander 416 ISON 311, 346, 353 372 311, 329, 333 Chiao, Leroy 145 Herschel, John 261, 533 Zwicky, Fritz 529 Shoemaker-Levy 9 219, 311, 391, 432–433 Makemake 329, 333, 334–335 Collins, Michael 50, 156, Herschel, William 44, 261, 268, Żytkow, Anna 484 348 Sagittarius 279, 504, 507, 548 Pluto 109, 294, 311, 328–329, 158–159 272, 273, 281, 283, 287, atmosphere Siding Spring 187, 353 381, 418–419, 462, 330, 336–337 Gagarin, Yuri 31, 49, 154 288, 445, 476, 481, 486, Earth 28, 36, 108, 112, 113, 116 Swift-Tuttle 349 485 Glenn, John 50, 51 492, 515, 534, 545 HAT-P-11b 389 Tempel 1 339, 350 Sculptor 479, 529, 549, E Grissom, Gus 50 Hoag, Art 535 HD 209458 b 396 Tempel-Tuttle 351 579–580 Leonov, Alexei 50 Hodierna, Giovanni Battista Jupiter 40, 214–217, 225 Wild 2 339, 352 513 Earth 24, 26, 27, 28–29, 36–37, Liwei, Yang 145 553 Mars 38, 170–171, 177 , see also 517, 535 56, 60, 61, 62, 65, Lovell, Jim 50 Horrocks, Jeremiah 93 Mercury 32, 71–72, 73 asterisms, galaxies, star 374, 457, 470, 496, 511 98–99, 106–145, McClain, Anne 53 Hubble, Edwin 524, 574 Moon (Earth) 151 clusters Triangulum 553, 578 148–167, see also Musgrave, Story 51 , Christiaan 39, 42, Neptune 25, 46, 293, 296, Andromeda 522–524, 561 484, 536–538 atmosphere, canyons & Pogue, William 145 173, 180, 208, 249, 300–301 383, 426–427, 480, 495, 526–527, 531, channels, craters, mag- Savitskaya, Svetlana 50 250, 258 Rhea, Saturn 262 554–555 540, 546–547, 562 netosphere, volcanoes Shepard, Alan 49 Ibata, Rodrigo 548 Saturn 42, 244–245, 246–247 461, 477, 488 497 & mountains Swigert, Jack 157 Irwin, Mike 548 Sun, 60 430–431, 468, 474 566 Amazon rainforest 123, White, Ed 50 Jenniskens, Peter 318 Titan, Saturn 258–259 Australe 578 Virgo 376, 416–417, 425, 455, 140–141 Whitson, Peggy 53 Kepler, Johannes 487 Triton, Neptune 305 Black Eye 525 509, 542–543, 550, Antarctica 123, 136–137 astronomers & astral scholars Kuiper, Gerard P 283–284, Uranus 24, 44, 268–269, Boötes 463 568, 584–586 Atacama Desert 122, 128–129 Abd al-rahman al-Sufi 522 306, 326 274–275 Camelopardalis 491 394–395, 473 Great Barrier Reef 37, 123, Al-Biruni, Abu Rayhan 119 , William 283, 285, 286, Venus 24, 34, 87, 89, 90, 98, 99 362–363, 384, 565, craters (impact & volcanic), 138–139 Anaxagoras 65 304, 305 aurorae 25, 112, 228, 236–237, 576–577 see also canyons & Great Wall of China 123, Aristotle 37, 119 Leavitt, Henrietta 484, 537 252, 273, 274, 276, 277 551, 556–557 channels 144–145 Armstrong, Dr 387 Le Verrier, Urbain Joseph 46, Canis Major 498, 508, 516, Alphonsus Crater, Moon (Earth) Silfra Fissure 122, 133 Armstrong, Jerry 557 298 528, 563 154 exoplanets 354–437, see gas Aryabhata 37, 119, 184 Levy, David 348 467, 475, 569 , Mercury 80 giants, hot , hot Barnard, Edward Emerson Liu, Michael 424 Cassiopeia 454 , Mars 197 , ice giants, 365–366, 466 Malin, David 539 Centaurus 398, 422–423, 459, Aristarchus, Moon (Earth) 167 Neptune-Like, Super- 460, 493, 499, 530 Earths | 596 INDEX 597 Triangulum 553, 574, 575 HD 189733 b 394–395 210, 229, 234–235, 238, Ganymede 26, 41, 43, 148, 221, Oberon 44, 273, 274, 283, G UGC 1810 561 HD 209458 b 396–397 258–259, 286 232, 236–237 287, 288 galaxies (other than Milky Way) UGC 1813 561 KELT-9b 400–401 lunar eclipse 28–29, 118, 161 Io 25, 26, 41, 148, 219, 221, 283, 289 518–566, see also W2246-0526 554–555 TrES-2b 428–429 232–233, 304 283 asterisms, star clusters Whirlpool 556–557 WASP-12b 430–431 224, 240 283, 289 Andromeda 521, 522–524, 553, galaxy clusters 567–587 WASP-121 b 432–433 M 224, 240 283 558, 574, 575 Abell 1689 568 hot Neptunes magnetosphere Kepler-1625b Titania 44, 45, 273, 274, 283, Antennae 521, 559–560 Bullet Cluster 569 375, 384 Earth 113 413 288 Arp 273 561 Coma 567 Gliese 3470 b 384 Jupiter 221, 227, 228–229, 326 Makemake Umbriel 273, 274, 283, 286 Black Eye 521 573 Gliese 4370 b 384 Mars 177 MK2 334 Bode’s 521, 526–527 El Gordo 571 HAT-P-11b 388–389 Mercury 73, 76 Mars Canis Major Dwarf 521, 528, 572–573 Moon (Earth) 151 Deimos 39, 152, 171, 174–175, 537, 575 Hydra-Centaurus 566 Neptune 295 180 nebulae 442 Cartwheel 529 Local Group 521, 553, 574–575, I Saturn 252, 256 Phobos 39, 43, 152, 171, California Nebula 466 Centaurus A 530 578 ice giants 26, 44–45, 46–47 Uranus 276–277 174–175, 180 Carina Nebula 475 Cigar 521, 526–527, 531 Markarian’s Chain 585 55 Cancri c (Brahe) 363 Mars 24, 26, 27, 38–39, 52, 129, Neptune Cat’s Eye Nebula 441, 469 Circinus 532 Messier 66 Group 575 55 Cancri f (Harriot) 363 152, 168–211, 313, 308 Crab Nebula 470 Condor 521, 533 Messier 81 Group 575 CoRoT-7c 367 see also atmosphere, 302, 308 Dumbbell Nebula 473 ESO 243-49, 482 Messier 101 Group 547, 575 Neptune 292–309 canyons & channels, Halimede 297, 308 Ghost of Jupiter 476 Grand Spiral 534 Musket Ball Cluster 576–577 Uranus 268–289 craters, magneto- 297, 308–309 Helix Nebula 480 Hoag’s Object 521, 535 578 International Astronomical sphere, volcanoes & Laomedeia 297, 308 Hind’s Variable Nebula 511 IC 1613 574 Pandora’s Cluster 579–580 Union 81, 176, 205, 319, mountains 308–309 Horsehead Nebula 441, 483 IC 2163 563–564 581–582 328, 334, 337, 361, 362, dark spots 39, 173, 195, 208 308 Iris Nebula 486 467, Phoenix Cluster 583 365, 421 197 Nereid 47, 300, 303, 305, 489 521, 536–538, 574–575 Virgo A 585 interstellar objects Polar Ice Caps 195, 196–197 306–307 NGC 604 553 Leo I 574 Virgo B 585 2014 FE72 331 Vastitas Borealis 195, 210–211 297, 308 North America Nebula 492 Malin 1 539 521, 574, Biden (2012 VP113) 332 Mercury 24, 26, 29, 32–33, Proteus 300, 303, 309 494 Markarian 231 540 584–586 Farout (2018 VG18) 331 65, 68–83 see also 297 Owl Nebula 495 Mayall’s Object (Arp 148) 562 Virgo 575, 584 Goblin, The (2015 TG387) 332 atmosphere, craters, Sao 297, 308 Ring Nebula 502 Messier 32 574, 575 gas giants 25, 40–41, 42–43 ’Oumuamua 311, 347 magnetosphere, volca- 308 Rosette Nebula 503 584–585 2MASS J2126-8140 360 Sedna 332 noes & mountains Triton 26, 47, 297, 298, 300, Solar Nebula 64 541 55 Cancri b 362–363 meteor showers & meteorites, 304–305, 309 536, 537 585 55 Cancri d (Lippershey) 363 see also asteroids, Pluto Veil Nebula 515 Messier 86 584–85 CVSO 30b 369 comets 336 W40 517 521, 542–543, CVSO 30c 369 Jupiter 24, 25, 26, 27, 40–41, 152, ALH84001 186 Hydra 336 Neptune 25, 26, 27, 46–47, 584–585 371 212–241, 313, 345, 348, Eta Aquarids 344 336 290–309, 313, 326, Messier 110 281, 575 Fomalhaut b 372 350 see also atmos- Geminids 323 336 see also atmosphere, NGC 147 574 Gliese 504 b 376 phere, magnetosphere, Leonids 351 336 magnetosphere, ring NGC 185 574 Gliese 832 b 382 ring systems Lyrids 341 Saturn systems, NGC 205 574 383 Great Red Spot 24, 27, 40, 47, Orionids 344 Dione 252, 262 25, 47, 295 NGC 1275 581–582 Gliese 876 c 383 215, 219, 221–223, 229 349 Enceladus 25, 26, 43, 245, 252, vortices 295 NGC 1316 573 GQ Lupi b 385 Little Red Spot 223 Quadrantids 318–319, 323 256, 260–261 Neptune-Like exoplanets NGC 1365 573 Jupiter 214–241 Messier Catalogue 19 Epimetheus 249, 253 HD 40307 g 390 NGC 1387 573 Kepler-16 (AB)-b 404 Monoceros Ring 521, 528 253 HIP 68468 c 398 NGC 1399 572–573 Moon (Earth) 24, 28–29, 31, Kepler-1625b 413 304, 306, 309, 311, Iapetus 27, 252, 263 NGC 1512 544 Kuiper Belt 37, 39, 50, 52, 83, 110, Kepler-1647 (AB)-b 414–415 326–327, 339, 342 Janus 249, 253 O NGC 2207 563–564 Methuselah 418–419 146–167, 194, see also Mimas 27, 43, 252, 260, 264 NGC 2623 565 Pollux b (Thestias) 421 atmosphere, craters, Pandora 253 observatories, see also space NGC 3077 527 PSO J318.5-22 424 L magnetosphere, volca- Phoebe 43, 245, 249, 252, centres, telescopes noes & mountains Arecibo Observatory, Puerto NGC 3256 566 Saturn 244–265 263, 265 Imbrium Sculpture 83 Rico 73, 323 NGC 3370 545 Great Attractor 578 (LHB) theory 153 Prometheus 253 Oceanus Procellarum 162, 167 Berlin Observatory, Germany NGC 4038 559–560 greenhouse effect & climate life, conditions that could Rhea 252, 262 NGC 4039 559–560 change 24, 34, 37, 86, Sea of Tranquility 162–163 Tethys 252, 260, 262 298 support 25, 27, 36–37, Calar Alto Observatory, Spain NGC 4388 585 92, 98, 99, 116, 117, 136, 38, 41, 43, 47, 56, 60, moons Titan 26, 27, 43, 148, 217, 245, NGC 5195 556 139, 382 Haumea 249, 250, 252, 258 369 92, 98–99, 108–145 Cerro Tololo Observatory, Chile NGC 6822 574 109, 129, 181, 189, 205, Hi‘iaka 333 Uranus Pinwheel 521, 546–547 333 Ariel 273, 274, 283, 285 308 H 215, 238, 253, 259, 261, European Southern Sagittarius Dwarf Elliptical 537, 377, 378, 380, 382, 406, Ida asteroid 283 548, 575 heliosphere 61 Dactyl 321 283 Observatory, Chile 369, 414–415, 426–427, 378, 379, 385, 391, 399, Sagittarius Dwarf Irregular 575 , Gustav 43, 45, 77 434–435, 460 Jupiter 283, 289 Sculptor 549 hot Jupiters 224, 240 283 422–423, 434–435, liquid oceans & presence of 437 Small Magellanic Cloud 467, 361 water, see also water- 224, 240 273 484, 536–538, 541, 575 457 Callisto 27, 41, 148, 221, 283 Geneva Observatory, ice 25, 26, 27, 98–99, Switzerland 379 Sombrero 550, 586 HAT-P-7b 387 115, 117, 122, 126–127, 238–239 283 Sunflower 551 HD 80606b 386 Europa 25, 26, 27, 41, 215, 219, 273 Keck Observatory, Hawaii 273, 131, 133, 136–137, 297, 369, 379 Tadpole 552 HD 149026 b 392–393 138–139, 143, 187, 205, 221, 232, 234–235 Miranda 26, 27, 273, 274, 283

| 598 INDEX 599 Kuiper Airborne Observatory Doctor Who 45, 271, 299, 522 Apollo 11 24, 50, 148, 149, 154, Magellan 35, 92, 93, 96–97, Transiting Exoplanet Survey Omega Centauri 493 273 Event Horizon 47, 299 156, 158–159, 163 99, 102 Satellite 35, 99, 359, 441, 466, 496 Las Campanas Observatory, Futurama 220, 259, 299 Apollo 12 165, 167 Mariner 1 95 420 Polaris 497 Chile 359 Gattaca 259 Apollo 13 156 Mariner 2 87, 93, 95 Ulysses 219, 348 Regulus 500 , Chile 373, Herbert, Frank 371 Apollo 15 166 Mariner 4 171, 180 Vega 92 Rigel 441, 472, 501 374, 378, 398 Interstellar 250 Apollo 20 165 Mariner 7 171 Venera series 92, 93 509 , USA 466, Io 41 ARTEMIS 155 Mariner 9 174, 180, 198, 201 Venera 3 92 Trumpler 16 475 562 Jupiter Ascending 41, 220 Atlantis 51, 52, 97 75, 79 Venera 15 35, 101, 103 stars Mauna Kea Observatory, Hawaii Le Voyage dans la Lune 157 BepiColombo 33, 76 Mars 2 & 3 180 Venera 16 101, 103 1E 2259+586 454 131, 308, 331, 332 Lewis, 77 Cassini 41, 43, 219, 239, 245, Mars Atmospheric and Volatile 93, 103 2005cs 557 McDonald Observatory, USA , HP 77 247, 249, 250, 252–253, EvolutioN 187 Viking 1 180 2011fe 547 284, 374 Mars Attacks 182 255, 258, 260, 262, 263, Mars CubeSat One 190 Viking 2 171, 209 3C 273 455 Paris Observatory, France 276 Martian, The 39, 183 264, 283 Mars Express 187, 207 Voskhod 2 50 55 Cancri A 362–363 Perth Observatory, Martian Chronicles 205 Challenger 51 173, 1 49, 154 55 Cancri B 362–363 273 Marvel 522 Chandrayaan-1 155 180, 181 41, 43, 215, 219, 224, Achernar 456 Stratospheric Observatory for Men in Black 220 Chang’e 1 155 Mars Odyssey 181, 187, 192, 193 239, 245, 247, 249, 250, Aldebaran 457 531 Rice , Edgar 182 Chang’e 4 52, 155, 164 Mars Pathfinder 181 264, 271, 353 Alpha Centauri A and B 58, Winer Observatory, USA 401 Sebald, WG 43 Clementine 155 Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter 25, 45, 47, 215, 219, 423, 459, 460 311, 326, 339, 346, 47, 209, 250, 259, Columbia 51 181, 187, 188, 193, 196 239, 245, 249, 250, Alpha Centauri C 459 353 299, 522 Curiosity rover 181, 185, Mars Science Laboratory 255, 264, 269, 271, 273, Alnitak 483 Star Wars 43, 135, 404, 414 188–189, 192, 195, 188–189 275, 283, 286, 287, 288, Altair 461 Sunshine 66, 77 204–205 MAVEN 193 293, 295, 297, 298, 300, Antares 462 P Superman 522 184, 316, 325, 340 Mercury Magnetospheric 303, 304, 305, 306, Arcturus 463 planetary storms 24, 25, 27, 38, Total Recall 183 Deep Impact (EPOXI) 339, Orbiter 76 308–309, 348 Barnard’s Star 364–365, 464 40, 42, 43, 47, 73, 90, Verne, Jules 156 345, 350 Mercury Planetary Orbiter 76 space telescopes, see also Betelgeuse 441, 465 117, 177, 215, 222–223, Vincent, Harl 239 Deep Space 1 339, 340 MESSENGER 33, 71, 75, 80, 82 spacecraft & binary stars 445 257, 295, 298, 301 , Kurt 259 Discovery 51 Mir 53 Chandra X-ray Observatory black dwarfs 447 Planet X 41 WALL-E 250 Earth Observing System Multi-Mission Space Explora- 395, 448, 459, 523, 534, brown dwarfs 376–377, 443 War of the Worlds, The 39, 182 (EOS) 121 tion Vehicle 185 564, 568, 573, 581, 582 Canopus 467 R , HG 47, 182 51 NEAR-Shoemaker 320 CoRoT 359, 367 Capella Aa and Ab 468 solar eclipses 28–29, 60 41, 234–235 New Horizons 71, 109, 219, Hubble 47, 236, 239, 250, 271, Capella H and L 468 ring systems solar storms & flares 59–63 ExoMars 187 239, 273 273, 275, 276, 283, 295, 421 Chariklo 317 33, 36, 56, 61, 62, Explorer 1 49 Opportunity, Mars Exploration 297, 298, 309, 336, 348, Copernicus 363 Gliese 876c 383 72, 73, 112, 113, 177, Freedom 7 49 Rover 155, 181, 187–188 359, 372, 383, 388, 396, CVSO 30 369 Haumea 333 276, 485 Friendship 7 50 Orion Multi-Purpose Crew 397, 401, 413, 418, 419, Deneb 472 Jupiter 41, 215, 221, 224 space centres & research facili- Galileo 215, 219, 224, 233, 238, Vehicle 39, 194 427, 431, 432–433, 437, Epsilon Aurigae 441, 474 Neptune 27, 47, 295, 300, 302 ties, see also observa- 239, 321, 348 OSIRIS-REx 314–315 448, 497, 502, 520, 523, Epsilon Eridani 357, 370–371 Saturn 24, 27, 42–43, 248, 249, tories, telescopes Gemini 4 50 57 524, 526, 527, 538, 540, Eta Carinae 475 252, 253, 254–255 Ames Research Center, USA GPM Core Observatory 121 342 567, 578 Fomalhaut 372 Uranus 27, 45, 271, 273, 274, 309, 358, 401, 412, 432 GRACE 120 Phoenix 181 James Webb 35, 99, 359, 377, Gliese 163 373 280 Antarctic Halley Research GRAIL 155 219, 239, 250, 389, 401, 433 Gliese 176 374 rockets Station 137 Hayabusa 320 297, 457 Kepler 279, 358, 389, 402–415, Gliese 436 375 Atlas -401 190 Anderson Mesa Station, USA Helios A & B 363, 397, 419 219, 245, 249 409, 410–411, 427, Gliese 581 378 Atlas V 551 231 318 Huygens probe 249, 250 Pioneer Venus 99, 102, 104 428, 510 Gliese 625 380 Saturn V 158 Cape Canaveral, USA 230 ICESat-2 121 Psyche 324 Nuclear Spectroscopic Tel- Gliese 667 C 381 Goddard Space Flight Center, InSight lander 38–39, 171, 181, Ranger 7 154 escope Array 532 Gliese 832 382 S USA 35, 98–99, 207, 190–193, 206–207 Ranger 9 154 Spitzer 249, 359, 363, 371, 386, Gliese 876 383 229, 255, 366, 415, 423, International Space Station 39, 342 389, 392, 401, 402, 426, GQ Lupi b 385 Saturn 24, 26, 27, 42–43, 433, 454 51, 53, 145, 160, 184, Salyut 1 53 427, 431, 474, 510 HAT-P-11 388–389 242–265, 326, see also atmosphere, craters, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, USA 185, 194 Skylab 53, 145 Wide-Field Infrared Survey HD 189777 395 magnetosphere, ring 95, 118, 363, 422–423, Juno 41, 219, 221, 226, 229, SMAP 121 Telescope 359 HD 209458 397 systems 459 230–231, 239 SMART-1 155 XMM Newton Observatory HD 40307 390 north pole 247 Johnson Space Center, USA Kaguya 155 SORCE 120 395, 448 HD 69830 357, 391 156, 184 KREX-2 129 SpaceShip Two VSS Unity 52 453 HE 1256-2738 441, 478 science-fiction spectra 2001: A Space Odyssey 157, Kennedy Space Center, USA 51, Landsat 120, 141 , Mars Exploration Rover star clusters & systems 445, HE 2359-2844 441, 479 233, 250 156, 158 LCROSS 155 181, 187, 188 see also asterisms, heavy metal subdwarfs 443 2010: The Year We Make SETI Institute, USA 309, 318, LRO 155 Sputnik 1 49, 158 constellations, galaxies Herschel’s Garnet Star 481 Contact 233 371, 415 Luna 1, 2 & 3 154 Sputnik 2 49, 109 55 Cancri 362–363 HIP 68468 357, 398 , Isaac 33, 43, 77, 94, Sydney Institute for Astronomy Lunar Orbital Platform- Stardust-NExT 339, 350, 352 Algol 458 HV 2112 484 182, 239, 259, 371 in Australia 482 Gateway 39, 160, 194 Suomi NPP 120 Alpha Centauri 58, 459, 460 444 Babylon 5 370–371 spacecraft & satellites 48–53, Lunar Orbiter 1 154 Surveyor 1 154 Capella 468 Kapteyn 399 Bradbury, Ray 77, 94, 205 see also space Lunar Prospector 155 SWOT 121 GRS 1915+105 477 KELT-9 400–401 Clarke, Arthur C 43, 77, 259 telescopes Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter TEMPO 121 Lich system 357, 416–417 Kepler-10 402 Cloud Atlas 41, 220 92–93 29 Trace Gas Orbiter 193 Messier 54 548 Kepler-11 357, 403 Dick, Philip K 239, 259 Apollo 1 50, 158–159 Lunokhod 1 155 MY Camelopardalis 441, 491 Kepler-16 AB 404 Apollo 8 50, 154 NGC 2244 503 Kepler-1647 414–415

| 600 INDEX 601 Kepler-186 410–411 Gliese 176 b 374 Kepler-444 412 Gliese 581 c 378–379 V Kepler-62 406 Gliese 625 b 380 Venus 24, 26, 29, 32, 34–35, Kepler-70 357, 407 383 65, 76, 84–105, 304, Kepler-90 409 HD 40307 g 390 see also atmosphere, Kepler’s Supernova 441, 487 HIP 68468 b 398 canyons & channels, Kes 75 488 Kepler-22b 405 craters, magneto- magnetars 446 Kepler-78b 408 sphere, volcanoes & Mira 490 Pi Mensae c 420 mountains 490 Proxima b 422–423 Alpha Regio 100, 103 MY Camelopardalis 491 PSR B1257+12c (Poltergeist) Aphrodite Terra 100, 105 neutron stars 446 417 Ishtar Terra 105 orange dwarfs 443 PSR B1257+12d (Phobetor) 417 volcanoes & mountains Pi Mensae 420 b 425 Aeolis Mons, Mars 205 Pi Mensae b 420 Wolf 1061 d 435 Alps, Earth 117 Pollux 421 Altiplano-Puna volcanic com- Procyon 498 plex, Earth 129 Procyon B 498 T Andes, Earth 117, 128 protostars 442 telescopes (ground) see also Appalachian Mountains, Earth 58, 422–423, observatories, space 115 460 centres & research Beta Regio, Venus 103 PSR B1257+12 416, 417 facilities, space Caloris Montes, Mercury 78, PSR B1620-26 419 telescopes 79, 83 pulsars 446–447 Anglo-Australian Telescope, Chilean Coast Range, Earth 128 447 Australia 420 Eifuku, Earth 127 RCW 86 499 Arecibo Radio Telescope, Chile Elysium Planitia, Mars 195, red dwarfs 443 104 206–207 red giants 65, 109, 444 Atacama Large Millimeter/ Everest, Earth 26, 37, 115, 122, red supergiants 481 sub-Millimeter Array, 124–125, 127 SAO 158687 273 Chile 129 Grapevine Mountains, Earth SAO 206462 505 Blanco, Chile 308 135 SGR 1806-20 507 -France-Hawaii tel- Himalayas, Earth 117 SIMP0136 377 escope, Hawaii 539 K2, Earth 124 Sirius A & B 467, 508 Event Horizon Telescope Kilauea, Earth 26 SN 1994ae 545 542–543, 585 Kilimanjaro, Earth 117 SN 1994I 557 Galileo National Telescope, Maat Mons, Venus 26, 100, 102 SN 2011dh 557 Canary Islands 359 Mauna Kea, Earth 115, 122, SN 2018ivc 541 Hobby-Eberly, McDonald Ob- 130–131 Sun 55–67 servatory, USA 374 Mauna Loa, Earth 131 supergiants 444 International Scientific Optical Maxwell Montes, Venus 35, 89, supernova 1987A 538 Network, Russia 346 100, 103, 104, 105 supernova 1993J 527 Kilodegree Extremely Little Tel- Mid-Ocean Ridge, Earth 37, 115 supernova 1993J 521 escope, USA 401, 415 Mons , Moon (Earth) 447 -STARRS, Hawaii 424 166 Tabby’s Star 441, 510 Suburu, Mount Kea, Hawaii 331 Mons Huygens, Moon (Earth) TRAPPIST-1 426–427 Transiting Planets and 166 TReS-2 A 428 Small Montes Apenninus, Moon T Tauri 511 Telescope, Chile 426 (Earth) 162, 166 TYC 9486-927-1 360 , Chile Loolmalasin, Earth 143 ULAS J1120+0641 512 368–369, 385, 456 Olympus Mons, Mars 24, 26, UY Scuti 441, 513 Warsaw Telescope, Las 173, 179, 195, 200 Vega 514 Campanas Observatory, Rockies, Earth 117 VY Canis Majoris 58, 516 Chile 359 Rwenzori Mountains, Earth 157 WASP-12 430–431 transits 29, 75, 92, 249, 392, 403, , Mars 195, white dwarfs 65, 447 413, 414 198, 199 Wolf 1061 434–435 Ural Mountains, Earth 115 466 U yellow dwarfs 443 yellow giants 444 Ultraluminous X-ray Sources YZ Ceti 437 (ULXs) 564 water-ice, see also liquid oceans Sun 28–29, 36, 55–67, 108, 109, Uranus 25, 26, 27, 44–45, 88, 33, 73, 75, 151, 155, 181, 113, 161 266–289, 326, see also 187, 207, 226, 262, 316 Super-Earths atmosphere, canyons & () 363 channels, ring systems Barnard’s Star b 364–365, 464 dark spot 275 CoRoT-7b 366–367

| 602 INDEX 603 Acknowledgments

All images © as credited on the page. For all images listed as CC BY-NC 2.0 see full license terms at: https://creativecom- Many of the images in this book were ob- mons.org/licenses/by-nc/2.0/uk/legal- tained courtesy of NASA; find out more at code www..gov. For all images listed as CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 ESA images used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO see full license terms at: https://crea- licence. tivecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/igo/ legalcode Creative Commons images used under the license terms as follows: For all images listed as CC BY 2.0 see full license terms at: https://creativecommons. For all images listed as CC BY 3.0 see full org/licenses/by/2.0/uk/legalcode licence terms at: https://creativecommons. For all images listed as CC BY-SA 4.0 see full org/licenses/by/3.0/legalcode license terms at: https://creativecommons. org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/legalcode For all images listed as CC BY 4.0 see full licence terms at: https://creativecommons. For all images listed as CC0 1.0 see full li- org/licenses/by/4.0/legalcode cense terms at: https://creativecommons. org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/legalcode For all images listed as CC BY-SA 3.0 see full licence terms at: https://creativecommons. org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/legalcode © STOCKTREK IMAGES, INC. / ALAMY STOCK PHOTO

605 Author Biographies

Oliver Oliver Berry is a writer, photographer and filmmaker, spe- cialising in travel, and the great outdoors. He has travelled to sixty-nine countries and five continents, and his work has been published by some of the world’s lead- ing media organisations, including Lonely Planet, the BBC, Immediate Media, John Brown Media, The Guardian and The Telegraph.

Dr Mark A. Garlick Dr. Mark A. Garlick completed his PhD on binary stars in 1993, at the UK’s Mullard Space Science Laboratory. After three further years of research at Sussex University he changed careers, and is now a freelance writer, illustrator and computer animator, specializing in astronomy.

Mark Mackenzie London-based editor and writer Mark Mackenzie also edited the 2019 Lonely Planet anthology Curiosities and Splendour: An Anthology of Classic Travel .

Valerie Stimac Valerie Stimac is an Oakland-based travel writer and as- tronomy enthusiast. She founded the online Space Tourism Guide and authored Lonely Planet’s Dark Skies: A Practical Guide to Astrotourism. © LUC NOVOVITCH / ALAMY STOCK PHOTO

| 606 AUTHOR BIOGRAPHYS 607