About the Organisations

International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) is an independent ‘Mountain Learning and Knowledge Centre’ serving the eight countries of the Hindu Kush-Himalayas – Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Bhutan , China , India , Myanmar , Nepal , and Pakistan – and the global mountain community. Founded in 1983, ICIMOD is based in Kathmandu, Nepal, and brings together a partnership of regional member countries, partner institutions, and donors with a commitment for development action to secure a better future for the people and environment of the extended Himalayan region. ICIMOD’s activities are supported by its core programme donors: the governments of Austria, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Switzerland, and its regional member countries, along with over thirty project co–fi nancing donors. The primary objective of the Centre is to promote the development of an economically and environmentally sound mountain ecosystem and to improve the living standards of mountain populations.

European Commission Humanitarian Aid (ECHO) The European Union as a whole (i.e., the Member States and the Commission) is one of the world’s largest humanitarian aid donors; the Humanitarian Aid department (ECHO) is the service of the European Commission responsible for this activity. ECHO funds relief operations for victims of natural disasters and confl icts outside the European Union. Aid is channelled impartially, straight to victims, regardless of their race, religion and political beliefs.

DIPECHO stands for disaster preparedness in ECHO. It supports projects aimed at increasing the resilience of communities at risk of natural disasters by funding training, capacity building, awareness raising, early warning systems, and advocacy activities in the fi eld of disaster risk reduction.

2 T Local KnowledgeonDisasterPreparednessintheEasternT h e D

S o Int n n ernational Centref a ’ t k

R e or Int u K

Julie Dek athmandu, Nepal egrat a April 200 n ed MountainDe n

ens 7 S d t

v elopment (ICIMOD) r t h a e i g

R h erai ofNepal t i v e r

i L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L Copyright © 2007 International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) All rights reserved Published by International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development G.P.O. Box 3226, Kathmandu, Nepal

ISBN 978 92 9115 027 4

Photos All photos Julie Dekens Front cover: Katarait VDC, Dhanusha District Page 2: Phoolparasi, Sarlahi District Page 12: Recording local songs, Piparyia VDC, Sarlahi District – Shreelal Pokharel Page 20: Embankment, Shreepur VDC, Sarlahi District Page 64: Decorated walls of a house in Katarait VDC, Dhanusha District Back cover: Man crossing the river, Deuri VDC, Dhanusha District

Editorial team Printed and bound in Nepal by Mats G. Eriksson (Series Coordinator) Hill Side Press (P) Ltd. Greta M. Rana (Consultant Editor) Kathmandu A. Beatrice Murray (Senior Editor) Dharma R. Maharjan (Technical Support and Layout Design)

Reproduction This publication may be reproduced in whole or in part and in any form for educational or non-profi t purposes without special permission from the copyright holder, provided acknowledgement of the source is made. ICIMOD would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a source. No use of this publication may be made for resale or for any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission in writing from ICIMOD.

Note The views and interpretations in this publication are those of the author. They are not attributable to ICIMOD and do not imply the expression of any opinion concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries, or the endorsement of any product. ii

P P P P Pref F Contents ore a a a a Anne R Summar Chapt Chapt Chapt Chapt Chapt Chapt Chapt Chapt Did Y ace r r r r w e t t t t o f 4:Conclusion 3:TheCaseStudy 2:K 1:Introduction erences r d ou Kno x

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Communicating AboutFloods Discussion Anticipating Floods Obser Collecting Data

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iii L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L Foreword

Inhabitants in the Himalayan region are exposed to many natural This publication is one of a series produced under the project hazards. The mountain ranges are young with an unstable ‘Living with risk – sharing knowledge on disaster preparedness geology, steep slopes, and a climate that is diffi cult to predict. in the Himalayan region’, implemented by ICIMOD during a As a result, the region is highly susceptible to natural hazards 15-month period in 2006 and 2007. The project was funded such as fl oods and fl ash fl oods, landslides, and earthquakes. In by the European Commission through their Humanitarian Aid populated areas, these can lead to disaster. Vulnerable groups department (DG ECHO) as part of the Disaster Preparedness – the poor, women, and children – are often hit hardest. ECHO programme (DIPECHO) in South Asia, and by ICIMOD. Through this project, ICIMOD has endeavoured to encourage Since its establishment in 1983, the International Centre for knowledge sharing and to strengthen capacity among key Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) has dedicated practitioners in the fi eld of disaster preparedness and much of its work to examining ways to reduce the risk of management. This has been done through training courses, disasters from natural hazards, thereby working towards the workshops, knowledge compilation and dissemination, and decreased physical vulnerability of the people in the Hindu the establishment of a website (www.disasterpreparedness. Kush-Himalayas. This work has encompassed training courses, icimod.org). hazard mapping, landslide mitigation and control, mountain risk engineering, watershed management, vulnerability The publications resulting from this project include baseline assessment, and much more. ICIMOD has also fostered regional assessments of the disaster preparedness status in the four and transboundary dialogue for improved management of both target countries (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, and Pakistan); the resources provided and the risks threatened by the big case studies and a framework on local knowledge for disaster rivers in the Himalayan region; sharing of hydro-meteorological preparedness; and gender and vulnerability aspects in data and information among the countries in the region is of disaster risk reduction. The publications, training sessions, particular importance for mitigating the risk of riverine and and workshops were undertaken in the context of the ‘Hyogo fl ash fl oods in the major river basins. Framework for Action 2005-2015’ which recommends that iv in countries acceptable The and capacitybuildinginthefi reduction under regional the long-t tak w organisations orld e status; erm in and le the in v el mission publish t erms and region of disast under

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ch, sharing only se most er riskreduction. training, v erity y just an of disast of region of disast inf begun. education, disast ormation; er er pr t o one er The

risk an s, w will im commitment, casualties, e pr arecommitt help o v ed. im It pr and is o har v e ICIMOD’s ed t im disast d pact w o ser ork, er on v and e hope risk . national joint reduction that ef economies. our f o r ts in collectiv Dr ICIMOD Direct can the . AndreasSchild mountain this or Only e General situation endea b y

str region v our ong be s v L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L Preface

Meanderings Traditional farming is the major source of livelihood here. In many places, men and women are thrashing paddy by beating it “The snake and the river don’t run straight.” manually, by using oxen, or by passing it through a rudimentary Local saying related to the Lakhandehi River, turbine. Elsewhere men are busy using oxen on the road to Belhi village, Sarlahi District transport straw and grain, and in the fi elds to plough the land. Soon, wheat will be planted. Only a few villagers have tractors, so It is the rice-harvesting season. Mountains of straw are piling up oxen are crucial to support human labour. Buffaloes, cows, and in front of the houses and near the river beds. On the fl at horizon, goats are also omnipresent and provide households with sources the sun is low and looks like a red ball ready to burn the congested of additional food, income, fertiliser, and fuel. In front of the houses settlements and the surrounding fi elds of rice, wheat, sugarcane, and along the road, women are preparing fuel from a mixture of pulses, and vegetables. For the outsider, everything looks peaceful. cow dung, straw, and water. It is then piled up to dry beneath the The houses and the environment appear strongly intertwined, sun. Children are resting on top of buffaloes as they take them to with settlements built using mud, straw, bamboo, and wood. Each graze along the roads and by the river bed. section of a village is a microcosm of the whole based on different caste and social systems, mainly Hindu – but that, you only realise Settlements here are never too far away from rivers – or shall we later. Socioeconomic disparities can be seen in the different types rather say, the rivers here never let the settlements be too far away of houses. Most women have decorated their mud houses with a from them? They are, to name a few, the Bagmati and the Bakaiya natural terracotta colour for Deepawali or Tihar, the major Hindu rivers in Rautahat District, the Lakhandehi River in Sarlahi District, festival in the Terai region. The outside walls are covered with the Ratu River in Mahottari District, and the Jalaidh and Jamuni drawings using natural white and red colours or sculpted relief of rivers in Dhanusha District. All fl ow from the Himalayas to form the human hands, cattle and crops, and elephants. These decorations northern edge of the vast Gangetic plain of North India. Access to represent, like other indigenous art, the interconnection between the villages often involves crossing wide, river channels, some old, humans, farming activities, and the sacred. some new, on sandy roads and passing in front of large natural vi past t whit ponds. m fr ook om y cattle e fl the ano

fr oods: om Ar village ther ound af sandy t “Once er path the a died sediments fl

settlements, ood.” again I fr cut om

a And this snak snak deposit else y ebit ear e some while where: e . ed W during omen of b I y the

w “ the Three as the agricultural remember last collecting fl

ood. y fl ear

oods. N s o ago,

st fi dr grass The

elds ories y place a riv are girl f or er of the middle. the is w as agains snak a v ailable e t our are traditions so of t w en e

had int er .” t twined, Here, o

cremat the and e meanderings her people inside fi

nd a of building, themselv the Julie Dek riv er whic es and ens in h vii L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L Acknowledgements

This study is part of a 15-month project (April 2006 – June Shreepur, Singyahi, and Sundarpur; the collaboration of the 2007) entitled, Living with risk – sharing knowledge on Action Aid Nepal Team, especially, Manoj Kumar Sah (Disaster disaster preparedness in the Himalayan region, supported Management Committee Chairman, Laxmipur Sukhchaina by the European Commission through its Humanitarian Aid VDC), implementing partner of PRERANA through Action Aid Department (DIPECHO). Bharati Jha (Social Mobiliser in Laxmipur VDC), and Arun Kumar Yadav (Social Mobiliser in Phulparasi VDC); and not least with I am grateful to all those who guided the project through its the help of CARE-NEPAL through its DIPECHO-SAMADHAN various phases: the project manager Mats Eriksson; the project especially, DIPECHO SAMADHAN’s local implementing network offi cer Vijay Khadgi; the steering committee members partners, Christina Chan (DIPECHO Manager) and Rita Dhakal at ICIMOD: Madhav Karki, Jianchu Xu, Michael Kollmair, (Project Manager). The project staff from the VDCs helped Zbigniew Mikolajuk and Beatrice Murray; as well as the us in the fi eld: Dinesh Baral (District Coordinator in Sarlahi programme offi cers at ECHO Indira Kulenovic and Jyoti Sharma District), Saroj Ghimire (District Coordinator in Dhanusha in New Delhi, and Béatrice Miège in Brussels. District), Bir Bahadur Singh (Local Resource Person of Singyahi VDC, Mahottari District), Shreelal Pokharel (Field Offi cer in Rapid Assessment Team: The team members during the Sarlahi District), and Dhanilal Yadav (Local Resource Person of fi eld trip were Julie Dekens (ICIMOD), a social scientist with a Andupatti Katarait VDC, Dhanusha District). background in community-based resource management, and Pradeep Singh, a local translator. Reviewers: The author owes grateful thanks for their useful comments to Christina Chan (DIPECHO Manager, CARE-Nepal), Local Partners: This study was made possible with the help Peter Crawford (DIPECHO Project Manager, Practical Action), and collaboration of many people including: the villagers Jim Gardner (Professor Emeritus, Natural Resources Institute, of Belhi, Deuri, Katarait, Malangawa, Pipariya, Phoolparasi, University of Manitoba), Megh Ranjani Rai (ACT/DCA Project

viii Scientist, ICIMOD). specialist, and Offi (Senior Risk Coor

cer dinat Senior R , eduction W ICIMOD), a or t ICIMOD), er f Social or Specialist, DIPECHO in Central Michael Scientist, and ICIMOD), Community Narpat and K ICIMOD), ollmair East Vija S. ern Preparedness y Jodha Khadgi (Pr Nepal), F ang ogramme (Senior (Pr Jing Mats oject f (Eco-health or Associat Manager Eriksson Netw Disast ork er e and AshaK fi la Editor

nalised, y out s per and Greta sons aji Thak production Rana, f or their u. Beatrice dedicat team: Murra

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this the edit publication Maharjan or s and ix L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L Some Key Terms

Capacity – A combination of all the strengths and resources Mitigation – Structural and non-structural measures available within a community, society, or organisation that can undertaken to limit the adverse impact of natural hazards, reduce the level of risk, or the effects of a disaster. environmental degradation and technological hazards.

Disaster – A serious disruption of the functioning of a community Preparedness – Activities and measures taken in advance to or a society causing widespread human, material, economic, or ensure effective response to the impact of hazards, including environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected the issuance of timely and effective early warnings and the community or society to cope using its own resources. temporary evacuation of people and property from threatened locations. Disaster risk reduction (disaster reduction) – The conceptual framework of elements considered with the possibilities to Resilience/resilient – The capacity of a system, community minimise vulnerabilities and disaster risks throughout a society, or society potentially exposed to hazards to adapt, by resisting to avoid (prevention) or to limit (mitigation and preparedness) or changing in order to reach and maintain an acceptable level the adverse impacts of hazards, within the broad context of of functioning and structure. It is determined by the degree sustainable development. to which the social system is capable of organising itself to increase its capacity for learning from past disasters for better Hazard – A potentially damaging physical event, phenomenon or future protection and to improve risk reduction measures. human activity that may cause the loss of life or injury, property damage, social and economic disruption or environmental degradation.

x t conditions of the also the vulnerable int activity losses Risk Nepal. Ingeneral, aVDCcom ‘village de No o reducethepo t eractions the e: Thet no ph

include – risk tation ysical The disrupt (deaths, v erm ‘VDC’usedinthedescription ofplacenamesisshor elopment committ pr of conditions. pr ocess. betw vulnerability aspects Risk the obability ed t ential negativ een concept = or injuries, It Hazar en results of natural of

vir vulnerability prises anumber ofvillages. Con ee’, thelocalle and harmful onmental ds of pr v fr e x insuffi entionally or om oper e conseq xposure V ulnerability human-induced the conseq ty

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1 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L 2 I Did Y betw hist o abound their the accumulat elder and of up When t contribut adjust of changes Part I–Introduction o v pr er an dif in fl bor n or fl

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3 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L for construction, elevating house foundations, and consolidating landholdings. Finally, learning from past mistakes also enables the walls of their houses with mud, bamboo fences, and/or people to prepare for future fl oods. vegetation. Local indigenous structures such as grain stores, multipurpose platforms, and circular mud repositories enable Local people communicate about past natural disasters from one people to store food and keep other important belongings in generation to another and from place to place, mainly orally, using elevated places. In some cases, drinking water pumps are elevated, local stories, songs, and proverbs. Songs and proverbs related to embankments are built with local materials to protect the village fl oods help people to remember past events and play a key role from fl oods, and small boats are made to prevent the villagers in building community awareness (especially for the younger from being completely isolated from the outside during fl oods. generation who may not have witnessed exceptional fl oods). Other non-structural measures include seasonal and permanent Unfortunately, local singers are leaving in search of well-paying migration, drying and collecting food and fi rewood in advance for jobs outside the village and as a result of the growing use of radio food security, changing land-management strategies, adopting and, in some cases, television. Thus the oral tradition is weakening, soil conservation methods along the river bed, adopting informal and new ways need to be found to capture and transmit the folk rules for grazing and fi rewood cutting, and relying on dispersed memory.

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 4 ho the kno and preparedness documenting described under man practices begun In Who shouldreadthisrepor T Back Chapter 1 be identifi under Part I–Introduction w thethemesarerelat theor used wledge analytical y de non-go of he standing standing

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5 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L Local knowledge on disaster preparedness is based on the following

(1) Observe (2) Anticipate (3) Adjust (4) Communicate

People’s experience of the local People’s identification and People’s access to assets People’s ability to transfer surroundings monitoring of environmental knowledge among themselves and indicators between generations

Early warning signals Human assets Oral & written communication History of natural hazards Examples: interpretational knowledge Examples: specific skills such as Examples: local songs, poems, Examples: knowledge on the location, of changes in animal behaviour, traditional carpenters and masons proverbs which help the younger time, duration, frequency, intensity, vegetation patterns; knowledge of local generation and outsiders to learn about predictability of previous hazards weather forecasts Sociocultural assets previous hazards; stories of previous Examples: knowledge of different social hazards encoded in the names of groups depending on occupational, specific places physical ability, ethnicity, gender, caste, Time thresholds Nature of natural hazards class, and age characteristics Examples: knowledge of when it is time Early warning systems Examples: knowledge on the onset, to buy and store food in advance, leave Examples: use of visual signals such origin, and velocity of water flow; Institutional assets the house, move the cattle, and remove as mirrors, fire or audio signals like knowledge of different types of rain important belongings Examples: knowledge generated by local institutions and cross-scale drums; having dreams of natural linkages hazards in advance

Escape routes and safe places for Evolution of social and physical Financial assets Other practices humans and cattle vulnerabilities to natural hazards Examples: micro-finance arrangements Examples: taboos which prevent Examples: knowledge of the safest and Example: life stories explaining the such as credits and savings people from going to certain hazard- fastest routes impoverishment processes of prone areas; ceremonies, local art households following recurrent natural Natural assets which helps the community to hazards and other stresses Examples: natural resource understand and remember past natural management strategies such as hazards, and relieve the anxiety related Key actors and skills intercropping and agroforestry that to the threat of future hazards Examples: knowledge of who knows conserve biodiversity and protect soil what, who does what and when, who erosion and can contribute to reducing stays behind, who goes first the impacts of natural hazards

Physical assets Examples: infrastructural safety arrangements such as boats, housing, embankments

Figure 1: The four pillars of local knowledge on disaster preparedness

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7 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L How this report was compiled observation and transect walks in and around the villages. Although fi re is one of the main hazards during the summer Primary data were collected over a period of six days in the season, and especially in the poorest wards due to congested Eastern Terai of Nepal, in the districts of Dhanusa, Mahottari, houses and storing of straw, it was not investigated here due to Rautahat, and Sarlahi (see Figure 2) between November time constraints. The information collected in this report was and December 2006. Semi-structured interviews and group validated through a half-day feedback and discussion session discussions, especially with elders and women, were held in with CARE-Nepal and DIPECHO SAMADHAN project staff. nine villages. The villages were selected in collaboration with CARE-Nepal and local partners through the CARE DIPECHO SAMADHAN project and following discussions with other key How to use this report informants in the fi eld. Key criteria for selection of villages The report is in four parts: this introduction followed by the included communities that (a) are affected by frequent methods, the fi ndings of the case study and a conclusion. fl oods (at least once per generation) to enable the study of The methods section explains the four major steps one has to community responses to hazards, (b) have been settled in follow in order to collect and analyse data on local knowledge their current geographic location for at least 50-100 years to related to disaster preparedness. These four steps can be enable the study of traditional coping strategies (underlying used as a checklist by implementing organisations. assumption: new settlements have had less time to build up coping strategies); and (c) have had little or no exposure to The third part of the report, the case study itself, provides external intervention to enable the study of local responses implementing organisations with a concrete example of what and innovation (underlying assumption: communities tend to local knowledge on disaster preparedness is and how it can be become dependent on external help and are losing their local documented. The case study is based on people’s anecdotes coping mechanisms). and stories. The report uses citations to give local people a Interviews focused on both community and household voice. Additional comments are given to put people’s voices strategies, from those of rich landowners to those of the into context and to refl ect their contradictions, repetitions, poorest of the poor. Questions focused on preparedness for the and complexity. Examples of key questions that implementing rainy season in general, and for the fl ood season in particular. organisations should use to improve their understanding and Qualitative data collected from the interviews with the villagers to integrate local knowledge into their disaster preparedness and other key informants were complemented by direct projects are also provided (Box – ‘Did you ask?’). The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 8 Part I–Introduction Figure 2:Thisrepor t isbasedons tudies under at thef oot oftheHimala t a k en intheRaut y as inNepal ahat, Sarlahi,Mahott ari, andDhanushadis tricts

Map source: ESRI

9 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L The lessons learned from the study are discussed in the What is not covered in this report? This report does not cover concluding section, which also provides a summary of the key how to use the information collected – that is how to use fi ndings in tabular form and a bibliography. local knowledge related to disaster preparedness and how to integrate it into your own activities (e.g., street drama, school The case study itself by defi nition is not and cannot be curriculum). The present case study aims only to facilitate complete (i.e., integrating all aspects of local knowledge understanding about local knowledge on disaster preparedness. related to disaster preparedness). The topic is complex and The assumption here is that local knowledge and practices, each case is context specifi c. However, as mentioned already, whether they are relevant or not in a specifi c context for a the case study is organised around an analytical framework specifi c project, cannot and should not be ignored. Local that can be used anywhere (Figure 1: the four pillars of local knowledge and practices always need to be taken into knowledge on disaster preparedness). Most importantly, this account. However, and importantly, it does not mean that all case study can help implementing organisations to use and local knowledge and practices are appropriate or sustainable. develop the analytical framework to their own requirements. Therefore, the next important step – which is not part of this Understanding the process of data collection and the type of case study – includes: assessing which local knowledge and information collected in this report is even more important than practices you can support within your timeframe; for whom the outcomes per se, as it helps similar exercises documenting and for which objectives; how to integrate it into your activities; local knowledge to be carried out in other contexts. As such, how it can be combined with other knowledge on disaster the intention is that this should be a learning case study: it is preparedness; and within which context local knowledge and designed to raise questions and stimulate practitioners to fi nd practices can help to improve your disaster preparedness their own answers (Hussain-Kaliq 2004). The report can be most activities (i.e., contextualising local practices and disasters and useful in the project development and implementation stages, providing policy recommendations). especially during analysis of local contexts (e.g., socioeconomic surveys), and during the design of project activities.

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 10 Co l Key l ect StepsinData ion and P a r t 2 Analy sis 1 1 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L 12 liv betw and the pr under local do What specifi obser “ of localkno S C Collecting Dat Chapter 2 Part 2–Four Key StepsinDataCollection andAnalysis Local oduced, elihoods, andpo t and ep 1:Under f (4) our een kno people v

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kno these kno Local wledge aspect of kno local combination 999). local local w can local wledge’ practices alls, wledge kno f wledge). or dimensions liv kno kno kno kno it contribut wledge instance, elihoods. ref methods t pr of erraces, wledge wledge wledge wledge obably er types, in local s and the F t or of in o, e 1 3 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L to conservation of ecological diversity. Local non-technical kind of assets (i.e., natural, sociocultural, economic, political) knowledge is often not easily identifi able by outsiders because at what time and under what circumstances. At the local level, it is closely embedded in people’s livelihoods and worldviews. various types of institutions exist. For instance, institutions can Local knowledge is scattered and institutionally dispersed: it is be classifi ed in terms of social, religious, political, judicial, and located at the individual/household level as well as collectively economic institutions (Appiah-Opoku and Hyma 1999) or in through community stewards and other key social actors (e.g., terms of familial, communal, social, and collective institutions shamans, elders). One can also make a distinction between (Bingen 2001). Examples of local institutions are: the family, everyday knowledge about the environment and specialist the household, marriage, the caste system, kinship exchange knowledge retained by a few individuals or local experts. Local networks, traditional rural reciprocity networks, schools, and knowledge also tends to derive more from memory, intuition, so on. Institutions shape every aspect of a livelihood system1 and the senses than from the intellect. Finally, another from the type and amount of assets individuals, households, distinction can be made between experiential knowledge and organisations can build upon, together with the creation, (i.e., knowledge gained through experience) and transmitted transformation of, access to, returns from, and accumulation or knowledge (i.e., knowledge gained through transmission from reduction of assets (Bingen 2001), to their livelihood strategies stories, poems, songs, and religious practices, for example). (e.g., whether people manage to diversify, innovate, intensify), Obviously local knowledge is always a mixture of the two. their livelihood outcomes (e.g., whether people manage to However, transmitted knowledge does not meet with the increase social services or promote a certain type of rights), same problems of legitimacy in the community as experiential and the ‘vulnerability context’ (e.g., crisis, shocks, trends) that knowledge (personal communication, James Gardner). people face. Ostrom (1992) identifi es several reasons why institutions matter. First, “institutions shape the patterns of Secondly, with respect to local practices, institutions, and human interactions and the results that individuals achieve” skills – In the literature, local practices are also referred to as through monitoring, sanctioning, and confl ict resolution ‘risk-spreading strategies’, ‘preventive measures’, ‘adaptation mechanisms for instance (Ostrom 1992). Second, institutions strategies’, ‘coping strategies’, ‘adjustment strategies’, ‘safety can increase and/or decrease the benefi ts from a fi xed set of nets’, and so on. Local practices are mediated by local institutions inputs. Third, “institutions shape human behaviour through and associated power relations. Local institutions constitute a their impact on incentives” (Ostrom 1992). Incentives are rules, set of formal and informal rules, norms, values, organisations, 1 A livelihood system refers to a combination of modes of livelihood at one time - e.g., and patterns of behaviour that defi ne who is allowed to use what farming, migrant labour, and informal activities (Murray 2001). The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 14 Thirdly them t with preparedness. making preparedness; Some viable wheno deepened or o within concluded relat Sinclair be f only instance, Practices Local fl norms, syst Part 2–Four Key StepsinDataCollection andAnalysis

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ws ue be ed as es In is e 1 5 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L Step 2: Understanding the knowledge with other types (Nonaka 1991). For the purpose of this report, two important points need to be highlighted. First, processes surrounding local the internalisation of practices means that, “local people often knowledge have diffi culties identifying specifi c practices or institutions as specifi cally oriented toward coping with hazards, even though All three dimensions of local knowledge (knowledge types, those same practices do play a role in reducing risk. This practices, and beliefs) are interrelated and infl uence one makes sense given that most of these practices have been another constantly. Local knowledge and knowledge in general developed over centuries of trial and error. Also, some of the emerges from a dynamic process of knowledge creation, use, very practices that do reduce risk can be remarkably oppressive management, and transmission. In fact, local knowledge is in other ways. In some cases […], for example, the need to disappearing and being created all the time (Berkes 1999). create social obligations outside of the community (that can Before trying to build upon local knowledge and practices, protect households in the event of disaster) leave little options one needs to understand the processes involved. How is local for women when it comes to choosing a marriage partner. They knowledge disappearing and being created? How is local have virtually no voice in the matter, but their enforced silence knowledge used in a specifi c context and by whom? How is helps to ensure the security of their natal household (and the local knowledge being transmitted within the community and household they are married into)” (personal communication, between generations and who is transmitting it? How is local Ken MacDonald). knowledge managed at the household and community levels? What are the key local institutions that infl uence knowledge Sometimes, prior experience of a natural hazard is forgotten management? Who has access to local knowledge, how, and because the event does not happen frequently enough for under which conditions? people to remember and internalise it. The combination of local knowledge with external knowledge is not new. Communities The process of knowledge creation itself is complex and includes totally isolated from outside infl uence are rare. Local knowledge aspects of internalisation, socialisation, and externalisation is not isolated: it has always been connected to other places of knowledge, as well as the combination of one type of and other types of knowledge.

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1 7 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L Step 4: Understanding the wider linkages between poverty reduction and disaster management, and, more generally, the dominance of a sectoral approach to context: the relationship of local disaster management. Did we forget that disaster risk reduction knowledge, disaster preparedness, is also poverty reduction? The issue of local knowledge on disaster preparedness needs to be understood and integrated and livelihoods to poverty into the wider issues of sustainable livelihoods and poverty reduction. Ultimately, improving implementing agencies’ reduction understanding of the linkages between local knowledge and Local knowledge is infl uenced by the type, frequency, and disaster preparedness can help implementing organisations intensity of past and present natural hazards, as well as by to promote livelihood security and build resilient communities. other shocks and global trends and factors — for instance, the Local knowledge can be used as a key entry point for this. impacts of climate change, globalisation, road construction, and national policies on natural resources. Indeed, in many The four steps outlined above can be used as a checklist to verify cases, natural hazards, although constituting an important that you have incorporated the key aspects of local knowledge stress, are not the major stressor faced by communities. From on disaster preparedness into your project. The next part of a local knowledge perspective, as suggested by Battista and the report presents the information collected in Nepal on local Baas (2004), it is more interesting to, “look at shocks that knowledge related to fl ood preparedness. The case study is are recurrent and chronic and that contribute to gradually organised according to the framework in Figure 1. Chapter 3 increasing the vulnerability of the community instead of focuses on local knowledge related to the observation and exceptional natural events which require emergency operations experience of fl oods. Chapter 4 focuses on local knowledge from outside”. related to the anticipation of fl oods. Chapters 5 and 6 focus on technical and non-structural adaptation strategies. Finally, The lack of an explicit connection between local knowledge Chapter 7 focuses on how local people communicate and share and disaster management in the literature refl ects the lack of information about past and imminent hazards.

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 18 T he CaseSt P a r t 3 udy 1 9 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L 20 current three twice “Eighty His L Obser Chapter 3 localities of their o in people under ties Based adaptation strat Part 3–TheCase Study their fl

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2 1 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L shuttle between mountain ridges during the summer monsoon season and lowland areas during winter in order to avoid malaria. This also helped to avoid or reduce the impact of fl ood hazards. After the eradication of malaria, investment in the development of human settlements, other infrastructure, and agriculture in the lowland areas has increased tremendously and exposed [the area] to fl ood hazards.” (Khanal et al. 2007)

Nature of fl oods in people’s localities Normal and exceptional fl oods “The water started to come slowly so we had time to leave.” (Ram Ekbal Yadav, 2003 fl ood in Jhauwa Tole, Bhaisarawa Figure 3: Girl showing the level of the previous fl ood, Pipariya VDC, VDC, Rautahat District) Sarlahi District “No fl ood stays for more than one day here.” (Byagiya Devi, 70, can provoke inundation in the already saturated soil. Similarly, Singyahi VDC, Mahottari District) heavy rainfall higher up in the mountains can trigger a fl ash fl ood or a riverine fl ood downstream. Loss of life due to fl oods “If we have one to three days of rain, the water stays for more is low, but physical damage to agricultural land and domestic than 20-30 days. If it rains just one day, it takes one week for property is high with important consequences for people’s the water to go.” (Jeevan Roy, Deuri VDC, Dhanusha District) livelihoods, because people mainly depend on farming. “During the rainy season, the water can stay for one week Historically, it should be mentioned that, then go away and then come back again.” (Bhuli Devi Sahani, Laxmipur, Sukchaina) “Before malaria eradication in 1956, almost all the river valleys, including those of the Dun or Inner Terai, where the “A normal fl ood is when we get water up to the knees.” (Ram threat of fl oods is high, were prone to malaria. People used to Ekbal, 52, Piparyia VDC, Sarlahi District) The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 22 Sarlahi District) pr “ (Gr “ Pipar “Bef s com par pulses, “Ev Maho c T “ Dhanusha District) closer “Bef Change inriv “ VDC, SarlahiDistrict) within “ Shreepur VDC,SarlahiDistrict) Part 3–TheCase Study The T The The W w tar hanging w oblem o e opi Shah,Pipariy er tially enty t ore, ore, ple y ed t canno riv yia VDC,SarlahiDistrict) y riv ear current ttari District) t tw t er o and er y ely y o

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23 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L of a snake. The water channels are very unstable, taking new levels. Many of the high-caste people are wealthy landowners directions and changing the landscape on a regular basis. This in need of the services of people of occupational (lower) and active landscape makes the environment very unpredictable. other castes. In return, the occupational castes are tied to their The behaviour of the rivers described here is fairly common in respective roles because the income from the meagre land the pro-Himalayan plains and piedmont area, especially in the holdings of those who have land is not enough to maintain the eastern Himalayas. The Brahmaputra River provides us with a family.” (Bista 2004, p134) very good example with fairly frequent fl ood discharges from rain in the mountains, middle mountains, and sub-hill areas; local People are not equal in their capacity to respond to fl oods. inundation and water-logging due to localised heavy rain; and In other words, fl oods do not impact everybody in the same shifting channels and lots of sediment (generally fi ne sands) way – and this is particularly true for the Terai region of Nepal. that are deposited, eroded, and re-deposited by succeeding Compared to the rest of the country, most communities in fl oods. Two different ‘fl ood’ processes are happening in the the Terai are more conservative and the Hindu caste system region. One process is channel overfl ow and the other is infl uences people’s socioeconomic relationships more strongly. surface water-logging from heavy rain. People’s stories reveal In the study area, the few high-caste persons in the village were that both these processes are taking place. Often the latter is mostly landowners and moneylenders. Poorer, lower-caste more damaging because the water stays around longer than people are therefore often dependent on the higher castes for in the case of the former. The former, of course, causes more survival because of their lack of access to assets. Important physical damage because of erosion and sedimentation and differences exist in social vulnerabilities between wealthier and re-arrangement of the land surface. poorer people and (high and low castes) and among different age groups. Small children and elders are the most vulnerable groups during fl oods because they may not be physically fi t Evolution of vulnerability to fl oods enough for rapid and urgent movement. Gender vulnerability Social and gender vulnerabilities is also more pronounced in the studied districts as women “Wherever they are found, members of the various in the Maithali culture, which predominated in the villages, occupational castes and the fewer higher castes form a mainly stay and work at home. However, variations can be socially and economically interdependent group. In the Terai, found among different castes and socioeconomic levels and as elsewhere in strongly Hindu districts, high and low caste is within each household, especially following increased male closely correlated with, but not identical to, wealth and poverty migration. More and more men are working outside the village The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 24 Phoolparasi VDC, SarlahiDis Figure 4:W Part 3–TheCase Study oman withbab y infrontofasmallele trict v a ted house,

Julie Dekens ha “ spo bac fr w “ District) (Dalit “Our P their homes. or land o among and houses changing Households Sarlahi District) land, land The W ther om e o v the

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25 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L in the understanding of local knowledge. The caste, social, and economic contexts are important issues to be noted in any checklist that implementing organisations might use. Because poor and wealthy and lower and higher castes are so interdependent, measures should focus not only on ‘the poorest of the poor’ but on the entire system, including the interrelations between different economic groups, different castes, and different social groups. Further, most communities are facing multiple stress factors. In the eastern Terai of Nepal, the two main natural hazards most communities have to cope with are fl oods and fi re – together with political and economic stress, for example, at the time of the study, the role of the Figure 5: Dalit women’s group discussion Deuri VDC, Dhanusha Maoist movement. Focusing only on one stress factor might District give a false picture because households and communities are If they do not have cash, they are forced to take loans from making decisions and are adjusting their practices according moneylenders in the village and to pay interest rates ranging to the combination of stresses they face. The process of from three to fi ve per cent per month. Every year it becomes pauperisation and its linkages with natural hazards are more diffi cult for them to rebuild their houses and they enter complex. Populations affected may not always be from a ‘poor into a spiral of poverty. Their houses, as much as themselves, group’ and a specifi c event may contribute to a change in become even more vulnerable to the next fl ood. Each new fl ood their status. The time factor is another important element to weakens their houses and worsens their health and general consider. A household with 10 young children could be poor economic circumstances. In most cases, the fl oods may lead to today, but might become wealthier later on, if and when the 10 organisational adaptations but no or few structural adaptations: children contribute income and manpower to the household the fl oods cause the poor to become poorer. (human assets).

Social relationships, and especially caste arrangements, are an important element evolving from this case study that help

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 26 Part 3–TheCase Study Histor vulnerable groups)? new How are people their priorities before? Are disaster understanding V abnormal floods;flashfloodsversusriverinefloods)? not, types of Natur knowledge and/orpreviousexperienceoffloods? and was exceptional the histor ulnerability floods last , they they according interpret caused vulnerability vulnerable of y e does y of able of flood Why? rain? situations) of now in able now floods floods flood? their floods to disaster by T occur? the What living o than to identif to of

assessment what in the – groups locality different to situation solve How What their their – and happened? before in natural What flood? y extent change, What the a many locality , do own them of (i.e., more e.g., types was Bo problems people the and or How does hazards? do people vulnerability x 1:Didyouask?Observationande onset, emerging , on the – the vulnerable factors increase, Do e.g., people how of local do know their What floods landscape water people when died? origin people do and T knowledge o that know about

own these what vulnerability level (normal to and/or and are What dwelling have , (e.g., influence velocity what understand initiatives? from the about of extent where influence different people’s damage the in var versus nature create extent , their than pre- and last y the did are it? or or influence localknowledge ondisasterpreparedness? stress Multiple those poorer? richer maintain they natural people’s historical, land, receive from those from groups How arrangements practices ability do Socioeconomic social were the do lose , the who people factors such and hazards? xperience offloods benefits? the perceptions floods? relationships their str living old flooding in cultural, have ethnicity) ess as floods with do flood land? influence status. women factors in land Did Is the and Can access a it and or affect How flood-prone preparedness? community rich only of in Did other you , influence (age, do children natural different people’s – religious people do What the to the describe different the goods gender conte the sociocultural wealthiest other poorest , hazards become and area face individual ability local places) backgrounds xtual and , how economic class, elders? How natural and or knowledge ser to and were also people factors ‘poorer households who adapt how vices caste, milieu do and Who responses hazards they manage can might and the to collective ’ influence denied gain

because physical benefits – provide floods? benefit able of social

caste How they (i.e., new and and to to to to 2 7 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L 28 within thecommunity because – adv and high speed “Bef VDC, SarlahiDistrict) kno fl ensue. “ signals Local en P Anticipating Floods Chapter 4 Part 3–TheCase Study

W oods. and e ance, w ore kno cattle, that critical The int eople When But w the remo of erpreting that fl y .” (By

time oods some fl also their

ood manage w act ving if vironment e agiy it

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. por no blac t the hea come.” o it ticed vi, Singy tant

anticipat does k t skills, vily o community clouds – en

belongings identify a f vir and or (Ram no sound ahi VDC,Maho onmental al w kno st t e continuously on oring rain fl wledge, Ekbal,

saf oods the who lik arning and here e fi e

re mountains places a can b 52, w w lea y bus ood and/or arning and

obser ttari District) ving fl Dalit, suppor

ooding tra f and w or the e v ving

elling humans Pipariy position w signals. s f t till ood e house could them

also and ge at in a t of P (list Local District) specifi “Bef (Lakhan Raut,elder fl “Fif VDC, SarlahiDistrict) and “Some do It “

There ood, eople t is wn en ty ening, ore dead lik -tw .” (RamEkbal,52,Dalit,Pipariy

a no c kno times e is are rhinocer o the tice smell.” a a animals y seeing, wledge whis ear specifi str bef fl

local, ood ongly s tle ore os ago, (By

c smelling, in comes, is because came sound the en , PhoolparasiVDC,SarlahiDistrict) agiy connect the a a vir big fl

a kno ood, onmental w int of a De the fl tasting o

t wledge ood of e ed the the vi, w r .” e w the t

riv (Ram o can a occurred 70, village

t – their er er speed signs of e.g., see a VDC,SarlahiDistrict) Singy when is Ekbal, the and local muddy fl tast

of oating of here. ahi the hear killed im e the 52, en of VDC, pending fl

and vir Along ood t w muddy w Dalit, one ood, onment a and t er is there Maho per with Pipariy coming. snak coming senses w fl

oods. a son ttari t is and er). the es, .” a a

29 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L They generally understand those warning signals and become “Nobody leaves the village during the fl oods but people move to more alert. In some cases, they can predict that a fl ood is safe places like the school and the VDC offi ce.” (Ram Prasad, coming by observing such signals. These observational skills VDC President, Phoolparasi VDC, Sarlahi District) provide the basis for local meteorological and hydrological knowledge and are often effective in helping save lives. Local communities generally know where the safe places are from local observation and experience. Without any special training; they use their mind maps to identify safe places, Safe places for humans and cattle routes, and locations in their surroundings. High and safe “A lot of people came to save their lives and belongings at my places known about and used by the villagers include elevated place, because it is slightly higher up here than elsewhere. private houses or courtyards, elevated common grounds, and There are two other places like this in the village where people safe public buildings (e.g., VDC offi ces, schools – most schools go during fl oods. One includes a common ground (pathway) are in safe places and are made of brick). between fi elds and houses that are also slightly more elevated than the rest.” (Laxmi Thapa, Singyahi VDC, Mohattari District) Time thresholds “During the rainy season we move all our important belongings Removing important belongings to the house of a particular person. He is rich and he spends “People are always ready to run away and to take money and most of his time in Kathmandu. His house has a large courtyard gold to safe places when the rainy season begins.” (Pipariya and it is safe from fl oods. It can accommodate the 30 to 40 VDC, Sarlahi District) families who are the most vulnerable to fl oods. We take wood, rice, pulses, and our clothes over there. Nothing of importance “Since the 1993 fl ood, people have been taking their belongings is left in our houses so theft is not a problem.” (Gropi Shah, away two-three months before the rainy season.” (Piparyia Pipariya VDC, Sarlahi District) VDC, Sarlahi District) “We are not allowed to touch people from higher castes, so it is a big problem when we are in the shelter with others during Leaving the house fl oods.” (Dalit women, Piparyia VDC, Sarlahi District) “When it starts raining regularly and when it is raining a lot higher up in the mountains, people become alert but no one

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 30 Laxmipur star them When Comments ontime thresholds 3% in “ District) (Wif “ S t lea af lef “ Sarlahi District) Pipariy da “If Pipariy Part 3–TheCase Study o A W W t

t t y adv t o er e e oring v the the e v t es per in w s erfl s the t tar e tar ance. o of t is a VDC,SarlahiDistrict) a VDC,SarlahiDistrict) saf the

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VDC, tar star look e are the ts is t , time t poorest that access their has depending no thresholds and common a is people or of q When constructing swim, fr preparedness. community social Some Critical actor uestions w om limited t a ‘univ these only y’ the a ability local, o practices. is community kno gatherthesamebasicf gr when pregnant ha t er o who w oups depending it

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3 1 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L (e.g., construction of elevated platforms), communication actors ensuring key functions in the community; for example, skills (ability to speak in public and convey messages), and knowledge carriers and retainers like elders, interpreters others. Social memory is a key aspect in building fl ood-resilient and sense makers, stewards and leaders, change agents, communities. It consists of a reservoir of diverse individuals, networkers and facilitators, and followers and reinforcers resource users, and other actors with different and overlapping (Folke et al. 2002). roles within and between critical groups. ‘Critical groups’ are the

Box 3: Did you ask? Anticipating floods

Early warning signals – How can local people manage Safe places for humans and cattle – Where do people to anticipate or identify environmental warning signals of run and who runs away - is it the women and children, is floods? What do people observe, hear, and sense before a it the people without property, etc.? How do local people flood occurs? Do people have traditional or local weather identify safe places for humans and cattle? forecast systems? Critical actors and skills – Who does what within the Time thresholds – How do communities and households community? Who knows what? Who has the relevant prepare for the rainy season? Do they store additional knowledge about floods? Who has specific skills that food, firewood, and medicine? When and how do people can directly or indirectly contribute to improved disaster know that it is time to leave their houses, to remove all preparedness? How can these skills be nurtured? How important belongings, and to store food and firewood? can these skills be passed on from one generation to Where do people go? What do they take with them? another? To what extent does the lower caste or casteless people have knowledge about disaster preparedness that high castes do not have and vice versa; and to what extent is this knowledge shared (nor not)?

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 32 rain people bamboo “Bef Combining materialsf Houses A Adapting toFloods:T Chapter 5 w and and transpor pr and strat people Part 3–TheCase Study omen o t y ection ore egies health long-t season.” “ District) ccor ha with face accommodation, the but v o erm measures e ding v pr

er 1 during tw tation, andmeasurestak de no oblems, 993 (SunitaPandit,Pipar the o-s strat v – w eloped t t and o more y ore fl ear

fl egies ood,

oods Sunita f y or including s. this houses v houses The w arious houses .” houses alls, relat is In strat Pandit also or or housecons ed ele lea structural t der are oile egies w v falling t v v ere a o yia VDC,SarlahiDistrict) alid e t t

ts, o made ed

house (Pipar en t

their cope include made are st f or do o ores, and div the homes of wn, yia most with construction out er bric bo o bigges drinking ther cooking VDC, t streams. these th truction households, of k during . shor

mud t […] echnical t Sarlahi issues, issues t-t w f Ev ood, a erm and and the t en er echnical S Mak of made “Since K Figure 6:W ait mud arait VDC,Dhunusha Dis an out pur District) the .” (Ram alls ofalocalhousemadeout ofdriedpulseplants, of major bric Ekbal ks 2003 and Y ada the fl

trict ood v t res ,

rategies Jhauw more t of the a houses T house ole, Bhaisara ha is v s e till

their made w a bases

VDC, out

33 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L “Why invest in our houses? They will be washed away anyway. We don’t do anything in particular to our houses before the rainy season. Before the 2003 fl ood we started building brick houses but now we have stopped. We are waiting for the construction of an embankment before we invest in our houses again.” (Ram Kishan Giri, Sukchaina, Laxmipur VDC, Sarlahi District) Locating houses in safe places “When we bought this piece of land [where the house has been built] it was already like a pond without water. The land here was even at a lower level than the road. We knew that the place was vulnerable to fl oods but we already had a little bit of land here and the land was cheap too.” (Eklas Devi Yadav and Manaki Devi Yadav, Katarait VDC, Dhanusha District) Figure 7: Old (left) and new elevated house (right) after the major Raising the house plinths 2003 fl ood, Katarait VDC, Dhanusha District “Before the big fl ood in 2003, our house was at ground level. “We don’t build houses on elevated wooden pillars because of After that event, we raised the foundation of our house like the scarcity of land and because it requires a specifi c type of this with two levels of mud. One of my sons, who works in wood which is expensive. Most people elevate the foundations Saudi Arabia, got the idea. He didn’t see this kind of house of their houses by building them on the top of one layer of mud. anywhere else but the fl ood is coming on and on in this village, It is quite labour intensive because you have to transport lots so from our own experience we thought that building two of mud.” (Raj Jumar Yadav and Ram Ratan Yadav, Deuri VDC, layers would be best. There is only one house like this in the Dhanusha District) village. Many people would like to have the same type of house “We raised our house after the 2003 fl ood, the biggest fl ood in but they cannot afford it. This house is much more expensive the last 10 years.” (Eklas Devi Yadav and Manaki Devi Yadav, than others because it requires a lot of labour. In total, it took Katarait VDC, Dhanusha District) two years and one month to build it, whereas a normal house The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 34 Figure 8:Mudhouse withtw Part 3–TheCase Study o ele v a ted mudplinths (seearro ws), K a t arait VDC,Dhanusha Dis trict

35 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L takes about 15 days to one month of labour. The fi rst step Comments on houses is to construct the fi rst elevated layer or ground base. This Families adjust their houses to fl oods differently according to ground base is made out of mud and the outside layer only is their perception of fl oods (e.g., the creation of an embankment a mixture of mud and rice or wheat by-product. It is then left may create a feeling of safety and therefore infl uence how for one year so that it becomes compact and solid. Then the people build their houses) and their socioeconomic status. second elevated layer is built. After another year we fi nished Commonly, houses are made of mud and bamboo, and the house in about one month. If you have your own wood, this sometimes a combination of mud, bamboo and the stalks type of house will cost about 60-70,000 NRs, if not, then it can of a local pulse plant. Less often houses are made of mud, cost around 100,000 NRs.*” (Dakhani Devi Yadav, 70, Katarait bamboo, and wood. Mud walls generally need to be replaced VDC, Dhanusha District) every year in fl ood-affected areas. Most of the roofs are made of straw or tiles. Some people strengthen and protect the wall “We don’t have enough money to raise our houses! If we had foundations using mud or bamboo fences (which also protect money we would try to make good homes, raised above ground against cattle), and many put wood, plants, straw, or mud in level, and made out of bricks, and we would try to get involved front of the house to prevent water seeping in. In some places in business.” (Women group discussion, Bin community, Deuri, people use beams to support walls in the rainy season. Dhanusha District) Nowadays, wealthier households build brick houses, as they “The plinths of our houses used to be raised on a mud platform, are considered safer than mud houses. Some with less money but you cannot notice it now because the fl ood has released build the foundations with bricks and the rest out of mud. In some new sediment which covered our elevated plinths. The many cases, people have realised that their homes are not in ground level is rising constantly because of the sediment a safe place but they cannot afford to construct better homes deposited by the fl oods so that every year our houses will need and/or to buy land in a safer area. People understand that to be raised according to the new level!” (Belhi village, Sarlahi raising the level of their plinths can protect them from fl oods. District) However, even an apparently simple measure such as elevating “We don’t raise our houses because we feel safe now with the the plinths is not affordable for every household. embankment.” (Shreepur VDC, Sarlahi District)

* In 2006, US$ 1 = 73.60 Nepali Rupees (NRs) The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 36 suppor b) f Figure 9:S Part 3–TheCase Study a oundations protectedwithabamboo f ted b trengthening andprotectingw y aw ooden beam,SeuraiVDC,Dhanusha Dis alls andw ence andmud,K b all f oundations: a)f trict a t arait VDC,DhanushaDis oundations protectedwithpiled upmud,K trict ; c)w all madeofbamboo,mud,and driedp c a t arait VDC,Dh anusha Dis ulse plants trict ; 3 7 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L Figure 10: Mud house with brick plinths, Bhaisarawa VDC, Rautahat Figure 11: Elevated brick house, Katarait VDC, Dhanusha District District

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 38 the k household number – upon Households Grain s last with mentioned indirectly insects f reasons. the can wheel mud-made multipurpose called abo citizenship st Three S Part 3–TheCase Study or o ore including t thali y fl v orage

t e also oods e specifi op x are their f

or ceptional ood major the ‘k is and and, cir and o Ele be t traditional thali’ a but t

assets ore (‘k and cular o c that normal and during reposit documents, o st v

can f adaptions types a ther ound in size fl ore platf

t f ood ed or k slight or fl are object some eep

build ood t v erect air o grain diffi ories, orms, of ermin. in ‘berhi’ of othali’) fl

preparedness. ensure

e ood o structures

modifi cir grain e xam man cult ther local, in v v cases, ed t arious ent. culation st o clo locally Maithali locally

le ores, ples In the y times on in im

thes, v their st cations non el. indigenous fl

por ores ood-pr Maithali posts rise a types of f The called or called smaller such f fl tant built t and

ood and o ood-pr great in e

indicat y in pre In xam one with w of belongings security are Nepali). as design gold a f ‘chakk v or some ‘machan’; or t grain ent ple, economic one structure areas, er opening the the e grain ‘bhak dif le in the r are fl villages, v o ha f

a’ main These st ood erent on els cases, t places the ore v and ari’ (which st w made e a lik f on

ealth ores, and season. ollo been are y y disparity opening e depending early contribut structures in pr t o the land because wing ele villager o

used no cir Nepali; contr means t added of locally ectiv v basis t cular side. a and The just the the t . ed at t ol A e e o s

Figure 1 same. “Our slightly ele a outside (small can pillar a Dif corrugat mixture f erent v s, a grain r ‘k or 2: Ele y The the o

(r mat thali’ more of ed v ound y a s house v bamboo t t erials a ir ores ed closedw are ted grains on are rarely or r alw oof). and are rectangular),as are k ept and a a used ys traditional ha In brick t inside ores, Bhaisara ooden r v mud) some slightly e

t thatched o platf

build whereas and cases, oom inthehouseitself. orm). and ele w the the ell w v r a a oofs grain as ha st The large t posts VDC,Raut ed ore v its e or shape

fr is (bamboo, alw size ‘k , om (mud less also o thali’ a ahat Dis ys and the of commonly st or been the ored are location w mud, gr ooden trict ound st built in the ore or a ,

39 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L a b c Figure 13: Different types of grain store: a) Outside grain store with a brick base, Phoolparasi VDC, Sarlahi District; b) grain store made of bamboo inside a house, Singyahi VDC, Mohattari District; c) grain store made of mud and poles inside a house, Singyahi VDC, Mohattari District

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 40 Sarlahi District) “ T during saf and guar the house, household of dif v ‘Machan’, Multipur [of the agains the per st as In built t Part 3–TheCase Study e The ole, Bhaisara a ories m r some f the e, a y erent grain major porarily entire

d fi in t permanently per

used e re against t m ceiv t platf fl about or w w

erms son oods), cases, porar ood, s a types 2003 or t house), inside t income), ed saf as ores] er orm pose platf bef who platf of the or w wildlif y a used ore beds and a machan. of place the fl humidity (it VDC,Makw

a e heightsindif has ood, orms, the le as its bamboo little v the v e t nature its its el o aries are par land in kitchen;

purpose t people k of o location rain are lif eep the

bit t placed sit Generally pre etime orm (mac and of also accor and y commonly fi more abo

or small vious the elds, an season, s animals and (e.g., tar has w pur District) (e.g., v q f on (some ding erent places. house, e ood), .” uality t

used cattle ed , fl the f

t (Ram sometimes oods ood the op used inside t t in o o used lik han) w the of of machan

t

heights increase s furniture, o a the and e o t and

one t Erk mat ores!” st ther as e mice size r and/or ore in ,

al purpose a o used erials as ano the ther cases w Y stra it of and (Pipariy and are a such atch the ther can da and region. machan outside f w belongings or used v rats. only ele ele , f the

t or and indicat t tak cooking set Jhauw o o a w v v

cattle ser y ation ation (e.g., Af VDC, e er The built up). are the the t t up ell v er t a e o e y

(top) andinside akitc Figure 1 4: Bamboomac hen inDhanusha Dis hans outsideahouseinRaut trict (bottom) ahat Dis trict 4 1 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L “We construct machan before the rainy season so that people can sit above the water. The maximum that people waited here on the machan was 10 hrs” [this place is a little more elevated than other places in the village – Author]. Piparyia VDC, Sarlahi District)

“During the fl ood, by covering the machan with mud, we can cook food there.” (Sushila Mahto, Shreepur VDC, Sarlahi District)

“During fl oods we stay in the machan, we don’t leave the house. A machan is expensive and people may have to borrow money to buy bamboo or wood. Everybody can build a machan. Specifi c skills are not required but good, strong machan like this one are built by carpenters from outside [the village] with strong wood.” (Ram Kishan Giri, Sukchaina, Laxmipur VDC, Sarlahi District)

“Machan are not always safe!” (Belhi village, Sarlahi District)

“Fifty-two years ago we had a fl ood that brought a hailstorm in May. It was not raining here, but it was raining in the mountains. People used to watch their crops day and night (taking turns) against wildlife from machan made out of bamboo (15-20 feet). Fifty-two years ago, my grandfather was at the top of the machan and the fl ood came with hail and sleet, so my Figure 15: Big wooden machan inside a house, Phoolparasi VDC, father gave a signal. Three people climbed up the machan. Sarlahi District. The river at the time was 25-30 metres away from the machan.

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 42 Figures 1 village someone people The saf mac tak I w “I Sarlahi District Part 3–TheCase Study ha ashed had e e v han fl places

e risks. ood

a kno o w 6: Decoratedw a ther in ere mac w pulled came ws case a Ho lik y w

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fl e (a the

s wn ood r w t , or

br large a bef alls ofahouse in Mohatt I sc y a w es; ok think comes .” a bamboo hool ore y e (Ram . I one do Only go the that or wn suddenly in t Ekbal, at o one rain t it

the o the the the

is sa y per mac no v VDC house) 52, sc season e .

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Figure 1 fr cir abo w Chakk Circular mudrepositor “Mac Laxmipur VDC,Sukchaina,SarlahiDistrict) f discussion, Bincommunity or om ooden cular m v e han children’s y

a

gr 7 cattle.” plat : Small‘c are pillar(s) ound are e-lik cir

saf cular le (Ram hands e hakka’ outside ahouseinK of v e el. object. a during mud Chandra In house and most Small , Laxmipur reposit a normal w at a cases, Sah, y (c y ar

it fr ound ems ories om hakka) lando fl , Sukchaina)

oods w the can one built a t a e wner t .” r reposit arait VDC be . and

These ar (W k ound ept and omen’s a or half mud-made there y politician, the f orms metres gr main saf oup a e

43 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L repositories also provide alternative storage in areas where there is not enough wood available to build a machan or other storage unit. Chakka also serve as decoration (most houses in Maithali villages are decorated with drawings and paintings and relief). In some households, small chakka are also made around small wooden pillars outside and these also give additional storage space for general use and during fl oods in particular. Hanging baskets kept outside can also be used to store food and small belongings safely.

“This is a traditional Maithali structure and is not found in every house. Only old women know how to make it. A chakka takes 15 days to make. First, the woman has to collect mud and mix it with water and rice husks and straw. If mud is not available close to the house, the men help her collect it. [In the Maithali culture, women mainly stay at home and are responsible for all indoor activities – Author] The mixture is then applied to a main wooden pillar inside the house. On the fi rst day, the base of the repository is built on the wooden pillar and is then left to dry for one day. During the following days, additional layers are added one after another as each layer dries.” (Eklas Devi Yadav and Manaki Devi Yadav, Katarait VDC, Dhanusha District)

“Nowadays, people prefer to use cement rather than wooden pillars because it is stronger and easier to build. […] It is not possible to make chakka in houses with cement pillars.” Figure 18: ‘Chakka’ with an unusual ‘pigeon hole’ design, Katarait (Dakhani Devi Yadav, Katarait VDC, Dhanusha District) VDC, Dhanusha District.

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 44 Sarlahi Dis NGO usinglocalkno Figure 19:Embankmentmade outofbamboocons no tract “F and transpor S VDC President,Phoolparasi,Sarlahidistrict,A embankment, int embankments the sand “ Puplal Y Part 3–TheCase Study A our

tream control,drinkingw o t f e w elder w or the o bags. months y rk t ear ada o riv s

out, trict limit s er of v N ago, , Singy o it [whic the grass w using ago bank did PRERAN w wledge andlocalmaterial.Phoolparasi VDC, villages e ahi VDC,Maho h no w

is local used er is] e t plant t

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a elds, hannel the

(Ram ter using Y of t is op ada but y alocal , Prasad, plant making plas with of v it with and the did ed tic a VDC, Dhanusha Dis Figure 20:W the “Since fr and ha A male labourandpoora Local of Local Stream VDC, SarlahiDistrict) ccess om v the e s o

the tream manual ther embankments embankments riv people t contr o w er s

drinking a b a ma t has y ter pumpraisedonamudand bric er

ol w on NGOs y pum a and t the sim shif trict er w ps pum or o ply t a and ed div ther are t v on er v aries displace er ailability ofbamboo. ps, fr o a is side also sion om ther priv ano most within of their limit at att are ther the the e built em basis. ed the limit riv place k pr pts e er because oblem with y village ed built issue. t A o ccess t

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45 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L to household. In some cases, the water pumps are built higher up from the surrounding area in safe places. In other cases, Box 4: Did you ask? the water pump is fl ooded for a few days. Sometimes, the Technical adjustment strategies villagers raise the water pumps with mud or with bricks after a major fl ood event. Some water pumps that used to be raised House construction and location – Why do people cannot be used anymore during fl oods because the sediments build their houses in vulnerable places? Is it because brought by fl oods regularly raise the ground level. of lack of knowledge or lack of options? What are the main obstacles people face in building their houses in Transportation of goods and movement, in general, are safe places? major issues during fl oods, hampering access to food and Food storage – How do people store food, especially health facilities among other things. Some villages can stay for the rainy season? When do they start storing food? completely isolated for a few days or weeks; at times villages Where? What kind of food? For how many days or are surrounded by streams. months can they rely on the food stores?

Multipurpose platforms – What do people use to keep themselves and their small livestock above the water and to store important belongings during floods? Who knows how to build these platforms? What materials are required and how much do they cost?

Stream control, drinking water and transportation – What are people doing at the community level to control the stream? Are they building embankments as a community? How do people get drinking water during floods? What are they doing in advance to secure access Figure 21: Boat built with local materials (wood, bamboo, and metal to drinking water? How did people manage to move containers) to cross the Jamuni River during the fl ood period. Note a outside the village during previous floods? shrine (temple) in the background. (Deuri VDC, Dhanusha District)

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 46 resilience. All with these strat no and “ div Spatial andsocialmobility N S Adapting toFloods:Non-structural Chapter 6 (Sunita Pandit,Pipariy outside Part 3–TheCase Study A f t of assets er t egies beliefs er stress these mechanisms the r fi t on-structural

in o sity nance a

1 t (land, spatial f o oreign 993 coping of and

t rely all e arrangements, fl attitudes

liv upon ood, kinds and countries mechanisms g est ha a VDC,SarlahiDistrict) strat v ock, people i e than social and

e been egies t o and s those w lik no a los natural mobility established e r t so ds can t India just include their who on) change. add f resour , or and ha are land f ood social fl v

ood measures e f w Qatar or

P ce and f ealthier eople e security people w preparedness. and management, er had t o options who economic

. sur , Most t t relat o o micr

viv cope w ha o e ed v or rk of o- .” e

District) neighbour e “Pregnant Sarlahi District) Ekw elder “ District) “ (Ram Ekbal,Dalit,Pipariy elder Children that s “ As The T tar xpensiv w o soon t al e

s s) mos y so v ear ent, s R mo t o early a e as and t y s y s , v vulnerable

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w home shif so (Chandrak omen vy w e of all t rain

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er e during saf place big t

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e that ur lando their places w , a t w and ere the o Deuri the

a w until saf y wner omen, !” w rain parent’s rain e the ashed whereas (Belhi places the , y VDC, y y Shreepur season.” ill season fl mo

ood VDC, people, a w e v Maho place e v men a er

comes.” y Sarlahi all . y

w Since (Ram VDC, y ould ttari and and ear the or . 4 7 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L “Once we put our important belongings with one of our form of livelihood diversifi cation, (defi ned here as a portfolio of neighbours in a safe spot but they never returned them to us!” activities together with social support capacities; Hussein and (Chandrakula Thakur, Deuri VDC, Mahottari District) Nelson 1998).

“No one allows us to stay at their place and wherever our Social safety nets also play a crucial role for temporary relocation relatives are they suffer from the same problem as us! […] We as a fl ood coping mechanism. In some households, the most are neglected by the government and within the village itself! vulnerable members move out of the village to their relatives Whenever any type of aid arrives in the village it is captured during the most critical months or weeks of the year. In other by the rich people in the village! There is no fi ght, no protest cases, people can also move to their neighbours because they because we lack education.” (Women group discussion, Bin are located in safer places than they are. However, the poorest community, Deuri VDC, Mahottari District) of the poor may not be able to rely on their relatives as they too face economic constraints. This means that in general there Leaving the house together with children and elders just before the fl ood is the fi rst basic measure that people follow. Few households can afford to move out of the village permanently. The most common or widespread response, however, is for men to seek jobs outside the village. Seasonal and permanent migration are common strategies to help people cope with different kinds of stress, including natural hazards, and thus provide social and economic resilience. Men go out to make money to advance their families economically and perhaps socially, and, in the process, thus may help buffer some of the effects of fl ooding. It enables households to compensate for the loss of income caused by fl ood damage to agricultural land. In this context, remittances (money sent back to the family in the village by those working outside) contribute to livelihood diversifi cation and are a mechanism for (social and economic) risk sharing and providing insurance against fl oods. This is one Figure 22: Fisher community, Katarait VDC, Dhanusha District

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 48 season. “ VDC, Maho spices, 2 per in time. “ Collecting f F dif caused cast infl social the status. the the is depends “ gr Part 3–TheCase Study

W W W oup discussion,Bincommunity ood security

the Amixtureofpulses, potatoes,andrice,locallycalled‘mustar less f e e e uenced erent socialgr month village bett houses e reser s s Bef tar poor tar village mobility Ov social beat er W b t ore t v when erall, y e .” s of e dr

ttari District) b and people

t also

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asymmetr w sh oups. cast ysical f fi y

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f y ood continuous fr or ege , e season om w of friends, tw or humansandliv gr the in e ed syst mobility tables oup in o higher people June/July y) the mobility y rain a adv t em. o is lack discussion,

of w mark three and ance y of and e Discussions cast (within season

po , Laxmipur t rain ma can en of f mak w neighbour e . or y e [such trust t. months er str There obtain s also regar The poorer tar ongly the e because and Bin ‘mus within ts as no , Sukchaina) int village d’ is dless loans community with – bef mustar s), dependent t w eres no tar people be ealth es looking some which ore d’ it fi mostly of

t and accept toc fr x is 2 ed rat .” om economic d the a

betw (W than oil, e villages outside diffi k dat is , o at omen is Deuri lo ther ed upon rain itself

salt, e; een cult w the 5% f er or in it s y Figure 23:Mango pic F months bef W can “During places “People Maho clouds in places.” eed e saf

s put tar f e ttari District) or .” (Jee places t or the s who (Ram KishanGiri,Sukchaina,LaxmipurVDC) liv tra collecting es rain ore therain fl w

v ood ha t an R o

and [school y c v k e w season

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r high and mac i c (Chandrak W e

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w near and h bring e or shif ula a wheat t our

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c ] where

k is t

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o those t

VDC, ored

saf eat. tw w e o e

49 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L Figure 25: Dried fi sh and ‘mustard’

Figure 24: Dried pumpkin Figure 26: Fermented and dried green vegetables (‘gundruck’)

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 50 Bin community t The the “ big lando collecting “ mac “ fr and their “ Collecting ands [goats, liv “ Suckchaina) f t “ Part 3–TheCase Study o o or T Thic W W W W om coconuts.” w

es 5 omen e e e collect space o house. han.” t s da s alt collect

put k o houses. tar tar t c o w ys). ernativ chick k

ood t t

some three wner s .” s [buf (SushilaMaht collecting more tar green t Man oring W (Ram fi

ens] is re t e f The , PhoolparasiVDC,SarlahiDistrict) es aloes, collecting

, Laxmipur f s w collect y ood months t lea (Chandrak ored ood f people y grass t are ood Chandra o also v

on es collecting w one k o f outside ood or e t x the and the en] oring fi p s and o, 65,ShreepurVDC,SarlahiDistrict) bef are fi tar cattle t , Sukchaina)

month

re inside fr w

ula Thak Sah, r w t ore s oof w om ood doing lea t ood.” preparing ood a and y 2 fi

of v

their re .” big the

t in in es in re o fr w small (W the

(Sumitra this 3 adv the om ur ood the lando w [t months rain omen’s o , Deuri) o sc ood wn ance and April jungle co dr w w are hool y wner a w ood y]. land t season, there er; dung De and and t in gr o Bef f is acr or ,

vi oup adv small and buy Laxmipur k ore Y k a k oss e is in ada eep eep p ance. f discussion, e no t dr N s the

w the tra inside the o v liv y it it , v fi da

y

wif ember es w lea ghting inside inside Large rain riv ys VDC, s t and e tar o v on er es c (4 of k y t .

capacity regar crisis, in t medicines oil, it and dr Dried (especially radishes, the rain in prepare preser Shor calendar P Comments onf Pandit, Pipariy in fr season, o ems eople om

ying borr adv adv the y k f ollo t-t f e eed the season, r including include: v ance f ance. o f erm osene, ood ood, ation villages w ha wing: w f s or

big eggplant, e mone f v t f or

f o or and also e or is most depends

strat

The w mark t the ding f people dried learned a VDC,SarlahiDistrict) echniq and, the including eather st rice, y sur fl collect sho

ored ood egies fr households willingness cattle e Bin om viv ood supplies. po w t v more fl

ood security egetables, ues, our acr crisis, and e on patt tat in that mone community); t more the o , oss such bef oes, the

plastic eac cattle. pulses, rarely erns, and adjust fl att f

ore ylender oods. ood the sugar h fl and

collect t ests ood o as careful household’s including

such the The (f riv bo creat commonly salt, their or green W , t er salt, season, ttles s f o and omen’s ood rain poorest the

. or in people’s as e Ho sugar timing buy agricultural the k y pickles v f pum or bett e w ood egetables; t buf season. o r osene,

muc village f gr bags. includes , the ood reser income.” households er pkin, f spices, oup e buf f help -of o r h s (e.g., fl r f

w or ood f) f v w discussions e and t Apar cauli ar ed Basic or o r e additional people the s and dried

d-looking

buy

mustar mango). can most season. against clo (Sunita f st t or fl f

amily o ores, ha fr f f f thes w ood ood ood buy fi the om

e sh v of t d r o e ,

5 1 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L Natural resource management “If we plant sugarcane we can harvest it after one year and it will be able to produce for about two years. We sell it directly to Restructuring cropping patterns and the factory which was built about 20 years ago. Rice is mainly a landholdings subsistence crop. Banana cultivation is new here and bananas “We planted bananas after the fl ood because we can get are sold to the local market.” (Ram Ekwal Roy, village teacher short-term benefi t out of it. We don’t plant trees because the and big landowner, Shreepur VDC, Sarlahi District) fl ood can come anytime again and wash them away. Banana trees grow faster and we can benefi t from them after one “We know that bananas and peanuts are suitable for this soil year already. Also bananas can be harvested all year around. but we don’t have the market for it. We cultivate sugarcane Banana cultivation is new here. We don’t plant peanuts here because the factory is very close by and we can sell it to them because people think that they do not grow well, it is not very directly. Plus peanuts can be destroyed by a small amount of profi table and they are more diffi cult to keep safe from children water.” (Ram Ekdal Yadav, Bhaisarawa VDC, Sarlahi District) and cattle.” (Ram Prasad, big landowner, Phoolparasi VDC, Sarlahi District) “Very few people here have to buy rice. Some have to because they only plant sugarcane.” (Ramkailash Roy, Shreepur VDC, Sarlahi District)

“After the fl ood 13 years ago, we noticed that in the place where bamboo was growing, there was very little damage so we decided to plant banana trees there because bamboo takes a little more time to grow than bananas.” (Action Aid, Phoolparasi VDC, Sarlahi District)

“I have bought land little by little in different places. When I buy land I pay attention to the soil fertility, the location of the land in relation to the river [it has to be safe from fl oods], and Figure 27: Banana plantation (left) close to the river bed (right) in fl ood-damaged fi elds (front) which used to support rice cultivation, the price.” (Ram Chandra Sah, big landowner, Laxmipur VDC, Shreepur VDC, Sarlahi District. Sukchaina)

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 52 mak t e is more increase millet) relying Most access lando w area. cultiv bananas sisoo, mango w po be o along sediments Due t indispensable deposit Part 3–TheCase Study o o v v ealthier a

er erinundat high tat the t benefi suitable ermelons. y e long-t oes, ation wner By shor y t lando the o t simal, riv ear mainly ed in o are

t

switching

o cash t er their depends recurrent these people

. t-t sugar s, fr af an is Highly on on erm in f ed. plant wner bed, om erm or the f ect y and more Along cr dependence on f the rice or fi Af assets cane, y

ops areas the ed elds s ed than do manage t are v subsist uncer er cultiv t khair on estments. o fi cultiv are

recent riv in

and elds, the no fl sugar the fl

fl oods, the oods long-t

b banana areas er as e t . canno y ation. tain xible pr riv

ation encourage fl The ence in

ne beds. village’s oods, the ogressiv land cane t er o than on erm uncultiv w whereas en

af and turn enough cultiv t bed, , Rich

are f the cr vir fl de trees, ect turn

use and/or most oods Paddy in ops sugar onments, v change no ely ed astating access the mark trees ation f lando ocus, able people is change w (rice, b t of peanuts, those o cane also f y pr used o banana

is

et deposition fl adapt. the r such

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fi

pr cultiv who o oods f

mark o elds or int

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y egetables, as ely bamboo cane ed do ation e switch o t ets. that can y oppor pulses, en uncer wing sediments risks land t of end ation, tunity changing no nutrients if changes manage such Banana happen used and/or it t in tunity sandy sw tainty close t or ha fr o gets and and . this the eet

om be As as v or t t o e o .

else some pests is on indirectly households fl fl A Dis Figure 28:Riv

oods oods, t

an trict the disper where. effi fi are

and elds, same and

cient , sed some also landslides access erbank farmingwithrahar might the landholdings. time, risk changing. lando lando -spreading be cr t o wner opping wner

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still sell then fi cont

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oods obtain oods fi landholdings

, pr elds af the ocess f ari (but f ect damage ollo and poorest locat ed wing also and rely ed b y

53 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L Regulating access to grazing land and fi rewood “I have a goat and if my goat enters somebody else’s fi eld they will charge me 200 NRs. Lots of fi ghts are happening all the time over the stealing of wood.” (Dalit women, Deuri VDC, Dhanusha District)

Access to natural resources, including grazing land and fi rewood, is important because it will determine how a household can manage its cattle, whether they have to buy fi rewood from the market, or whether they have to travel long distances or not to get fi rewood. During the rainy season, in general, and during Figure 29: Trees planted on an embankment, Deuri VDC, Mahottari the fl ood season in particular, these informal rules will infl uence District the level of preparedness of households to natural hazards.

Adopting soil conservation strategies Some farmers also adopt soil conservation strategies to reduce the impact of fl oods, for example planting pulses, (‘dal’ ‘rahar’ ‘rarahi’, ‘kurthi’) and vegetables at the top of embankments (and more generally around fi elds). Rahar (rarahi) is a multipurpose pulse. The grain is eaten and its roots (ca 2ft long) help conserve the soil. It is planted during the rainy season and harvested in February. Other approaches include planting trees (e.g., ‘behaya’, bamboo, ‘sissoo’, ‘vicks’) and raising the embankment by the sides of the fi elds and close to the river bed for soil conservation and protection. Mud is also put at the Figure 30: Mud on the base of young trees, Deuri VDC, Mahottari base of young trees to protect the roots from water. District The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 54 District) (Ramk s cons fr “Fif specialis current This “ Pipar com that managed fr Niyantran’ embankment “ community initiativ Building uponins w “ Learning frompas Other s Part 3–TheCase Study W W W tar om ont ashed e e e ty t ple made ed w tructing managed had yia VDC,SarlahiDistrict) of this c y e ailash hannel ear t

t the ely s should a o ts.” tream! w a village

t s fl a o a

in mo fl current o y

ago,

c (Sukchaina, LaxmipurVDC,SarlahiDistrict) trategies andattitudes ood w build . an hannel 2005 R N along

v t pr t put o o o ed o W y

w w irrigation w ogressiv the ge during , e o the a w out our

rks se village t r learned e thr ds f the this riv or

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institutional past be lando and people Sta Comments ons Dhanusha District) (W “Ho month.” no f “ Micro-fi thinking o among community “ (Shreepur VDC,SarlahiDistrict) house Y ood. W W ada ther omen’s e e nur int ying w continuously v andPupalY mistak don’t wise wner build eres During can tured in our adopt a (SushilaMaht of w the

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encouraged v borr muc , fl e

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is mone w y ood rain y?

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achha s f a ood!” s VDC, fr t Sah, t with also oc egy k per the vily om e t e; .” o k y y

55 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L aspect of community resilience to natural hazards. It can help Box 5: Did you ask? households and communities adapt to fl oods through trial and Non-structural adaptation strategies error and continual readjustments. In a community, only a few persons might learn from past mistakes, but such people can Spatial and social mobility – What do people’s social be key message carriers within the community. These key actors networks look like? What are their relationships with their (e.g., ‘innovative farmers’) need to be identifi ed so that they relatives and their neighbours? Where are their relatives can be used in the community to spread the lessons learned located? How do communities and households try to to others. On the latter point, most villagers are embedded spread the impacts of floods among their assets (e.g., in more than one network (e.g., social networks such as the physical, economic, social assets)? Do they have different network formed by the family; cultural networks such as being livelihood activities? Do they also rely on cash-earning a member of a cultural association; spatial networks such as activities? the network formed by the village boundaries; professional networks; and political networks). A few people have access Food security – Are people growing food that is specifically to infl uential networks outside the community boundaries. The kept for emergency purposes? Do they have specific food quote here reveals how the professional network of a villager storage or drying techniques? enabled the villagers to give voice to their fl ood issues better than would have been the case had there been no network. It Natural resource management – Do landownership might be important to investigate how people are embedded disputes arise from the loss of land due to floods? What in various networks and how those networks can be best are the local adjustment strategies? Are they equitable? used. It is also essential to investigate people’s attitudes Do people have landholdings in different locations? towards money and business. In the study area, micro-fi nance arrangements, such as micro-credit and savings are limited, Other attitudes and strategies – What indicators are because of lack of assets. Furthermore, only a few people there that people learned from previous flood events? might have entrepreneurial skills in the community. This What are the various networks (e.g., family, social, professional, political) people are embedded in and how means that improving access to micro-credit and savings may can villagers use them for disaster preparedness? What not always transfer into actual improved benefi ts from micro- are people’s attitudes to and backgrounds in business fi nance depending upon people’s mentality, past experience, activities? Do they have micro-finance arrangements and and history. As suggested elsewhere (e.g., Dekens 2005), entrepreneurial attitudes or backgrounds? entrepreneurship may need to be taught.

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 56 K Communicating A Chapter 7 become the whereas wif songs Nepali T and ecosyst are et V w in traditions, fr and does Part 3–TheCase Study raditionally arious om o al. e! r memor shipping the villager used. Some kno 2002; no and and (F build no transf studies t wledge the o olk wledge ther mean the y past In T s of em management. , e erai Berk activities reposit thr ormation songs are adap the o winner s et ther in ough e mention culture. assimilation. that es v f songs generation anthr acing. ents, al. tiv or and w 1 e w o 999) y kno st 2002, of and r as opology capacity ds, collect (as including or Men poems fl social In

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5 7 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L modernisation of media, globalisation processes (i.e., access great platform for building local people’s awareness on natural to radio and for the better-off TV) and livelihood diversifi cation disasters and for external organisations to understand better (getting jobs outside the village). the history of previous hazards and how it is perceived and transmitted within the community and between generations Worship and Sacrifi ce (Shreepur VDC, Sarlahi District). “We make sacrifi ces to get rid of the fl oods (a small temple Have mercy Mother Ganga4, the world is flooded stands close to the river bank) in January or February because So much trouble you gave us, now we cannot endure it. we have more free time and money at that time of the year.” Suddenly waters came and flooded the fields, houses, (Kishun Devi Yadav, 70, Katarait VDC, Dhanusha District) buildings, flooded everything. Some were sleeping, some were awake, and some were Religious and spiritual beliefs and practices help people to talking. make sense of life, including crisis events such as fl oods, and When the waters came at midnight, nobody knew what to to deal with the uncertainties related to it. As such, worship do. and sacrifi ce are also important psychological coping strategies Every inch of the Mother Land is crying Ram5 which help people to exteriorise their anxiety. Run-run Lord Krishna! We are dying Lord Ram!6 Song narrated by Ramu Thakur Brahmin, 70, Songs and Poems3 Shreepur VDC, Sarlahi District Transmitting experiences from place to place Ramu learned this song from an Indian book he bought after a Although most people were shy in the beginning and had to major fl ood in Shreepur about 52 years ago. Other elders in the be convinced about the importance of their knowledge, they village also know this song. often felt very proud and showed lots of interest in listening to their own voice afterwards. Songs and proverbs can provide a 4 Goddess of Water in the Hindu religion 5 Ram is the name of a Hindu God. According to the mythology, Ram was the husband of Janaki or Sita, the daughter of Janak, who was the King of Janakpur, the major town in 3 All the songs have been translated from Maithali by Pradeep Singh and Vijay Khadgi. Danusha District. The translilterated originals are in the Annex. 6 Krishna is a Hindu God.

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 58 12 11 10 9 8 7 generations T Part 3–TheCase Study

The flood of 1966 did unexpected things. unexpected did 1966 of flood The har River were Bheem to father and came Son floods 1966, in When intoxicated became people Then When things. unexpected did 1966 of flood The Some brok Some Daughter and mother were fetching water fetching were mother and Daughter When Salt, blood, and law and blood, Salt, Bheem River Bheem F ransmitting e rom the other shore, Kheru could only beat his chest. his beat only could Kheru shore, other the rom Kheru(commonmasculine localname)couldonlymour Small tributaryriver Salt inHindusocietysymbolisesanimpor Sick, butalsotheter W Name ofavillageclosetoPipariyaVDCinSarlahiDistrict describe adrunk toilets arestillane and locallaws(‘law that employers-employees,masters-servants relations(‘salt’),blood(‘blood’) salt” isacolloquiale working relationships.Itisequivalentto ‘bread’inothercultures.“Ihaveeatenyour ater iseverywhere;peoplee same water same Sundarpur floods floods diarrhoea diarrhoea e their jaws and some brok some and jaws their e en person). ’s floods drowned both of them. of both drowned floods ’s x . ception inthevillages. 7 came came ’) havelessornovalueduetotheimpact offloods. . xpression meaningthatyouareemploying me.Thesentencemeans m connotesasenseofmadness(thee 8 affected affected xperiences toother , all became cheaper became all , x to to crete inandconsumethesamewater Lakhandehi Lakhandehi vesting seeds. vesting Song narratedbyR water P tant survivalitemonecanobtainfr ipar 9 , , and resorted to fighting. to resorted and yia VDC,SarlahiDistrict people people (river), (river), e their heads. their e n them xpression isof . 10 . . consumed consumed 11 am EkbalSah, they they . Indeedlatrinesand ten usedto went went om 12 the the to to the and diseases issues. le socioeconomic raise during af a Ram w Figure 3 as v v t f er amous els. fi

fr e elds a Ekbal people’s r om y major the Im 1: R successfulduringthedocument The pacts and and local diarrhoea. ecording localpeople’ssongs,especiallywiththeelder village Sah poem fl

ood ho the a im singer include learned w w elections pacts areness. in describes land people 1 The 9 fr 66. loses health, om of this salt the The suf and The Pipar ho poem its f br er fl villager w

liv an ood poem economic ought yia the fr elihood, y om fr o ation process. at who om ther fl

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drinking sing e ood tant , the R The w and udal household a this damages e t the range e v fi

r gender ents ght -borne Saho, poem w song a t f s, or er of t o

59 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L limited resources often turns into violence, hampering the law and local order. The death of the mother and the daughter denotes how women are more often the victims of fl oods than men.

There are many more songs like these, covering such wide- ranging topics as political turmoil, personal loss, and all and any of the diffi culties village people face – including fl oods and other disasters. They give a considerable insight into issues of concern, as well as being a form of oral history.

Pleading for survival The following song illustrates the tragic situation of the people who have no other option than living close to or in the river bed. In this context, survival is the leitmotiv and this call for survival is addressed to the villagers themselves as much as to the government. They do not see any future unless the government builds a dam. During the fl oods, people suffer from hunger, bad health, transportation issues, and damage to their homes. Because the government does not intervene, they are forced to continue building their houses in this vulnerable spot (“We will build our homes in the stream”).

Figure 32: Ram Ratan Yadav showing his personal song and poem book related to ‘the politics and bad habits of the villagers’, Deuri VDC, Dhanusha District The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 60 14 13 Part 3–TheCase Study

Please Please W W Government of Nepal, there is no future for us. for future no is there Nepal, of Government W How to manage sur manage to How The river has drowned our homes, how can we sur we can how homes, our drowned has river The In Saawan In But our stores are empty the whole year whole the empty are stores our But There is no way to come and go and come to way no is There W Children are hungr are Children and put our children there. children our put and W W Literally See previouschapter most precipitation,fr e e e e e e

will cut bamboo and build machan build and bamboo cut will should sur should will spend the monsoon there, we will sur will we there, monsoon the spend will

need to sur to need somehow somehow sur Improvised songcomposedbyHulasGiri,Suckchaina, built built will will vive. , ‘thewaterymonth’,themonthof year intheNepalicalendarthatreceives build build build build houses houses , 14 our children are sick. are children our . a a vive, O vive, our our dam dam vive, O vive, om mid- in in homes homes y vival, O vival, , across across the the and ask for food; for ask and , July tomid- we should sur should we , we need to sur to need we stream, stream, in in , the the Laxmipur how to manage sur manage to how A the the ugust. river river . so so streams, streams, that that so so vive. , SarlahiDistrict,2006 vive! 13 that that somehow somehow we we we we vive anyhow vive will will can can vival? vive. we we sur sur vive vive vive vive can can . are af Figure 33:HulasGiriimpro f ecting thevillage(Suc vising asongonfl kc haina, Laxmipur

ood issuesandho , SarlahiDis trict) w the y 6 1 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L The nature of the rivers Proverbs

‘Hardinath Jaladhar’ (the helpful lake) was its initial Living near enemies and building houses near rivers are name never wise. It used to help people with irrigation and drinking water. Quoted by different villagers Now it has become a ‘Jallad’ (the executioner) Doing the job of chasing away and killing people. Narrated by Ram Ratan Yadav, Deuri VDC, Dhanusha District (translated from Nepali) The river and the snake never run straight. Narrated by Ramkailash Roy and Bijay Thakur, Shreepur VDC, Sarlahi District

This proverb is well known by elders and youths in both Shreepur This is the very nature of the river, and Belhi VDCs in Sarlahi District. Take off your clothes and cross the river.15 Wake up, wake up farmer brother, The Jalaidh (River) flood is troubling us. Box: Did you ask? Sons and daughters are starving to death. Communicating about floods Pick your ‘tokar’16 and spades and get ready.17 Narrated by villagers, Annupati, What are the local stories about previous flood events? Katarait VDC, Dhanusha District Who knows these stories in the community: both elders and young people? Do people in the village know local songs, proverbs, and poems about past natural hazards?

15 Take off your clothes and overcome your fear 16 Baskets/buckets for transporting sand 17 Call for mitigation work among villagers (cooperation)

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 62 Conclusion P a r t 4

63 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L 64 people’s capacityt preparedness psy fl T of e Based Lessons learned T Discussion Chapter 8 practices had villages. t a cont Part 4–Conclusion

o erai oods xperience

case document cer chological e generally xts of under and he tain as study on Nepal The general in on ideas w practices relation of stand ell daily fl case

past local ood im w that de ha as as pacts. t purpose o v v and preparedness. study obser o eloped and e

the under kno t im dothef

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disast plementing v identify recurrent wledge Local er economic, v par re tak ation of generations, considerable v able ealed ticularly er ollo this en kno preparedness. local on wing. in t of repor o fl wledge

oods, that, organisations fl reduce the en

ood their kno vivid vir t east is o onmental, people and wledge, preparedness v and local t er o local in human

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social, inspiration help oundings, of purpose, east in include in people Nepal them fl fr nine

and and and ood ern om 1 2. 4. 3. .

Identify

Describe Identify Adopt in theirph in fl location ele increasing t measures and belongings, saf appearance andmo smells, on

o oods,

riv v est house a en fi er

t re ed v and vir and changes size arious w sounds, where their ood. of onmental f ood ysical andsocialvulnerabilityt of the inter construction that f pre sta ast adjus tec e st plinths, y est vious xperience location pret and occurred in ores a hnical w w tment escape ak v a indicat early ement ofwildlif when t and fl er e,

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65 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L food, small livestock, and people themselves away from fl oods. However, in some cases and under specifi c conditions, water; adopting new cropping strategies (e.g., riverbank disasters can also offer unexpected opportunities for the poor, cropping, tree planting); using social networks; and as demonstrated in a case study focusing on households’ coping adjusting to the stress related to recurrent fl oods through strategies after Hurricane Mitch in Northeastern Honduras what is often interpreted from a western perspective as (McSweeny 2005). It does not mean that the poorest have less ‘fatalism.’ knowledge, but that they have fewer options. This highlights the importance of focusing on socioeconomic dimensions and 5. Transmit information related to past fl oods through songs questions of equity within a community. Challenges emerge and proverbs. from the inherent complexity, diversity (e.g., sociocultural and historical aspects), power relations, and so on hidden behind The potential applications of local knowledge to improving what is still too often conceived as a homogenous ‘community’. disaster preparedness in the eastern Terai of Nepal could Too often a gap between offi ce and fi eld staff creates barriers especially capitalise on the fi ve key elements above. This for information fl ow because decision-making is somehow knowledge could help implementing organisations to separated from fi eld experience. Both offi ce staff and fi eld understand local environmental variations; identify the most staff need to spend more time in the fi eld and to interact more vulnerable individuals, households, groups, and key actors often with one another and with the different (and sometimes that could act as knowledge reinforcers within the community; confl icting) members of ‘a community’ to be able to respect, build upon local technical strategies that are cost effi cient and understand, and account for the complexity and diversity use local materials and skills; and build upon local ways of of local contexts. A communication gap also exists between communicating for awareness building on fl ood preparedness. communities and government offi cials. Disaster preparedness communication tools formulated at the national or district levels, such as offi cial warning messages or hazard maps, need Challenges to incorporate local references so that they are understood and This case study reveals the diversity and complexity of local trusted by the community. knowledge, practices, and contexts. Different actors, castes, and social groups have different knowledge about fl ood Some practices are aimed directly at reducing the impacts preparedness. The study also reveals that in general the of fl oods while others contribute to building up the general poorest get poorer while the richest may even benefi t from resilience of the household and/or the community and

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 66 people’s Most c Local kno some mightbeusedasthebasisf study learning that lead de grant them so themselv ha fl theref Part 4–Conclusion

ood hange v v f elopment e amiliar there

t ed. o t preparedness. are ore appr become o

them fl fr

es, vulnerabilities Com ood v indirectly om oaches is e with r y little t ogether ignoring petition

preparedness organisations the cont par the wledge asatoolf fl fi

e t

t e eld. o xt contribut xibility

practices of Man disast speci (v with local Most and er da y sus y within fi int er - practices

kno t and/or and on c; e o-da e ernal cooperation) management xam that some t o wledge. what

rigid y im organisations or discussion. ples lif the the organisations, pr might e. people described o planning y y ving present Rigid As of tak t be en e such, betw community do t end the planning used do ed no schemes t in or o een practices

no t in t incorporat the o t else this end kno

t this f dif ocus connect means people -based where, w repor f t erent . o case

also The

f on be or e t organisational orsect change (Visser rele can socie po concep perceiv an Haq or e cont accounting and e point f ocus x x t t v ernal ernal benefi accurat e v ue e also r ant what ties xts ty t o on e, tualizations (2003) 2006).

canno at tr

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put be t and W o v kno re actually el

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pr respond local t t ool o disseminat ojects this

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standing of repor . ds, has people ed

kno essional As on and . Fir or human kno 2006). It been are wledge, div t such, st, transmitt enables hazar will int of wledge ergent it people’s of pr egrat dif practice can made o vulnerability help local vides ds under As f practices, erent help . cultures ed int e […] can Hutt t kno o t the o ernal strengths standing,

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67 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L Summary of the Key Findings

OBSERVATION Knowledge, practices, beliefs Local functions Strengths, opportunities advantages History and • Experience of different types of fl oods, location Instrumental • Detailed information related to the nature and nature of of previous fl oods, level of previous water levels, history of fl oods in people’s locality based on past fl oods change in water levels, changes of river paths and in experience, daily observation, and monitoring of the river size that occurred in their own locality local surroundings • Landscape interpretation

Evolution of • Social and gender vulnerabilities: people are not – • Information related to the perceived evolution of vulnerability equal in their capacity to respond to fl oods people’s physical and social vulnerability to fl oods to fl oods • Process of pauperisation: the fl ood contributes to and the factors related to it making the poor poorer

Weaknesses, obstacles, constraints Potential applications History and • Prior experience forgotten due to resettlement or • Better understanding of local variability/specifi cities and processes nature of frequency of natural hazards • Understanding of local perceptions of natural hazards fl oods • Information can be useful for hazard mapping, survey, and other inventories combined with conventional knowledge • Part of the process of data ‘triangulation’ Evolution of • Complexity: various factors at play and/or acting • Understanding local perceptions of fl oods together with other stresses vulnerability simultaneously or not. For instance, ‘poverty’ is • Understanding how people’s vulnerability to fl ood hazard is changing to fl oods relative and the time factor needs to be taken into over time account. Every other factor being the same, a family • Identifi cation of vulnerable groups and individuals with many children will be more vulnerable to fl oods than when the children have grown up and are able to work.

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 68 Part 4–Conclusion skills Critical actorsand humans andcattle safe placesfor Escape routesand fl signals offl Early warning measures and emergency T fl signals offl Early warning humans andcattle safe placesfor Escape routesand measures and emergency T skills Critical actorsand

oods oods ime thresholds ime thresholds

ash ash • • • • W • • • • • eaknesses, obstacles,constraints elders) fastest escaperoutes,andwheretobuildhouses unusual appearanceandmovementofwildlife,etc. predictions, smells,sounds,locationandtypesofrain, based onenvironmentalindicators,weatherinterpretations/ belongings, stayawake,leavethehouse food andfi younger generationsduetochange ineducationsystem castes are goingtobestolenbyothers when information Ability totrustlocalguides’ Knowledge ofwheretorun(orstay),arethesafestand Ability toidentifyandinterpretearlywarningsignalsoffl Knowledge ofwhentorun(orstay),startstoring Loss oftraditionalknowledge anddecreasingtrustinitfrom Some castesarenotaccepted inthesameplaceasother Risk Prior Bounded of experience the thieves rationality:

water rewood, buildelevatedplatforms,moveimportant and Knowledge, practices,beliefs rises beliefs. forgotten people’ because For adviceandpredictions(e.g., s instance rationality they fear they ANTICIP is that limited may their not A to TION belongings run their

oods away own Potential applications Psychological Instrumental Instrumental Instrumental Psychological Instrumental • • • • Local functions in schoolcurricula rationality' sense' starts risingforinstanceisnotalways'common and commonsense:'runningaway'whenthewater information Reviving Understanding andaccountingforpeople’ Recognise thedif T o combinewithother‘modern’ the place • • • • • • ferences betweenlocalknowledge Few peoplediefromfl property (buildings) mainly af T Ability tosavelife Cost T Rapid rust, rust of Strengths, opportunities traditional ef respect assessment fective fect agriculturallandand advantages techniquesand knowledge

oods. Floods s 'bounded and skills

69 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L ADAPTATION Knowledge, practices, beliefs Local functions Strengths, opportunities advantages Technical • Houses: combining materials for house Instrumental • Use of local material (e.g., banana, bamboo, sand) and local adaptations construction, increasing the plinths, skills (e.g., carpenters) consolidating and protecting walls • Food security • Storage: grain storage, multipurpose • Most of the time effective to decrease the impacts of fl oods platforms, circular mud repositories and cost effi cient • Stream control, drinking water, transportation Social capital • Ability to fi nd psychological and fi nancial Instrumental • Collective security system through cooperation, strong social and technical support from relatives and Psychological support networks or system neighbours Sociological • Reduce sense of people’s helplessness • Social and psychological assurance • More men working outside the village which provides more cash and therefore increases the access to assets for the family Spatial and • Dispersed landholdings Instrumental • Having landholdings located at different places contributes to social mobility/ • Economic diversifi cation spread the risk of losing assets from natural hazards diversity Food security • Collecting food for people and cattle Instrumental – • Collecting and storing fi rewood Natural • Restructuring cropping patterns and Instrumental • Ability to turn change into opportunities resources landholdings management • Regulating access to grazing land and fi rewood • Adopting soil conservation strategies Other strategies • Learning from previous mistakes and Psychological • Reduce sense of people’s helplessness and attitudes events • Building upon institutional linkages and community initiatives

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 70 Part 4–Conclusion Adaptation cont...... Social capital adaptations T management Natural resources Food security and altitudes Other strategies mobility/diversity Spatial andsocial echnical • – • • • • • • • • • W who getthebenefi ability torelyuponexternalhelp men arestartingtoworkoutsidethevillageandearncash,alsomaybe household market. to gofurtherawaygetfi Internal powerrelations/tensionsbetweendif Even Labour intensivetechniques Deterioration ofnaturalresourceswhichmeans,forexample,thatpeoplehave lenders government responsibleforthe disasters? fl Increasing The poorestdonothavelandsomainlythewealthierhouseholds benefi Mainly wealthyhouseholdshavedispersedlandholdings Diversifi Risk

oods eakening ofthecollectivesecuritysystemduetoincreaseindividualismas of simple

getting cation strategiesmightbeusefulonanad-hocbasisonly dependence strategies indebted

ts fromexternalhelp W eaknesses, obstacles,constraints such by on

rewood and/orbambooortheyhavetobuyitfromthe taking as external elevating loans help, with house ferent socialgroupsandcastesasto and high plinths ability interest are to rates not blame af from fordable and local

t fromthe hold to money every the • • • within thecommunities. use identify and who two households, andindividuals confi Reinforcement Often Identifi

innovative them techniques. dence Potential applications are this

cation these knowledge willing as key of innovative farmers vulnerable There knowledge of to test is people’ held in is people new the a by need groups, carriers s village one ideas and self or to 7 1 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L COMMUNICATION Knowledge, practices, beliefs Local functions Strengths, opportunities advantages Communicating • Stories from local religious leaders, elders and family • Instrumental • Local stories, songs, and proverbs about past members • Psychological enable knowledge transfer among hazards • Proverbs, songs and traditions people in the community and between different generations.

Weaknesses, obstacles, constraints Potential applications Communicating • Local singers are disappearing due to the spread of new • Better tailor government coping mechanisms and about past technologies such as radio and television communication with local cultural perceptions, values hazards and traditions and therefore increase trust with external organizations • Better understand and respect and account for local practices and believes • Try to capitalise on cultural practices and values where they are strengths and attempt to moderate them where they may be obstacles (Bankoff 2004)

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 72 Berk Battitista, Appiah-Opuk R Bingen, Bista, Dek Part 4–Conclusion ens, R Sustainable R and De and R R http://www di agency W Pr case Ratna PustakBhandar Village es, e educing esour ome: F D.B. a oceedings P ys F ontignano, f J. . J.

(1 studies esource Management of (2004) F e (200 (2005) ce v .; 999) S Experiences A elopment Monit u, Applying tudy O, R Baas, V Management r S.; ulnerability .f 1) Liv Sacred ao.org/sd/200 of e ural InstitutionsandPar and People fr Hyma, Liv ‘Institutions elihoods om Italy the S. n elihood Sus w (2004) , the o Ecology: F and of rkshop c orum p1 tainable B. t Nepal, o De or 1 Darjeeling in (1 Lessons,

e 9-1 R Change , v 999) Ghana’. ‘The 7(3) ecurrent on 1/PE0903_en.htm. elopment’, and . Philadelphia:T T 40. fi s

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ndings Fir Liv Operationalising R ‘Indigenous Sustainable st R elihoods ole and 7-1 ome: Edition Hills, In Natural and ticipation Ser 1 of Indigenous

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The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 74 place T Songs Songs, P Annex Annex 1–Songs, PoemsandProverbs in Maithali ransmitting e Daya karu Ganga Maai, Duniya dahatba, Duniya Maai, Ganga karu Daya Itana dukh dela Ganga ab na sahatba. na ab Ganga dela dukh Itana Achanak me P me Achanak Ghar k Aadh raat me paani aail kuchho nai dujahata ba. dujahata nai kuchho aail paani me raat Aadh R Daud-daud Krishna Bhagawan Krishna Daud-daud ehu sutal kuhu uthal kugu bataitr ba, bataitr kugu uthal kuhu sutal ehu owa-rowa Dharti mata kari mero Danua R Danua mero kari mata Dharti owa-rowa -Dwar Makan sab dahatba, sab Makan -Dwar aani aail khet sab dahatba, sab khet aail aani xperiences fromplaceto oems, andPro Shreepur VDC, Sarlahi District Sarlahi VDC, Shreepur , Chhutgel pranwa R pranwa Chhutgel , Narrated by R by Narrated am, amu Thakur amu am. , , v generations T ransmitting e 66 saal k saal 66 Lakhandei me Baadh aail ta Sundarpur me chail gel. chail me Sundarpur ta aail Baadh me Lakhandei Jab Jab k Jab aokra nasa lagal ta lota se maraa-mari bha gel, bha maraa-mari se lota ta lagal nasa aokra Jab Kewkro phutal loln ta k ta loln phutal Kewkro Aa noon Aa Jab 66 saal k saal 66 Jab Baap-Beta dunu milak dunu Baap-Beta Beti-Matari dunu milak dunu Beti-Matari Bheem Nadi k Nadi Bheem Kheru us paar se Chaati pitate rahagel. pitate Chaati se paar us Kheru 66 saal k saal 66 e erbs inMaithali pi gel. pi Jhad- Jhad- composed by Late R Late by composed ,khoon kannon sab sasta bha gel. bha sasta sab kannon ,khoon e e adrakh kamal kak kamal adrakh adrakh kamal kak kamal adrakh phiraba phiraba e dahar me Bheem Nadi me Baadh aagel, Baadh me Nadi Bheem me dahar e Baadh dunu k dunu Baadh xperiences toother sab sab e Beeya ukhare gel, ukhare Beeya e e P e ekro kapar phuta gel. phuta kapar ekro jhada jhada udal Saho in 1966, P 1966, in Saho udal anpiyai lek anpiyai e gal, e e gel. e phire phire e Narrated by R by Narrated dahaite chal gel. chal dahaite gel, gel, e gel, e ta ta lote-lote lote-lote Sarlahi District Sarlahi am Ekbal Sah, Sah, Ekbal am ipar yia VDC, VDC, yia dhhar dhhar

75 L O C A L K N O W L E D G E N E PA L Pleading for survival Nature of the rivers

Dhaara me Gharaba banaib, ki jaise bhi gujjar chalaib. Hardi nath Jaladhar thiyo pahile ko naam, Gujjar chalaib ho, gujjar chalaib. Sichai, peune paani ko gardathiyo kaam. Baal-bachcha bhuke kanai chhan, Ahile yo Jallad bhayechha, Kothli lekin saal bhar khali rahai chhai. Maanchhe marne, bhagaune kaam gardaichha. gujjar kaise chalaib ho gujjar kaise chalaib. Narrated by Ram Ratan Yadav, Nepal Saarkar hamani ke thikana nai khe, Deuri VDC, Dhanusha District Nadi par bandhawa banaib, jaise bhi gujjar chalaib. Baans kaati Machan banaib, Uhe par Baal-bachcha rakhaib, Ai Nadi ke aehe byabahar , Barsat uhe par kataib, gujjar jaise bhi chalaib. Khola kapada bha jo paar. Saawan Mahina ame bimar Baal-bachcha , Uthha-uthha bhaiya kisaan, kahi aaye-jaye ke na rasta. Jalaidh badh karaichha hairan, Nadi se Gharawa dahaib, gujjar kaise chalaib. Dhiya-Puta sab bhuke maraichhan, Gujjar chalaib ho gujjar chalaib. Tokar- Kodari lake howa taiyar. Dhaara me gharawan banaib, jaise bhi gujjar chalaib. Villagers, Annupati, Katarait VDC, Dhanusha District Composed and narrated by Hulas Giri, Laxmipur VDC, Sarlahi District Proverbs Nadi aur shaap sojh hokar nai chalai hai. Narrated by Ramkailash Roy and Bijay Thakur, Shreepur VDC, Sarlahi District

Vairi tar ke baas aur Nadi par ke chaas, Aekar koi thikana nain khe

The Snake and the River Don’t Run Straight 76