This Volume of Congress Proceedings Includes Summaries of Oral Presentations in Group Sessions and Poster/Panel Sessions Received by 31 May 2000

INTRODUCTION

This volume of Congress proceedings includes summaries of oral presentations in Group Sessions and Poster/Panel Sessions received by 31 May 2000. Minor changes may have occurred since that date. The Session moderator will mention them when opening the Session.

The following Sessions include posters:

Tuesday 8 August :

* 8.05.00. Forest fires (I). Southeast Asia * 8.05.00. Forest fire (II). South-east Asia and other tropical regions

Wednesday 9 August

* 1.09.00. Short-rotation forestry for biomass production (II) * 1.17.03. Tropical forest restoration (I) and (II) * 6.03.02. Forest terminology * 8.00.00. Environment forest science in the 21st Century * 8.05.00. Forest fire (III). Temperate and boreal forests

If provided to the CSC in due time, corresponding poster summaries are included once in this volume, in the Session where they are presented first and additionally in the second section of the poster summary volume of the proceedings.

Special thanks to the authors for their contributions to the scientific programme of this Congress. Enjoy your stay in Malaysia.

Eric Teissier du Cros, Chairman of the CSC

Note: The summaries have been published as received by the authors and reviewers, respectively, who have sole responsibility for their content.

i TABLE OF CONTENTS

DIVISION 1 SILVICULTURE 1

1.07.00 Tropical Silviculture 3

1.07.09 Silviculture in Latin America 5

1.07.00 / 1.15.00 / 1.17.00 International markets for carbon sequestration from tropical forests 8

1.09.00 Short rotation forestry for biomass production 9

1.15.04 Agroforestry 14

1.17.01 Rehabilitation of mined lands 16

1.17.03 Tropical forest restoration 20

DIVISION 2 PHYSIOLOGY AND GENETICS 29

2.01.00 Physiology of tropical and temperate trees 31

2.01.17 Vegetative propagation 33

2.02.00 / 2.08.00 Future of breeding and plantations in a sustainability-oriented world 36

2.02.00 / 2.08.00 Genetic variation 40

2.02.00 / 2.08.00 Genetic improvement 43

2.02.00 / 2.08.00 Future of breeding and plantations in a sustainability-oriented world 2 47

2.04.01 Conservation and management of forest gene resources 47

2.04.02 Genetics and traits 49

2.09.00 Seed physiology and technology 52

DIVISION 3 FOREST OPERATIONS AND TECHNIQUES 57

3.02.00 Effects of nursery and silvicultural operations on the environment and society 59

3.04.00 Operational planning and control; work study 61

3.05.00 Forest operations in the tropics 64

3.06.00 Forest operations under mountainous conditions 67

3.07.00 Ergonomics 1+2 69

3.08.00 Small-scale forestry 73

ii 3.09.00 Economics and harvesting of thinning 76

3.10.00 Harvesting, wood delivery and utilisation 1+2 78

3.11.00 Forest operations and environmental protection 82

DIVISION 4 INVENTORY, GROWTH, YIELD, QUANTITATIVE AND MANAGEMENT SCIENCES 87

4.01.04 Using models for forest growth and stand dynamics to evaluate sustainability 89

4.01.08 Effects of environmental changes on forest growth 93

4.01.00 / 4.02.00 / 1.07.00 Using growth models for better forest management in the tropics 96

4.02.01 Forestry products collection and sustainable forest management 100

4.02.03 / 4.02.06 Update calibration and enhancement of forest inventories through the inclusion of remotely sensed data 109

4.02.05 Remote sensing and forest monitoring 115

4.02.07 Scenario approaches, models and assumptions behind the forestry analysis used in regional, national and global policy making 119

4.02.00 / 4.11.00 Design of small and large scale multipurpose forest inventories 122

4.02.00 / 4.11.00 Forest resources assessment 2000 125

4.04.00 Advances in combining productity and sustainability in forest management 126

4.04 Recent advances in forest resource management and economics 133

4.11.00 / 4.01.03 Planning of long-term observations 134

4.12.00 Integration of GIS and Remote Sensing for Assessment of Forests and Landscapes 135

4.04.02 /4.13.00 Sustainable forest management under conditions of growing global pressures 142

DIVISION 5 FOREST PRODUCTS 147

5.01.00 Wood quality 149

5.02.00 Timber engineering 153

5.03.00 Protection of Wood from decay and fire 155

5.04.00 Wood processing into the next millenium (I) 158

5.04.00 Wood processing into the next millennium. II 163

iii 5.04.00 / 5.05.00 Innovations in wood bonding and utilisation of wood residues 166

5.05.00 Composite and reconstituted products 172

5.06.00 Properties and utilization of tropical woods 173

5.06.02 Quality teak timber from plantations 177

5.07.00 Energy and chemicals from forest biomass 181

5.07.01 Fundamentals of wood carbonization 183

5.08.00 Production and utilization of bamboo and related species. Challenges for the new millenium 185

5.09.00 Tree ring analysis 190

5.10.00 Forest products marketing 194

5.11.00 Non-wood forest products 197

5.12.00 Sustainable wood industry 206

DIVISION 6 SOCIAL, ECONOMIC, INFORMATION, AND POLICY SCIENCES 211

6.01.00 Tools to integrate nature conservation and recreation for landscape management 213

6.01.00 Nature experiences and sustainable management of landscapes and recreation resources 216

6.03.00 Forest information services for foresters and society 219

6.03.02 Forest Terminology: How to get society understand forest terminology 223

6.06.00 Research driven by scientists' wish or society's demand? 226

6.06.02 How are innovations applied in sustainable forestry 229

6.06.03 Targeting the real forest managers 231

6.07.00 Tropical Forest History 235

6.07.00 Social changes and forests 238

6.11.01 Forest Resources and Human Welfare in Developing Countries 243

6.11.01 Poverty and management of forest resources 246

6.11.04 Bridging the gap between monetary and non-monetary valuation of environmental amenities 251

6.11.07 Social Dimensions of Forest Protection (Africa, Europe, North America) 254

6.11.07 Social Dimensions of Forest Protection (Asia) 257

iv 6.12.03 Sustainable land use as precondition for sustainable forestry 259

6.13.00 The response of law to changing social demands on forests and the environment 263

6.14.00 Urban forestry 271

6.15.00 Reconsidering study objectives and teaching methods 274

6.16.00 Modelling forest managers environmental decisions 282

6.16.00 Example of forest sector issues 283

DIVISION 7 FOREST HEALTH 287

7.01.02 Mechanisms of tree resistance to phytophageous insects 289

7.02.07 Impacts od diseases on the sustainability of tropical forests 291

7.02.10 Global spreading of pine wilt 296

7.02.10 Epidemic factors of pine wilt 299

7.03.00 Review of recent developments in the management of major tropical forest insect pests. Theory and practice 301

7.03.03 Insect Pest Problems in Replanted Forests 303

7.03.07 Biological Invasion of Forest Insect Pests - Agents of global change 305

7.04.00 Air Pollution Impacts on Forest Ecosystems 312

DIVISION 8 FOREST ENVIRONMENT 315

8.00.00 Forest and environment 317

8.01.00 Ecosystems 326

8.02.00 Site: soil carbon 328

8.03.00 Forest Hydrology and Water Quality 333

8.04.00 Natural disasters 340

8.05.00 Forest Fire 344

8.06.00 Wildlife 350

8.07.00 Biodiversity 352

8.08.00 Forest and Climate 356

8.09.00 Human impacts on tropical rain forests with long term view 362

TASK FORCE 1 ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE 367

v TASK FORCE 2 FOREST IN SUSTAINABLE MOUNTAIN DEVELOPMENT 373

TASK FORCE 3 SUSTAINABLE FOREST MANAGEMENT 381

TASK FORCE 4 MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF FOREST GENE RESOURCES 389

TASK FORCE 5 WATER AND FORESTS 393

TASK FORCE 6 INTERNET RESOURCES 399

TASK FORCE 7 GLOBAL FOREST INFORMATION SERVICE 403

TASK FORCE 8 SCIENCE/POLICY INTERFACE 409

vi Division 1 Silviculture

Coordinator Lisa SENNERBY-FORSSE The Forestry Research Institute SkogForsk, Glunten S-75183 Uppsala, Sweden fax: +46-18-188600 tel (direct): +46-18-188560 tel (org): +46-18-188500 e-mail: [email protected]

Division 1 landless farmers in Brazil has already resulted in the 1.07.00 Tropical Silviculture acquirement of land for local people, while this is still the largest challenge for forest dwellers in Forest Destruction in Brazil and Cameroon. Especially for international donors and Cameroon, a Comparative Analysis of policy-makers, a comparative analysis gives grips the Actors of the Deforestation Process and indications to decide for new projects and which Herwig Cleuren measures are strategically the most accurate in a Leiden University, Centre of Environmental Studies specific context at a certain time. (CML) Programme Environment and Development, Post Box # 9518, 2300 RA Leiden, Netherlands Tools for a sustainable management of Tel: +31 71 527 74 69, FAX: +31 71 527 74 96, Email: African closed rain forest [email protected] Bernard Dupuy To understand why forest destruction continues in CIRAD-Forêt, Campus international de Baillarguet. BP the Amazon every year with a dazzling rate and why 5035, 34032 Montpellier Cedex 1, France the Congo Basin is seriously threatened, the paper FAX: (33) 4 67 59 37 33, Email: [email protected] analyses the local context of forest dwellers and the African production forests are being exposed to interactions with the regional and national level. in ever-increasing pressure from logging. It should be Brazil field data from South-Para show the link possible to make logging compatible with between small farmers, loggers and large-estate sustainable management. Logging must become a owners at the forest frontier and their relationship real silvicultural tool followed by thinning. They with the urban centre and the different governmental represent two basic silvicultural operations designed levels. This context tries to describe the influence of to improve natural forest productivity. The intention powerful actors and their interests, which decide is to take advantage of the growth dynamics of the why the Amazon forest burns every year again. in trees by means of thinning operations affecting non- the East Province of Cameroon, selective logging by commercial species to balance the logging of foreign companies is the main industrial activity, commercial species. provoking serious confrontations with the traditional farming and gathering practices of local people. The Mean volume increment of 75 commercial species, rent-seeking behaviour of the central government whose diameter is superior to 50 cm, is included with its opaque concession policy is the main player between 0,5 and 1,5 cu.m/ha/an. An optimum and its links with loggers and local elites is decisive loggable diameter must be set for each species on to understand the fate of the Cameroonian forest. technical, economic and ecological criteria. This This research uses an actors' view to show that local diameter will be decided upon after analysis of the actors choose mostly the option of forest destruction diameter structure. The loggable volume per hectare as a result of activities of other actors at regional or must be limited to 25-30 cu.m/ha. Beyond this national levels. This view explains why this is, from threshold logging damage becomes considerable. their point of view, the best and most efficient way This maximum loggable volume must take into of using their resources. The practical use of an account the growth of the stand during the chosen actors' perspective is that it identifies the obstacles rotation. The regeneration shoots damaged by that local actors are confronted with and which logging must be coppiced. After logging, cause the bottlenecks for the sustainable options of recruitment of commercial species, reaching 10 cm forest conservation, agroforestry and NTFPs. It of diameter, is about 3-5 stems/ha/an. Modeling should help policy-makers and international donors growth, of semi-deciduous forests, shows that to combine more adequately their forces resulting in waiting periods of 30 years are necessary to a sound forest management policy, and to develop reconstitute a stock of 2 or 3 commercial stems instruments for forest protection adapted to the local (diameter > 60 cm). 30 to 50 years are necessary to context. restore the initial stock of logged stems. The comparative perspective enables to anticipate By means of a thinning operation in non- and to compare trends, e.g. the presence of Asian commercial species it is possible to speed up the timber companies in both countries. It also helped to restoration of the loggable commercial species stock discern the different cultural and policy context and and to reduce the period between two successive its consequences for the future of the forest. On the logging operations to around 20 years with partial one hand, the booming logging industry, which is restoration of initial commercial stock. in forests already established in Cameroon is something many previously logged, logging rotation of 30-50 years is Brazilian state governments want to promote. On recommended, depending on the richness of the other hand, the empowerment of Indians and commercial species stock. Systematic thinning must be banned. Selective thinning will be carried out

3 Division 1 within a radius of about 10 metres around selected ownership of the plantation must also be resolved future trees (diameter < 50 cm). properly. Some recommendations can be made for natural Keywords: short-rotation plantation, productivity, regeneration. For commercial species, it is important sustainability, second rotation, Indonesia. to keep seed-bearing trees evenly distributed for all species. Non logged clumps, for example, may be Silvicultural Principles: Synthesizing kept within logged plots, as can large trees. Opening Temperate and Tropical Forestry up the cover should be done carefully in order to Research limit the spread of creepers and other undesirable Susan Stevens Hummel adventitious plants in the holes made. Large holes in USDA Portland Forestry Sciences Lab, Post Box # 3890, the cover often give rise to a mediocre regeneration OR 97208 Portland, USA of commercial species (except for Okoum‚ Ayous Tel: (503) 808-2084, FAX: (503) 808-2020, Email: and Limba). Main damage in the regeneration [email protected] occurs during hauling which must be carefully Silviculture focuses on understanding and managing carried out and monitored. forests for human values and should, therefore, be Keywords: Africa, rain forest, management, central to any discussion of forests and society. This silviculture, thinning. paper considers how silvicultural principles could be used to generate focus within the discipline, The Sustainability of Short-Rotation communicate with specialists from other disciplines, Plantation Forests in Indonesia guide research investment decisions, and speed Eko B. Hardiyanto development of management systems for lesser Gadjah Mada University, Faculty of Forestry, 55281 known species. The paper focuses on the Yogyakarta, Indonesia silvicultural principle of size-density relations and Tel: 62-274-901400, FAX: 62-274-902220, Email: how it has been investigated in temperate and [email protected] tropical forests. A review of key studies emphasizes Short-rotation plantation forests for pulp production the consistencies and contradictions of experimental has increased significantly in the last few years in results, as well as gaps in research. Applied Indonesia. More than 800 000 ha plantations have techniques, such as density management diagrams been established and 13 pulp plantation projects are based on size-density relations. The extent to have been approved. While many of the recently which these and other techniques can be adapted to developed pulp mills have been using mixed different species and latitudes depends on the tropical hardwood for their raw materials, woods generality of underlying principles. from plantations are becoming available. The bulk Keywords: size-density relations, competition of recent plantation forest is established mostly on density, self-thinning soil relatively having inherent poor fertility and high acidity. Acacia mangium is the principal species to Growth of plantation-grown Azadirachta be planted due to its fast growth, high adaptability to excelsa (Jacobs.) three years after existing site conditions and suitability of its wood planting for pulp and paper making. Current development of Ahmad Zuhaidi Yahya, Rosdi Koster & Ab Rasip Ab plantation forest and plantation management is Ghani discussed in great detail. This paper also presents Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Forest Plantation the preliminary results of site management and Division, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia productivity studies and discusses the long-term Tel: 03-6302101, FAX: 03-6302105 sustainability of short-rotation plantation forests in The growth performance of plantation grown Indonesia. It is believed that the sustainability can Azadirachta excelsa four years after planting is be attained through the adoption of improved discussed. The site is located in Sime Darby silvicultural practices including organic matter Plantation, Malacca, South of Peninsular Malaysia. retention, attention to weed control, amelioration of The soil is derived from granitic rock and is soil nutrition, genetically improved planting stock classified as Rengam series (Typic Palaeudults), and improved harvesting practices that minimise with sandy clay, slightly firm and compact. physical damage to site and that conserve organic Formerly, the area consists of an old rubber matter, while in the mean time taking into account plantation, which was manually cut and burned. The the social and economic conditions of local people slope gradient ranges from 2 - 6 percent. The in the management of plantation. Dispute on land seedlings were collected from three different seed

4 Division 1 sources: Field 2D1, Bukit Lagong Forest Reserve, dependent on such disturbance, though hurricane- Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Selangor, impacted forests are compositionally very distinct Central Kedah and South Thailand. Two hundred from true secondary forest (SF) regenerating on seedlings from each location were monitored. The abandoned agricultural land. Throughout the overall growth results from Field 2D1, Bukit ecoregion, SF is characterised by a well-defined Lagong Forest Reserve, Forest Research Institute group of long-lived pioneer species, most with Malaysia, Selangor, show the best performance in useable wood. The low elevation forests of the terms of average diameter at breast height and total sector from southern Nicaragua through Costa Rica height of 11.0 cm and 11.45 m and survival rate at to western Panama are quite well-documented 78 % followed by Central Kedah; average diameter regarding local differentiation of forest types, stand at breast height and total height of 10.2 cm and dynamics and silviculture. Primary forest of well- 11.20 m and survival rate at 87 %, South Thailand; drained soils on undulating or hilly terrain is usually average diameter at breast height and total height of dominated by Pentaclethra macroloba, though in 9.9 cm and 10.85 m and survival rate was 71 % northern Costa Rica, this species is infrequent in respectively. There was no distinct different in term forests near the western boundary of the ecoregion. of average height from each location. An average The characteristic canopy species associated with annual diameter increment of more than 3.0 cm for Pentaclethra on soils developed on old alluvial the PCT was achieved for each plot. terrace are different from those of residual soils on ancient lava flows. Pentaclethra is also present in Keywords: Growth performance-Azadirachta wetland (mainly floodplain) forests, which excelsa- average diameter at breast height-average nevertheless show their own characteristic suite of height-survival rate dominant canopy trees. On both well-drained and 1.07.09 Silviculture in Latin America wetland sites, forest may show marked compositional variation over short distances in relation to substrate factors. The use of existing The ecological basis for the information on forest types could greatly facilitate management of Central American planning for forest management and conservation in lowland rain forests: an ecoregional the ecoregion. approach Bryan Finegan Pentaclethra forests appear to be among the world's Tropical Agricultural Centre for Research and Higher most dynamic tropical forests, and monitoring of Education (CATIE), 7170 Turrialba, Costa Rica stands managed for timber production indicates they Tel: +506 556 04 01, FAX: +506 556 24 30, Email: are both resilient and productive. Liberation [email protected] thinning produces marked increases in commercial The broadleaved lowland rain forests (LRF) of diameter increments and under this treatment, many common commercial species show median Central America are of considerable social, -1 economic and environmental importance to the increments in the range 0.5 - 1.5 cm yr . Mortality region, and an ecoregional overview of biophysical rates may increase following such treatment, aspects of their management for production is now however; in addition, non-commercial species both possible and timely. This review draws heavily strongly impacted by silvicultural treatment also on research carried out by CATIE during the last 15 tend to be slow-growing, factors which may years, concentrating on the most extensive LRF contribute to long-term decline of their populations. ecoregion in Central America, the Central American Mortality rates in wetland stands appear similar to Atlantic Moist Forest (Dinerstein et al., 1995), those of Pentaclethra forest. The commercially which stretches from central Panama to Belize and important wetland dominant Carapa guianensis is Guatemala. Bioregionally outstanding and nevertheless slow-growing, though it may grow vulnerable from the conservation standpoint, this faster in wetlands than on well-drained sites. ecoregion is also the main source of timber in Vochysia spp., Inga spp. and Goethalsia meiantha countries such as Costa Rica and Nicaragua. are among the characteristic long-lived pioneers of Frequent hurricane impacts in the centre and SF in this sector of the ecoregion. SF in small northwest of the ecoregion contribute to the patches on undegraded sites, with adequate seed diversity of forest types within it, as forest structure sources, is highly productive even on Ultisols, and composition in the "hurricane belt" show primary forest basal area being reached in < 30 yr, evidence of long-term adjustment to hurricane and tree species of this guild may reach harvestable disturbance. Work on the north coast of Honduras dbh in 15-30 yr; patterns of stand dynamics and tree indicates that the regeneration of certain particularly growth indicate that monocyclic silviculture is important commercial tree species may be particularly appropriate in such situations. Larger

5 Division 1 SF patches, on sites degraded by activities such as disturbances for regeneration. Furthermore, pre- or cattle ranching, exhibit more complex stand post-harvesting cultural treatments, such as vine dynamic patterns, however, and significant within- cutting, prescribed fire or release treatments, have patch variations of site quality may become evident. not been applied to promote regeneration and SF will probably maintain a species composition growth of timber species. The result has been a completely different from that of primary forest for gradual trend towards the commercial extinction of >100 yr. the most valuable forest tree species. Deforestation in Bolivia has occurred when forests have been Research-based Approaches to degraded of their economic or ecological value Sustainable Tropical Forest through unplanned logging or the application of Management in Bolivia inappropriate silvicultural systems. Subsequently, Todd S. Fredericksen, Bonifacio Mostacedo Catalyud forests have then been converted for other uses, such Proyecto BOLFOR, Casilla 6204, Santa Cruz, Bolivia as agriculture, cattle-grazing, or community Tel: 591-3-480766, FAX: 591-3-480854, Email: settlements. To prevent forest conversion, research [email protected] must provide information on how to profitably harvest forests while promoting regeneration and Tropical lowland forests occupy more than half of protecting the ecological integrity of forests. An Bolivia and represent some of the largest remaining important challenge will be to disseminate the tracts of South American tropical forest outside of results of research successfully and promote the use the Brazilian Amazon. Where access has been of appropriate silvicultural systems in a country available, many of these forests have been subjected with little experience in forestry other than to highly selective logging of mahogany (Swietenia unplanned logging. macrophylla King.) and a few other highly valuable species. Almost uniformly, this logging has been unplanned with little thought for future harvests. Forecasting sustainable cutting cycles Now, Bolivia is embarking on the implementation in a Venezuelan lowland forest with the of a new forestry law that, if successful, will bring process-based model FORMIND2.0 the national forests closer to sustainable forest Ludwig Kammesheidt, Peter Köhler, Andreas Huth management. It will be important that forest University of Göttingen, Institute of Tropical Silviculture, management plans are based on forest research Büsgenweg 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany FAX: +49 551 39 4019, Email: [email protected] conducted in Bolivia or in adjacent countries with forst.gwdg.de similar forest types to achieve sustainability. For the past six years, research in ecology and silviculture 1. We simulated growth and yield of logged-over has been carried out by Proyecto BOLFOR, a forest under different logging scenarios over a sustainable forest management project located in the period of 240 years and compared results with lowlands of Bolivia. Research during this period has an unlogged stand using the process-based been conducted in many areas, but most studies model FORMIND2.0. have had some common themes. These include 2. Stability and sensitivity analysis showed that the basic research on the silvics of forest tree species to stand dynamic was simulated in a realistic determine appropriate silvicultural treatments, range. testing silvicultural systems that provide for profitable and efficient harvesting while promoting 3. In the absence of further logging, the logged- regeneration, and reducing the impacts of forest over stand approached the stand structure of harvesting and other silvicultural treatments on mature forest in terms of bole volume and basal biodiversity. This research has provided information area after about 50-100 years. on the phenology, environmental preferences, 4. Thirty year cutting cycles with conventional growth rates and regeneration ecology of a large logging methods and net extraction volumes of number of lesser-known species that may increase 45 and 60 m3 ha did not provide sustainable options for forest management and increase the yields under both minimum felling diameter value of Bolivian forests. Without this information, (MFD; 35 and 50 cm, respectively) applied. forest managers have conducted forest harvesting that has been inappropriate for securing the 5. Only 60 year cutting cycle showed sustainable regeneration of the timber species. For example, yields under both logging methods highly selective logging has almost uniformly been (conventional and reduced-impact logging) with applied in Bolivia, regardless of the fact that the the different MFDs and the whole range of net 3 -1 majority of most valuable timber species have low volumes extracted (30 - 60 m ha ). densities in mature forests and require large

6 Division 1 6. Scenarios with reduced-impact logging provided 20, 22 and 24 m2/ha, and two initial plantation a significantly higher timber volume than under densities: 1111 and 816 trees/ha. in the preliminary conventional logging. growth scenarios for teak, rotations periods between 25 and 28 years were evaluated, with final densities 7. With the longest cutting cycle (60 years), bole of 97 to 125 trees/ha, average diameters of 45 to 50 volume recovered to levels similar to the mature cm, and total average heights of 30 to 34 m. The unlogged stand, while species composition productivity at the end of the rotation varies differed significantly. between 10.2 and 13.3 m3/ha/year, yielding a total Keywords: functional groups, logging scenarios, volume of 270 to 380 m3/ha. For pochote simulation, sustainable timber harvest, tropical plantations, scenarios were developed for rotation forest periods between 24 and 29 years, using final densities between 110 and 130 trees/ha. Expected Development of Preliminary Stand results include trees with average diameters of 45 to Growth Scenarios Based on the 52 cm, and total average heights of 30 to 35 m, 3 Relationship Among the Crown equivalent to a total volume of 220 to 331 m/ha, Composition, the Crown Structure and and an annual productivity rate of 9.0 to 11.3 m3/ha/year. Cost comparisons for intensive versus the Productivity of Tectona grandis and traditional management practices indicate that the Bombacopsis quinata Plantations in former requires a 25 to 33% higher investment than Costa Rica traditional management. The Pipe Model Theory Luis D. Pérez Cordero, Luis A. Ugalde Arias and Markku was tested for Tectona grandis, confirming its use Kanninen for advanced age trees of up to 46 years, evaluating CATIE, 7170 Turrialba, Costa Rica the relationship between the sapwood area at the Tel: (506)556-0026, FAX: (506)556-2427, Email: 2 2 [email protected] base of the tree (cm ) and at the crown base (cm ), with the foliage weight (kg). in the case of pochote, Projects and private companies in Central America there is a relationship between the sapwood basal urgently need relevant information on the growth area at the tree base and the crown base with the and productivity of priority species used in foliage weight. in addition, for 10 to 23 year old reforestation, such as Tectona grandis (teak) and trees, the next to last growth ring of the tree base is Bombacopsis quinata (pochote). Determining strongly correlated with dry foliage weight. For teak production at the end of the rotation is particularly plantations, it was possible to carry out stem necessary in the case of advanced aged trees (over analysis on trees from dry zone plantations, using 20 years). Spatial competition among plantation the clearly formed rings resulting from a marked trees is one of the decisive factors for adequate seasonality in the area. However, for pochote it was growth. One means of evaluating the effect of more difficult to identify growth rings in many reduced competition is to monitor tree development. cases, despite the marked seasonality in the areas Research was carried out on forest plantation such as Jicaral and Samara in Guanacaste. The dynamics (study of tree development through time), evaluation of growth scenarios, based on reliable identifying the composition of crown biomass as an data for plantation growth in the country, was a important indicator of competition within a stand, useful tool to make predictions for plantation and the effect of this competition on other growth management over time. The scenarios allow for the variables. The main objective of this study is to anticipation of future productivity and yields, based develop preliminary forest management proposals on current and potential growth in terms of basal for Tectona grandis and Bombacopsis quinata area in the site. Tectona grandis and Bombacopsis plantations to ensure high stand productivity. quinata are species with medium to rapid growth, Models were developed for different relationships but require intensive management. The present among the variables, crown composition, crown study seeks to contribute to management strategies structure, growth and productivity, using for these species. Recommendations include information from advanced aged teak and pochote reinforcing the results obtained with more data from plantations in Costa Rica. The basis for the stand advanced age plantations, particularly for those growth simulation models included growth and older than 20 years. productivity information obtained from the plots measured in the field, results from stem analysis, the relationships among composition and crown structure, growth and productivity. Eight scenarios are presented for each species, using intensive management criteria of a maximum basal area of 18,

7 Division 1 quality of the trees is poor. in the second case, the Silviculture in humid lowland forests of forests have a very simple structure, but with the tropical America: assessment of current absence of the valuable, slow growing tree species. practices and recommendations for Silviculture means the manipulation of the forest to future improvement achieve objectives, which may be a special product César Sabogal, Gonzalo de las Salas, J. Natalino M. Silva (e.g. wood), service (e.g. carbon fixation) or other Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), commodity. For correct actions we need knowledge Conveno EMBRAPA, 66095-780 Belém Brazil of a lot of relationships, between tree species (like Tel: +55 91 276-0041, FAX: +55 91 276-0041, Email: allelopathy), between trees and soil organisms (like [email protected] mycorrhiza), and between trees and animals (insects, birds and rodents). Also the growth The paper reviews and synthesizes past and current reactions to interferences in forest structures must be silvicultural research and practice for the known. and manipulation of the forest needs labor. management of humid primary and secondary Mechanization is highly developed for plantation forests as well as degraded forest lands in tropical forests, but nearly zero in terms of silvicultural America. This is used to derive some practical treatments in tropical forests. Therefore, lessons to be learned and to identify successful cases governments, industries and researchers should and contributing factors. The analysis then focuses invest much more efforts in the development of on the current application of common silvicultural tropical forest knowledge, in terms of research as practices in the region to assess their merits and well as practical applications in forest areas. constraints. A set of guiding principles and "best silvicultural practices" is proposed for two broad If forest certification is aimed, still more knowledge management scenarios for silvicultural work (i.e. is needed. in the guidelines for certification, primary logged-over forests and secondary forests). expressions like "minimization of changes in The last part addresses some ways to improve the structure and species composition", "minimization adoption of best silvicultural practices in the region. of damages due logging operations" or "ecological The discussion considers, among other aspects, the functions are kept intact" are quite common and potential of on-farm (participatory) silvicultural should be combined with improvement of income, research, the market prospects for promising timber for the forest workers as well as for the forest species, the incentives for forest management, and owner. But how to achieve this was never explained the need for revision in policy and legislation. by practical demonstrations on the long run. Again, much expertise is required, for the millions hectares Tropical silviculture: where should we of secondary forests in tropical regions. invest? Rudi Arno Seitz 1.07.00 / 1.15.00 / 1.17.00 International Universidade Federal do Parana, Rua Bom Jesus 650, markets for carbon sequestration from 80.035-010 Curitiba, Brazil tropical forests Tel: +55-41-232-9084, FAX: +55-41-253-2332, Email: [email protected] International Markets for Carbon Looking at the international literature, the overall Sequestration from Tropical Forests: perception is that tropical silviculture means Principles and guidelines to Ensure plantation forestry. But plantation forestry is not the Beneficial Local Development and only alternative for management of forests for wood Environmental Impacts. production in tropical regions. in terms of economic Sara J. Scherr, Jeffrey Sayer, Joyotee Smith return in short time, no doubt that plantations are the University of Maryland, Agricultural and Resource best choice. If other values like biodiversity, Economics Department, environmental conservation or sound utilization of 2200 Symons Hall, 20742 College Park, MD, USA Tel: (301) 405-3860, FAX: 301) 314-9091, Email: natural resources are aimed, focus should be put on [email protected] or [email protected] management of natural forests. Very important for tropical silviculture are secondary forests, which Decisions taken at Kyoto in 1997 and Buenos Aires may have two origins: overlogged primary forests or in 1998 pave the way for international financial and a secondary forest succession on former forest lands technological transfers to support forest-based which were used for agriculture or pastures. activities that enhance carbon storage and Silvicultural treatments are quite distinct for this sequestration and thus mitigate the build-up of two types of forests. in the first case, normally carbon concentrations in the atmosphere. Carbon- biodiversity was not to heavy affected, but wood related services of tropical forests may be more

8 Division 1 cost-effective than emission reduction in energy and paper and fibreboard. The majority of the projects, and various international market commercial production exists in the Pacific mechanisms being discussed could potentially Northwest and Southern portions of the U.S. New contribute large financial resources for rural activity for fibre and energy crops is occurring in the development and forest management in project sites. North Central and Northeastern U.S. Experience shows that early success of commercial ventures However, there is widespread concern among the depends greatly on the existence of well-integrated international forestry community that poorly- research programs incorporating breeding, designed forest carbon projects could pose a major physiology and silviculture and close partnerships threat to the welfare of forest-dependent people, between industry, government and academia. non-carbon environmental services, and sustainable Research on short rotation wood fibre crops is in a management of forest resources for national very active phase and production levels are development, and that successful local anticipated to increase. Recent policy decisions by implementation may not be feasible. the U.S. government will provide additional The University of Maryland and the Center for research funding and incentives for production of International Forestry Research are organizing an woody crops for energy in addition to fibre. international policy workshop in spring of 2000 to Research on short-rotation crops by the authors is identify conditions and organizational principles sponsored by the U.S. Department of Energy, under under which trade in carbon sequestration services contract DE-AC05-96OR22464 with Lockheed would have positive local socioeconomic and Martin Energy Research Corporation, by the environmental impacts. Recommendations will Department of Energy's Golden Operations Office, address selection of project site, types of carbon by the New York State Energy Research and projects, integration of management with national Development Agency, and by numerous other pubic and regional forest and environmental strategies, and private sector partners. mechanisms for distribution of benefits among local people, and incorporation of local interests in project planning. Productivity and Sustainability of Wastewater Irrigated Tree Plantations A presentation based on workshop Michael J. Duncan, T. G. Baker, J. D. Morris, P. recommendations will be presented at the proposed Hopmans, D.J. Stackpole, G.C. Wall IUFRO Group Session, followed by comments from Protection Silviculturalist, Centre for Forest Tree two expert panelists, and then broader discussion. Technology, Post Box # 137, 3084 Heidelberg, Victoria, Possible panelists are Dr. Jagmohan S. Maini, of the Australia UN Secretariat of the Intergovernmental Forum on Tel: +613-94508666, FAX: +613-94508644, Email: Forests and Dr. Roger Sedjo of Resources for the [email protected] Future. The presentation will be revised in the light Keywords: Wastewater; Biomass; Sustainability; of this discussion, and submitted for publication in a Short rotation; Nutrient sequestration leading environmental policy journal. A policy brief will also be published and disseminated widely by The utility of tree plantations for the disposal of CIFOR. wastewater has been well established and continues to be investigated throughout Australia, particularly 1.09.00 Short rotation forestry for biomass with respect to: the profitable reuse of wastewater, production rather than simple disposal; the sustainability of land use under wastewater irrigation; the The Status and Future of Short-Rotation silvicultural management of plantations to achieve Woody Crops in the U.S. specific objectives such as the production of high- L.P. Abrahamson, Wright, L.L value sawlogs; and the optimisation of nutrient State Univ. of New York, College of Environmental sequestration and water use. Science and Forestry, Syracuse, N.Y., USA A major concern with wastewater irrigation is the Email: [email protected] fate of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in the Short Rotation Woody Crop production systems, environment since these nutrients can cause involving rotations of 10 years or less, reached a pollution of surface and groundwaters. Municipal commercial production level of approximately wastewaters treated to primary or secondary level 55,000 ha in the United States by 1999. Hybrid often contain greater amounts of these nutrients than poplars and cottonwoods dominate, but willows, can be sequestered by the trees at the rate of sycamore and sweetgum are also being planted. This irrigation needed to meet the water requirements of wood is produced almost entirely as fiber for pulp trees, particularly in semi-arid environments. While

9 Division 1 P will not usually be a problem in the short to medium term, particularly on soils with high P A Study on the Pollen Morphology of Six adsorption capacity, there is always potential for Sections in Subgenus Salix L. leaching of N (as nitrate) to groundwater. (Salicaceae) Fast growing trees initially accumulate significant Kae-Hwan Kim, Louis Zsuffa amounts of N in foliage, but the net N requirement Chonbuk National University, Faculty of Forest Science, of the plantation declines after canopy closure, and College of Agriculture, Korea as N is recycled through the decomposition of litter The pollen morphology of 15 species, 2 varieties and internal translocation. Therefore removal of N and 1 forma belonging to 6 sections of the subgenus and other nutrients by plantations can be maximised Salix was investigated by means of light and by growing trees in short rotations (e.g. <6 years). scanning electron microscopy. From a pollen- However, such rotations may compromise water morphological point of view, subgenus Salix is use, and also limit the potential products to biomass stenopalynous. Species from six sections have been fuels rather than higher value wood products. distinguished on the basis of pollen morphology, A second concern with wastewater irrigation arises and a key for their identification using pollen is from the often high concentrations of sodium (Na). presented. Based on pollen morphology, S. Therefore, long-term irrigation has the potential to jessoensis (section Subalbae) is the most distinct of deleteriously affect soil structure through changes in the species studied. Species of section soil chemistry, and ultimately reduce the Humboldtianae appear to be the most evolved in this productivity of the site and its utility for wastewater subgenus with a closer relationship to section disposal. Amygdalinae than any other section of this subgenus. A wastewater irrigated, short rotation coppice trial was established at the Goulburn Valley Region Keywords: Salix; Salicaceae; pollen morphology Water Authority (GVRWA) Shepparton Wastewater Treatment Complex in 1993, with the aim of Short Rotation Forestry in Korea determining whether the long-term irrigation of tree Don Koo Lee, Yong Kwon Lee plantations with wastewater is sustainable within Seoul National Univ., Dept. of Forest Resources, 103 alternative silvicultural treatments, by measuring Seodun-Dong, Kwonsun-Gu, 441-744 Suwon, Korea R. Tel: +82-331-290-2337, FAX: +82-331-293-1797, Email: changes in soil properties, the input of water and [email protected] nutrients in wastewater, tree growth, sequestration of nutrients and salts in trees and soil, and Keywords: short rotation forestry, fuelwood, monitoring groundwater depth. The trial biomass, caloric value, Robinia pseudoacacia, incorporates comparisons of coppice rotation length hybrid poplars (3, 6 or 12 years), planting density (1333 or 2667 Short rotation forestry in Korea has started since late sph) and tree species (Eucalyptus globulus or E. 1950s and 1960s when Korean Government initiated grandis). establishing fuelwood plantations for rural village During the first six years of the planned 12-year dwellers. Most of the planting woody species for experiment, growth rates and biomass production in fuelwood were fast-growing Robinia pseudoacacia, this trial are amongst the highest reported in Pinus rigida, Populus species and Lespedeza Australia with mean annual increments of up to 40 species, which show good sprouting and m3 ha-1 yr-1. During this period up to 550 kg ha-1 of adaptability in various sites. N was accumulated in the above-ground biomass. Started in 1959, the total area of fuelwood However, some marked changes in soil properties plantation to be needed was 1.2million ha, based on were apparent within the first three years, including a total of 2.4 million households. Of these 1.2 significant loss of carbon (C) and N, and increases million ha, 400,000 ha from existing forests to be in the sodicity of the surface soil. used for fuelwood production and the other 800,000 ha to be established by artificial planting. However, the target for the establishment of fuelwood plantation was revised to be 643,000 ha due to failure in plantations. The total area of 643,000 ha for fuelwood was successfully established in 1977, of which 127,000 ha done by IBRD loan project.

10 Division 1 In 1980s, research on short rotation intensive culture early 1990s could help policy makers, in Sweden has started to examine the biomass production by and in other countries where short rotation energy planting densities and species. Tree species for forests are being considered, to design effective testing were Populus alba x P. glandulosa, Populus energy and agricultural policies and to identify nigra. X P. maximowiczii, Robinia pseudacacia and target groups for information campaigns. Alnus species. Planting densities examined ranged Commercial willow plantations in Sweden form 10,000 trees/ha to 40,000 trees/ha. Caloric expanded in the early 1990s when two main policy values, sugar and ethanol contents were also decisions were made. First, the implementation compared for 27 hardwoods and 3 conifers, of phase of a deregulated food policy between 1991 which the highest values were shown by Populus and 1996 made subsidies available for planting and Morus species. Among the planting densities at willows and for fencing. Second, environmental and nursery sites, the density of 40,000 trees/ha showed energy taxes on fossil fuels increased considerably the highest above ground dry matters of 20 in 1991, improving the competitiveness of biofuels tons/ha/year from Populus alba x P. glandulosa and in the energy market. Data about the 1000 farms in Populus nigra x P. maximowiczii. However, at southern Sweden with a farming area of more than 2 hillside sites, the density of 4,000 trees/ha exhibited hectares and with more than 0.1 hectares under the highest dry matters of 7.7 tons/ha from P. alba x willow cultivation were obtained from the 1995 P. glandulosa compared to densities of 1,000, 2,000 Farm Register compiled by Statistics Sweden. For and 3,000 trees/ha. comparison, a stratified sample of 535 non-willow farmers from the same geographical region was also In 1978, Robinia pseudacacia was planted at used. A postal survey was also conducted of a various planting densities of 3,000, 6,000, 9,000 and sample of the willow-growers. The willow growers 12,000 trees/ha in the hillside mountain area to test in southern and central Sweden, were growing about the biomass production for 18 years. During the 13,000 hectares of willows in 1995. in relative terms period, 6-year, 9-year and 18-year rotations were 2% of the farmers in the region grew willows on 0.5 applied for all of the densities. Under 6-6-6-year % of the total area of arable land. Willow growing is rotation, the density of 9,000 trees/ha showed the most common in regions where biofuel use (e.g. of greatest biomass production (37.5 tons/ha), while residues from logging and forest industries and that of 12,000 trees/ha did the best (60.9 tons/ha) imported biofuels) in district heating plants is under 9-9-year rotation. Under 18-year rotation, the already high. Willow plantations are generally density of 3,000 trees/ha exhibited the best common on large farms and on crop-producing production (85.8 tons/ha). The greatest total biomass farms. Willows are less common on small farms and production (108.4 tons/ha) was shown by the on farms with many animals. The survey questions density of 9,000 trees/ha under 9-9-year rotation for concern information about the willow growing 18 years. farmer, motives for planting willows, willow plantation management and harvesting, economic A survey of short rotation willow aspects and evaluation. growing in Sweden Anders Roos, Hakan Rosenqvist Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department Turkish Energy Forestry for Sustainable of Forest Management and Products, Post Box # 7054, S- Forest Management and Energy 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden Nedim Saracoglu Tel: +46 18 671564, FAX: +46 18 673522, Email: Zonguldak Karaelmas University, Bartm Forestry [email protected] Faculty, Turkey FAX: 90 378 2277421 This paper presents an evaluative study of short- rotation willow plantations for energy purposes in Much of the world today is well on its way towards southern and central Sweden. The results are creating an unsustainable environmental situation. It presented statistically and in Geographic is still possible to solve some of our environmental Information Systems (GIS). Willow growing is problems in a efficient and perhaps even a cost described according to owner characteristics, farm effective way by utilising suitable, located forest type, size, land use, willow area and management. land and former agricultural land for energy, fibre Since the two issues of how to increase the share of and timber production. At the same time, some renewable energy and how to reduce surplus crop waste products of the community can be added into production are relevant in many countries, realistic the cycle again. Biomass production for energy predictions about potential energy-crop growers are purposes through the cultivation of fast growing, needed. Better knowledge about the adoption broad-leaved trees will result in an ecologically patterns of willow production in Sweden during the sound and economically viable crop in Turkey. in this way, unproductive land can be converted to

11 Division 1 productive energy plantations where wood is Estonian Agricultural University, Institute of Silviculture, harvested as a crop and used for energy purpose and Faculty of Forestry, Kreutzwaldi 5, EE2400 Tartu, industry. The importance of biomass in Turkey Estonia today is indisputable since the traditional biomass Tel: (372) 7 421373, FAX: (372) 7 421053, Email: fuel wood, charcoal, crop residues and dung are still [email protected] a primary cooking fuel for some parts in Turkey. Keywords: Alder species (Alnus sp.), biomass For a variety of reasons like rising prices of oil and production, nutrient cycling, cultivation methods growing population, biomass fuel might not longer energy forestry, short-rotation forestry supply the demanded needs. At the same time the In transition countries the volume of agricultural shortage of local biomass are increasing. Therefore, production has fallen considerably over recent years. the establishment of fast growing plantations would in addition to agriculture, a large number of have multipurpose. There is a need to collect and important changes have also occurred in forest analyse prior experiences in local wood production management and energetics. A need has arisen for and consumption in order to design efficient the compilation of new economically and measures to reach the desired situation of local ecologically justified agricultural and silvicultural control, cost and the efficient use of energy from recommendations and sustainable management biofuels. systems. Forest land in Turkey constitutes 26.5% of the Estonia is situated in an intermediate zone between country, that is about 20.7 million hectares. 12.8% the boreal coniferous forest and the deciduous, of Turkey is covered by productive forests and the broad-leaved forest. Forests cover more than 47% of remaining 13.8% is degraded land. Turkey has the total area, in 1992-1996 some 30% of arable about 4 million hectares of land subject to the land was left uncultivated. With the exception of oil activities of energy forest establishment. The shale deposits, Estonia does not have any major coppice rehabilitation projects have been sources of fossil fuels, and a substantial proportion commenced especially in east and southeastern of such fuels must therefore be imported. To ensure Anatolia regions since 1978 to control degradation, the energy supply and improve the environmental to rehabilitate and to make the degraded coppices conditions a programme of converting boilers from land reproductive. With the realization of project fossil fuels to domestic biofuels was started. The objectives, new job opportunities will be created as results will help to optimise land utilisation by well as supplying animal fodder in the region. choosing soils suitable for the cultivation of alders The gap between wood production and demand will (particularly grey alder energy stands), thereby in a reach 3.5 million m3 in per year. If necessary actions natural way making such areas fertile with the future are not taken, the shortage in wood production will objective of returning the areas to agricultural use or be even more serious. Thus, the establishment of of cultivating conifer stands. industrial plantations with fast growing species such Purpose of the work was to create yield tables and to as poplar, willow, Eucalyptus, acacia, alder and oak determine the rotation period for alder stands as species are of great importance. Until 1998, energy energy forests depending on forest site types. A forest activities with coppice regeneration was second objective was to investigate nutrient cycling undertaken on an area 517 000 hectares and in alders and thereby their effect on soil fertility. As production of fire wood is used for heating and alders are in symbiosis with actinomycete Frankia cooking purposes. microorganisms, which fixate aerial nitrogen and A specific goal is to increase the use of wood and the nitrogen content of alder leaves is therefore high, wood based residues for energy generation it can be presumed that the cultivation of alders will increased at combined heat and power generation have a positive effect on soil fertility. plants being established by private sector in Silvicultural, ecological and economical aspects of locations where coppices and natural forests are the management of grey alder (Alnus incana), available by 2003. hybrid alder (Alnus incana x Alnus glutinosa) and Keywords: Energy forestry, forest management, black alder (Alnus glutinosa) stands are analysed. sustainable environment and energy, power Different cutting and regeneration systems are examined. For the development of rational methods Sustainable Management of Abandoned of afforestation of abandoned agricultural land by Farm Lands for Energy Forestry Using alders, the experimental plantations were established Domestic Nitrogen-fixing Tree Species where various planting materials were used. in order Hardi Tullus, Veiko Uri to find out the influence of alder forest, grown as

12 Division 1 energy forest, on the surrounding environment, above all on soil, and its ability for uptake of Comprehensive silviculture and chemical elements, as well as to evaluate the development strategies for pulpwood possible loss of nutrients after felling and the plantation in China removal of trees from the place of growth, the Shougong Zhang, Sun xiaomei concentration of basic nutrients in different plant Chinese Academy of Forestry, Forintek Canada Corp, fractions was analysed annually. 319 rue Franquet, Sainte-Foy, G1P 4R4 Quebec, Canada Tel: 86-10-62884229, FAX: (418)-659 2922, Email: Short Rotation Forestry in Europe [email protected] Theo Verwijst In pace with the growing economy and population, Department of Short Rotation Forestry, P.O.Box 7016, and improvement of the living standard in China, SE-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden the demand for paper and paper products will Tel: +46 18 672550, FAX: +46 18 673440, Email: [email protected] increase continuously, while wood as the main raw material in the pulp industry is decreasing gradually. Short rotation forestry (SRF) in Europe has a long Development of fast-growing, short rotation tradition and originally aimed at providing a supply plantations for pulpwood production, which are of fuel, fodder and convenience wood, usually by highly productive through adopting sustainable means of coppice systems. The main genera forest management in relatively small areas of forest involved are Populus, Salix, Eucalyptus, Robinia, land, can make a significant contribution to wood Betula, Alnus, Castanea and Quercus. Eucalypt is supply. This will replace wood supplies from natural confined to the Mediterranean parts of Europe, forests in response both to economic development whereas willow and birch mainly are found in the and environmental problems. The status of the northern parts. SRF systems both are employed in silviculture for pulpwood plantation in China is forestry and agriculture and have integrated reviewed and its development strategies are functions in agroforestry, shelterbelt- and discussed as follows: environmental applications such as vegetation filter systems. Modern SRF has developed towards an 1) According to the selection of appropriate industry which needs large volumes and a afforestation species, and the estimation of continuous supply. Consequently the focus is on productivity for pulpwood purposes, the pulpwood species with a high initial growth rate and breeding bases will be properly planned. programmes are directed towards resistance or 2) Under the guidance of the principle for tolerance against pathogens. With the actual range sustainable forest management and forest ecosystem of final products in mind (biomass for energy management, plantation establishment is focused on purposes, paper pulp, particle board, veneer, specific goals of industrial use, i.e. fast growth, high construction wood) a wide range of growing productivity, superior quality, stability, and high systems has been developed, ranging from densely profit. Based on systematic research of tree planted willow coppice (2x104 stools ha-1 and improvement (careful selection of tree species and harvested each 2 to 4 years) to widely spaced single- genetically improved materials with superior vigour, -1 stem poplars ( 100 stems ha and harvested after 25 fibre property, and pest and disease resistance), site years). Major developments of European SRF control (suitable site quality and the maintenance of during this century are envisaged in the fields of high soil fertility), stand density control (rational specialised high quality products and in the field of initial density and thinning technology) and bioremediation. The increasing amounts of sewage economic considerations, the intensive silvicultural sludge, slurry and other organic waste products from technologies will be promoted. the society form an excellent resource for biomass production by means of SRF. 3) Based on clonal selection and vegetative propagation with commercial utilization, optimal combination of the site and clones, the ecological stability and adaptability and genetic variation of pulpwood properties are studied, and the comprehensive cultivation system for clonal plantation will be perfected for development of large-scale clonal forestry. 4) The development avenues towards integration of forest management and the pulp industry will be explored in relation to the Chinese situation, and the pulpwood raw base for a relatively stable supply to

13 Division 1 the industry will be established, simultaneously with the opening of dense forests or brushwoods to reasonable development on resource use and grazing animals. in both cases, only a low number finance. of trees were planted or kept to allow sufficient grass production to support the flock. Experimental 5) Aided by the geo-information system and details are presented. advanced forest technology, the information management system for pulpwood bases will be set Data were collected for the two kinds of up to serve as the basic tool of planning, silvopastoral systems for ten years including management and decision-making, and gradually to technical, ecological and economic characteristics make the development of pulpwood plantations and performance. Results of experiments and farmer sustainable. evaluations are presented. Both silvopastoral systems have proved feasible and interesting from 1.15.04 Agroforestry an economic point of view. Grazing animals are really a cheap mean of maintain an opened Why Use Agroforestry in European landscape. On-going research is analysing how Mountains? those silvopastoral systems can fit into the farmers' Philippe Balandier, Helene Rapey, Felix Ruchaud exploitations and particularly what are the economic Groupement de Clermont-Ferrand, Division Forêt et and environmental consequences of introducing Agroforesterie, BP 50085 24, Av. des Landais, F-63172 trees. Aubiere cedex, France Tel: +33-4-73440623, FAX: +33 4 73 44 06 98, Email: Computer-Based Data-Management [email protected] Technologies in Agroforestry Keywords: Agroforestry, Europe, mountains, James M. Knowles, P.K.R. Nair silvopastoral systems University of Florida, School of Forest Resources and Conservation, Post Box # 110410, Gainesville, FL, USA As far as agricultural products are concerned, the Tel: (352) 846-0880, FAX: (352) 846-1277, Email: context of high economic competition in West [email protected] Europe has led to the abandonment of the less productive plots of land. This has been particularly The past decade has witnessed dramatic progress in the case for the mountain areas throughout the the use and deployment of computers for rapid and region. As agricultural products were the main efficient acquisition, management and analysis of economic resource for those mountain areas, one data to support development and dissemination of important result has been out-migration of land-use technologies. This paper will evaluate the population. There is then a trend towards a developments of computer use within agroforestry, desertification of mountain areas, as people fail to discuss the potentials and suggest future directions look after the rural space. Abandoned plots of land in this exciting approach to research. are rapidly colonized by a dense shrubby vegetation The major computer-based tools and methods in and afterwards by a closed forest. However, land-use system research are database management mountain areas are an important tourist attraction, systems (DBMS), decision support systems (DSS), which is not an insignificant income source. geographic information systems (GIS), and However, tourists often give preference to opened computer modeling. DBMS's are used for the input, landscape and pastures. There is consequently a storage and retrieval of relational data. With the need to manage the rural space and landscape. development of the CD-ROM and the Internet, Agroforestry - the association of an agricultural access to and distribution of large amounts of data production with tree culture on the same unity - is a have become easier. Databases have been developed possible way to maintain a rural activity, diversify containing information related to natural resources the production and look after the landscape in the such as climate, tree species, and soils. These mountain areas. in particular, silvopastoral systems - databases provide information that can be used by the association of grazing animals with tree culture- planners and managers in making land-use are well adapted. Animals maintain extensively the decisions. Decision support systems integrate data vegetation to a low level, providing an opened (often obtained from a DBMS) with decision criteria landscape. At the same time, the trees provide an or rules to provide users with decision options in additional income to the farmer through timber, fire planning, implementing, and managing different wood, forage, honey, and other products. land-use systems. DSS's have been developed to provide advice in several forestry and other land-use Experiments were undertaken with two silvopastoral activities; e.g.: timber management of national systems: the plantation of forest trees in pasture and forests, pesticide application in field-crop

14 Division 1 cultivation, and management of citrus production. Widespread access to satellite imagery, remote Agroforestry in Malaysia sensing equipment and other sampling equipment Mohd Abd. Ali Razak, Mahmud A.W. and Najib Lotfy has allowed for the development of GIS's to aid in Arshad land-use management. GIS's are DBMS's designed Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, 52109 Kuala to capture, store, analyze, and display data from a Lumpur, Malaysia spatial point of view. GIS's have been used in Tel: 03-6302242, FAX: 03-6302105, Email: evaluating appropriate land uses, the development [email protected] of precision farming, and in planning agricultural or Keywords: Agroforestry, Malaysia, New forestry systems. Computer modeling takes Agriculture Policy advantage of the computer's ability, often using linear programming techniques, to evaluate many Agroforestry as a land use, is getting prominent in different scenarios (different levels and Malaysia. in 1999, the government launched the combinations of inputs to a system) with a minimum New Agriculture Policy with agroforestry identifies of effort. Models have been developed to determine as one of two strategic approaches to meet the optimum levels of fertilizer required in different challenges in the agriculture and forestry sectors. in agricultural production systems and to understand the New Policy, the agroforestry approach is aimed the growth of trees to more effectively manage at addressing the increasingly scarce resources production. including land and raw material availability with agriculture and forestry viewed as mutually Recent developments have seen these technologies compatible and complementary. The integration of applied to problems relating to agroforestry. One of agriculture and forestry is also aimed to create a the first such systems was the United Nations larger productive base for both sectors. This paper University (UNU) Agroforestry Expert System discusses various strategic directions, action plans (AES). The UNU-AES is a type of DSS that and recommendations on the agroforestry approach provides management options for alley cropping in the New Agriculture Policy. under specific conditions in the tropics and subtropics. in response to the need for appropriate The Effects of Population Growth and information relating to agroforestry tree species, the Agricultural Intensification on the Forest International Centre for Research in Agroforestry Resource of Central Honduras, 1970s- (ICRAF) developed the Multipurpose Tree & Shrub Database (MPTS). This DBMS contains first-hand, 1990s: A Community-Scale Analysis Sara J. Scherr site specific information as well as secondary data University of Maryland, Agricultural and Resource on over 1000 multipurpose tree species. Other Economics Department, 2200 Symons Hall, 20742 databases have also been developed to provide College Park, MD, USA additional information about potential and current Tel: (301) 405-3860, FAX: 301) 314-9091, Email: agroforestry tree species. GIS systems have also [email protected] or [email protected] been developed to aid in the adoption of Keywords: Agricultural intensification, agroforestry. For example, a GIS-based agroforestry deforestation, hillsides, Honduras, population and research tool was developed to determine the environment appropriate agroforestry systems that might be adopted in certain regions in sub-Saharan Africa. The effects of agricultural intensification on forest One system that models a rubber-cacao agroforestry cover, use and management are of major concern for system in Brazil was developed to bioeconomically forest policy and planning, particularly in tropical simulate a 40-year cycle. The system explores countries with high rural population growth. different scenarios to achieve optimum production International evidence suggests that the relationship and profit levels. Modeling efforts in a variety of of forest cover with population growth and agroforestry themes have also produced interesting agricultural intensification is not linear. Population results. As each system is reviewed, its intended growth from low population densities typically leads audience (farmers, land-use decision-makers, to forest clearing for extensive agricultural researchers) and end-use (research, development, production. But once continuous cultivation decision-making) will also be discussed. becomes the norm, further population increases often result in improved management of remaining forests and on farm tree-planting to meet subsistence needs and new market opportunities, as well as greater action to protect locally important watersheds.

15 Division 1 However, our understanding of when and how this process occurs--for different population densities, 1.17.01 Rehabilitation of mined lands types of farming systems, physical environments, and policy contexts-is limited. Most insights into Reclamation of post-mining landscapes these relationships have come from statistical in Eastern Germany - The largest analysis of macro-level changes in agricultural land environmental protection project of and forest use. More sophisticated understanding Europe and analysis of the nature, processes and impacts of Friedrich von Bismarck forest land use and management under various types Governmental Program for the Rehabilitation and of agricultural intensification has been lacking. Such Reclamation for East-German Lignite Mines, analysis is constrained by lack of detailed data that Schiffbauerdamm 17, 10117 Berlin, Germany would permit joint analysis of changes over time in In East Germany an area of more than 1'000 square agricultural economies at the local level, and kilo-metres was consumed by strip mining and open associated changes in forest cover and management. pits. With the transformation process from a planned This case study attempts such an analysis, for the economy to market economy in East Germany most Central Hillsides of Honduras, for the period from of the mines had to close down. The lignite or the mid-1970s to the mid-1990s. By comparing the brown-coal mining had destroyed the landscape: By processes and impacts in 48 communities with removing the over-burden the micro-organisms, varying geographic, demographic, and economic vegetation, and animals, were lost. Particularly in characteristics and varying local governance the 70th and 80th the mining was carried out so arrangements, the study sought to identify the intensively, that the reclamation did not keep up impacts of regional economic trends and public with the area devastated by mining. The political policies on forests at the local level. Six pathways of leaders had other priorities and so the state run agricultural development in the region (stagnation of mining companies did not receive the funds for basic grains, expansion of basic grains, horticultural remediation and reclamation. intensification, coffee expansion, forestry The remediation is particularly difficult as the specialization and non-farm employment) had overburden consists of sand and gravel and hardly distinct determinants of economic change, distinct any topsoil. in the dumping areas a new covering patterns of land and forest product use, and different soil need to be established and the interrupted concerns about local forest resources. nutritional chains have to be build up again to bring Aggregate tree cover declined only slightly in the back plants and animals. in addition the residual pits coffee, forestry and non-farm employment pathways are forming dangers to man and nature that appear (which account for three quarters of regional land from the physical properties of the pit slopes. The area), despite rapid population growth, as annual dump areas are geotechnically not stable. Over long crop production became more intensive and less distances the banks tend to slide down suddenly. important to livelihoods. Forest cover declined The East-German example demonstrates drastically significantly in the other three pathways, as area in what enormous problems occur, if active mining and annual crops expanded due to high-value vegetable land reclamation is not integrated. in order to be markets (horticultural pathway), extensive able to tackle such a task, a huge amount of various production systems ( the basic grains pathways) and sorts of support was needed. So a first cropland degradation (basic grains stagnation Administrative Agreement for a 5 year action pathway). program was signed in December 1992 which was Findings suggest that the impacts of agricultural extended in 1997 for another five years until the intensification on forest resources depend on initial year 2002. According to this new agreement, now resource conditions and the type of intensification. up to 1.2 billion DM is allocated from the Resource scarcities relative to population and Goverment yearly. agricultural development policies have greater The funds are provided for safety-measures in the impacts on forest conditions than do forest policies. disused open-cast mines restoration of the water- The latter need to be targeted by agricultural balance, and rehabilitation and land reclamation. pathway. The observed variations in land use dynamics raise concerns about the reliability of In early spring of 1999, the program is well macro-scale analysis for predicting forest cover established as Europe's largest environmental change or informing policy action. program, and after more than 8 years of intensive work, progress can be documented in many ways.

16 Division 1 Some achievements of the program are shown and non-ferrous metallurgy in Russia, which is below. Area of waste-land and dump-areas to be based on the locally available rich deposits of reclaimed (without water-areas) 65.370 ha copper, nickel and coal. in recent decades, the town accomplished in early 1999 has also become the largest center of industrially- - reclamation of forest 27.280 ha caused air pollution in the Arctic. Sulphur dioxide - reclamation of agricultural land 11.590 ha and heavy metals are of particular concern. About 2 - natural revegetation and controlled succession million tons of sulphur and 60,000 tons of heavy 5.760 ha metals enter the atmosphere of this area each year. Total reclaimed area 44.630 ha Current research is focused on the impact area of the New ecosystems are established in order to bring the Norilsk mining and Metallurgical Industrial post-mining landscape on the path leading towards a Complex (Arctic part of Eastern Siberia). High sustainable development and achieve as well the emissions of sulphur dioxide and heavy metals, as desired future land use. well as the extreme climatic conditions of high latitudes, have caused large-scale degradation of the In the year 2002 in many areas that looked - for surrounding ecosystem. miles and miles - like a lunar landscape at the time of reunification in 1990, you will find many new The results of this investigation are based primarily lakes with water of bathing quality and you will also on field studies of the vegetation cover. Toxic see thousands of acres of young forests and new effects are most pronounced at the local level, in the agricultural land and areas protected for wildlife, vicinity of plants and industrial centres where and in some areas it will already be difficult for a pollution accumulates in the ecosystem and enters laymen to tell that the area once had been mining the biological cycle. It is in such extreme natural land. conditions, with fragile structural and functional links, that the effects of industrial impact can The impact of industrial pollution on the rapidly be seen in the state of the ecosystem. vegetation of Northern Siberia Elena Golubeva, Vera Spektor Ecology of Post-Mining Landscapes - Moscow State University, Faculty of Geography, 119899 Fundamental Principles Vorobjovy Gory, Moscow, Russia Reinhard F. Hüttl, Edwin Weber FAX: Email: [email protected] Brandenburg University of Technology at Cottbus, Post Northern regions of Eurasia and North America are Box # 10 13 44, 03013 Cottbus, Germany Tel: +49-355-69-2117, FAX: +49-355-69-2323, Email: predominantly occupied by forest-tundra ecotones [email protected] with considerable diversity of landscapes. Along with hydrothermal conditions, their appearance is Surface mining has a severe impact on landscape largely governed by the presence of permafrost and ecology. At many places, reestablishment of is considered to be "one of the most pronounced ecosystems is impeded by extreme site conditions. boundaries in the landscape regionalization of the Restoration of sustainable ecosystems resembling Earth". The biological components of forest-tundra the situation before mining or rehabilitation towards ecosystems are extremely vulnerable to climatic designed systems with predefined goal functions changes and anthropogenic pressures. The so-called requires complex knowledge based on an ecosystem "land of small sticks", which is the local name for approach, particularly if seminatural systems shall such landscapes, is characterized by larches that are be recreated, e.g. by directed succession. less than 1 m high and branches which grow near Unfavourable physico-chemical site factors often the ground, protected by snow cover. 10-meter high must be actively compensated by rehabilitation trees grow in the valleys, while mosses, lichens, measures, displaced target organisms must be shrubs and dwarf shrubs occupy the concave brought back onto the sites. Areas designed for uplands. agricultural or forestry use must be rehabilitated The natural resources of the Russian Lower Arctic, considering the future perspectives of the users, i.e. such as polymetal ores, gas, oil and coal, are interactions with socio-economical questions have intensively developed, often without due regard to to be considered if successful recultivation shall be certain features such as historical sites, as well as achieved. consideration of the importance of ecosystems. The Knowledge can be extracted from mined land Norilsk industrial region demonstrates one of the rehabilitated during this century, e.g. by means of more serious conflicts between nature and society chronosequence studies. Natural succession today. Norilsk is the largest town of the Polar processes on post-mining sites starting from "point Regions. Nowadays it is the largest center of mining zero" are not only unique events in cultivated

17 Division 1 landscapes, they help understand natural ecosystem shale pits to ascertain the most suitable tree species dynamics - far beyond the actual post-mining and bushes (all together 52 species have been used), landscape. cultivation methods, cultivation times and most suitable planting material sizes. The physical and Results from a number of research projects will chemical characteristics, water regime, microclimate highlight the various aspects and the scope of and natural vegetation growth on these areas of land development of the ecology of post-mining have been studied. From 1978 to 1980 128 landscapes using as an example the lignite mining permanent sample plots were established in district of Lower Lusatia in eastern Germany. Based experimental and productive stands. The growth and on chronosequence approaches and long-term development of different tree species is studied after observations, a concept of ecosystem development every 5 to 10 years, as are the initial density of trees on minesites was developed integrating various depending on the species, the need for thinnings, aspects potentially altered on former minesites and vegetation and soil formation processes. compared to ecosystems on natural, undisturbed sites: pedogenesis and organic matter As of 1 September 1998 there are 8374 hectares of transformation, natural flora and fauna succession, forest stands planted on smoothened oil-shale pits. water and element budgets. 85% of them are pine stands, 7% are birch stands, 4% are spruce stands and 2% are larch stands. Other However, so far the dynamical aspects of species make up around 2% of the cultivated area. ecosystems on former minesites are still not Fire and insects endanger spread monocultures of understood well enough to predict their long-term Pinus sylvestris. Pine stands need thinning at a future development. Novel methodological young age. Larix europaea, L. sibirica, L. kurilensis approaches are needed to extend our knowledge and and Betula pendula show quite good growth on meet the demands of decision makers and land calcareous soils. They exceed pine stands of the managers. same age (25-30 years) by 4 to 7 metres in height. Larch stands with an initial density of 1200 - 1800 Forest Rehabilitation in the Baltic plants per hectare, and birch stands with an initial Region - The Oil Shale Study Case density of 3000 - 3500 plants per hectare (2 year old Ülo Mander, Elmar Kaar, Priit Kask and Hardi Tullus seedlings) do not need thinning at a young age. in University of Tart, Institute of Geography, u, 46 very rocky areas (rocks compromise 50-70%) Alnus Vanemuise St, 51014 Tartu, Estonia Tel: +372 7 375819, FAX: +372 7 375825, Email: spp. are more suitable to promote the soil formation [email protected] processes. The Estonian oil-shale field is the largest Trees and bushes are also suitable for cultivation of commercially exploited oil-shale deposit in the oil-shale chemical industry residual formations like world. It contains over 60% of explored reserves ash plateaus and coke-ash heaps with height up to exceeding 6600 million tons. The mining of oil- 100 m. Experiments have been carried out there shale was started in 1916 and its total output with 28 species. Fertilising with N and P fertilisers exceeds 770 million tons of shale. Presently, 6 is necessary. in alkali conditions Betula pendula, B. underground mines and 4 open pit mines are in pubescens, Alnus glutinosa, A. incana and Populus operation. All the operating mines are located in trichocarpa showed the best vitality. north-east Estonia, i.e., in the central and eastern part of the deposit. in this area, the overburden Native Tropical Forest Rehabilitation: A reaches ranges 0-70 m due to gentle southward Case Study from Brazil dipping of Ordovician strata. Mining in pits started John A. Parrotta to spread intensively in 1959 when excavators with International Institute of Tropical Forestry, USDA Forest a scoop volume of 15-20 m3 came into use to Service, Post Box # 25000, 00928-5000 Rio Piedras, remove surface. Pits are used in digging up to depth Puerto Rico, USA Tel: +1-787-766-5335, FAX: +1-787-766-6263, Email: of 40 m with a total area of 23 thousand hectares. If [email protected] oil-shale is deeper than 50 m underground mining is used. Nowadays around 50% of oil-shale is mined Keywords: Amazonia, biodiversity, mine in pits. Until 1999 around 11700 ha was mined. The reclamation, native species, reforestation, tropics reclamation order of exhausted oil-shale pits was Restoring productive, self-sustaining tropical forest determined by the Estonian government as early as ecosystems on surface mined sites is a formidable 23 November 1923. The planned afforestation of challenge that requires the integration of proven oil-shale pits began in 1960. More than 365 ha of reclamation techniques and reforestation strategies experimental stands are planted on smoothened oil-

18 Division 1 appropriate to specific site conditions, including biogeochemical cycles. The development of these landscape biodiversity patterns. Restorationists ecosystems at 2 - 60 years old pine stands on two working in most tropical settings are usually typical substrates in a "false-time series" approach hampered by lack of basic information on the wide was studied. Water and element fluxes in different variety of native tree species that characterize these ecosystem compartments along these forests as well as insufficient understanding of the chronosequences were measured, analyzed with ecology of disturbance and natural recovery that can respect to differences between substrates, and aid in the design of effective restoration programs. compared to pine ecosystems on non-mined sites of A notable exception to this is the forest restoration the region. Main objectives were to identify the program developed since the early 1980s by a dominating processes and temporal trends in Brazilian bauxite mining company operating at ecosystem development and to use flux budgets as Trombetas in Par State in central Amazonia. A an indicator for ecosystem functioning. systematic nursery and field research strategy was Soil solution compositions indicate very high spatial used to develop a reforestation program based on and temporal dynamics. Over time sharp depth mixed plantings of more than 70 native primary gradients are formed due to amelioration and soil forest tree species. This technique has been used to forming processes. Soil solutions are mainly replant about 100 ha of previously forested composed of Ca, Al, Fe, and SO4 depending on soil minelands each year over the past 15 years. pH and pyrite content. Dynamics in lignite-free Research in recent years has evaluated this approach sands are much less pronounced and show overall and other, generally simpler, techniques used at a lower concentrations. smaller scale at this site in terms of post-plantation biodiversity development and other indicators of The results reveal fundamental differences of restoration success or sustainability. The results of element budgets between the two substrate types these studies have shown the overwhelming due to their different geochemistry. The fluxes of importance of careful site preparation and topsoil almost all elements under investigation at lignite handling/replacement practices in determining both and pyrite free sites are similar or even lower future productivity and biodiversity of developing compared to a non-mined site which can be forests irrespective of the complexity of the planting explained by low weathering rates of the dumped design used. Beyond this, study results show that the material consisting mainly of quartz and low inclusion of a wide variety of forest species, atmogenic input rates. in contrast, the lignite and particularly later successional species, is very pyrite containing sites show very high dynamics of important for long-range restoration success due to initial development induced by substrate limitations on natural recovery processes that inhibit composition and are characterized by high element seed dispersal and subsequent colonization of many flux rates and intensive transformation processes, primary forest species. Many of the lessons learned i.e. changes and redistribution of element pools. at this site have implications for the design of The following processes could be identified as mineland rehabilitation and forest restoration dominating factors in soil formation at the lignite programs worldwide. and pyrite containing sites - Prite oxidation resulting in the release of large amount of acidity, sulfate, and Ecosystem development on post-lignite iron, intensive weathering of primary minerals mining sites: element budgets of false- within the substrate releasing considerable amounts time series of Al, Ca, Mg or K depending on the specific Wolfgang Schaaf mineral composition of the substrate, and Brandenburg Technical University of Cottbus, Post Box # precipitation of secondary salt and mineral phases 101344, D-03013 Cottbus, Germany like gypsum or oxides, hydroxides and sulfates of Tel: +49-355-694240, FAX: +49-355-692323, Email: alumnium and iron. [email protected] Since pyrite oxidation can be a rather fast process The post-lignite mining landscape in Lusatia is depending on its control by chemical or microbial dominated by sandy substrates of tertiary and oxidation, a pyrite-free zone is developing from the quaternary sediments. Lignite and pyrite contents of surface to increasing soil depths over time. varying amounts can result in extremely phytotoxic site conditions. To establish pine stands on these - Leaching of easily soluble or labile secondary salt sites, large amounts of CaO were used for and mineral phases like gypsum, anhydrite or epsom amelioration. These forest ecosystems virtually start salt. Over time this zone develops down the profile, very close to the "point zero" of development, too, forming a zone free of pyrite and salts. especially with regard to soil development, plant- soil interactions, and establishment of

19 Division 1 - Both processes are affected by the amelioration Selected AMF isolates were also cultured using measures taken in recultivation practice. Large devised test tube methods and mass produced on pot amounts of lignite ash are incorporated in the cultures. The local AMF isolates which were topsoils resulting in an input of high amounts of Ca obtained in culture, were tested for their ability to and Mg, but also to a lower extent sulfur. This of increase the early growth of host plant grown on course introduces a large acid neutralization tailings as a substrate. capacity compared to the substrate-internal Among the 43 identified plant species grown on buffering and also enhances formation of gypsum tailings, the root systems of 39 species (90%) are and other sulfate salts like MgSO4 that is leached colonized by AMF. These data show that very fast in high amounts from the profiles. The mycorrhizal associations are needed for plants to raising of soil pH on the other hand induces successfully adapt to growing conditions on tailing precipitation of Fe - and Al - oxides/hydroxides. deposits. Among the pioneer tree species, the The chronosequence approach to study "false-time rhizosphere of Macaranga mappa contained high series" of post-mining sites has proven to be a very AMF species richness. Thus enhancing early useful tool to identify dominating processes on the establishment of this species by re-cultivation are ecosystem level. expected can enhance the improvement population of indigenous AMF. Based on spore propagule Biodiversity and The Role of Arbuscular counts, twelve spore types included in three genera Mycorrhizal Fungi for Enhancing of glomalian fungi (i.e. Glomus, Acaulospora and Tailings Revegetation at PT Freeport Sclerocystis) were found in the sites (early sere Indonesia. succession). Three other common genera, Yadi Setiadi, Yahya Alkatiri, Jemmy Rumainum Gigaspora, Scutelospora and Enthrophospora, were IUC-IPB, Forest Biotechnology, Campus IPB Darmaga, not found at the sites. Results from pot experiments 16001 Bogor, Indonesia shown that among the local AMF isolate tested, Email: [email protected] Isolate MRRC-4 and MRRC-46 gave the best results. These isolates can significantly (P.05) The PT Freeport Indonesia Company mill is enhance the biomass of host S. grandiflora grown presently processing about 150,000 tons of ore on tailing by 453% and 326%, respectively, (Gold and Cupper) per day of which about 3% compared to the controls. They can also consistently becomes ore concentrate. The remaining 97% is improve the biomass of S. grandiflora grown on discharged into the Ajkwa River watershed in the control ultisol soil by 123% and 95%, respectively. form of tailings, and settles out in the Ajkwa Isolate MRRC-46 and MRRC-4 has yet to be Deposition Area (ADA), which currently covers an 2 identified, however, both isolates form intensive area of approximately 133 km .PT Freeport mycelia around host plant root systems. This Indonesia has an intensive program to rehabilitate mycelial network may be important as a chelating tailing deposition area by establishing vegetation agent and in nutrient absorption, and thus can cover. However, the proposed target is difficult to facilitate plant establishment on tailing sites. This be achieved, due to several major constraints which paper will review the novel function of mycorrhizal are related to the unfavorable environmental arbuscula for tailings rehabilitation, and provide a conditions existing at the tailing sites. The succesful step by step protocol how to develope and used this establishment of trees in these unfavorable tailing mycorrhizal inoculant as a clean technology for conditions may be enhanced by introducing the rehabilitation and bioremediation of contaminated effective and selective AMF by inoculation of the tailings at PT. Freeport Indonesia. seedling in the nursery. The novel functions of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) as biofertilizer inoculum for improving growth and health of plants and as an agent for bioremediation of heavy-metal contaminated soil are recognized. A limited survey of local arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi species was conducted in ADA areas at the Maurujaya Reclamation Research Center (MRRC), Mile 21, PT Freeport Indonesia. Representative soil and root samples were collected from different rhizosphere plants. Using standard methods, the roots were stained and the AMF spores were extracted from the soil, isolated, and identified.

20 Division 1 construct planting guidelines for the various species 1.17.03 Tropical forest restoration tested along with an economic valuation (using NPV, net present value) of optimum species Restoration of a Sri Lankan rain forest: combinations for restoration on formerly cleared An eight year review of experimental lands that have been reforested with Caribbean pine. trials P. Mark S. Ashton, I.A.U.N. Gunatilleke, and C.V.S. Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Gunatilleke Forest Degradation and Constraints Yale University, School of Forestry and Environmental against Rehabilitation Efforts in Ghana Studies, 360 Prospect St, CT 06511 New Haven, USA Dominic Blay, Adu-Anning Charles Email: [email protected] Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, University Box 63, In the moist tropics much research has demonstrated Kumasi, Ghana that many late-seral tree species of the rain forest do FAX: 233-51-60121, Email: [email protected] not establish well on forestlands that have been Sustainable development of the forest resources of cleared for agriculture and subsequently abandoned. with the active cooperation of all stakeholders This is most acute for the site-specific and shade- including rural communities is one of the important tolerant timber trees of mixed-dipterocarp forests in objectives of the forest and wildlife policy of southeast Asia. For the last ten years we have been Ghana. However achieving this objective cannot be testing the use of Caribbean pine (Pinus caribaea) possible without addressing the problem of as a nurse for establishing rain forest timber trees. deforestation and degradation. It is estimated that We selected 9 species of trees and 4 non timber about 32% of forest reserves have been degraded. species in two experimental sets of treatments that While there are no records for the areas outside created microsites for planting seedlings within and reserves it is assumed that more than 75 % of those adjacent to experimental openings within 20 year areas are also degraded. The major contributors to old pine plantations. Initial results after two years the deforestation and degradation are the people in revealed that planting within the centers of canopy the rural communities. While rural communities are openings (photon flux density of 22 mols m-2 d-1; blamed for contributing to the problem of approximately 50 % of open conditions) that were 8 deforestation and degradation discussions on these m wide provided conditions for greatest growth. in problem focus mainly on the activities which have these circumstances seedlings grew between 3 and contributed to the problem. However the rural 15 times faster in height, depending upon species communities are driven undertake those activities shade-tolerance, as compared to conditions beneath because of certain factors. Therefore to solve the closed canopy of Pinus (3 mols m-2 d-1; problem of deforestation and degradation and thus approximately 7 % of open conditions). Seedling help in the sustainable development of the forest planted in the full open had very high mortality resources in Ghana these underlying factors and during the first year and exhibited the poorest efforts that motivate rural communities need to be growth. The more shade-intolerant species showed identified and remedies found for them. greater response increases in all measures (dry mass Deforestation and degradation in Ghana have been gain, leaf area increase, height growth) than the attributed to fire, unsustainable farming practices, more shade-tolerant species. Mortality of all species logging and mining. Farming for instance has led to was higher in the Pinus understory, but this was the loss of whole forest reserves. Efforts were most significant for the shade-intolerants. Results therefore made to stop the encroachment of more after eight years were the same but with greater reserves by farmers. Thus one of the first action that differences between treatments. Seedlings planted in was undertaken was the eviction of the farmers -1 openings were growing at nearly 2 m yr in some of living in the degraded reserves. Unfortunately this the species, while growth of seedlings beneath the met with stiff resistance from the farmers with the -1 Pinus canopy was not more than 25 cm yr . For the result that the action was not successful. non timber species, two were lianas (cane, medicinal climber), one was a ground orchid with ornamental Also in spite of the fact that deforestation is value, and one was a herbaceous shrub (cardamom). continuing efforts have being made to rehabilitate After two years all four species grew best in the some of the degraded forests through taungya, edge microsites of the canopy openings. in these enrichment planting and plantation establishment. circumstances cardamom yielded 50 g plant-1 yr-1, Taungya and enrichment planting were tried and cane grew over 1 m yr-1, the medicinal liana grew abolished. Plantation establishment, which is over 50 cm yr-1, and the ground orchid produced the continuing, however involves only the use of mainly greatest number of flowers (25 per plant yr-1). exotic species and in the past did not involve the Results from these experiments have been used to local communities.

21 Division 1 This paper therefore takes a look at the problems of undisturbed forest as well as experiments on seed deforestation and degradation as well as germination and seedling growth under nursery rehabilitation by discussing the underlying factors conditions. The relative importance of various that motivate deforestation and degradation. It also criteria considered for species selection will be discusses the reasons for the resistance put up by the discussed, including: seedling performance; ease of farmers towards their eviction as well as the reasons propagation; ability to shade out weeds; ability to for abolishing taungya and enrichment practices as foster regeneration of other tree species; inhibited well as the use of mainly indigenous species for natural seed dispersal and rarity. Initial results will plantation establishment. be presented of planting trials using mixtures of 30 native forest tree species and testing various The paper makes suggestions for actions that can silvicultural treatments, such as fertilizer provide solutions for the underlying factors that application, weed control and mulching. contribute to deforestation and degradation and measures to overcome that will enable the farmers A program to test the applicability of new methods living in the forest reserves contribute to the developed by the program within a hill tribe rehabilitation programme. It also makes suggestions community living within a national park has also on the appropriate methods for rehabilitating forests been initiated. A community tree nursery was degraded through different direct actions. constructed within the village and community members have participated in nursery management, Forest restoration for biodiversity tree planting, weeding, fire control and monitoring conservation in Northern Thailand the success of planted plots. On the basis of the Stephen Elliott, Vilaiwan Anusarnsunthorn, David experience gained during this program, the Blakesley, Puttipong Navakitbumrung, Cherdsak Kuarak challenges of introducing local communities to new and Sudarat Zangkum methods of forest restoration will be discussed. Chiang Mai University, Forest Restoration Research Unit, Biology Department, Science Faculty, 50200, Rehabilitation of degraded Tropical Rain Thailand FAX: +66 53 892259, Email: [email protected] Forest by enrichment planting of endemic species in a forest of Sabah, Restoration of degraded forest ecosystems for the Malaysia conservation of biodiversity requires development Jan Falck, Charles Garcia of different methods to those currently used for Swedish University of Agriculture Sciences, S-90187 commercial forestry. Research must cover a much Umea, Sweden broader range of indigenous trees species, instead of Tel: +46-90-7865884, FAX: +46-90-7867669, Email: focussing only on those of economic value. [email protected] Ecological criteria, such as ability to shade out The valuable timber from tropical rain forests herbaceous weeds and attract seed-dispersing around the world is an essential resource often used wildlife, must be emphasized when selecting species to meet the demand for economic development in for planting. Furthermore, processes of natural the local societies. Most tropical rain forests are able forest regeneration must receive greater to gradually recover from a selective harvest. But consideration, to develop effective silvicultural repeated harvest too early in the secondary forest strategies. and/or wild fires can call for rehabilitation This paper will present a synthesis of research plantation to speed up the recovery process. The findings aimed at developing ecologically effective main objective of this effort is to improve and socially acceptable methods to restore degraded, biodiversity. Planting and tending tree seedlings of seasonally dry, tropical forests within conservation old growth species in the degraded forest is areas in northern Thailand, where the primary aims supposed to facilitate migration and reestablishment of management are biodiversity conservation and of fauna and flora belonging to the natural forest. in watershed protection. Seasonal drought, fires and the current study, located to Sabah, we investigate heavy human impact present special challenges to the feasibility of rehabilitation planting in a the restoration of such forests. secondary tropical rain forest degraded by harvest and the 1983 wild fire. Under the canopy of a The results of a research program to screen nearly Macaranga- dominated pioneer forest more than 30 400 native forest tree species for their potential Dipterocarp species, some non-Dipterocarps and usefulness in forest restoration programs will be fruit trees are planted using two different plantation presented. The program included studies of the concepts i.e. line and gap plantation. The study also seasonal cycles of seed production of mature trees in includes tests of different techniques for seedling

22 Division 1 and wildling production and different regimes of The investigation is carried out as an integrated On- shade adjustment in the pioneer vegetation over- Farm-Research-Project in the bufferzone of the story. in the first phase, starting in 1998, 4500-5000 National Park Ybycu¡, situated 150 km. south-east ha will be planted in a 5-year period. of Asunción. in all stages of the project, which are described in the following, a high level of active The main result so far is that gap plantation is participation of the farmer families is required: cheaper than line plantation. The reason being that only five compass lines need to be cleared compared - Development of adjusted forest management to ten for line plantation. Gap plantation appears to concepts. The management concepts should be give the new Dipterocarp forest a more natural compatible with structure since the seedlings are more irregularly - the target(s) of forest production (fuelwood, spaced than after line plantation. Seedling survival construction wood for subsistency, comercial was similar following the two plantation concepts timber, non-wood forest products) determined by exceeding 85 % after three months. the farmers themselves. Funding is mainly provided by a Swedish company - the farmer families personal, technical und and the local counterpart: Innoprise Corporation financial abilities to carry out a forest management. SDN BND. - the natural conditions of the residual forests for a Transformation of degraded farmer sustainable management. To respect these general forests into managed semi-natural conditions in the first instance was necessary a forests in Eastern Paraguay socio-economic assessment. Elements of the M. Grulke, Albrecht, J.; Monges, E.; Perez de Molas, L.; Participatory Rural Appraisal were used. Afterwards Quinteros, M.; Campos, D.; Rodriguez, L. the forest ressources have been inventorized in three Paraguay case-study farms. Email: Proyecto Enaprena [[email protected]] Both, the socio-economic assessment and the forest 50 years ago, more than half of Eastern Paraguay inventory, showed, that to cover the forest product (about 160.000 km2), was covered with subtropical needs of the families in the long run, on-farm small lowland rainforests. Today the forest cover is about reforestations are necessary as a complement to the 10 to 15 %. All residual forests have been exploited management of the residual forests. selectively once or several times. There are no - Implementing the forest management concepts and primary forests left. As a consequence of the rapid the reforestations/enrichment By putting into deforestation in the last few years the discussion practice the forest management it is possible to over how to maintain the residual forests has arisen recognise and resolve technical problems and to in political circles and in public. The approach assess the real costs and benefits of the initial "maintaining by managing" is favored. silvicultural activities. This project stage will be Nearly half of the paraguayan population assures her finalised in the current year. economical existence by managing small-scale - First evaluation of the economic impact of the farms with an extension of 20 ha. or less. These forest management With the cost-benefit assessment farms are caracterized by a strongly marked mixed of the initial forest activities in combination with a production system: Food-crop cultivation, cash-crop simulation of future forest growth and future cash- cultivation and livestock-breeding. Generally the flows a first evaluation of the economic impact on farms include small forests which are used without the farming-system of sustainable forest any management-plan and later on - when degraded manegement should be possible. The economic and economically unattractive - converted into evaluation will be carried out in the year 2000. agriculture. It is expected, that the results of the investigation Until today there is no systematical investigations project give practical assistance to the owners of available on how to manage these residual small- small-scale forests and to the forest extension scale forests and what economical impacts on the agencies. It is also expected, that political decision farming system a sustainable management might makers, for the purpose of promoting small-scale have. The investigation project was initiated in forestry, get additional arguments based on September 1998. scientific results, e.g. in the discussion about The aim of the investigation is to assess the subsidies for forest activities. potential of rising farmer's income by the integration of sustainable forest management in the farming mixed production system.

23 Division 1 under afforestation programs with valuable tree The Potential Role of Plantations on the species. To restore the former biodiversity of the Rehabilitation of Native Forest forested area, monocultures will be discourage Biodiversity in Degraded Hilly Areas of whereas, emphasis should be given to indigenous Bangladesh species. A proper species-site matching mechanism Mohammed Kamal Hossain and mixed plantations of diverse end uses should be Chittagong University, Institute of Forestry and given priority. Participation of local peoples in Environmental Sciences, 4331 Chittagong, Bangladesh plantation establishment, management and Tel: 880-31-726310, FAX: 880-31-610004, Email: protection will also enhance the activities of tree [email protected] planting programs instead of shifting cultivation or jhum cultivation. Participatory approach and jhumia Keywords: Plantation, Rehabilitation, Biodiversity, rehabilitation program will be given emphasis in an Degraded areas, Bangladesh aim to rehabilitate the nomadic jhumia families and The natural forest loss and degradation of forest to improve their economic conditions with the lands in Bangladesh are proceeding at an restoration of native biodiversity over the denuded unprecedented rates eroding the biological diversity hilly areas. and prospects for sustainable economic development of forest resources. About 0.67 million Restoration of the Native Understorey ha hill forests rich in both floral and faunal diversity Vegetation in the Plantation Forest and another 0.73 million ha Unclassed State Forest Areas of Chittagong University (USF) areas alone in the Chittagong Hill Tracts are Experimental Plantation Area shrinking and degrading mainly due to agricultural Mohammed Kamal Hossain expansion, shifting cultivation, encroachments, land Chittagong University, Institute of Forestry and alienation and over exploitation. Considering the Environmental Sciences, 4331 Chittagong, Bangladesh magnitude of deforestation and slow growth of the Tel: 880-31-726310, FAX: 880-31-610004, Email: existing natural forests, artificial plantation [email protected] programs are getting priority day by day and there is Keywords: Restoration, Native species, Understorey an increasing evidence that forest plantations may vegetation, Plantation forest, Species composition play a key role in harmonizing long term forest ecosystem rehabilitation. in the past, the poor The degraded natural forest areas of Chittagong yielding heterogeneous natural forests were in the University experimental plantation area was in a gradual process of conversion into plantation forests gradual process of conversion in to a productive through clear felling and artificial regeneration with plantation forest through clear felling the existing desirable exotic and indigenous tree species. natural vegetation and then followed by artificial Reforestation activities are also being continued in regeneration. Both the exotic and indigenous tree depleted and barren areas. The catalytic effect of species are getting preferences in the plantation tree plantations on native forest succession under a programs in an aim to restore the degraded sites to a variety of degraded sites may be obtained and vegetation cover with valuable timber species. The plantation forests can have the same functions as native vegetation cover also emerged with the secondary forest stands. growth of the artificial plantations which restore the partial biodiversity of the original ones. The present The paper describes the necessity of the gradual study was an aim to survey the native understorey conversion of the degraded hilly areas to a vegetation by random quadrat method in different prospective plantations of suitable tree species years plantation. Mixed plantations of Acacia which will ultimately save the natural hill forests of auriculiformis, Albizia procera and Cassia siamea several hundred economically important species of of 1982 showed the presence of 36 different species both the plants and animals. The denuded hills of in comparison to 21 species only in Eucalyptus Chittagong, Chittagong Hill Tracts, Coxs Bazar and camaldulensis plantations. of these, 15 understorey Sylhet Forest Division areas comprising a vast land species are common in both the mixed and eucalypt resource of the country can neither be kept plantations, whereas 21 species are solely present in unproductive barren nor can be allowed to be mixed plantations and 6 species in the eucalypt abused by the peoples. As early as these denuded plantations only. The index of similarity (Is) of hills are brought under permanent forest cover by ground vegetation in both the plantations is 0.36. afforestation of suitable tree species, the better The dominant species in both the plantations are benefit will be derive by the local people and the Clerodendrum infortunatum, Eupatorium odoratum, nation. The depleted hilly areas which can sustain Lantana camara, Microcos paniculata and Vitis only forest crops, have been suggested to be sought

24 Division 1 assamica. Similar survey in the 1984 mono- afforestation project conducted jointly by Thailand plantations of Artocarpus chaplasha, Swietenia and Japan (JICA). The goals of the present study macrophylla, Acacia auriculiformis and Eucalyptus were to evaluate the present status of re- camaldulensis showed that the presence of afforestation in terms of the role of man-made understorey vegetation was 34, 33, 33 and 32 forests in restoring the forest ecosystem and to respectively indicating that the mono-plantations of develop suitable forest management systems the different species did not significantly influence capable of enhancing the forests on a sustainable on the restoration of the native understorey basis. We studied biomass, productivity, and the vegetation. Clerodendrum infortunatum, Crotalaria plant species diversity of man-made forests saltiana, Eupatorium odoratum, Ichnocarpus composed of exotic species (Acacia mangium, A. frutescens, Lantana camara, METLAstoma auriculiformis, Eucalyptus camaldulensis) and malabathricum, Microcos paniculata and Syzygium indigenous species (Xylia kerri, Dalbergia fruticosum are common species found in all the cochinchinensis, Pterocarpus macrocarpus) and plantations. Similarly 1987 E. camaldulensis and A. compared with those from neighbouring natural auriculiformis plantations showed the presence of forest (dry evergreen forest) and grass lands 32 and 26 understorey species respectively. of the (Imperata cylindrica, Neyraudia reynaudiana) in species, 18 are common in both the plantations. 1998 and 1999. The results were as follows: The study also revealed the presence of maximum 1) By 13 years after planting, exotic man-made understorey species (36) in the 1982 mixed forests had accumulated above-ground organic plantations and lowest (21) in the E. camaldulensis matters levels 20 to 30 times as great as the plantations. The presence of understorey species in Imperata cylindrica grassland and 1 to 1.8 times as plantations also depends on the initial field great as the natural forest, whereas indigenous man- preparation practices, even the initial cultural made forests accumulated 6 to 17 times as much practices. The previous vegetation of the site, above-ground organic matter as the grassland and planting spacing and also the surface soil conditions 0.3 to 0.9 times as much as the natural forest. Much determine the intensity and species composition of larger biomass developed in the exotic stands than the plantations. The proper species mixing in in estimated seral forests during secondary suitable sites and the initial silvicultural treatments succession from Imperata cylindrica grassland to may restore the native understorey vegetation which dry evergreen forest; these values were will ultimately conserve the valuable native approximately equal for indigenous stands and the biodiversity in artificial plantation areas of the seral forests. degraded hilly areas of the country. 2) The leaf biomass in the man-made forests ranged from 2 to 5 ton/ha. This range of leaf biomass was Comparative ecological study of natural the lowest measured thus far in various types of forest, man-made forests and grass forests. lands for developing sustainable 3) The annual above-ground biomass increments in forestry in Sakaerat, Northeastern the man-made forest were 1.4 to 3.7 times as high as Thailand the increment measured in Imperata cylindrica Koichi Kamo, Tosporn Vacharanghura, Sirin Tiyanon, grassland. The annual net primary production in Chingchai Viriyabuncha, Suchat Nimpila, Bunnasart Duantsrisame, Rattana Thaingam exotic man-made forests and indigenous man-made Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Division forests were, respectively, 1.2 to 1.8 times and 0.6 to of Forest Environment, Matsunosato, Kukizaki-cho, 1.1 times as great as the level in natural forest. The Inashiki-gun, 305-8687 Ibaraki, Japan low level of leaf biomass, combined with high turn Tel: 0298-73-3211, FAX: 0298-73-1542, Email: over rates of leaf mass, was found to have enabled [email protected] exotic species stands to attain high level of net Keywords: restoration of forest, man-made forest, primary production. biomass, net primary production, plant species 4) More plant species with various life forms diversity became established in man-made forests of exotic Man-made forests could play a crucial role in the and indigenous species than in grass lands; the process of restoring forest ecosystem to a region. values range from 62 to 82 plant species per stand. However, we have not yet clearly evaluated the role Among the plant species established in the stands, and significance of man-made forests in this seedlings and saplings of forest tree species process. At Sakaerat, in northeastern Thailand, accounted for 29 to 40% of the total. A noteworthy various stands of exotic and indigenous tree species thing was almost no invasion of Imperata have been established on grass lands during an re- cylindrica, Neyraudia reynaudiana in the man-made

25 Division 1 forests. in Sakaerat, the occurrence of surface fires among them very rare or endangered due to over- decreased greatly after establishment of the forest exploitation of their medicinal products vis-a-vis stands. This could be a result of the disappearance degradation of their natural habitats. The restoration of these shade-intolerant grasses under the stand component of the programme involved procurement canopies, since such grasses are a major source of of seeds, establishment of nursery, raising seedlings fires. Preventing surface fires could, in turn, have of the six species in sufficient numbers, field allowed tree seedlings to become established within planting them and monitoring their survival and the man-made forests. in this context, the small leaf growth rates. The data generated during each of the biomass in the stands created enough shade to phase were analysed and is presented in the paper to prevent invasion of the two grasses and to provide a conclude on the success of the rehabilitation suitable light environment for seedling programme. in the nursery, Aegle marmelos and establishment. Caesalpinia sappan recorded maximum germination rates, whereas, in the case of outplanted seedlings, From these results, it appears that re-afforestation better survival and growth were observed for helped the ecosystem to accumulate large amount of Caesalpinia sappan and Pterocarpus santalinus. The biomass and fix large amount of carbon in a programme also generated direct employment to the relatively short time because of high net primary beneficiaries during its nursery and planting phases, productivity, and accelerated the forest succession and created awareness among them on alternate from grass land to natural forests by increasing the economically potential, indigenous species for stocking of advance growth of indigenous species in restoration of unproductive and degraded sites in the the stands. Based on these results, we discuss place of exotics - not eco and etho-friendly. suitable management systems for promoting forest Moreover, the strategy evolved for the intervention succession and for enhancing the quality of forests and transfer of technology pertaining to the nursery on a sustainable basis. and plantation aspects of the species were so designed to facilitate the beneficiaries to undertake Participatory restoration of a degraded such rehabilitation activities in future, in similar landscape in Kerala state, India with areas with same or similar species, ecologically indigenous forest tree species of suitable and economically viable. commercial potential K. K. N. Nair, R.C. Pandalai Development of Wasteland Through Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, 680 653 Kerala, India Tree Plantation in Chattisgarh Region FAX: 0487-782247, Email: [email protected] Sunil Puri Indira Gandhi Agricultural University, Department of While there is increasing pressure to transform more Forestry, 492 012 (M.P.) Raipur (M.P.), India of unproductive landscapes in India into productive Tel: +91 771 420828, FAX: 91-771-424532 areas by the introduction of exotics like Eucalypts Plantation of multipurpose trees (MPT) species play and Acacias, a pilot scale experiment was conducted an important role in restoring productivity, to restore such a wasteland using indigenous forest ecosystem stability and biological diversity to tree species, the products of which are of degraded lands. The choice of Plantation species is commercial demand in the Indian System of likely to influence both the rate and trajectory of Medicine. With the active participation of the rural rehabilitation process. in chhattisgarth region where beneficiaries, ensured by Participatory Rural entisols (red laterite) and inceptisols dominate Appraisal (PRA) method, the land capability, which have negligible productivity; there is a need vegetal cover and adverse factors which operate in to find ways to increase productivity by including the ecosystem rendering it degraded and wood perennial. Out of the total geographical area unproductive, were understood and an area of 12 ha of 144018 sq. km nearly 20 % area is under red was adopted for development under the scheme. laterite soil, commonly known as bhata soil. Due to Species selection for artificial regeneration was also poor waterholding capacity, available field moisture accomplished through PRAs, where, acceptability to and very poor nutrient status of these soils, the the people and the environment were the priorities productivity is extremely low. Beside the low and long-term returns on a sustainable basis, the productivity the problem of soil erosion is economic doctrine. The tree species, thus selected predominant in the uplands. in order to conserve the for the restoration programme, are Aegle marmelos soil and increase productivity, the tree plantation (L.) Correa, Caesalpinia sappan L., Oroxylum programme was undertaken. Both forest tree species indicum (L.) Vent., Pterocarpus santalinus L.f. and and horticulture tree species viz., Albizia lebbeck, Saraca asoca (Roxb.) de Wilde, the last three Dalberiga sissoo, Gmelina arborea, Pongamia

26 Division 1 pinnata, Albizia procera, DendroCalamus strictus, fall, seedling emergence, and seedling survival both Azadirachta indica, Anacardium occidentale, in the field and in greenhouse experiments. Seed fall Annona squamosa, Emblica officinalis, Psidium of B. javanica occurs mainly from December to guajava and Zizyphus mauritiana were planted February and shows considerable yearly variations. either as block plantation or as energy plantation. A large number of seed (about 2400/m2) was The survival and growth performance after 4 to 6 observed in the autumn of 1995 (mast year) but for years of plantation revealed that many of the tree the next 3 years, very few seed were produced. To species could be planted in red laterite soils of evaluate seed longevity in forest soil, we buried chhattisgarth region. Among the tested species seeds in forest soil and checked their viability at Eucalyptus tereticornis, hardwickia binata, regular intervals over 2 years. About 7% of the Leucaena leucocephala and Emblica officinalis out seeds with pulp and 3% of the seeds without pulp performed in block plantation. Growth and biomass buried in forest soil were still viable after 2 years. of bole, branches, leaves and fruit after 7 years of This suggests that B. javanica forms short-term seed plantation were assessed. The highest growth banks that will be exhausted in a few years without performance and biomass production were in order, the input of newly fallen seeds. Mortality of seed L. leucocephala > E. tereticornis > A. procera > D. produced in the autumn was quite low resulting in Sissoo > A. indica > H. binata > T. arjuna. The high seed germination in the following rainy season variation in soil properties at different depths of soil (middle May to June). This initial flush of under different tree species was also studied. germination produced a dense carpet of seedlings Increased levels of nutrients (N, P and K), moisture (mean 210/m2), but low numbers of seedlings content and organic carbon varied in different continue to emerge for several years. Many species and nitrogen fixing trees, in general, showed seedlings die after 2 months (in mid-June to July) higher nutrients. Moisture and nutrient, contents from wilting, and to a lesser extent, from damping decreased with depth. The results are discussed in off and herbivory. Compared with B. javanica, the light potential of introduction of exotics in seedling emergence and persistence of native comparison to indigenous species. species were much lower under forest shade. Large numbers of seedlings and saplings of B. javanica Seed and seedling demography of an also dominated most forest gaps indicating a alien tree species Bischofia javanica in a competitive advantage over other species in subtropical island forest of western disturbed sites. This is supported by findings in Pacific greenhouse experiments where B. javanica Naoko Yamashita, Nobuyuki Tanaka, Koichi Kamo, seedlings showed capability of high growth rates in Hiromichi Kushima both high and low light environments. It appears Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba that B. javanica seedlings have the ability to occupy Norin-Kenkyu-Danchi, Post Box # 16, 305-8687 Ibaraki, gap openings and reach maturity more quickly than Japan native species. Based on findings of this study, B. Tel: (+81)-298-73-3211 ext.494, FAX: (+81)-298-73- javanica can be characterized by its high seed 3796, Email: [email protected] output, low seed mortality, a large annual seedling Bischofia javanica Blume (Euphorbiaceae), emergence from newly dispersed seed and short- indigenous to southeast Asia, was introduced into term seed bank. It is also capable of high seedling Bonin Island in early 1900's as a timber tree. On survival by maintaining high growth rates both in Bonin Island, a small Japanese island in the western gaps and under canopy shade. It is likely that these Pacific, it became established in the natural forest regeneration traits contribute to the success of B. replacing native tree species and assumed javanica in the juvenile stage and to the over- dominance in the local forest as a canopy tree or an abundance of this invasive species on the island. emergent at maturity. It is competitively replacing Forest management to control B. javanica, the preferred native species of which 73% are therefore, will only be effective by combining the endemics occurring in highly valued conservation removal of adult trees with reducing the seedling areas. These endemic species and the native forest population to a very low level. B. javanica can biodiversity are being seriously threatened by B. persist in the shaded understorey but can not reach javanica. Conservation measures to control B. maturity without canopy openings. By eliminating javanica is being considered. But the ecological the sapling population in gaps would reduce the behaviour of this species is not well known. The aim further spread of B. javanica. Suppressing its natural of this study is to clarify the ecological traits which increase in the juvenile stage is probably the most confer an advantage in the regeneration of B. ecologically and economically effective means of javanica over native species. We investigated the maintaining long-term control over large areas. early establishment of B. javanica including seed

Division 2 Physiology and Genetics

Coordinator Dr. Eric TEISSIER DU CROS National Institute for Agricultural Research Laboratory of Mediterranean Forestry Research 12, Avenue Antoine Vivaldi, F-84000 Avignon, France fax: +33-4-90135959 tel: +33-4-90135911 e-mail: [email protected]

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2.01.00 Physiology of tropical and Ecophysiological studies at the Top of a temperate trees Lowland Rain Forest Canopy in Southern Taiwan Within- and among-provenance Yau-lun Kuo variability of Pinus ponderosa seedling National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, response to long-term elevated CO2 Department of Forestry, China-Taipeh exposure FAX: +886-8-7740346, Email: [email protected] James L.J. Houpis, Paul D. Anderson, David J. Anschel Diurnal patterns of photosynthesis, transpiration and and James C. Pushnik stomatal conductance of five species were measured Southern Illinois University, Department of Biological Sciences, Box 1099, 62026 Edwardsville, Illinois, USA in a lowland rain forest of Nanjenshan in southern Email: [email protected] Taiwan from 1995 to 1997. These physiological measurements were taken at the uppermost canopy Among- and within-provenance variability in of Ficus benjamina, Machilus kusanoi, and Michelia growth and physiological performance of Pinus compressa. Those at the middle canopy were ponderosa Dougl ex P. Laws seedlings were monitored only in Ficus, and those of understory investigated in response to ambient or elevated species were represented by Psychotria rubra and -1 atmospheric carbon dioxide (ambient + 175 mL L Aglaia elliptifolin. Under moderate weather -1 or ambient + 350 mL L CO2) for sixteen months. conditions seasonal courses of net photosynthesis in Among-provenance variability was studied with the uppermost canopy of the Ficus tree showed a bulk-collection sources from five different positive correlation with leaf temperature. However, physiographic regions of California. Within- when leaf temperature exceeded 33°C and leaf-to- provenance variability was examined with three air vapor pressure deficit exceeded 2.5 kPa, net half-sibling families from a common physiographic photosynthesis as well as stomatal conductance locale. declined. Low temperatures in winter and high Regardless of source, stem volume increased at temperatures in summer inhibited net -1 photosynthesis as well. ambient + 175 mL L CO2, however, further -1 increases in CO2 to ambient + 350 mL L resulted in Photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) was a variety of stem volume responses with about equal found to be the major environmental factor affecting numbers of sources showing either no change or primary photosynthetic productivity of plants in slight increases. Physiological responses to elevated Nanjenshan forest. Usually, diurnal courses of both CO2, including decreased efficiencies of net photosynthesis and transpiration followed the photochemical transfer (Fv/Fm), no change in variation patterns of PPFD. Diurnal mean PPFD and stomatal conductance, and increased photosynthetic net photosynthesis in the upper canopy of the Ficus and water-use efficiencies, were consistent among tree were 643 µmol photon m-2 s-1 and 6.94 æmol half-sib families. This limited survey shows little CO2 m-2 s-1, respectively. Comparatively, within-provenance variation in CO2 effects on measurements at the middle canopy were only 14% seedling physiology. The within- and among- and 30% and those of understory species were only provenance variability in growth response to CO2 3-6% and 7-11% of the upper canopy values. The indicates differing genetic control of carbon photosynthesis productivity of Ficus, Machilus and acquisition and allocation mechanisms among Michelia were 10.8, 11.2, and 11.7 g CO2 m-2 day- sources of Pinus ponderosa. Understanding the 1, and their transpiration rates were 1.30, 1.51, and extent and source of intraspecific variation in 1.53 kg H2O m-2 day-1, respectively. Net growth and physiological responses to elevated CO2 photosynthesis at the uppermost canopy measured at is a critical need in developing management 9 am, or mean net photosynthesis measured at 8 am strategies for future atmospheric environments. and 10 am, had significant linear correlation with the diurnal carbon gain. This suggests that short- term measurements of photosynthesis, performed at periodic intervals in the morning, can be used to predict the daily leaf carbon gain in a lowland forest tree.

31 Division 2 hemicelluloses in aspen leaves fluctuated between Dependence of biomass formation on 40-70 g kg-1 and seemed to be higher in mid- carbohydrate content in the leaves of canopy. Regression analysis showed a strong Populus tremula relationship between the specific leaf mass, leaf area Ülo Tamm, M. MAndreand H. Tullus and the percent carbohydrate content of foliar dry Estonian Agricultural University, Forest Research matter. Institute, Kreutzwaldi str. 5, 51014 Tartu, Estonia Biomass and morphological characteristics of aspen FAX: 372-7-421 053, Email: [email protected] were related to the carbohydrate content in leaves. Several vegetation models suggest profound The relatively large differences in carbohydrate changes may occur in the boreal forests with a concentrations in different canopy layers of Populus doubling of atmospheric CO2 and global tremula suggests that leaves have differing abilities temperature rise. These forest responses may result to assimilate CO2 from the atmosphere. Enhanced from changing competitive relationships among growth and acclimation of photosynthesis of several species (Solomon, Cramer, 1993) and increases in Populus sp. were also shown by Ceulemans and the wood production capacity of deciduous trees Isebrands (1996) for elevated CO2 conditions. These (Kellom et al., 1995). Results from FGM results suggest the possibility for expansion of calculations indicate that the competitive ability of Populus tremula in Estonian forests with projected several deciduous tree species that occur in Estonia changes in environmental conditions. could increase significantly with rising temperatures in association with increases in their biomass in the Photosynthetic characteristics of forest ecosystem (Mandre, Klysheiko, 1996). Leaf tropical trees and their ecological orientation, display and anatomy and branch type of significance in climate changes Populus tremula (aspen) have suitability for Yanhong Tang, Okuda Toshinori, Manonkara N. and enhanced CO2 acquisition with climate change Rahim Nik suggesting an increase in the relevance of aspen in National Institute for Environmental Studies, Onogawa Estonian forests. 16-21, 305 Tsukuba, Japan Email: [email protected] Knowledge of carbon allocation processes is essential for understanding tree growth; however, Tropical forests may contribute a large proportion of such knowledge of the mechanisms and controls of the photosynthetic CO2 uptake by terrestrial carbon allocation are generally lacking. ecosystems. However, the CO2 fixation contribution Carbohydrates are necessary for the growth and of tropical forests is still unclear for its quantitative biomass formation of a tree, and we have amount. Consequently, it is difficult to predict the determined the carbohydrate content and nutrient ecological role of tropical forests in regional and status of aspen leaves in relation to their location in global CO2 budgets. Some studies suggest that the canopy. tropical forests are significant carbon sinks, but The canopies of aspen trees (n = 12 in each year) others reveal that some tropical forests (Amazon) were sampled from ten equal horizontal layers. can be CO2 sources, especially during dry seasons. Canopy foliage was obtained from all canopy layers Without further detailed understanding of the at the end of the leaf growth period in 1987-1994. physiological characteristics of tropical trees, it The specific leaf mass (mg m-2) and the dry matter would be difficult to quantify the contribution of distribution (%) increased, whereas, the area of tropical forests in the global carbon budget. 2 leaves in a canopy layer (m ) decreased with In this study, we evaluated whether tropical tree increase in canopy height. On average aspen leaves species show any particular physiological contained 10.3% soluble sugars and 1.7% starch on characteristics in CO2 uptake that differ from the a dry mass basis. The lowest content of non- evergreen tree species of temperate forests. We structural carbohydrates was usually found in the surveyed photosynthetic data for tropical tree lower canopy layers. Beginning from mid-canopy species from literature, and measured photosynthetic the carbohydrate content showed an upward trend. characteristics for some typical tree species in the The content of non-structural carbohydrates varied Pasoh Forest Reserve, Malaysia. Particular attention with position of the leaves in the different canopy was given to seedlings of tree species from South layers and with the N, P and K contents in the East Asian tropical forests, since knowledge is still tissues, reaching a maximum in the upper canopy rather limited for this region among tropical forests layers. Leaves of the upper canopy layers had 15- of the world. 20% more soluble sugars and 30-40% more starch than the lowest canopy layer. The content of

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We found that tree seedlings from tropical rain forests tend to use light efficiently under low 2.01.17 Vegetative propagation photosynthetic photon flux density conditions, whereas their canopy leaves, exposed to direct Recent Advances in Mass Propagation sunlight, tend to show a higher resistance to of Acacia mangium, Acacia mangium x photoinhibition in comparison with the majority of A. auriculiformis hybrid and Acacia temperate tree species. By examining the effects of crassicarpa by Tissue Culture various environmental factors on photosynthetic Antoine Galiana, D.K.S. Goh, O. Monteuuis parameters, we found that sunflecks may contribute CIRAD-Forêt, Plant Biotechnology Laboratory, Post Box to a larger proportion of leaf carbon gain for tree # 60793, 91017 Tawau, Sabah, Malaysia seedlings in tropical rain forests than in temperate Email: [email protected] evergreen forest species. We also note that the high Keywords: Acacia mangium; Acacia crassicarpa; CO2 concentration in forest floor enhanced leaf Acacia mangium x auriculiformis hybrid; carbon gain of tree seedlings. micropropagation; forest plantations Our results suggest that we need to account for Acacia species, and more specifically Acacia physiological differences between temperate and mangium, have become major plantation tree tropical trees in model predictions of their species in South-East Asia during the last two contributions to leaf carbon gain. We propose a set decades, particularly in Indonesia and Sabah. These of parameters for characterizing the differences in fast-growing species are mostly used for pulp photosynthetic responses between tropical and production but their wood can also be used for temperate trees, which may facilitate model general construction, furniture, particle board as prediction of climate change impacts on the global well as plywood. During the past few years and in carbon budget. the context of an increasing demand of superior plant materials by local forest companies in Sabah, A Correction Coefficient for Dealing with the Plant Biotechnology Laboratory Project has Variation in Sapflow with Position in carried out micropropagation studies on the three Sapwood major plantation species of Acacias: A. mangium, A. Daoqun Zang, C. L. Beadle and D. A. White mangium x auriculiformis hybrid and A. Chinese Academy of Forestry, 100091 Beijing, China crassicarpa. The cloning of superior genotypes is FAX: 86-10-62872015, Email: [email protected] more appropriate in the case of A. crassicarpa Sapflow sensors were used to investigate the compared to A. mangium since the genetic variation of sapflow velocity in the sapwood of variability is known and often observed to be much Eucalyptus globulus. Sapflow velocity was higher within and between progenies in A. measured sequentially at 5 mm intervals across the crassicarpa than in A. mangium. in the case of A. sapwood by moving two probe sets simultaneously mangium x auriculiformis hybrid - that is known to on two opposite radii. A second probe set was have a better growth than the A. mangium pure placed in a fixed position at right angles to the first parent species - vegetative propagation is currently set. Sapflow velocity ratio was defined as the the only way of propagation since propagation by velocity of each moving sensor divided by that of seeds from bi-specific orchards still remains not the static sensor. The ratio at each position was feasible at the present time. Although the constant but varied across the sapwood. The micropropagation method allows the cloning of variation was high and implied a need for large superior adult Acacia genotypes in a shorter time numbers of sensors for accurate determination of than conventional methods of propagation, sapflux. To overcome this necessity, a correction co- especially in the first stages of the long rejuvenation efficient was determined for use in conjunction with process, the combination of both in vitro and a fixed sensor probe set. The coefficient was conventional methods of propagation is the most calculated as a weighted average of the velocity cost-effective and appropriate strategy to be applied ratios obtained with depth in the sapwood. for large-scale afforestation programs. Micropropagation protocols and appropriate culture media were developed for each of the three Acacia species studied. Our tissue-culture experiments were mainly focused on the improvement of the multiplication rate through axillary budding and the in vitro rooting ability of the axillary shoots obtained. The protocols were initially developed

33 Division 2 from juvenile materials (seedlings) and then adapted issuance of rooted cuttings at the nursery level, a to mature genotypes. The in vitro introduction of technique has been developed for the in vitro shoots directly collected from mature trees was propagation of teak. Using the tissue culture shown to be successful since responsive and protocol, it is now possible to select and introduce contaminant-free cultures were obtained on specific any outstanding or "Plus" tree for mass introduction media for all species. The next step multiplication regardless of its age. The technique consisted in defining a suitable methodology for also allowed the germination and multiplication of maintaining selected genotypes under intensive seed lots that are hard to come by or show low micropropagation for long periods of time. The viability in the nursery. Using a sole multiplication rates varied strongly between and multiplication/elongation culture medium with within each of the three species, except for A. minimal hormone addition, an exponential mangium in which no genotype effect was found multiplication rate of 3 to 4 microcuttings per among the clones tested. Conversely, clonal plantlet can be obtained at every six to eight week differences were observed for adventitious rooting cycle. Spontaneous rooting occurs in more than 80% ability in A. mangium and A. crassicarpa but not in of the microcuttings and in the acclimatization the A. mangium x A. auriculiformis clones studied. phase, more than 90% survival is seen. The protocol Overall, A. mangium displayed a weaker potential incorporates the lowest costs possible, simplicity, for in vitro root formation from microshoots than A. and ease of manipulation, thereby making the mangium x A. auriculiformis and A. crassicarpa. Ex propagation of selected teak clones highly feasible. vitro acclimatization of in vitro rooted plantlets in The success of the protocol has so far resulted in the nursery was also less successful for A. mangium transfer of more than 200,000 micro-shoots to the compared to the hybrids (50% and 90% nurseries and subsequently to the field for further respectively). A very low percentage of recovery (5 testing. Genetic materials comprising of fourteen to 10%) was obtained in the preliminary different origins used in various trials are being acclimatization experiments performed on A. maintained in the laboratory and will be used in crassicarpa. future deployments depending upon their field performance. The propagation of clones from such a Prospects of tissue culture for broad genetic base is definitely compulsory for the improving teak plantations the technique to be broadly and effectively Doreen K. S. Goh, Antoine Galiana and Olivier applicable. Monteuuis CIRAD-Forêt, Plant Biotechnology Laboratory, Post Box To date, commercial activity involving the sales of # 60793, 91017 Tawau, Sabah, Malaysia materials to local and overseas planters has been Tel: 60-89-775-328, FAX: 60-89-762-314, Email: undertaken by the project on a small scale. in view [email protected] of the successful results obtained from the transfer Keywords: Tectona grandis; clonal propagation; of plantlets overseas, the use of this technology for tissue culture; teak clones; forest plantations setting up superior quality teak clonal plantations in even more distant countries appears to be very Teak (Tectona grandis) is a high quality timber promising. valued for the attractiveness and durability of its wood. Increasing lack of available natural resources Acknowledgements: The primary author of this has resulted in a step up of reforestation programs paper would like to acknowledge the generous on teak. The conventional means of propagation is support of the International Tropical Timber through the use of seeds. However, this source is Organisation (ITTO) for providing the funding for limited by availability and germinability of seed lots her participation at this Congress" and further, by variability in the growth and performance of the derived plants. Methods through vegetative propagation aiming at the production of improved planting materials have been investigated. The propagation of selected clonal materials is of importance owing to the obvious gains that can be derived in terms of growth yield and superior wood characteristics as well as for traits that confer resistant to pests and diseases. Within the joint project between Innoprise Corporation and CIRAD-Forêt, in addition to the

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Local Biotechnology Project Private Sector Forestry Research - A "Development of micropropagation Success Story from India technology for high quality trees" Piare Lal Katsuaki E. Ishii, Kiyoshi Tazaki ITC Bhadrachalam Paperboards Limited, 106, Sardar Foresty and Forest Products Research Institute, P.O.Box Patel Road, 500 003 Secunderabad, andhra Pradesh, India 16, Norinkenkyudanchi-nai, 305-8687 Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Tel: +91-40-7815962, FAX: +91-40-7842997, Email: Japan [email protected] Tel: 0298-73-3211 ex. 451, FAX: 0298-73-3795, Email: Keywords: Eucalypts, Clone, Productivity, [email protected] Casuarina, Genotype Keywords: Micropropagation; Tissue culture; Larix, Almost the entire 76 million ha recorded forest area Pinus, Quercus, Prunus, Zelkova is owned and managed by the State Governments in The forest biotechnology research project was India. Forestry research, by the State Forest carried out with support from the Forestry Agency Departments and various Forest Research Institutes, of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishery, is mostly funded by the Government. Legislation for Japan from 1986 to 1996. The cooperative research sui generis protection for breeder's rights is still group consists of 18 prefectural research institutes pending, and there is no mechanism for certification (Hokkaido, Akita, Gunma, Saitama, Ishikawa, of seed of forestry species or registration of clones. Aichi, Gifu, Mie, Wakayama, Tottori, Hiroshima, There is no wonder, therefore, that there is little Ehime, Kochi, Fukuoka, Kumamoto, Ohita, incentive for private sector investments in forestry Miyazaki, Kagoshima) and 1 national research research. institute(FFPRI). In this project, proper Despite many constraints, ITC Bhadrachalam has micropropagation techniques were developed for been implementing a major research and Larix hybrid, Cryptomeria japonica, development project since 1989 with a view to Chamaecyparis obtusa, Pinus thunbergii, Pinus improving the productivity and profitability of densiflora, Diospyros kaki, Quercus acutissima, plantations and making farm forestry an attractive Quercus serrata, Quercus phyllyraeoides, Castanea land use option. crenata, Zelkova serrata, Prunus verecunda, Prunus jamasakura, Prunus spachiana forma ascendens, Starting with cloning of 64 candidate plus trees Betula grossa and Melia azedarach. (CPTs) of Eucalyptus tereticornis and Mysore Gum during 1989, more than 500 CPTs have been cloned Mass propagation of Larix hybrid using shoot so far. Based on their comparative performance in primordium liquid culture system and direct rooting field trials, 72 promising, fast growing and disease system of Prunus are prospective newly developed resistant clones, with productivity ranging between techniques for practical application of 12-44 cum/ha/yr. under rainfed conditions, have micropropagation for high quality trees. been identified. Several hybrids have been Micropropagation by axillary shoot culture of developed through controlled pollination between Zelkova serrata has high potential for selected best `Bhadrachalam' clones of E. commercialization because of its high value in the tereticornis and other species of Eucalyptus. Hybrid market. Tissue culture system of a 850 years old seedlings with good heterosis have been cloned. natural monument Prunus tree was developed. These hybrid clones are under field evaluation. Following these successful achievements, new local biotechnology project « Development of preservation and propagation techniques of useful forest resources using biotechnology» has started from 1996. This 8 years long project group consists of 14 prefectural research institutes, 1 private company and 1 national research institute(FFPRI) and is supported financially by the Forestry Agency, Japan.

35 Division 2 sheets misted three times per day. After 3-4 weeks In vitro propagation, a viable alternative the plantlets were transplanted singly in for the continuous supply of planting polyethylene bags containing sand, soil and compost material for recalcitrant tropical forest (1:1:1) and kept under indirect sunlight. After 8-10 trees months they were transplanted in the open field Shyamal K. Roy where 70-85% plants survived. The technique is Department of Botany, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, feasible as viable alternative for the continuous Bangladesh supply of planting material for recalcitrant trees as Tel: 880-2-7708478 436. Fax: 880-2-7708383. E-mail: well as for the conservation of forest gene resources. [email protected] 2.02.00 / 2.08.00 Future of breeding and Key words: tropical trees; in vitro propagation; plantations in a sustainability-oriented acclimatisation; plantation. world Natural regeneration of forest trees is poor because of sporadic seed production and most of the species Dynamics of nutrient budgets during produce recalcitrant seeds that are intolerant to coniferous plantation development: desiccation, so that their genetic diversity can not be Interest for sustainable management preserved in conventional seed banks. Concerted recommendations efforts must therefore be made to evolve methods Etienne Dambrine, Jacques Ranger, Marie-Pierre for mass multiplication of forest trees, their Turpault, D. Gelhaye, B. Pollier conservation and cloning of superior genotypes for INRA Nancy, Seichamps, 54280 Seichamps, France use in tree improvement programme. During the last Tel: 00 33 3 83 39 40 71, FAX: 00 33 3 83 39 40 69, decade, significant progress has been made in the Email: [email protected] propagation of fruit and forest trees through in vitro This paper aims at (1) showing the nead of culture technology. For clonal mass propagation, chronosequence studies in forest ecosystems; (2) through in vitro culture, from shoot tip and nodal presenting contrasted situations of nutrient budgets explants of mature trees, we have established calculated for representative coniferous plantations protocols for some tropical trees e.g. Artocarpus from France, semi-extensively managed, where heterophyllus, Artocarpus chaplasha, Azadirachta risks of soil nutrient depletion linked to silviculture indica, Gmelina arborea and Elaeocarpus robustus. is high; (3) discuss the causes for contrasting results; Small twigs were collected in spring season from (4) Evaluate the sustainability of different forest coppiced branches of selected trees and protocols management scenarios. have been established for their mass clonal propagation. The techniques consisted of four major Material and methods steps. 1. Establishment of in vitro cultures from Two chronosequences of three stands were used to rejuvenated tissues, 2. Induction of multiple shoots study the dynamics of nutrient budgets. Input-output from individual explants, 3. Rooting and 4. nutrient budgets were calculated as: Total Acclimatisation. For culture establishment, atmospherical deposition + Release of nutrients multiplication and rooting Murashige and Skoog’s from soil mineral weathering- Biomass removal - (MS) nutrient medium was used. Explants of Deep drainage. different species showed different responses when cultured on MS medium supplemented with various The sites: i) Aubure (Vosges) is a chronosequence concentrations and combinations of cytokinin, of three stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies auxins, casein hydrolysate and coconut milk. Karst.) 20-, 40- and 90-year old, planted on acid Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) was required to sandy soils developped from a leuco-granite. The overcome the effects of phenolic compounds elevation is 1100 m, rainfall 1500 mm and mean secreted from the explants. Depending on species, annual temperature 6•C. Stands are Mg and Ca 65-85% cultures produced shoots. For multiplication deficient. ii) Vauxrenard (Beaujolais) is a newly formed shoots were subcultured to fresh chronosquence of three stands of Douglas-fir medium designed for each plant species, and 15-20 (PseudoTsuga menziesii Franco), 25-, 45- and 65- shoots per subculture were obtained through several year old, planted on an acidic and desaturated soil, subcultures. Well developed shoots were rooted by previously cultivated, developped from a rather rich implanting them on root induction medium. For volcanic tuff. The site elevation is about 750 m, acclimatisation four to six-week-old regenerants mean annual rainfall 1000 mm and mean annual were transplanted into sterilized soil and compost temperature 7•C. The stand mineral supply is (1:1) and covered with transparent polyethylene correct.

36 Division 2

Results and discussion Tree breeding and Plantations in Aubure: The mean annual nutrient budget is Europe: a regional situation report negative for all elements, and the nutrient budgets Jochen Kleinschmit calculated for the three development stages (three Niedersächsische Forstliche Versuchsanstalt, Abt. C - stands) are also always negative. in the young Forstpflanzenzüchtung/Waldgenressourcen, Forstamtstr. stands, the budget deficits are link to the high 6, D-34355 Staufenberg OT Escherode, Germany biomass incorporation and drainage losses are low. Tel: +49 5543 9408 0/ 9408 10, FAX: +49 5543 9408 61, in the older stand, the deficit is similar but mainly Email: [email protected] linked to drainage as biomass incorporation is low As a reaction to the more and more artificial in this declining stand. Norway spruce planted on a environment of humans and some bad experiences very poor soil, acidified by atmospheric deposition with human impact on nature there exists an take advantage of soil nutrients during the young increasing scepticism against manipulation of nature stages of stand development, but its nutrient status in the European society. This scepticism is not progressively decrease in relation to the its shallow restricted to the public but can be found in the rooting, and drainage losses increase. forestry society as well. Often non reflected Vauxrenard: The mean annual nutrient budget is comments like: “natural regeneration is always strongly negative for all elements, but the deficits of better than plantation” or “tree breeding is against the budgets decrease with stand-age to become more nature” can be heard. As soon as such ideas and or less nil in the older stand (apart for Ca which is feelings become more general, they have always few negative in the 60-year old stand). The implications on funding. deficit is strongly link to drainage losses which were With the assistance of colleges from 25 European attributed to two factors: i) the Douglas-fir is not the countries the situation of tree breeding and tree native vegetation for the site and a new organic plantations in Europe was evaluated. The results are matter equilibrium is going on and ii) the previous presented in the first part oft the paper. land occupation by agriculture induced a high nitrifying activity which cannot be compensated by Tree breeding is regarded as important in nearly all nitrate uptake by Douglas-fir. The over-loading of European countries. The main emphasis of tree breeding is on pine and spruce, followed by oak, NO3-N induced a strong excedent of protons leading to cation losses associated with the mobile nitrate. poplar, larch, ash, Douglas fir and wild cherry. Atmospherical deposits increase the phenomenon Altogether 25 tree species are included into breeding but is not the main driving force. activities. Seed orchard establishment ranges before testing of stands and clonal propagation. Medium Sylvicultural consequences of these contrasting intensity tree breeding is prevailing and only in situations are: at Aubure, the nutrient budget is three countries aggressive tree breeding is done. always negative, indicating that there is no There is a higher concern about forest tree breeding management possibility other than liming and among foresters than in the public. Since only 40 % fertilization to restore the soil quality. At of the tree breeding programs are on a secure Vauxrenard, the nutrient budget tend to be financial base, this must have implications on equilibrate for rotation length longer than 60 years funding. and a biomass harvest limited to stem (with bark), indicating that the soil fertility would stabilize for a Natural regeneration plays a very different role in rotation time longer than 80 yrs. the different countries, ranging from zero to 85 %. Afforestation of marginal farmlands plays an Conclusion important role in most of the European countries Nutrient budgets are dynamic, therefore with a total annual surface of slightly above 200.000 chronosequences studies are needed to evaluate hectares. There exists a trend to favour close to forest sustainability. Soil fertility may or may not nature forest management. in competition situations stabilize when increase the rotation length, protection of nature is mostly favoured in funding as depending on soil type, pollution climate, previous compared to tree breeding. in spite of this the land use and stand adaptation to site conditions. climate towards forest tree breeding is neutral or supportive more than hostile. The last situation occurs only in three countries. in the majority of the countries tree breeding is handling the conservation of forest genetic resources as well. Therefore tree breeding programs take into

37 Division 2 consideration the conservation as an integral part of With additional improvements in quality traits (stem the programs. straightness and wood quality), the realized genetic gains in value should be much greater. A majority of the colleges (16 out of 25) think that a self - imposed ethical code how to use improved Plantation forestry is generally acceptable by public material would be useful or necessary. This is in the southern U.S. because tree planting has been a especially true for the use of genetically modified common practice since 1930 in the region. Forest organisms. planting, harvest, and manufacture of forest products provided greater economic returns to the In a second part the rationale basis for the field of land and more employment opportunities in the tree improvement in Europe is outlined. Lines of region. About 90% of forest land are owned by compromise to solve the conflicting situation private land owners and forest industries, and only between future need for wood as a raw material and 10% are in public ownership. Furthermore, short protection of biodiversity are discussed, e.g. how far rotation of pine plantations, good management a certain area of intensive plantations with practices for environmentally sensitive areas, genetically improved material could help to limitation on harvesting area, and other self- conserve natural forests. imposed regulations have all contributed to the public acceptance of plantation forestry. Research Situation and results of breeding and demonstration and public education are also plantation forestry in the American important for people to understand that intensively Southeast managed plantations are the most effective Bailian Li strategies to meet future demands of wood products North Carolina State University, Tree Improvement without increasing pressures on old-growth and Program, Department of Forestry, 27695-8002 Raleigh, ecologically sensitive forests. Improved wood USA Email: [email protected] production on limited commercial lands will reduce the logging pressures on natural forests. By Forest genetics and tree breeding have made increasing wood production per hectare in significant contributions to forest productivity and plantations, rather than by managing more hectares plantation programs over the last 50 years in the of forest, genetics, in combination with intensive southern U.S., where forests comprise more than silviculture, can and will provide better 50% of the land cover and supply 53% of the timber opportunities for the use of natural forests and forest harvested in the U.S. The southern pines are the lands for conservation and recreational purposes. most commonly planted species, with about 11 Results from two-cycles of loblolly pine breeding million hectares in plantations. The South plants strongly suggest that high-yield plantations by approximately 1.2 billion seedlings annually, 80% genetic improvement can contribute significantly to of which are loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) seedlings the conservation and recreational purposes. Results and 20% are slash pine (Pinus elliotti var elliottii from two-cycles of loblolly pine breeding strongly Engelm.) seedlings, and virtually all planting stocks suggest that high-yield plantations by genetic are genetically improved seedlings from seed improvement can contribute significantly to the orchards. Productivity improvement from forest conservation and sustained use of forest resources. genetics has helped to provide a reliable, ecologically sustainable, and economically Introduction and Conclusions of the affordable supply of wood. The N.C. State Beijing consultation 1998 University-Industry Cooperative Tree Improvement Csaba Matyas Program has completed 44 years of genetic West Hungarian University, Institute of Environmental improvement for loblolly pine in the southern U.S. Sciences, PO Box 132, 9401 Sopron, Hungary The impact of the tree improvement on forest Tel: +36 99 518 395, FAX: +36 99 329 840, Email: productivity has been substantial through the two [email protected] cycles of breeding, testing and selection. Trees The future contribution of forest genetics to grown from seeds of first-generation seed orchards sustained management of global forest resources have produced 7-12% more volume per acre at was the subject of a Division 2 consultation held in harvest than trees grown from wild seed. Genetic Beijing, China, 22-29 August 1998. The objective gains from second-generation seed orchards over the was to reach a consensus on directions and priorities first-generation are estimated 14-23% additional for for research in forest genetics and tree improvement rogued seed orchards. Genetically improved stock at a time when critical financial support for long- has also lower infection from fusiform rust, term tree improvement research has declined while typically 20%-25% below the unimproved seedlots.

38 Division 2 worldwide demand for wood and fiber production is continuously increasing. in setting priorities, it was Global Situation of Forest Tree recognized that a balance will be needed between Breeding: An Overview long-term genetic improvement research and short- Eric Teissier du Cros term research focused on the new technologies. Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique - INRA, A major research focus will be the genetic Unit‚ de Recherches Forestieres Mediterranenne Avenue Vivaldi, 84000 Avignon, France background of the adaptive potential of forest trees. Tel: +33 4 90 13 59 11, FAX: +33 4 90 13 59 59, Email: This will require the testing of phenotypic [email protected] variability and plasticity in trees over time in diverse and changing environments, using suitable process- The first known document on tree breeding is dated related markers. Research on genetic diversity 1749 by the Marine command concerning choice of should be integrated with research on forest seed source for Quercus robur (pedunculate oak) ecosystems and conservation of genetic resources, grown for ship construction. Since then many steps particularly in relation to expected global have been made in the management of forest gene environmental change. More information will be resources. needed on the genetic consequences of mode of Forest genetics include two major and reproduction, breeding and gene flow mechanisms complementary topics: forest tree and population structure and size. improvement/breeding which aims at providing There is evidence that properly managed breeding forest reproductive material (provenances, seed can maintain or even increase genetic variation orchards, clones) to users, and forest genetics which relative to natural populations and at the same time refers to the science bringing basic information for maximize wood production and reduce the logging breeding and gene conservation. Tree breeding is pressure on natural forests. in breeding and gene based on two fundamental prerequisites: variability conservation research, the order of priority should and heritability. be (1) species of current high socioeconomic value; Variability studies among and within species started (2) species with clear potential or future value and 150 years ago and have reached full expansion (3) species of currently unknown value. Gene during the second half of the 20th Century. For conservation must be part of silviculture in managed certain species and in several parts of the world this natural forests. New information will be needed of basic effort still needs to be done with a very simple the effects of different forest interventions on idea in mind: choosing the right provenance reduces adaptive genetic variability in forest ecosystems loss due to abiotic and biotic factors, and may varying from mature natural stands to fiber farms. provide as much as 30% gain in volume production. In view of future demand for forest products, tree Advanced breeding based on detailed knowledge on improvement will continue to be a key factor in trait heritability and other genetic parameters may sustainable forest development. However, it will be double or triple this figure. Selection and necessary to demonstrate to the forest constituency improvement traits are usually classified in 4 and the general public that wise management of groups: adaptation to abiotic factors, resistance to forest resources with a strong focus on genetic biotic factors, growth and yield, and quality. improvement is fully compatible with genetic According to species use and growing conditions in conservation, and that it is an integral part of the each region, the right strategy and the right traits overall maintenance and enhancement of biological have to be chosen. diversity. Tree improvement research deserves long The opposition to exotics and genetic improvement term commitment by the public sector in in parts of the " western " world should not be cooperation with private agencies, supported in generalised. Forest tree improvement has a long way developing countries by international and non- to go. However the decreasing public financial governmental agencies. effort devoted to classical breeding should be channelled and gradually replaced by private recurrent funding or long term contracting with national agencies. Regional networking is suggested whenever common efforts are possible. Classical breeding should not be opposed to biotechnologies. Both are needed and are interactive, particularly on advanced breeding schemes.

39 Division 2 2.02.00 / 2.08.00 Genetic variation Gene Flow within and among Diallel Crossing in Pinus cembra: II Populations: A Review of Methods and Analysis of Genetic Variation at the Results from Temperate and Tropical Nursery Stage Forest Trees Ioan Blada Reiner Finkeldey Forest Research Institute, Sos. Stefanesti, 128, 11 Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Landscape Bucharest, Romania Research, Zürcherstrasse 111, CH-8903 Birmensdorf, FAX: 40.1.240 68 45, Email: [email protected] Switzerland A 10 x 10 full diallel was made in a native FAX: +41 - 1 - 739 22 15, Email: [email protected] population of stone pine (Pinus cembra L.) from high elevation, to provide information on the genetic Gene flow is a key determinant for the distribution variation and inheritance of important breeding of genetic variation within and among populations traits. in October 1991, seeds were sown in and thus of outstanding interest both for population individual polyethylene pots, in spruce humus. The geneticists and managers of forest (genetic) families, including self-pollinated parents and a resources. Gene flow of plants is mainly mediated mixed open-pollinated control, were arranged in a by the transport of pollen and seeds. Forest trees randomized complet block design with four species use a great variety of vectors for the replications and 12 seedlings per plot. Fifteen traits transport of their genes and consequently differ were measured during nursery testing. in addition, widely with regard to their systems of gene flow. weight of 100 seeds and the cotyledon number were Experimental efforts to study gene flow in forest assessed prior and after sowing, respectively. trees have concentrated on the distribution of genes Computer analysis of a balanced modified full through pollen; much less is known about gene flow diallel using the SAS program produced the results mediated by seeds. presented below. The most important result was that Gene markers are the main tools to directly study significant (p<0.05) and highly significant (p<0.01; gene flow and its effect on the genetic structures of p<0.001) differences occurred in all 17 traits for populations. Most marker-based studies general and specific combining ability as well for simultaneously investigate aspects of gene flow via reciprocal effects. Maternal effects were significant pollen and the mating system of tree populations in 13 traits, including diameter and total height. This since both elements of the genetic system of a suggests that the traits are controlled by nuclear species are closely interrelated. Uniparentally (additive and non-additive) and extranuclear genes, inherited markers are powerful tools to study gene and by nuclear x extranuclear gene interactions. flow on a large geographic scale. Biparentally Additive and non-additive genetic variances inherited markers are mainly suitable to study gene accounted for 25% and 27% for total height at age flow within populations but are also widely applied six and 14% and 22% for root collar diameter at the to estimate gene flow parameters such as the same age. These figures indicate that both variances number of migrants among populations (Nm). were important for growth traits within the tested Moderately variable, biparentally inherited gene population. Parents were found with significant markers like isoenzymes can be used in order to general combining effects for growth and other estimate and compare frequency distributions of traits. Narrow-sense heritability estimates at family marker alleles in the pollen clouds of single seed level varied between 0.150 to 0.675 for cotyledon trees. Major shortcomings of frequently used number and lamma shoots, respectively with 0.453 methods to study gene flow and mating system for total height at age six (H.6). By selecting the parameters are a limited variability of marker loci best 10 to 40 families, a genetic gain in H.6 of and the violation of model assumptions made in 10.6% to 5.5% could be achieved. An extra genetic order to estimate crucial parameters. gain could be also made by individual within family selection. The improvement of growth by using both Most studies on gene flow have been conducted on additive and non-additive gene effects should be temperate, wind-pollinated tree species. Results possible. from experiments in closed forests dominated by a single conifer species indicate that pollen of single trees is mainly effective within a distance of less than 100 meters. However, this still implies that hundreds of trees may contribute to the genetic effective pollen cloud of single seed trees as suggested by the homogeneity of pollen allele

40 Division 2 frequencies in plantations of Norway spruce (Picea growth (summer shoots) and contribution of each abies). The importance of long-distance pollen one to the annual height increment was measured. transport over many kilometres has been Shoot traits of six (ages 7 to 12) consecutive ages demonstrated for spatially isolated clonal seed were regressed on growth traits at ages 13 and 17 at orchards mainly in Scandinavia. the same site and at age 18 at another site. Most tree species are zoogamous and occur in low Populations and families did not differ in fixed density in tropical forests. Much less is known about growth, but they varied in their free growth and in their systems of gene flow, although experimental number of flushes except age 10 (significance level research on these species has intensified during the ranged from 0.042 to 0.001). Middle elevation past decade. Results from high-density populations populations of the species range had greater annual of teak (Tectona grandis) indicate that pollen height increment and free growth cycles than the movement is mainly confined to near neighbours for populations from distal part of range. Second and this insect-pollinated species in northern Thailand. later free growth cycles were the major cause of the Pterocarpus indicus occurs in medium to low annual height growth differences among and within density in tropical forests of Southeast-Asia. An populations. This was also supported by significant investigation of a population on Luzon revealed correlations between free growth observed at early considerable amounts of effective pollen movement ages and height growth at age 17. The coefficients over distances of several hundred meters. ranged from 0.32 to 0.45. Comparable results were also reported for several Linear regression models using the free growth as trees species of the new world tropics. Pollination explanatory variables at ages 7 and 12 and fixed by animals turns out to be a very efficient growth at age 12 explained 84% of the variation in mechanism to ensure efficient gene flow and height growth at age 13. Whereas number of flushes outcrossing even for species typically occurring in observed at ages 7 to 12 at one site explained 26% low density. of the height growth at age 18 at another site. Efficient gene flow promotes genetic variation Populations and families from the low and high within the offspring generation but results in elevation range had more conservative growth decreased genetic differentiation among strategy, which is characterized by less free growth subpopulations. Thus, gene flow enhances the and less flushing, but mainly depending on the fixed evolutionary adaptive potential of populations but growth. Favorable environment in the middle tends to decrease the opportunities for the elevation range of the species may have favored maintenance of local adaptations. It is suggested that genotypes with opportunistic growth strategy, future research interprets gene flow as a crucial making more free growth. Free growth cycles can be aspect of the adaptive system of forest tree species, used to screen fast growing genotypes as they have concentrates on endangered, mainly tropical species an opportunistic growth strategy. in contrast, and takes into consideration the importance of gene genotypes showing more conservative shoot growth flow through seeds. pattern may be favored for poor and extreme sites, as they have evolved to avoid frost in higher Using Shoot Growth Patterns to Select elevations and drought in coastal regions. The Desired Genotypes and understanding differences in shoot growth pattern of the species adaptation of Pinus brutia reflect its adaptation to a wide range of Fikret Isik, Kani Isik, Tolga Yildirim and Bailian Li environments, suggesting that shoot growth patterns Southwest Anatolia Forest Research Institute, Post Box # should be considered when gene conservation 264, Antalya, Turkey strategies are developed. FAX: +90-242-345 0442, Email: fikret- [email protected] Shoot elongation patterns of Pinus brutia have been studied, with the objectives of (i) further understanding the adaptation mechanisms of species, (ii) to aid better selection of desired genotypes and (iii) accelerating the breeding programs. Six natural populations each of ten open- pollinated families were sampled. Data were collected from a provenance-progeny trial destructively. Annual height increment was partitioned to fixed growth (spring shoot) and free

41 Division 2 pollinated cones in the average number of sound Inbreeding owing to isolation restricts seeds per cone. in cross-pollination, the number of regeneration in a vulnerable species sound seeds per cone was not different among four growing on isolated small islands in trees used as a male. This indicates that coefficient Japan of relationship among individuals is not so high that Kiyoshi Nakashima, Ayako Kanazashi it affects seed quality. Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, PB # 16, As many trees of this species have already Norin Kenkyu Danchi-naiTsukuba, 305 Ibaraki, Japan disappeared by felling or insect damage and most of Tel: +81-298-73-3211, FAX: +81-298-73-1541, Email: them are isolated in this island, it is hard for female [email protected] strobiles to get enough pollen from others naturally. The effects of inbreeding, owing to isolation and From results obtained in our experiments, it is small population size, on regeneration of a necessary to improve seed quality by controlled vulnerable tree species Pinus armandii Fr. var pollination and to grow seedlings from those seeds amamiana (Koidz.) Hatusima in Japan were studied to assist the conservation of this vulnerable species. in relation to gene conservation. Wind-pollinated cones were collected from 11 trees growing on two Factorial crossing design in Picea abies isolated islands, Tanegashima and Yakushima, and L.: genetic variation in dry matter mature seeds and undeveloped ovules were distribution between components in full- extracted from each cone. The average number of sib families seeds and ovules per cone was 20.4 and 64.0, Gheorghe Parnuta respectively. The content of seeds were investigated Forest Research Institute, Sos. Stefanesti 128, Ro-72904 by using soft X-ray photography and were classified Bucharest, Romania into sound seeds with normal embryo, unsound FAX: +401 240 68 45; + 401 240 60 95, Email: seeds with abnormal embryo or endosperm, and [email protected] empty seeds with no embryo. The percentages of Keywords: Picea abies, narrow and normal crown, unsound and empty seeds were 1.7% and 83.8% hybrid, heterosis, combining ability, dry matter. respectively, but that of sound seeds was only 14.5%. Four selected parents of each of two narrow and normal - crowned Picea abies L. were used in two The seeds were sown in a growth chamber under separate factorial mating designs. The research was controlled condition and the number of normal performed to asses the genetic variation within an seedlings and mutant seedlings as well as survival between the two groups of hybrids. Nine traits were rates were investigated. Germination rate was only measured at age 4, as follows: total length of stem 3.9% for all mature seeds and 0.2% for sound seeds (TLS), total number of branches (TNB), length of with embryo on the average. Abnormal seedlings leader root (LLR), total number of roots (TNR), with yellow or white needles and morphological total dry matter: of stem (TDMS), of branches mutants appeared frequently, but some of them (TDMB), of needles (TDMN), of roots (TDMR), disappeared within a few weeks after germination. and dry matter of total seedling (DMTS). These results indicate that small populations and isolation of individuals reduce the chance of Factorial analysis produced the results presented outbreeding and increase the frequency of below: ANOVA indicated highly significant inbreeding. Controlled pollination was applied to (p<0.01; p<0.001) differences among female effects restore seed quality and to confirm the effects of for TDMS, TDMB, TDMN, TDMR and DMTS for inbreeding and outbreeding on regeneration. Eight narrow x normal crowned hybrid and no significant trees were selected and four of them were used as for any trait in normal x narrow crowned hybrid. female trees and the others as male trees. Cross- Differences among male effect were significant pollination was carried out between islands, (p<0.05) for DMTS and highly significant (p< 0.01) between isolated trees growing on the same island for TDMB and TDMN in narrow x normal crowned and between trees growing within a small area. Self- hybrid and significant (p<0.05) for TDMS and pollination was also carried out on trees with a lot of TDMN in reciprocal hybrid. Male x female male and female strobiles. Mature cones cross-, self- interaction effects were significant (p< 0.05) only and wind-pollinated were collected from those trees. for TDMB in narrow x normal crowned hybrid. Many sound seeds were obtained from cross- Positive significant (p<0.05; p<0.01; p<0.001) g c a pollinated cones; 10.1 times as many as that from effects were founded in the female parents for all wind-pollinated ones. However, no distinct traits in narrow x normal crowned hybrid and no difference was found between self- and wind- significant in normal x narrow crown hybrid. No

42 Division 2 significant s c a genetic effects were found in both genetic juvenile-mature correlation and sufficiently types of hybrid families. large breeding population size are required. Both high - and mid - parent heterosis were negative 2.02.00 / 2.08.00 Genetic improvement for all traits in narrow x normal crowned hybrid but positive for all but one traits (TNR) in normal x narrow crowned hybrid. Highly significant Hybridization dynamics between two phenotipical correlation were found between TDMS southern beeches (Nothofagus spp.). on one hand, and TDMB, TDMN, TDMR and L. Gallo, P. Marchelli and P. Crego INTA, Forest Genetics Unit, E.E.A. Bariloche, C.C. 277, DMTS on the other hand in narrow x normal 8400 Bariloche, Argentina crowned hybrid but in reciprocal hybrid the TDMS FAX: +54 (2944) 424 991, Email: was significantly correlated with TDMN only. Also [email protected] highly significant correlation were found between TDMN and TDMR and between TDMR and DMTS The occurrence of natural hybridisation between in narrow x normal crowned hybrid and forest tree species increases the genetic variation of insignificant correlation in reciprocal hybrid. The the ecosystem and therefore must be taken into dry matter of all seedling components was greater in account in the management and use of its genetic normal x narrow crowned hybrid than in reciprocal resources. Hybridisation dynamic constitutes an one. evolutive process from which less has been experimentally proved because of the difficulty for Optimum Breeding Generation Interval the unequivocal determination of species specific gene markers. The fulfilment of the prerequisites for Considering Build-up of Relatedness the origin of inter-specific hybrids (e.g. contact of Wei Run-Peng, Dag Lindgren the species involved, overlapping of flowering dates University of Alberta, Department of Renewable Resources, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada and cross-compatibility) takes place between two Email: [email protected] southern beeches (Nothofagus nervosa and N. obliqua) in the template Subantarctic forest of A key problem in forest tree breeding is at what age southern South America. Morphological (leaves selections should be made to maximize genetic margin and vein pilosity), phenological and growth progress. Conventional treatment of optimizing traits and allozymic heterocigosity showed the first generation interval may take e.g. age-age genetic significant evidences of hybridisation in two years correlation, breeding time lag, cost and investment old seedlings of free pollinated families of N. interest rate into account. nervosa. Hybridisation rates varied between 0 and One among the most important disadvantages with 80 % among families and differ also among years. short generation interval is the build-up of Most of the juvenile (up to three years old) hybrid relatedness at each generation turn-over. in the individuals showed also a significantly higher present study this is taken into account. The genetic growth rate than that of the "pure" half-sibs. progress is formulated as group merit, which is a Through the utilisation of three allozymic gene weighted average of gene diversity (group markers a mainly unidirectional hybridisation (N. coancestry is average coancestry and also loss in nervosa x N. obliqua) was found. The gene diversity) and breeding value. Group merit autofecundation rate was estimated in about 6 %. in progress per year can be compared over a range of the first analysis of the families two gene loci (Adh selection ages, and optimum selection age can thus and Pgi) appeared to have species specific alleles be identified. Hypothetical and real materials were with fixation in monocigous state for each species. used to demonstrate the effects of relatedness as An additional analysis of adult trees was done in well as its interaction with other factors on different populations of the natural forest in order to generation interval. Relatedness and breeding time confirm the allele specificity found in the seedlings. lag increased optimum selection age while strong Hundred trees of each species were analysed in pure age-age genetic correlation and large breeding isolated populations where the gene flow from the population size favored early selection. Optimal other species could be considered as less unlikely. selection age increased as the weight for relatedness The specificity and fixation of the marker alleles increased (equivalently gene diversity become more was confirmed. in the sympatric zone around 180 important). Consideration of relatedness may individuals, 100 from each species were also increase the optimum selection age compared to analysed. The genetic inventory confirmed the many suggestions in literature. in order to reduce heterocigous pattern of the hybrids which appeared risks of inefficient early selection, a reasonable high in about 7 % of the cases.. More than 95 % of the hybrids were masked in N. obliqua phenotypes from

43 Division 2 which only one third were previously suspected to had, on average, lower frequencies of frost damage be hybrids based on their bark morphology. The and ramicorns than the other populations and the proportion of hybrids in the analysed open plustree progenies. Spruces from Belorussian pollinated families was bigger than that found in the populations are characterised by late budburst, thus adult trees of the natural forest suggesting the they are more resistant to early summer frosts. occurrence of natural selection against them. The However, they are likely to set bud and harden later speciation process between these two southern in the summer than spruces of central Swedish beeches is likely to be taking place in the last phases origin. At one particular occasion with an early of pre- and post-cigotic incompatibilities. autumn frost, Belorussian spruces were more damaged than any other test sort. Plustree progenies Norway spruce breeding for growth and were least damaged also at this occasion. adaptedness The lower autumn-frost hardiness in seed-orchard Mats Hannerz material previously observed in one-year-old The Forestry Research Institute of Sweden (SkogForsk), seedlings is not reflected in overall damage level for S-751 83 Uppsala, Sweden the field-grown trees. The explanation might either Tel: +46-18-188554, FAX: +46-18-188600, Email: [email protected] be that one-year-old seed-orchard seedlings show temporary effects of e.g. improved seed physiology, Sustainable forest tree breeding requires that or that autumn-frost hardiness is not relevant for improvement in one aspect does not lead to climate-induced damage in the field in southern and deteriorated performance in other aspects. in a long- central Sweden. The observation from the single term perspective, it is crucial that the breeding occasion with an early-autumn frost argues for that considers adaptive traits along with other economic the effects are temporary. Thus, the results indicate traits such as growth or timber quality. Previous that both growth and overall adaptedness to climate experiments in Sweden with one-year-old Norway are improved in the selected families. spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) seedlings indicate that progenies from improved seed orchards are The Slovenian Forest Gene Bank more prone to early-autumn frost damage than Hojka Kraigher, Gregor Bozic, Saso Zitnik progenies from unselected natural populations of the Slovenian Forestry Institute, Slovenia same geographic origin. The purpose of this study FAX: +386 61 273 589, Email: [email protected] was to investigate if improved and unselected Forests cover 53% of Slovenia with the total material differs in level of climate-related damage 3 also after several years in the field, and how this growing stock of 208.5 million (106) m . difference is related to the differences in growth. Sustainable management of forests on the basis of their multiple functions and co-natural orientation of We compared growth and adaptive traits in forest management have long tradition, due to the progenies from phenotypically selected plustrees, large Karst area, in which already 400 years ago no allocated as grafts in seed orchards, and from natural clearcutting could be allowed as it would have populations of Norway spruce. The study comprised resulted in degradation and erosion of deforested six field trials located in central Sweden. Subsets of land. The regulatory framework for the protection up to 114 open-pollinated families from plustrees, and management of forests in Slovenia is based on originating from central Sweden, were compared the Forest Act from 1993. It determines the with 18 natural populations from Sweden, the Baltic protection, silviculture, exploitation and use of states and Belorussia. The trees were 9-14 years old forests as renewable natural resources with the aim when measured. Plustree progenies were 11 to 28% of ensuring their co-natural and multi-purpose taller when compared with unimproved populations management in accordance with the principles of from the same geographic area. The plustree protection of the environment and natural values, progenies had lower frequencies of climate-related long term and optimal functioning of forest damage such as ramicorns, doublestems and frost ecosystems, enabling all their functions. The basis damage in all of the field trials. Family-mean for forest management are programmes of correlations were negative between damage development of the Slovenian forests, forest frequency and height, i.e. tall families were more management plans and detailed silvicultural plans. free from damage. Transfer of populations from According to the Slovenian Forest Act from 1993 all south to north resulted in increased growth forests are managed in a co-natural way, which can compared to that of local populations. The best be classified as Category VI of the IUCN populations, from Belorussia, were almost as high management categories: 'protected area managed as the plustree progenies. Belorussian populations mainly for the sustainable use of natural

44 Division 2 ecosystems'. From these special protection is given variety of end products. The wood properties which to the Forest Reserves (10% of all forest areas in affect end product quality vary from one product to Slovenia, IUCN category I). Most forest stands are another, and relationships between wood properties regenerated naturally, only 1/10 th are regenerated and adaptation, growth and form traits are variable. by nursery seedling material, while seeds are mostly Tree breeding takes many years, while industrial collected from yearly re-acknowledged seed stands. processes change rapidly. It is therefore difficult to Therefore no special attention is given to ex situ define selection objectives for wood properties that conservation of forest genetic resources in Slovenia. are general and constant over time. in this context, A limited number of seed orchards have been the main reason for incorporating wood traits in tree established in Slovenia about 15 to 30 years ago. breeding programs should be to avoid unfavourable These seed orchards are not used for seed correlated responses in wood properties when production and their future is questionable. selecting for improved adaptation, growth and form. International provenance tests have been established Computing genetic gains for wood properties is not for silver fir on 4 research plots, for Douglas fir, for a priority. Instead, estimates should be made of the Austrian pine (9+8 provenances) and for beech (31 co-variation of wood properties with the adaptation, provenances). Tests of offsprings were established growth and form traits that are the main concern in for Norway spruce with 10 provenances. S small breeding programs. Wood density is widely living archive of Slovenian clones of poplars exists regarded as a key trait in determining wood quality, at the Institute's grounds. The forest seed bank and when measured on a fine scale it is strongly comprises predominantly Norway spruce seed correlated with the properties of many end products. accessions. The main part of the Slovenian Forest Wood density is generally more highly heritable Gene Bank is represented by the seed stands. The than growth traits, but the genetic variation of wood register includes 409 active seed stands, covering density is low and it is sometimes unfavourably 2313 ha. of these 271 (1821.8 ha) are conifers, 138 correlated with growth and adaptation traits. The (491.1 ha) are broadleaf seed stands. Yearly control most comprehensive data on wood density are of the seed stands, where seed collection is computed from microdensity profiles. Progress in supposed to take place is the main task by staff from computer science has made possible the utilisation the Slovenian Forestry Institute, while revisions are of statistical and modelling tools for more efficient made every ten years. The main concerns in the last use of these data. in this context, we propose few years are linked to preparation of new original methods, in order to: 1) study the volume legislation (according to EU directives & OECD growth - wood density relationship, 2) increase scheme), preparation of the Central Information description efficiency of within-ring density models, Data-Bank on the Slovenian Forest Gene Bank, and 3) measure within-tree density heterogeneity which will be available through the INTERNET and from density profiles. Results show that there is a linked to the geographical maps, and to revisions of significant clonal effect on the ring density and ring the regions of provenances in comparison to seed width relationship. This clonal effect is very strong units (based on phytocenological associations, for Douglas-fir and much smaller for Norway altitude and ground rock types) and with respect to spruce. This result suggests that there are selection the newly established tests of offsprings. possibilities at the ring level for Douglas-fir for genetic entries (clones) combining quite fast growth Incorporating Wood Density in Breeding and high wood density. But for Norway spruce, Programs for Softwoods in Europe there is a need for finer studies at the within-ring Philippe Rozenberg, Alain Franc, Christine Cahalan level. Such studies raise the question of the INRA, Station d'Amelioration, Genetique et Physiologie cambium reaction to within-growing-season Forestieres, 45166 Olivet Cedex, BP 20619 Ardon, climatic events: is there genetic variation for the tree France reaction to, for example, climatic stresses? What is Tel: +33 (0)2 38 41 78 73, FAX: +33 (0)2 38 41 78 79, the consequence of such a genetic variation on basic Email: [email protected] wood properties? It is possible to simply and In European forests rotations are getting shorter, the objectively describe homogeneity of wood density. proportion of juvenile wood in the stem of harvested There is a highly significant clonal variation for trees is increasing, and the quality of European most of the homogeneity traits. Furthermore, very softwood is decreasing. One way to compensate for high individual and clonal coefficient of variation this is to genetically improve wood properties, let expect high genetic gain when selection is especially those of the juvenile core. conducted on these traits. In many European countries, wood collected from a given stand and even a given tree may be used for a

45 Division 2 and Pch suitable for inland mountain areas with The Domestication of Acacia mangium better provenance from Poptun. However, in Leizou M. N. Salleh Peninsula, where the tip moth is severe, Pcb (better Technology Park, TropBio Research Sdn Bhd, Level 2; provenances from Abaco and New Providence) and Enterprise 2, 57000 Bukit, Malaysia Pcc are better than Pch. FAX: 603-9682888, Email: [email protected] An extensive population genetic study on natural Acacia mangium has in the past 20 years become and exotic populations of Pcc and Pcb, employing the most widely planted timber species in South isozyme markers, was conducted in order to detect East Asia. in 1997, a Malaysian company decided to and quantify the patterns and extents of genetic invest in a project to produce improved genotypes changes in the genetic structure and mating systems for commercial planting, within a time frame of 3 of populations that have gone through different years. This paper presents the case history of the domestication schemes. There was significant project from the perspective of the scientists genetic difference between the two varieties and involved in this program of accelerated population differentiation was much larger in Pcb domestication. The program involved the selection than in Pcc, attributable to the fragmented and assessment of candidate plus trees, propagation distribution of Pcb. For Pcc, both single and multi of candidate plus trees, development of pollination locus estimates of outcrossing rate were and hybridization techniques, testing of hybrids, significantly less than 1.0 in the island population analysis of growth and form, genetic diversity (Isles of Pine) but in the mainland population (Cuba analysis and the start of a genetic map. Island) and the seed orchard, indicating that stronger inbreeding exists in the island population. The small Genetic resources and breeding of differences between single and multi locus estimates Pinus caribaea in China suggest that inbreeding detected be caused by true Yongqi Zheng, Huoran Wang selfing rather than consanguineous mating. The Chinese Academy of Forestry, Institute of Forestry, Chinese material, used as Pcc, differed substantially 100091 Beijing, China from the natural populations of both Pcb and Pcc as Tel: (86) 10 6288 9645, FAX: (00) 86 10 62872015, revealed by either isozyme or cpDNA markers, Email: [email protected] proving that it is a distinct taxa or hybrids or Pinus caribaea (Pc), the most important commercial mixture of seeds. This striking result suggests that softwood tree crop in the tropics of China, will breeding program of Pcc in China should be become an increasingly important source for replaced with newly introduced genetic materials. softwood fiber for pulp and timber. Plantation area During the mid 70s, 12 grafted seed orchards or of the species is currently over 50 thousands ha and seed stands of Pcc were established in Guangdong expected to reach 100-150 thousands ha by the year and Guangxi provinces using materials selected 2010. The history of introduction and domestication from the first introduction. Seed production of these of Pc can be divided into three stages was very low, ranging from 8 to 50 kg/ha on year to chronologically: species (variety) trials in the early year basis. Seed production of early-introduced trees 60s (Cuban variety) and the early 70s [varieties peaked in the early 80s, facilitating large-scale hondurensis (Pch) and bahamensis (Pcb)], plantings of Pcc. Hybrid breeding of Caribbean variety/provenance trials in the early 80s and range- pines started from the early 80s, mainly by crossing wide provenance/progeny trials in the early 90s. between Pcc and P. elliottii. Hybrid of P. elliottii x Two provenance/progeny trials were established in Pch introduced from Australia showed excellent China using 121 open-pollinated families (14 growth performance. Potential of other hybrid provenances) of Pcb and 217 open-pollinated combinations among the varieties and P. elliottii families (16 provenances) of Pcc, respectively needs to be further studied in future. The need for through international collaborations. All these continued efforts on genetic improvement on the experimental populations constitute the base Pcc and Pcb and their hybrids to adequately populations of the two varieties. conserve and wisely use the genetic resources was Significant genetic variation was found in growth recognized. traits and pest resistance among the three varieties and among provenances within each variety except Pcc. There was also large family variation within provenances of Pcb. Superior varieties/provenances were identified for different site conditions, Pcc is suitable for the lowland tropics and southern tropics

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b) to attract authority and material(financial) 2.02.00 / 2.08.00 Future of breeding and resources of the world community to the matter of plantations in a sustainability-oriented organization of the above mentioned reserves and to world 2 the necessity of transferring timber production to the industrial tree plantation areas before the end of the Virgin Forests and Industrial Tree forthcoming century. Plantations I. V. Shutov These suggestions have to be put forward on the Saint-Petersburg Forestry Research Institute, Institutsky agreement with the governments of the pr., 21, 194021 Saint-Petersburg, Russia corresponding countries. FAX: (812) 552-80-42, Email: [email protected] 2.04.01 Conservation and management of Virgin forests can be regarded as a unique forest gene resources depositary of genetic resources and perfect regulator of environmental conditions. The idea of a particular Investigations of an oak of unknown role and significance of virgin forests and the origin necessity of their conservation as a property of the Helmut Guttenberger, H. Pfeifhofer, M. Müller, E. Earth biota, has become common in social Stabentheiner, Z. Borzan consciousness. in high latitudes of northern University of Graz, Institute of plant physiology, hemisphere virgin forests are mostly preserved in Schubertstrasse 51, A-8010 Graz, Austria Russia and Canada. These forests are Tel: 43-316-380-5633, FAX: 43-316-380-9880, Email: underproductive(low-yield), usually timed to [email protected] permafrost soils and are quite vulnerable as An unusual oak of unknown origin growing near ecological systems. The researches carried out in Zadar, Croatia is called the "Green oak". This tree different countries(including Russia) and wide produces hermaphroditic flowers and flowering is practical experience show that timber cutting in not synchronized with other oaks in the vicinity. virgin and natural forests can be replaced by timber The tree has been classified as a putative a hybrid production at special industrial tree plantations. This between Quercus cerris L. and Q. ilex L., Quercus can offer great advantages, especially from the point viridis Trinajsti‘. However, this classification is of view of ecology, ethics and economics. The probably not accurate, as a hybrid between a species report will be based on the results of large-scale where acorns mature in the second year (Q.cerris) experiments in planting and growing of and a species where acorns mature in the first year spruce(Picea abies L.) and pine(Pinus silvestris L.) (Q. ilex) has never be verified. To investigate the industrial tree plantations in the north-west of origin and taxonomic position of this tree, we Russia. These experiments have been carried out conducted comparative investigations in wood and during a period of 25(twenty five)years. During this leaf anatomy and morphology of flowers and pollen research the following data was obtained: expedient among the "Green oak" and specimens of Q. cerris, localization of these plantations depending on and Q. ilex using a light microscope combined with climatic and soil conditions, the problems of digital image analysis and a scanning electron territory arrangement, optimized according to the microscopy. The hairs of all three oak species were wood growing conditions methods of soil examined using several histochemical reactions and cultivation, scientifically grounded rate(regime) of scanning electron microscopy, and the DNA content forest stands density in their age dynamics, activities of nuclei was measured. Volatile compounds of the for taking care of the plantations, possible timber 3 leaves were determined using gas chromatography. increase (6-8 m per hectare a year), turnover of The results of these investigations, and the origin of cutting(50-60years), the power of additional carbon the "Green Oak"are discussed. flow obtained from the atmosphere(2-2,5 tons per hectare a year), etc. It has also been shown that Keywords: Quercus, hermaphroditic flowers, millions of hectares of land can be used for growing hybrid, wood anatomy, leaf anatomy industrial tree plantations in Russia. On the basis of the data published in different countries it is considered advisable on the behalf of IUFRO to send the following suggestions to UNO: a) to organize ecological reserves of global significance on the territories where virgin("ancient") forests are still preserved;

47 Division 2 data among specialists. The utilization of such Data Base on Genetic Resources of information is increasing with expansion of the Woody Species in the South Forest- Internet. Steppe of Russia Data bases of forest genetic resources undoubtably V. A. Kostrikin, S.G. Kobzeva will have a significant role in forestry. The term Research Institute of Forest Genetics and Breeding "genetic resources" is defined here as biological (NIILGIS ), Lomonosov str. 105, 394043 Voronezh, material with useful or potentially useful genetic Russia information of available. Very often genetic FAX: +7 ( 0732 ) 539436, Email: [email protected] resources are forest plots or individual trees, isolated Genetic resource data for numerous woody plants for the conservation of the gene pool. in Russian species of the south forest-steppe of Russia (united forestry, genetic resourse data bases can include: into the Central Chernozem Region (CChR ) and gene reserves, plus trees, stands, forest seed includes Belgorod, Voronezh, Kursk, Lipetsk, Orel orchards, clonal archives, and progeny tests. and Tambov oblasts) were collected in the database A list of indices, defining an object of a genetic (Pas-op) that was formated by FoxPro 2.6 for resource is more often determined by proper Windows. The data base represents an area methodic design That`s why compiling of the index consisting of the Central Chernozem Region (CChR list does not arouse any difficulties for a ), which includes Belgorod, Voronezh, Kursk, programmer. However, with a great number of Lipetsk, Orel and Tambov oblasts. The data base different objects, the necessity for creation of a consists of 14 files interconnected as a single system for database control appears. informational space. Uniformity in species names and corresponding Presently, the database contains s 2521 records codes are critical for successful widespread use of a concerning conservation resources of the CChR genetic resources data base. For information gene pool. Represented in the data bases are: 23 exchange with other resarchers it is important to genetic reserves, 18 clone archives, 7 provenance come an agreement with scientists about coding of trials, 1935 plus trees, 6 plus stands, and table fields. The following principles are suggested information about other genetic resources. There are for coding species names: 1) the International Code 18 object names in conjunction with the of Botanical Nomenclature should be accepted as a conservation of the gene pool of CChR forest methodological basis of taxon division., 2) scientific species. names of taxonomic groups should be in Latin, and Data base information can provide different 3) a common international coding of species names characteristics about the primary forest species in should bea common international coding of species the CChR. Characteristics on individual species, the names should be established. areas of the objects location, and genotype of Files were developed to contain taxon of any class individual trees are examples of the information of a species up to division. For the formation of within the data base. The data can now used by databases, correlation tables connecting coinciding various statistical packages, electronic tables and fields are used. Hierarchy of the files was provided text editors. This possibility enabling the use of the by indicating of the taxon in one of the code fields. information materials in different combinations. Another database program was written to keep Keywords: Russian forest-steppe, data base, different indices, describing genetic resources, in computer software, genotype, statistics one unified file. All the files were interconnected as a common information space and represented Establishment of Genetic Resource Data thousands of infomration bits about the gene pools Bases for Forest Flora of forest species. V. A. Kostrikin Keywords: forest species, data base, computer Research Institute of Forest Genetics and Breeding ( software, genetic test, taxon NIILGIS ), Lomonosov str. 105, 394043 Voronezh, Russia FAX: +7 ( 0732 ) 539436, Email: [email protected] The ubiquity of personal computers and efficient software has become the basis for wide use of data bases in different fields of knowledge. The information is searchable and quickly processed. There is also an opportunity for active exchange of

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2.04.02 Genetics and traits Pollen Cryopreservation Studies on some Tree Species in the Indian Forest The physiological genetics foundation Ecosystem of Liriodendron heterosis S. Shashi Kumar, D. H. Tejavathi, and S. Ganeshan Ye Jinshan Bangalore University, Plant Tissue Culture Laboratory, Paulownia Research and Development Center of State Dept. of Botany, 560 056 Bangalore, India Forestry Administration, No.3, Weiwu Road, 450003 Tel: 910803417492, Email: [email protected] Zhengzhou, Henan, China FAX: 0371-5953628, Email: Hou yu-shun Forest genetic resources are described as a heritable [[email protected]] material contained in tree species ,which may have economic, scientific and social value for the local Heterosis in Liriodendren interspecific hybrids, and inhabitants. Pollen has been identified as a source of fixation and utilization of the hetorosis, were studied diversity that can be used in conservation strategies in this doctoral dissertation using principles and of forest tree germplasm. For precise monitoring of methods of genetics, breeding, physiology, gene flow through pollen procedures need to be biochemistry, anatomy and biostatistics. The main developed for long term storage through results are as follows: cryopreservation. Emblica officinalis Gaertn., 1. One-year-old hybrid seedlings of plus-crossing, Cassia fistula L., Cassia marginata Roxb., minus-crossing, backcross and F1-crossing showed Millingtonia hortensis L., Elaeis guineensis Jacq. universally notable positive growth heterosis. and Pandanus fascicularis Lamk. were chosen for Growth characters of seedlings had extremely study. Four species have medicinal value and two significant difference among families and expressed species are commercially important. Emblica great variation among individuals of family. Growth officinalis, C. fistula and C. marginata are widely condition of backcross families was particularly distributed in dry deciduous forest of southern and excellent. Thus, family selection, individual northern India, while M. hortensis and E. guineensis selection and utilization of backcross and F2 hybrids were introduced to India from Burma and W. have tremendous potential. Africa, respectively. Pandanus fascicularis is a profusely branched small tree distributed in India, 2. Having many advantages in photosynthetic area, commonly found in the western plains. Protocols for photosynthetic time, leaf blade structure and collection, cryopreservation and cataloguing pollen resistance of water stress, reciprocal hybrids of these species were developed in this study. Pollen possessed photosynthetic capacity superiority over collection and extraction procedures were parents. optimized, based on type of inflorescence, pollen 3. The decrease in rate of relative water content, production patterns, and physiological chlorophyll content as well as protein content and characteristics of study species. Viability was increase rate of RNase activity in leaf blades under assessed by pollen germination using the hanging water stress were L. chinense (Hemsl.) Sarg. > L. drop technique for all species except E. guineensis, tulipifera Linn. > Plus crossing F1 > minus where a modified cellophane technique yielded crossing F1. L. chinense (Hemsl.) Sarg. was superior germination frequencies. Optimum pollen severely damaged by short water stress. Reciprocal germination was obtained in modified Brewbaker hybrids displayed super-parent heterosis of and Kwack's medium, consisting of different resistance to water stress. Direct evidence from 3H- concentrations of sucrose, supplemented with Gly labeling under water stress proved both that inorganic salts. Feasibility of pollen for cryogenic RNase genes of parents and hybrids were expressed preservation was tested by immersing pollen in translation level as well as RNase were samples sealed in laminated aluminum pouches in synthesized de novo and that intensity of RNase liquid nitrogen (-196°C) for about one hour. pollen gene expression was L. chinense (Hemsl.) Sarg. > was then germinated in vitro, and found to have L. tulipifera Linn. > Plus crossing F1> minus comparable germination rates to fresh pollen crossing F1. Indirect evidences from protein samples. As a result, experiments on long term synthetic inhibitor under water stress indicated that storage of pollen were initiated and are presently in RNase activity increase of parents might be progress. The results indicate that cryopreservation involved in cytoplasmic mRNA translation and of pollen could provide the basis for the RNase release, activation and/or synthesis of establishment of a conservation repository of chloroplast and/or mitochondria, but RNase activity nuclear genetic diversity. increase of hybrids might originate mainly from Keywords: conservation, genetic resources, forest cytoplasmic mRNA translation, not from chloroplast trees, genetic diversity and/or mitochondria.

49 Division 2 4. Reciprocal hybrids had higher stomatal apparatus For the idealised random mating population, relative density; larger stomatal apparatus opening and more status numbers (Nr = Ns / N) decline to 0.50, 0.33, developed vascular system contrasting sharply with 0.25, 0.20 and 0.17 for five consecutive generations, parents. respectively. Also, the variance effective population sizes (Ne(v)) were estimated as infinity over 5. The hybrid clones presented great variation of generations when all genotypes had equal fertility. cutting root forming ability among adult and young All calculations were made for the constant hybrids. The variation range of cutting root forming population sizes over generations where the ability of young hybrids was much larger than that populations were derived randomly from the of adult ones. The root forming ability of basal stem zygotes of the seed crop. The importance and sprouts of adult hybrids was powerful. magnitude of fertility variation and population size on this decline has been studied. Gene diversity Fertility variation and its effect on decreased faster as the fertility variation increased. genetic diversity over generations in But the effect of fertility variation on gene diversity finite populations was not linear. Kyu-Suk Kang, Dag Lindgren & Adolfo D. Bila Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department Predictions over five generations shown that group of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, SE-901 83 coancestry and inbreeding accumulated fast, and the Umea, Sweden status number and variance effective population size Email: [email protected] decreased remarkably in the first generation shifts. Keywords: fertility variation, status number, group The accumulation of inbreeding and group coancestry, inbreeding, gene diversity, reference coancestry was faster and higher when the fertility population variation was larger. The loss of gene diversity was proportional to the fertility variation and to the size Gene diversity and inbreeding over five generations of the population. The gene diversity was are simulated considering fertility variations and maintained high when provided the breeding population sizes in finite populations. Gene population size was reasonable. Long term breeding diversity of seeds is influenced by differences in programs that use small population sizes and low fertility among parents and their relatedness. The status effective numbers may lead to a loss of gene overall relatedness can be described as group diversity and do not provide a sustainable long-term coancestry. The fertility is expressed as a breeding strategy. This study helps us to understand standardised measure of fertility differences among how large numbers are required to maintain individuals. Fertility variation causes faster reasonable gene diversity. accumulation of relatedness and reduces the effective number (status number) of the seed crop. Networking in phenological monitoring Status number (Ns) is defined as half the inverse of for commercial timber species in group coancestry. Group coancestry is the Peninsular Malaysia probability that two genes in a gene pool are Thai See Kiam, Shashiah Abdul Karim and Abdul identical by descent, and it can also be interpreted as Rahman Abdul Jalil an average of relatedness or as a lost of gene Forestry Department Peninsular Malaysia, Jalan diversity. Group coancestry of the present Sultan Salahuddin, 50660 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia generation is the expected inbreeding (F) of the Tel: +603-298-8244, FAX: +603-292-5657, Email: following if individuals mate at random and if they [email protected] are equally fertile. Inbreeding, group coancestry, status number and gene diversity are all relative to a Keywords: Networking, phenological, seed, conceptional reference population with an infinite planting materials and procurement. number of unrelated and non-inbred individuals. A Many of the commercial timber species in small status number means a reduced gene diversity Peninsular Malaysia particularly the indigenous tree of seeds, because Ns expresses the accumulated species are irregular and unpredictable fruit bearers. genetic drift from the same reference population to Cyclic mass fruiting which usually occurs once in which the concepts inbreeding and coancestry refer. six to seven years, often resulted in sudden The build-up of coancestry and inbreeding during availability of huge quantities of seeds over a short successive generations is potentially a major period. This situation, coupled with the short storage problem when dealing with small populations (such life of the seeds, requires close monitoring and the breeding populations). The consequences can be phenological observations, to avoid loss of predicted, evaluated and monitored in this study. potentially good seeds.

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A phenological monitoring and reporting system via flowering and fruiting of every selected mother network of district forest offices is being developed trees, as well as general observation within the to serve as a tool to enable timely collections of phenological plot. seeds. Phenological plots have been established and - Seed Register contains information on collecting, phenological monitoring teams formed in each state processing, testing and storage of seed. of the Peninsula to undertake regular observations - Nursery Register contains information on the and monthly reporting to the Forestry Department production of all nursery-grown planting stock. This Peninsular Malaysia Headquarters. The monthly includes pre-treatment, sowing, germination and summarised reports will provide a good overview of potting of plants. flowering intensity and amount of fruit crop - Distribution register holds information on available throughout the Peninsula. These will be distribution of planting materials and keeps the made available to State Forestry Departments for different identification of resource, seed and more effective planning of post-collection activities nursery. It links the information of the origin and such as transportation, processing, storage, sowing handling of the planting materials with the planting and distribution. site. A Forest Genetic Resource Information System (FORGRIS) was developed under the Malaysian- Characteristics and inheritance of male German Forestry Planting material Procurement sterility of C. japonica Programme to centralise phenological information. Hideaki Taira It is a computerised management tool for the storage Niigata University Graduate School of Science and and retrieval of a broad range of information on Technology, 950-2102 Niigata, Japan Email: [email protected] forest genetic resources. This includes an up to date information on resource types; selected plus trees; Genetic male sterility is a useful trait in plant monthly phenological monitoring as well as seed breeding, especially in angiosperm crops such as collection, handling and storage; nursery practices corn, onion and carrot. We found a male sterility and distribution. FORGRIS comprised six main Cryptomeria japonica trees in Japan. Pollen of C. components from which information can be japonica is one of the major causes of pollinosis in retrieved namely: Resource Register, Tree Register, Japan. We carried out this research in an attempt to Phenological Monitoring Register, Seed Register, male clear the characteristic and inheritance of this Nursery Register and Distribution Register. male sterility. Microsporogenesis of the male sterile tree proceeded meiosis, however, the microspores At the same time, efforts towards development of collapsed under they were separated from pollen infrastructure and manpower are continually being tetrads in locals, resulting in complete male sterility. upgraded. Skills of officers in the fields of tree Most likely, ethylene was responsible for male climbing; seed collection technique and handling; sterility expression. Mating of male-sterile C. storage and phenological observation are further japonica and elite C. japonica, as well as backcross improved through training. A prototype vehicle seedlings of male-sterile trees, were carried out. The known as Mobile Seed/Seedling Chamber was seeds from male-sterile C. japonica were developed to assist in the collection and long germinated in an incubator, and grown in a distance transportation of planting materials. The greenhouse. The seedlings were treated with 100 Existing forest nursery in Lentang, Pahang is being ppm gibberellin in early July 1995, to promote the upgraded to become a Forest Planting Material formation of male flowers. in January 1997, all of Procurement Centre. in addition to the development the seedlings of elite C. japonica produced pollen in of storage facilities for recalcitrant seeds, the Centre its male flowers; however, pollen had not developed will plan and co-ordinate activities related to in 55 out of 120 backcrossed seedlings. This procurement of planting materials in Peninsular evidence indicates that the heredity model of male Malaysia. The Centre will also conduct training and sterility in C. japonica, is nuclear genetic male research on large scale handling of planting sterility controlled by a pair of recessive genes. materials, seed testing and documentations. - Resource Register stores data on the different resource types, genetic information of the population and description of the site. - Tree Register stores information on selected trees including botanical and common name, phenotypic description, location and site. - Phenological Monitoring Register contains information on phenological observation of

51 Division 2 content of the seed leachate. Treated sal seeds were 2.09.00 Seed physiology and technology stored at room temperature, 150C and 80C for 15 days, then sown in the nursery. Use of halogens in controlling Sal seeds treated with chlorine vapour had enhanced deterioration of some tropical tree seeds storability and tolerance to lower storage Alka Bhargava, Amit Sahai, A.S.Bhandari and Vishakha temperature. Exposure for 65 hours gave 30% Kumbhare Tropical Forest Research Institute, Post Box #RFRC, germination in the nursery, even after 15 days Mandla Road, 482 021 Jabalpur, India storage, while untreated seeds did not germinate. Tel: 91-761-847320, FAX: 91-761-321759, Email: Chlorinated seeds also exhibited increased vigour [email protected] and faster completion of germination. Iodination had no promotory effect. For khair seeds, the Keywords: Acacia catechu, Pongamia pinnata, maximal beneficial effect in the laboratory was Shorea robusta, storability, germination, ageing, observed by chlorination for 24h, which also vigour. improved the germinability before ageing. Other Halogen treatment of seeds is a powerful tool for durations of chlorination and iodination did not have controlling seed deterioration in field crops. An a promotory effect on non-aged seeds. The effect of attempt was made to use this simple technique 48h exposure to chlorine was especially evident by during storage of seeds of forest tree species. The increased germinability of aged seeds. Greater most significant results were obtained with sal membrane integrity of 24h and 48h chlorinated (Shorea robusta), khair (Acacia catechu) and karanj seeds was demonstrated by lower electrical (Pongamia pinnata). in all cases, halogen treatments conductance of seed leachate and reduced leakage of extended seed storability, with high germination and sugars. Therefore, these seeds were subjected to vigour in laboratory and field tests. field trials. Following chlorination for 24h, germination in unaged seeds increased to 36.52% Sal is one of the most important timber species of compared to 23.75% for the control, and 7.5% for the tropical regions and the seeds are an important the 48h treatment. Also after 24h treatment, total source of edible oil and butter. The rapid biomass was 4.37g compared to 3.94g and 3.33g for deterioration of these recalcitrant seeds creates the control and 48h treatment, respectively. several disadvantages for raising planting material Promotory effect of the halogen treatments was as well as for butter extraction. Khair is the chief more evident in the aged seeds. Germination source of katha and cutch, is a useful timber and percentage, root and shoot lengths of seedlings, total fodder species and produces good quality charcoal. biomass, collar diameter and nodulation were Other parts of the tree have a number of medicinal highest in the 24h treated seeds. Even though the uses. Khair produces good crops of seeds almost germination of the aged seeds decreased as every year, but the seeds are very delicate and compared to the non-aged, there was an increase in damaged even by a slight fire. They are also subject the total biomass of the seedlings, thus to insect attack, and do not store well for more than demonstrating the beneficial effects of this 6 months, far shorter than other leguminous seeds. methodology. Karanj seeds showed a positive Karanj is another multipurpose tree species, the correlation between the conductivity of leachate, wood being used for making agricultural leakage of sugar, dehydrogenase activity and implements and as a source of pulp. The seeds are germination of aged seeds after 24 and 48 hours of valued for their non-edible oil, but they store poorly. chlorination and iodination respectively. In this study, khair and karanj seeds were collected Thus, halogenation has the potential for utilisation from the TFRI campus and used immediately. Sal as a low cost, simple technique for enhancing tree seeds were collected from a natural forest and seed storability even under ambient field conditions. transported to the laboratory the same day. All seeds were exposed to chlorine and iodine vapours for durations ranging from 4 to 65 hours. Khair and karanj seeds were subjected to accelerated ageing at 100% RH at 420C for 8 days to simulate storage effects. Germination tests were carried out on top of germination paper at 300C in a BOD incubator. Following laboratory testing, selected treatments were field tested. Simultaneously, membrane permeability was studied by measuring the electrical conductivity, dehydrogenase activity and total sugar

52 Division 2

SSO matches the required plasticity for smallholder Introduction of Genetic Resources and plantations with poor silvicultural practices. Improved Forestry Seed Production in Forest plantations are currently established in Madagascar several ecoclimatic conditions, from the dry South Gilles Chaix, Razafimaharo Vololoniriana, (450 mm of annual rainfall) to the wet East coast Razafimahatratra Appolinaire, Phillippe Vigneron (2500 mm), from coastal savannahs to 1600 meters Cirad-Forêt Programme Arbres et Plantations, above sea level. Nine contrasting sites were chosen Programme Arbres et Plantations, B.P. 745, Antananarivo for SSO establishment. To match the actual demand 101, Madagascar Tel: 261-30 23 842 29, FAX: 261-20 22 209 99, Email: as well as promote poorly-known species, 9 [email protected] Eucalypts, 7 acacias and 8 miscellaneous species were included. The most important ones were: Keywords: Eucalyptus, genetic improvement, seed Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E. citriodora, E. orchard, smallholder plantation cloeziana, E. grandis, E. maculata, E. microcorys, Forest products supply more than 86% of the E. resinifera, E. robusta, Acacia auriculiformis, A. Malagasy domestic energy consumption. Production crassicarpa, A. mangium, Casuarina equisetifolia, in the natural forest has decreased and no longer Grevillea robusta and Prosopis juliflora. 5 000 satisfies the local demand of fuel-wood and timber open-pollinated progenies belonging to 400 for the ever-growing population. of the 750 exotic provenances and 25 species were introduced species already introduced in arboreta, Eucalypts between 1988 and 1998. Most were collected from and pines originating from summer rainfall areas their respective natural areas. Seed lots were tested have been the most productive. The introduction of in a complete randomised-block design Eucalyptus robusta and E. camaldulensis early in encompassing several provenances of the same the 20th. Century was particularly successful. These species with 16 tree plots. The high planting density, two species now produce more than 1 million tonnes i.e. 2500 trees per hectare, allowed the combination for the yearly fuel-wood supply of Antananarivo. of provenance testing (at least for initial growth) and But successive crosses within narrow genetic base orchard objectives. Four to five successive selective populations have resulted in local land races with thinnings resulted in a final stocking of 80 to 150 severe inbreeding depression. Local seed sources trees per hectare at six to seven years old. Thinnings cannot match plantation requirements that need 250 are implemented on the basis of individual tree kg of eucalypt seeds every year. value, but aim to preserve a broad genetic diversity. Trial replications across several sites permitted a For the past 20 years, FOFIFA with Cirad-Forêt has combination of provenance-progeny and genetic- conducted a hardwood genetic improvement environment interaction assessments, as well as the programme (funded by the European Union between production of locally well-adapted improved seeds. 1993-97). The main objective is to supply Last but not least, the 50 SSO already established smallholders with locally-improved varieties for a (70 ha) are used as demonstration plots to promote range of wood products. The first step was to the use of poorly-known species and improved introduce new genetic resources for several species varieties. Since 1997, new planting programmes to build both the base and breeding populations. have been partially supplied with seeds produced in Because of the huge ecoclimatic diversity and the SSO. Besides the traditional E. robusta and E. range of desired wood products, numerous camaldulensis, new species such as A. mangium and improved varieties had to be developed E. maculata (for poles and sawn wood) are now simultaneously. Thus, a multiple-population sought after by smallholders. breeding scheme was implemented for several species. Within each population, the improvement strategy was as follows: i) progeny-provenance trials for genetic diversity assessment (base population), ii) selective thinning retaining the best trees within the best provenances or progenies (generation 1, Seedling Seed Orchard 1), iii) harvesting of the open-pollinated seeds for the second generation seed-orchard (SSO 2) and to implement the second cycle of recurrent selection. The seeds produced in the SSO are used for breeding as well as the deployment of varieties. The broad genetic base of the seeds produced by the

53 Division 2 storage-behaviour characteristics. The report Forest Tree Seeds at the End of the 20th outlines a number of major findings concerning the Century: Major Accomplishments and causes and reasons for desiccation tolerance. A Needs complex suite of mechanisms is involved, and David George W Edwards further research is required to resolve all the FTB Forest Tree Beginnings, 4018 Cavallin Court, V8N components into an integrated system. One notable 5P9 Victoria, BC, Canada factor is that, unlike orthodox seeds, cell organelles Tel: 250-477 4757, FAX: 250-477 4671, Email: in recalcitrant seeds remain differentiated and [email protected] actively metabolic, and vulnerable to any amount of Keywords: seed production, storage, desiccation, dehydration. Seed dormancy, common in orthodox longevity, dormancy, testing seeds and some temperate non-orthodox seeds, but rare in tropical species, increases the complexity. Based on the State of Knowledge Report for Predictions of tree seed longevity are still largely Research Group 2.09.00 (Seed Physiology and empirical, but data is slowly accumulating. For Technology) this paper reviews developments and operational forestry and germplasm conservation, accomplishments, indicates what remains unknown, especially for hard-to-store materials, major and suggests directions for research during the early research efforts continue to be needed. years of the new millennium. The main focus is on tree seed production, storage and longevity, and Even the better moist-chilling treatments to seed quality testing and nursery performance. It is overcome seed dormancy require weeks or months pointed out that although conservation efforts are to apply, often only work on some seedlots, or some underway, a 1998 estimate declared 10% of the seeds within a lot. Seed moisture control during world's tree species as threatened with extinction. chilling produces more rapid, synchronous germination, permits seeds to be cold-stored in a Seed orchards and other tree seed production areas non-dormant state for 1 to several years, is used have been developed for numerous economically- operationally for several conifers and, when important forest species, but the bulk of tree seed combined with growth regulators, for some crops continue to be derived from wild plants in broadleaves also. Yet faster, more versatile natural stands. Forest tree seed biology remains dormancy-breaking treatments are needed for poorly researched for many species, but advance- nursery production and laboratory testing. Difficult- forecasting of good crops is possible in some. to-standardize subjective tests (such as tetrazolium However, erratic crop production, uncontrolled staining) are still used for tree seeds, but they often insects and diseases, and the need to make underestimate/overestimate seed quality. Laboratory collections at the right time to ensure maximum tests that correlate with nursery production on a germination and vigour, plus correct post-harvest local level have been developed, but more work is handling, remain priorities for most species. in needed to make these applicable regionally. Vigour general, seed processing methodologies can now testing, adapted from agriculture/horticulture, is not eliminate all (or almost all) unfilled seeds, but only widely successful in tree seeds mainly because of one method (a Swedish development) applied to the inherent heterogeneity in crops from natural some conifers separates live-filled seeds from filled- stands, and even those from seed orchards Some dead ones. Despite these difficulties, large increases indicators, such as respiratory activity of embryonic in tree seed production, particularly in species and axes in beech, or of entire subalpine fir seeds, as provenances selected for desirable attributes, are well as protein levels in fir, have been suggested as going to be needed to meet the challenge of possible vigour indices, but much more work is successful forest regeneration worldwide. required. A brief review of the organization of the Collaborative efforts to determine more-appropriate Research Group is appended, and several species, and to improve production of genetically- suggestions for the future are made. Contributors to and physiologically-improved seeds, are underway the SKR are acknowledged. in some regions, but these probably need to be broadened. Seed storage, to combat sporadic crops and stabilize supplies to nurseries, remains a major research issue. Three broad classes of seeds, based principally on their desiccation tolerance and sensitivity to low temperature, are now recognized. So-called "orthodox" and "recalcitrant" seeds are opposite extremes of a continuum between which lies a broad spectrum of seeds with "intermediate"

54 Division 2

Tetrazolium Test: A Tool for Predicting Planting Dipterocarp Species For Forest the Viability of Some Tropical Tree Plantations: Is It Viable? Seeds M. Marzalina, Krishnapillay B, Nashatul Z.N.A., Ang Mamta Purohit, Alka Bhargava K.C., Siti Hasanah M.S., Zaiton S., Fadzlinah Z. and Tropical Forest Research Institute, Post Box # RFRC, Hamsinah H. Mandla Road, 482021 Jabalpur, India Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Seed Tel: 91-761-847320, FAX: 91-761-321759, Email: Technology Section, Forest Plantation Division, Kepong, [email protected] 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Tel: +6-03-6302121, FAX: 603-6367753, Email: Keywords: TTZ, root mean squares, Acacia nilotica, [email protected] Albizia procera, DendroCalamus strictus, Sesbania sesban Keywords: seed collection, storage, forest plantation, phenology, recalcitrant The tetrazolium (TTZ) test has been an important and useful tool for determining the viability of a The Dipterocarpaceae has long been accepted as the range of seeds since its introduction by Lakon in main family producing valuable timber of medium 1942. The method gained popularity for its to hard density. Such timbers were once considered simplicity, ease and rapidity of application, and to be Malaysia's main export. However, the current because it can evaluate viability whether or not the concern for sustainability in wood production and seeds are dormant. This study highlights the genetic conservation has increased the need to standardization of evaluation criteria for using the protect more of the natural forest, and to harvest test on seeds of four important tropical tree species. only on a sustainable basis from the productive Acacia nilotica seeds require a long time to forest. The timber supply deficits thus created will germinate because of their hard seedcoats. have to be supplemented through plantation forests. Apparently-sound and healthy Albizzia procera Because of poor seed availability caused by the seeds often harbour insects (as shown by x-ray gregarious mass fruiting habit that produce crops radiography) and are incapable of germination. Low only once every 3-7 years, dipterocarp species tend viablity of DendroCalamus strictus, seeds to be of low priority for selection for forestry compounded by gregarious flowering, makes testing plantation programs. Adding to these difficulties, the seed lot before sowing imperative. Germination most species produce seeds that are recalcitrant, and in Sesbania sesban varies because of seed coat and which suffer desiccation damage if dried below a seed size differences. relatively high moisture content. Such seeds cannot Seeds were collected from four to nine Indian be stored for long periods, therefore. provenances. Four working samples were drawn for This paper highlights the results of monthly each lot, then subdivided into two subsamples, one phenological observations in selected forest areas, as for TTZ staining and one for germination testing. well as dipterocarp seed storage studies, conducted Fresh solutions of 2,3,5-tetrazolium chloride over the last 10 years by the Seed Technology dissolved in double-distilled water of neutral pH Section at FRIM. To maintain a continuous seed were prepared. A fragment of the testa of the seeds supply, collection efforts should be concentrated in of A. nilotica and A. procera was filed off to seed production areas during mass fruiting years, facilitate imbibition; all seeds were soaked in but should occur also in all phenological distilled water for 24h (10h for S. sesban) then cut observation areas during the off season periods with a sharp blade, or decoated. Seeds were placed when some trees tend to flower and fruit in 1% TTZ solution (0.5% for D. strictus and S. sporadically. Current research advances in sesban) and incubated in darkness at 30-10C for 24 prolonging seed viability after collection, and during h. Staining patterns for individual seeds were transportation, will be discussed. documented in 6 categories for A. nilotica, and 7 categories for the other species, as follows: 1- Wide differences between species in levels of embryo and cotyledons fully stained. 2-embryo fully critical moisture content at which viability is lost, stained with less than 3/4 of the cotyledons were observed. This could be due to the stage of unstained. 3-embryo fully stained and more than « maturity, seed size and structure. Most seeds could of the cotyledons unstained. 4-embryo partially be stored for less than two weeks. Several methods stained and very small unstained patches on for obtaining continuous supplies of planting cotyledons. 5-only embryo stained. 6-embryo material are discussed. unstained and cotyledons stained in patches. 7- unstained seeds.

55 Division 2 Germination tests were conducted on top of paper (BP for A. nilotica) at 30+/-10C for 28 days. Root mean squares were calculated to determine significant differences between staining categories and the appropriate germination test. Staining categories 1 and 7 were recognized as viable and non viable seeds, respectively. The remaining categories each had two possibilities and yielded a different number of combinations of evaluation criteria. Categories, or combinations of categories, giving the least RMS were interpreted as "best", i.e. as viable seeds. Thus, for A. nilotica, combined categories 1, 2 and 3 were best (category 5 was absent); for A. procera, combined categories 1 and 2 were best; for D. strictus, combined categories 1, 2 and 4 were best; and for S. sesban combined categories 1, 2, 3 and 4 were best. Whenever any other category was included in the above combinations, RMS values increased. Staining patterns were documented as line diagrams.

56 Division 3 Forest Operations and Techniques

Coordinator Dr. Dennis P. DYKSTRA World Forestry Center 4033 SW Canyon Road Portland Oregon 97221, United States of America fax: +1-503-2283624 tel : +1-503-2281367 ext. 118 e-mail: [email protected]

Division 3

This study showed that 2+0 seedlings were large 3.02.00 Effects of nursery and silvicultural enough for planting with the growing media operations on the environment and society mentioned above, using the Enso-Pot tube system.

Effects of Different Mediums on the Effect of Selection of Soil Type on the Growth of Oriental Spruce (Picea Establishment of Ectomycorrhizas and orientalis (L.) Link.) Seedlings Produced Growth of Pinus patula Seedlings in the in Enso-Pot Tubes Nursery Sezgin Ayan Varadharaja Mohan, K. Nataranjan Eastern Black Sea Forestry Research Institute, Dogu Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding, Division Karadeniz Ormancilik Arastirma Müdürlügü, 61 040 of Forest Protection, 641 002 Coimbatore, India Trabzon, Turkey FAX: 0422-430549, Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Keywords: Ectomycorrhizas; Pinus patula; "shola" Keywords: Growing medium; Oriental spruce; soil; Thelephora terrestris; Laccaria laccata; Seedling product; Enso-pot Rhizopogon luteolus Oriental spruce (Picea orientalis (L.) Link.) is the A mycorrhizal association is essential for forest main species in the Eastern Black Sea Region of trees. Ectomycorrhizas are found mostly in conifers. Turkey. Using high quality, container-grown in the present investigation, an experiment was seedlings in the plantation areas is very important, conducted to study the effect of soil type on the to mitigate against very dense green-cover in the establishment of ectomycorrhizas and growth of region. The Turkish-Finnish Forestry Project was Pinus patula seedlings in the nursery. Three established in 1992, for producing economical different soil types, viz., "shola" soil (forest soil), container-grown seedlings in the of Forest Nursery. grassland soil and riverbed sand were used. Initially, in this project, production techniques for growing both surface-sterilised and non-surface-sterilised Oriental spruce seedlings under the regional Pinus patula seeds were sown in "shola" and conditions were investigated. Thus, common grassland soils and later, after 3 months, the growing media in the region, sowing times and seedlings were transplanted again to "shola" soil, growing periods in the greenhouse had to be grassland soil or riverbed sand. The results showed investigated. in this research, forty growing media, that the local "shola" soil was the best soil type, two sowing times and two growing periods in based on the different growth parameters such as greenhouse were studied. Commonly-used local root and shoot lengths root collar diameter, shoot Barma peat was the main component of the media. and root dry weight, number of mycorrhizal tips and Thirty-nine growing media were prepared with establishment of different mycorrhizal types. The various supplemental materials (river sand, perlite, ectomycorrhizal types found in seedlings grown in composted tea remnant, composted barnyard the three different soils differed. The mycorrhizal manure, wood shavings and bran) mixed at different types formed by Thelephora terrestris, Laccaria ratios by volume to the Barma peat. Vapo peat laccata and Rhizopogon luteolus were found only in (Finnish) was used as a control. For all treatments, the seedlings grown in the "shola" soil, whereas the height growth, root collar diameter, survival mycorrhizal types formed by fungi-like species of percentage, dry weights and stem weight / root Hebeloma and Inocybe were found only in the weight ratios of the 2+0 seedlings were measured. seedlings grown in the grassland soil. Another The results were: mycorrhizal type, Cenococcum graniforme was 1. The best height growth under the of Forest found only in the roots of the seedlings grown in Nursery conditions were in the following media riverbed sand. The significance of the findings is respectively: discussed. 60% Barma peat + 20% comp. Tea remnant + 20% river sand; 50% Barma peat + 20% comp. Tea remnant + 30% river sand; 50% Barma peat + 20% comp. Tea remnant + 30% perlite; 60% Barma peat + 20% comp. Tea remnant + 20% perlite; 60% Barma peat + 20% comp. barnyard manure + 20% perlite 2. Traditionally, 2+3, 3+2, 4+0 and 5+0 Oriental spruce seedlings have been planted in this region.

59 Division 3 Murashige & Skoog's (MS) medium with 3% Nursery and Plantation Activities for sucrose and different concentrations and Revival of Tribal Habitat and Lifestyle - combinations of auxins and cytokinins were used A Case Study from Kerala, Southern for shoot proliferation. For rooting the regenerated India shoots were excised and subcultured on half R. C. Pandalai strength MS medium with a range of concentrations Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, 680 653 and combinations of auxins. Though rooting was Thrissur, Kerala, India achieved in 90% regenerated shoots, their survival FAX: 0487-782249, Email: [email protected] rate in the open field was only 45-50%. Keywords: Rehabilitation; India; Nursery; Germination of seeds collected from mature trees Afforestation was 50-55% but the survival rate of seedlings was 75%. Growth parameters of surviving plantlets were The outcome of attempts on rehabilitation of two measured at six-month intervals up to 24 months. At highly degraded tribal settlements in different the 6th month, the height and base diameter of regions of Kerala State, southern India, are seedlings were 25 cm and 0.5 cm respectively. in in discussed in this paper. vitro raised plantlets the height and base diameter A Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) exercise was values were 20 cm and 0.35 cm respectively. At the undertaken to acquire information on the views and 24th month the height, base diameter and diameter expectations of the local population and also to at breast height of seedlings raised plants were 198 create an awareness about the potential benefits on cm, 3.9 cm and 1.4 cm, respectively. in in vitro the quality of life by restoration of their habitat with raised plants these values were 216 cm, 4.1 cm and scientific inputs. A programme was subsequently 1.5 cm, respectively. Potential growth performance implemented which was centered mainly around of the two categories of plants is discussed. nurseries, planting activities and field training. Species selection, nursery management, silvicultural Private Individual Tree Nursery techniques for plantation establishment in degraded Management and their Role on zones and soil/water conservation measures adopted Environmental and Community Forestry in the study are discussed. The importance of in Tanzania: an Overview effective human resource development and proper I. M Shehaghilo species selection was revealed in the first three years Usambara Environmental Conservation Organisation, of the project. The paper also discusses the potential Post Box # 199, Lushoto, Tanzania for increasing employment opportunities through the afforestation activities and development of self- Keywords: Tree nursery, Management, reliance amongst the local tribal population. Environmental, Economic, Quality stock Before 1990, community and individual forestry Comparative Studies On Survival and programmes for environmental and economic Growth of Seedlings and in Vitro Raised purposes in Tanzania depended mainly on the Plants of Teak nursery plants raised and managed by trained Shyamal K. Roy, M. Zakir Hossain government nursery managers. The ecological and Jahangirnagar University, Department of Botany, Savar, economic reasons for afforestation have increased Dhaka, Bangladesh significantly in recent times. Because of a general FAX: 880-2-833054, Email: [email protected] policy of reducing public expenditure by Keywords: Teak; Propagation; Seedling; in vitro Government, the Forest Department has reduced its culture production of nursery plants for use by the community and individuals. A few government Teak (Tectona grandis) is one of the important nursery centres still raise and sell seedlings to timber trees in South and Southeast Asia. The plant individuals, but the costs are generally high. More is generally propagated by seeds but the fruit and externally- and internally-financed NGOs are now seed set is very low in this plant. A protocol has engaged in planting trees than ever before. They all been developed for propagation of teak through in need tree seedlings, which must be raised and vitro culture of shoot tips and nodal explants of managed in nurseries for about a year before they seedling plants. Explants were washed thoroughly are ready for outplanting. under running tap water. Surface sterilization was done with 0.2% HgCl2 for 5 minutes followed by To meet this increased demand for nursery stock, washing with sterile distilled water giving 3-5 many people have organised themselves as changes. Explants were cultured in 0.7% agar-gelled individuals or groups to raise tree seedlings and sel1

60 Division 3 them at lower prices than those from government or some Non-Governmental Organisation (NGO) 3.04.00 Operational planning and control; nurseries. This has attracted many tree practitioners work study to buy seedlings from such centres, and hence the number of such centres has increased, as shown by a Investigations on using of geographical recent survey in some parts of the country. Such information systems on the forest road centres have increased much-needed self- networks in Turkey employment. Therefore, they have a big role to play Halis Hulusi Acar, Selçuk Gümüs in this country. However, some scientific questions Blacksea Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, arise as to the quality of the nursery stock and the Department of Forest Engineering, 61080 Trabzon, resultant quality of the established trees. Turkey Tel: +90-462-325-3223, FAX: 00 90 462 3257499, This paper reviews the nursery management Email: [email protected] practices of private individual small nurseries as compared to the more-organised government Because of the deep interference all over the world nurseries, including seed collection, sowing, nursery the forest regions are drawing back to mountainous cultural operations and management. The effects of regions day by day. Forest road network supply easy plant quality, which may not be noticed until after transportation to forest areas to maintain the usage early field establishment, are discussed. and protection of forest resources and improvement substructure establishments for forest works. General Views on Silviculture of In forming the forest road networks these are Protection Forestry and the planning-projecting, building and maintenance Agroforestry Potential in Egypt expenses and such problems, that are hard to solve Abdelwahab B. El-Sayed or expensive. Also cause ecological damages hard to Alexandria University, Forest tree Dept., Aflaton St., El- improve and cause loss of forests. in this study we Shatby, Alexandria, Egypt discuss the utilization of geographical information Tel: 203-5971960, FAX: 203-5972780, Email: system technique in stages of planning forest road Keywords: Silviculture; Egypt; Agroforestry; Arid network and the point that we have arrived about land this topic in our country. This paper briefly describes the silviculture of forest The planning studies of forest roads in our country trees on the arid lands of Egypt, the roles they can with using geographical information system has still play and the products they provide. The at the academic level. We exposed the results of management of protection plantations (sand-dune usage geographical information system technique fixation, windbreaks, shelterbelts, etc) with about determination of terrain evaluation for forest particular reference to sand-dune fixation is road routes, determination of forest road routes, described. The main objective of management is determination of forest roads loads and forest road sustainable protection. Production or other roles buildings in studies of planning forest roads, that we should be considered as by-products of sustainable have done in last three years. protection, but the income they give should General Directoried of Forestry started the studies contribute to maintenance. The second part of the of systematic forest road network planning in 1964 paper deals with the agroforestry potential in the and completed them in 1974. in this studies, only arid region of Egypt and begins with a definition of the productive forest area took into account and total agroforestry. The benefits obtained from road length planned as 144425 km. in recenst years, agroforestry in arid lands are discussed and a review the improvement of forestry techniques, the wants of the different traditional agroforestry systems is of rational forestry and the results guided after the made. Finally, the paper discusses what should be application of the plans. According to the new plans done to improve and to extend agroforestry in total road length is planned as 201810 km. At the Egypt. end of the year 1998 the 65.75 % of this, 132693 km is constructed. Research area is between the boundaries of Trabzon Regional Forestry Headquarters, Macka Forest Enterprise. The research area; Ormanüstü planning unit is Education, Research and Application forest of Karadeniz Technical University, Forestry Faculty.

61 Division 3 The stand type symbols are appointed to polygons drove the skidder and it moved from the landing to for building database on the stand type digital map. the harvesting site. The layer that involves stand typesi combines with The skidder operator assistant was also on it. The the layers involve compartment boundaries and skidder sometimes moved constructing skidding rivers so that the digital stand map is formed for roads. At the harvesting site, the assistant pulled out Ormanüstü planning unit. in studies for preparing a winch rope and attached it to a log, while the the forest road network plan first evaluating of operator was driving the winch drum. Then, the terrain were done for forest road routes. For this, the skidder operator pulled in the winch rope and the terrain data were collected from different layers of log was carried to the skidder while the assistant geographical information system database and was walking or running to the skidder. After that, suitable and non-suitable areas were determined by the skidder moved to the landing carrying the log. spatial queries. After this, forest road networks plan When it reached the landing, the assistant got off the alternatives were formed. in these plans, the road skidder and removed the log form the winch rope. loads and requirements of water constructions were Then, the same cycle was repeated again for another determined. As a result, the optimal road network log. To investigate work loads, we used watch-type plan is formed according to the evaluation that is heart rate memories which measured heart rates of made between two alternative. workers at five-second intervals. Furthermore, The built two forest road network plan is evaluated WBGT, an index of thermal conditions of the work by using Geographical Information System database environment, was measured to clarify work and analysis, this was impossible by the other conditions. classic methods. This showed advantages of using On the first day, 17 trees, whose total volume is system in alternative forest road network planing 165.1 m3, were felled and cut by two workers, such operations. as the chainsaw operator and his assistant. Total time to fell and cut these trees was 5:48:55 A study on the productivity and work excluding lunch time and the productivity was loads of natural forest harvesting in found to be 28.4 m3/hour. On the next day, 13 logs, Central Kalimantan whose total volume was 86.0 m3, were harvested Seca Gandaseca, Tetsuhiko Yoshimura from the natural forest. Total time to harvest these Bogor Agricultural University, Faculty of Forestry, PO logs was 6:19:35 excluding lunch time and the Box 168, 16001 Bogor, Indonesia productivity was found to be 13.6 m3/hour. The Tel: +62-251-628145, FAX: +62-251-621256, Email: work loads of the chainsaw operator and his [email protected] assistant were found very high. On the other hand, Keywords: Harvesting; Productivity; Work loads; the work loads of the skidder operator were lower WBGT; Indonesia than those of the other workers. The observed It is necessary that productive, ergonomically sound WBGT was very high on the forest road while it and environmentally friendly harvesting systems was moderate in the forest. Noise caused by the should be introduced to Indonesian forestry. The chainsaw and skidder was very hard for the objective of this research is to study and improve operator. Therefore, operators should use ear muffs the productivity, work loads, noise and vibration in to avoid damage to his ears although most of natural forest harvesting for the sake of forestry operators are not accustomed to using them. workers and company profit. in addition, Vibration of the chainsaw and skidder was also very environmental aspects of natural forest harvesting hard for the operator. We suggest that chainsaw and were also investigated, as few natural forests are left skidder operators should not be exposed to vibration in Indonesia nowadays and such forests are regarded continuously for long time and that they should as important for the ecosystem and global wear gloves of good quality. environment. For these purposes, we conducted the Finally, we would like to suggest some points to following research in Central Kalimantan in August reduce environmental impacts caused by logging in 1998. natural forests. Main roads should be narrower and We measured the productivity, work loads and work landings should be smaller. Trees far from main conditions during felling and cutting trees in the roads or other trees harvested should not be cut and natural forest on the first day. We also measured the should remain, which would reduce skidding roads same during natural forest harvesting on the next and even harvesting costs. Log length should be day. This work was done by two workers, such as a adjusted or should be shorter in order to reduce skidder operator and his assistant. First, the operator environmental impacts caused by logging and to enhance productivity. Winch systems should be

62 Division 3 improved so that logs can be collected from longer "guincho arrastador", in the same period, will be distance, which could reduce skidding roads and used in 34.4% of the areas, extracting 25730 m3 of even environmental impacts. More buffer zones wood. Therefore, the obtaining of those information should be necessary along riparian and protection together the information of revenue of the areas, as such areas are known as environmentally equipments propitiate to the planner to determine sensitive. with larger precision the need of equipments for harvest areas, seeking a better alocation of the Allocation of Equipment of Forest resources. Extraction by Use of the Geographical System of Information (GIS) Design of an Integrated Forest Eduardo da Silva Lopes, Flávio Lopes Rodrigues, Carlos Management System for Madhya Cardoso Machado, Amaury Paulo de Souza Pradesh: Towards Sustainable Forestry Forest Science of the UFV - Vicosa, 36571-000 Vicosa, Ted E.W. Robak, Ragnar Oborn Minais Gerais, Brazil University of New Brunswick, Faculty of Forestry and Email: [email protected] Environmental Management, The objectives of that work went use the Post Box # 44555, E3B 6C2 Fredericton, New Brunswick, Canada Geographical System of Information (GIS) as tool Tel: 506 453-4932, FAX: 506 453-3538, Email: in the aid to the location of the productive units of a [email protected] structure approximately regulated and the allocation of the "Forwarder" and "Guincho Arrastador" in the The Madhya Pradesh Forest Department (MPFD) is operation of forest extraction. The work was responsible for the management of the forest accomplished using a map in the scale of 1:10.000 resources of the State of Madhya Pradesh, a serious of a project of reforestation of Eucalyptus of a forest obligation given the extent of these forests and their company of Brazil. The project with total area of importance to all the people of the State. Besides 441,81 it is characterized by wavy medium relief, providing revenues to state coffers, these forests are presenting polygons of different sizes and ages. essential to the welfare of millions of rural and tribal Using the program IDRISI (EASTMAN, 1997), communities and the integrity of natural version 2.0 for Windows, the entrance of the data ecosystems. Responsible, sustainable forest was proceeded by means of a rasterization using a management is the goal of MPFD. Forest mesh of cells of 3 mm x 3 mm, in way to produce sustainability involves the maintenance or digital maps of use of the soil, streams, roads and improvement of environmental, economic and social level curves. Soon after the control method was values. It is recognized that these forest values have used by area for definition of the compartments of not been adequately maintained in Madhya Pradesh. annual harvest. It was established the slope limit of Some of the major factors that have contributed the up to 15§ for the allocation of the "Forwarder" and deteriorating situation include: above 15§ for the "Guincho arrastador". Initially a - a rapidly increasing population growth and map of interpolated relief was produced, calculated resulting biotic pressures; its slope and reclassification in two slope class as - an over-emphasis on timber production in the described previously. The map of use of the soil management goals; went reclass to obtaining of the Eucalyptus areas - inadequate knowledge of forest processes and their that will be harvest annually, and soon after, it was valued outputs; made the overlap of these maps with the maps of the - a lack of strategic, tactical and operational areas adapted for each equipment, in way to obtain a management tools that are needed to plan, general map with all the areas adapted for the implement, monitor and control forestry activities in allocate of the equipments in the polygons that will a complex decision-making environment. be harvest annually and of the areas of forest The objectives of forest management in the State reservation and of permanent preservation. As a have evolved to reflect a more holistic result of this work, it was obtained a digital map of understanding of the value of forests to society. The the project contends the delimit of all the areas of challenge for MPFD is to translate broad objectives forest preservation, permanent preservation, into strategies, tactics and practices that can be streams, roads and Eucalyptus polygons. It was implemented and controlled in the context of the obtained the annual area and the wood volume to be resources and time available. This can only be annually extracted for the equipments. However, it accomplished through a process involving effective was verified that the "Forwarder" will be used in planning, organization, monitoring and evaluation 65.6% of the harvest areas, extracting a total volume 3 of all of the important activities of the Department. of 51498 m of wood for five years, while the The MP Forest Department has initiated a project

63 Division 3 aimed at producing the information required for forest operation budgeting should be supported by such a management process. concrete reports. The Forest Management Information System An appropriate management plan in advanced must (FMIS) initiative involves the design and be a fact for the global addressing of all the development of information and decision support activities to be carried out within a forest scenario. systems to support the management functions of all This management plan will ensure that all the Wings and levels of the Department. This paper, activities considered in it will be environmentally however, focuses on technology that will be used to appropriate, socially beneficial and economically enhance the sustainable forest management viable. As well, it will consider the long, medium capabilities of the organization: an integrated forest and short-term status for the managers to plan in management system (IFMS). advance and coordinate these planning phases. An IFMS is a suite of models and information This paper deals with the development of an systems designed to support the major long, medium integrated system for the decision-making support in and short-term decision-making needs of forest the use of machinery in forest operations that are managers. IFMSs are intended to ensure that short- included within a management plan. Specially it term (operational), medium-term (tactical) and long- deals with how the GIS used (CARIS¸ of Universal term (strategic) decision processes are linked in such Systems, Ltd) helps in the evaluation of a way that there is continuity of management management unit features and characteristics related decisions across all forest units and over all time to machinery selection information. The parameters horizons. These linkages are accomplished by defined were: slope, ground strength, ground means of the integrated design and development of roughness, forest road density and machinery databases, models, information and decision support available on the market. After the GIS has analyzed systems and related technologies such as geographic the management unit parameter, a connection with information systems (GIS). an integrated forestry management system (IFMS¸ of FORCE/Robak Associates Ltd) is necessary to Analyses of the management decision-making needs obtain a unique interface that specifies the spatial at MPFD have been undertaken by consultants from data onto a mapping basis. India and Canada. A design is presented that is based upon these analyses and experience from 3.05.00 Forest operations in the tropics previous IFMS research and implementation projects. Although based upon existing IFMS and GIS technologies, the actual system for MPFD will Long-Term Effects of Logging in Wet incorporate improved features and capabilities, and Dry Forests in Ghana including closer integration between the IFMS and Viktor Agyeman, Hawthorne, W. and Abu-Juam M. Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, University Box 63, GIS and linkages to other sub-systems of the FMIS. Kumasi, Ghana FAX: 233-51-60121, Email: [email protected] The implementation of integrated systems to optimize the use of Exploitation of timber resources in Ghana is based on the removal of single trees of economic species machinery in forest operations scattered over a given area of the forest. Felling C. Vila, Marcos Martin, F . operations results in the removal of up to 3 trees ha-1 Spain in wet and dry forests which affects up to 13% of During the past ten years forest managers and forest the total area. Assessment of the impact of logging organizations worldwide have been looking at have in the past focussed on only the short-term sustainable forest management as a concept to effects. The long-term impacts of logging, introduce in their forestry practices and principles. especially on the regeneration of economic tree Sustainability refers to not only forest structure species, are unknown. Such data is neccessary to itself but also resources, people and other type of formulate appropriate harvesting control measures. land that closely stand by the forest habitat. These Data on long term ecological impacts of logging other components of the forestry management was collected using permanent sample plots (PSPs). environment have to be considered while planning A total of 12 one ha. PSPs in wet and dry forests forest management. in fact, scientific/technical were selected on the basis of availability of adequate forest management should be undertaken for a better records of past logging history. PSPs were also reporting on sustainable concepts, which means that selected such that their last year of logging falls into forest information, forest planning projection and one of three ranges namely: short term (5-10 years old); medium term (15-20 years old); and long term

64 Division 3

(greater than 20 years old). The results indicate that The experiment was established 1992. The plots whereas logging disturbance and tree damage levels were logged and enumerated for a second time in are acceptable in the short term, regeneration of 1993, and since then they have been enumerated economic tree species is low in the long-term. The every second year. For trees above 10 cm dbh composition of the regeneration after logging, even enumeration is done on the total area of the net plot. in the long-term, does not necessarily mirror the For saplings, seedlings and germlings, the area current composition of the mature trees. This drift in invented is reduced. Some preliminary results will forest composition may not be a problem if efforts be available for presentation at the IUFRO-world are successful in generating a market for a wider congress 2000. range of timber species, including lesser used The feasibility of directional felling and pre-felling species. The highly variable and patchy nature of climber cutting was investigated in a preparatory species regeneration even in the long term draws field study. Professional fellers and local fellers attention to the importance of seed trees and timing were compared. Impact on accuracy in felling, no. of logging in relation to seed fall. It is suggested that of damaged trees in residual stand and gap size was more attention to the forest cycle is needed to investigated. enhance regeneration of desirable species. The paper concludes with recommendations on fine tuning the felling cycle, yield allocation procedures and Reduced Impact Logging Using Long harvesting controls in Ghana. Haulage Cable Systems in Hill Production Forest in Peninsular Growth, yield and mortality after Malaysia improved Selective Logging in Tropical Shamsudin Ibrahim, Ismail Harun, Chong Phang Fee & S. Appanah Rain Forest of Sabah, Malaysia. Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong, Jan Falck, Trevor S. Udarbe 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Swedish University of Agriculture Sciences, S-90187 Email: [email protected] Umea, Sweden Tel: +46-90-7865884, FAX: +46-90-7867669, Email: Currently logging activities in Peninsular Malaysia [email protected] are confined to hilly areas characterized by difficult In all commercial usage of the Tropical Rain terrain and sensitive environments. Poor logging Forests, the harvesting intensity and the technical practices, e. g., using heavy machinery (crawler- quality of the harvesting procedure are crucial for tractor methods), are very damaging to the forest sustainable timber production. This study focuses on and often lead to massive environmental damage the response of the residual stand to operational such as soil erosion and high sedimentation in river planning and pre-logging treatments. The field study systems that reduce water quality. Additionally, the is a comparative experiment using a complete residual crop gets heavily damaged and the overall randomised block design where the long term biodiversity is reduced. Therefore, the current effects of four modes of selective harvesting are logging practices in Peninsular Malaysia need to be evaluated; modified to comply to ITTO's Criteria and unsupervised logging Indicators for sustainable forest management before unsupervised logging with pre-felling climber- the year 2000. in achieving this objective, attempts cutting have been made to review ground skidding pre-marked skid trails and directional felling techniques currently employed in logging operations pre-marked skid trails, directional felling and pre- in hill forests. A pilot study has been undertaken by felling climber-cutting FRIM to test an alternative logging method suitable and no logging, i.e. virgin forest as control. for hilly areas. The new method proved to be cheaper and less damaging to the forest and There are four replicates of each treatment which environment, with only a few modifications to the result in a total of 20 permanent plots. Each gross existing machinery used. The report highlights the plot is 5.8 ha, with a net plot of one ha in the central methodology of the new logging method and the part, climber cutting, where allotted, was carried out reduction in damage to the soil and residual stand. one year ahead of logging, and the net plots were enumerated before logging. Logging has been done at full intensity. The entire commercial and accessible volume was logged i.e. all trees of commercial tree species with a diameter above 60 cm were harvested, according to the forest law of Sabah.

65 Division 3 - in view of the improved processing techniques An Assessment of Hollow Logs and (e.g. finger jointing) the quality standards for logs Other Logging Residues from suitable for log sales have to be changed. Deramakot Forest Reserve, Sabah, - The concept of logging residue utilisation has to be Malaysia promoted. Education of forestry workers, field staff James Josue, Zamrie Imiyabir & Michael Trockenbrodt of the Forestry Department and of the license Forest Research Centre, Dept. Forestry, Post Box # 1407, holders has to be started in order to change their 90712 Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia attitude with regard to log quality. A different salary Tel: 60-89-531522, FAX: 60-89-531068, Email: system for tree fellers has to be developed and [email protected] implemented. They should be encouraged to extract as much timber as possible within the cutting limits Sabah is in the process of implementing sustainable and not discouraged as it is currently the case. forest management practices in all its natural forest - Recovery studies should be started to determine reserves. The management system model was the amount of sawn timber produced from hollow developed by the Malaysian-German Sustainable log parts unsuitable for log sale and from other Forest Management Project at the Forestry logging residues. Department and tested in the Deramakot Forest - Feasibility studies (technical, economic), which Reserve. During logging operations it was observed cover the same area, should be started. that the number of hollow logs was very high. Although marked for harvesting, these hollow logs Harvesting Impacts of Tractor and Cable are usually not felled. The fellers test the trees by logging Systems in Dipterocarp Forests, pushing the blade of the chain saw vertically into Peninsular Malaysia the stem. in some cases, a hollow stem is assumed, S. Sasaki, Yamada T., Oikawa R., Ahmad S., Adnan A. if a crown shows large defects like broken branches Japan International Research Center for Agricultural and a highly reduced number of leaves. The fellers Sciences, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia and sawyers at the log landing cut off large parts of Tel: +60-3-637-2136, FAX: +60-3-637-2136, Email: the top and lower portions of hollow logs. [email protected] According to forest management plan for With the objective of attaining the sustainable forest Deramakot, the annual allowable cut (AAC) is 3 management for tropical natural forests, it is 20,000 m. After a compartment is harvested, the imperative to reduce the impacts of harvesting on compartment is closed for many years. If the the forest environment. in the selective cutting amount of timber extracted from one compartment operation, the residual trees and forest floor are decreases considerably due to a high number of easily damaged by felling and hauling operations. hollow trees, other compartment have to be opened This is especially so in conventional crawler-tractor earlier than planned. logging, where the hauling damage can be Thus, if a forest is to be managed sustainably, we prominent, while using cable systems can reduce must optimize the use of available resources and disturbance. We compared conventional crawler reduce the logging waste. A study on the utilization tractor logging to cable logging for harvesting of hollow logs and other logging residues was impacts. The observations showed more than 50 initiated. First, it was evaluated how much timber percent of the conventional harvested area was can be extracted from trees regarded as hollow by disturbed by logging operations. Soil disturbances the fellers. Secondly, the amount of timber which is were characterized as "mineral soil exposed with considered as timber of low quality (hollow stem heavy compaction", "mineral soil exposed with light parts, upper stem parts, top portions, big branches) compaction", "mineral soil partially exposed", or was determined. At the same time it was tested "mineral soil not exposed". According to the study, whether the methods used for the detection of the areas classified as "mineral soil exposed with hollow stems are reliable. heavy compaction", and "mineral soil exposed with light compaction" when associated with steep Some results of the study are: gradient, were likely to remain uncovered with - A high percentage of logs presently considered as vegetation for an extended time. The components hollow and left in the forest still contains large that contribute to such disturbances were amounts of usable timber. construction of landings, steep gradient roads, or - The methods for determination of hollow logs or heavy traffic on skid trails. Using a cable logging the extent of the hollow are not reliable and have to system can contribute to reducing the area of be improved. disturbance. Cable logging differs from conventional logging in that it doesn't use tractors

66 Division 3 which need constructed skid trails We have road density in the multi-story forest area was established a 30 ha research plot for a cable logging estimated at 26.5 m/ha. This density is likely to using a mobile system in Compartment 51, Jengai change considerably depending on estimated Forest Reserve, Terengganu, Malaysia. Tail spar maintenance and administrative costs. Therefore, trees are chosen to avoid having machines work on costs in the tropical area is a critical factor which steep slopes, and to minimize road construction. The will determine the level of any permanent forest results obtained from the investigation of the cable road networks for sustainable forest management. logging system will be discussed in this paper. 3.06.00 Forest operations under Forest Operation and Forest-road mountainous conditions Networks Design in Multi-Storied Forest Management in Peninsular Malaysia Roaded Stream Crossings Decrease Isao Sawaguchi Productivity in Forest Transport Iwate University, Faculty of Agriculture, 020-8550 Oscar Bustos, Marcelo Hernandez Morioka, Iwate, Japan University of Talca, Forest Engineering Department, Tel: +81-1966216233, FAX: +81-1966216234, Email: Casilla 747, Talca, Chile [email protected] Tel: (56) 71-200380, FAX: (56) 71-200455, Email: [email protected] "The Multi-storied Forest Management Project" is practiced in Perak State, Peninsula Malaysia, as a The transport of forest products can be delayed part of the Japan International Cooperation when trucks must travel over difficult terrain. Many Association project. The purpose of this study was forest roads are intersected by permanent streams, to promote the development of the multi-storied where the water usually is diverted through pipes, forests by establishing techniques for felling and but sometimes also across the roads. in many cases, hauling the upper-story tree, Acacia mangium. culverts may fail because maintenance is lacking. Seventy months have passed since the planting of A. This situation produces a severe loss of soil from the mangium upper-story trees, which have grown 233 road and further downstream, and the accumulation m3/ha in volume. S. leprosula thirty-five months of excess moisture may also decrease the support after planting lower-story trees have reached 5.54 m capacity of these roads. in height. However, as the ratio of height to basal Our goal was to quantify the effects that roaded diameter exceeds 100: 1, trees are strongly tapered. stream crossings have on soil loss and, To reduce damage to lower-story trees, a backhoe subsequently, on transport productivity. The study and an agricultural tractor were added to the logging area was located in a forested zone called "Vista system. Hermosa", which belongs to Forest Licancel From the results of logging, the damage ratio Industry S.A. The site included 1187 ha of 24-year- old Pinus radiata D. Don, with an average stand estimation of the lower-story trees was simulated by 3 using the Monte Carlo method. The damage ratio volume of 350 m per ha, and a road density of 18 differed considerably, depending on planting m/ha. patterns, height of upper-story trees and felling Four road situations were considered: 1) Stream that skills. The results of this survey proved that the is crossed by a road with truck traffic; 2) Control: a felling and hauling of upper-story trees would be road with traffic but which is not crossed by any technically feasible in the future, except when one stream; 3) Stream crossed by a road, but which has row upper-story trees and one row lower-story trees no truck traffic; and 4) Control: a road which is not method were employed. The labor productivity was crossed by a stream and which also has no truck 2.36 m3/person-day in multi-storied plot, 2.85 traffic. Each situation was replicated five times. m3/person-day in a four-row plot, and 3.86 Data from each situation were collected in sample m3/person-day in an eight-row plot. The decrease in plots located around cut-and-fill areas and road labor productivity for multi-storied forest embankments. in addition, we estimated the loss in management was caused by the difference in cutting transport productivity, based on average truck speed row number. The presence of the lower-story tree and the amount of time that different truck types did not affect productivity much. Felling, delimbing would be detained in each of these situations. The 3 situation of a stream crossed by truck traffic and bucking costs were estimated at 12 US$/m , 3 skidding costs at 7 US$/m3 and transportation costs produced the largest amount of soil loss (55.66 m at 28 US$/m3 on a whole. The results of the trial per plot). upper-story tree felling and hauling in the survey The least amount of soil was lost from the control clearly proved that logging of the upper-story tree (no stream, but with traffic; 14 m3 per plot). We would be technically possible. The optimum forest attribute these results to the effect of water coursing

67 Division 3 over the road. Transport productivity was 5 to 6% - to identify significant relationships between less in the stream-with-traffic situation. When these pattern and process of heterogeneous mosaics in values are applied to a fleet of 10 single trucks and forest patches over time; 10 trucks with trailers, the average number of lost - to develop indices of spatial pattern derived from turns per month could be 33.6 and 28.8, information theory, fractal geometry, and GIS respectively, which is equivalent to 1140 m3 of techniques for measuring fragmentation; and wood. Our study demonstrates that it is possible to - to describe aspects of forest fragmentation that estimate the real effect that water on the road can result from timber harvesting and subsequent have on truck speed, and on productivity. coniferous plantation practices. Keywords: environmental factors; forest road; soil A 22-year (1974-1996) trend analysis of forest loss; truck transport. patterns was made by using orthophotography to transfer forest cover types, interpreted from aerial Quantitative Analysis of Fragmented photographs, into image positions, and also for Forest Landscape Patterns Resulting creating a digital elevation model (DEM). Using a from Timber Harvesting Practices: Geographic Information System (GIS), we digitized Identifying Key Processes of Harvesting the base maps and prepared separate transparent overlays for the two photo sets. Each patch was then Alternatives for Maintaining Landscape classified according to cover during each period. Stability The location, size, and shape of each patch were Masami Shiba further recorded as polygons for subsequent spatial Kyoto University, Graduate School of Agriculture, Kitashirakawa, Oiwake-cyo, Sakyo-ku, 606-8502 Kyoto, analysis with the GIS. Japan We used four groups of statistics to quantify Tel: +81-75-753-6441, FAX: +81-75-753-6451, Email: landscape heterogeneity and pattern of the patches [email protected] as they appeared in 1974 and in 1996. These groups Most forest landscapes have been influenced by were: 1) size, 2) abundance, 3) shape, and 4) land-management activities. The outcome is a spacing. Patch size was expressed in terms of the mosaic of natural and managed forest patches that average patch area and perimeter. Shape was vary in size, shape, and arrangement. Landscape measured in three ways: 1) edge density, 2) fractal fragmentation is the process of creating an dimension, and 3) diversity index. Edge density was increasingly complex mosaic of patches that result simply the ratio of patch perimeter to patch area. from disturbances such as human activity. Scientists The fractal dimension was estimated by regressing have studied the effects of fragmented forest the logarithm of patch area on its corresponding log- landscapes on wildlife and other terrestrial and/or transformed perimeter. The diversity index was also aquatic ecosystem characteristics, and have calculated by using a perimeter-area relationship. suggested alternative management approaches. Patch abundance included a measure of density and However, these management alternatives have not the percent of land in patches. Patch spacing was been quantitatively evaluated because of the characterized by measures of the mean nearest- inherent difficulties in conducting landscape-level neighbor distance and a measure of dispersion. experiments. This is because landscapes are Patch abundance and spacing measures provided spatially heterogeneous, and their structure, function considerable information on major patterns of forest and changes are scale-dependent. While landscape dynamics over time. Size and shape fragmentation will continue in most forest indices contributed information on specific landscapes (as the result of timber-harvesting characteristics of the individual patches. These practices), its effects must be alleviated through new parameters may be useful for applications designed insights into management strategies, as well as by to study specific interior and edge habitats, or in modifying management alternatives based on determining prescriptions for forest cutting patterns landscape perspectives. and/or cutting-unit size. This article reviews the use of spatial statistics to Keywords: forest patch; GIS; landscape quantify forest-landscape fragmentation caused by fragmentation; spatial pattern; timber harvesting. timber harvesting practices over 60 years (1921- 1981) in the Kyoto University Forests. The objectives of the research were:

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3.07.00 Ergonomics 1+2 An Analysis of the Aerobic Capacity and Physical Working Load in Chain Saw An Overview of Logging Safety Operators at a Brazilian Forest Programs in the USA Company Cornelius de Hoop Amaury Paulo de Souza, Luciano José Minetti Louisiana State University Agricultural Center, Louisiana Universidade Federal de Vicosa, Departamento de Forest Products Laboratory Engenharia Florestal, 36571-000 Vicosa-MG., Brazil School of Forestry, Wildlife & Fisheries, LA 70803-6202 Tel: +055 31 899 2478, Email: [email protected] Baton Rouge, USA Tel: 225-388-4242, FAX: 225-388-4251, Email: This study was based on data from a paper and [email protected] cellulose company in the State of Sao Paulo, Brazil. A strong interest has developed throughout the USA Its main objective was to evaluate the operator's to reduce logging accidents and assist loggers with physical capacity as well as his working load. The safety programs. Driven by accident costs, liability universe of this research consisted of chain saw issues, a desire to improve public image and the operators in forest cutting who were developing the threat of additional environmental regulations, the following activities: felling, delimbing, logging, forest products industry has developed a pro-active stack and stump lowering. in general 85 chain saw role in assisting loggers with the education they operators were randomly sampled, and 51 from need to reduce accidents while improving the those attaining 60% of the total to compose the quality of their work. While the goals of logging study on aerobic capacity. According to the obtained safety are the same throughout the country, the results it was concluded that: the highest average methodology to achieve those goals varies. aerobic capacity in the population of chain saw Attitudes vary from voluntary programs sponsored operators was equal to 2.93 1 O2/min, or or 43.59 ml entirely by industry to stricter regulation by O2/kg.min or or 14.80 kcal/min. The maximum government. working load for chain saw operators was equal to 14.80 kcal/min while the useful aerobic capacity Most of the states with a significant amount of was 4.90 kcal/min. Stacking was that activity forest industry have some sort of logging safety performed by the chain saw operator showing the program. Many states (particularly in the southeast) highest average energy consumption (8.58 kcal/min) have programs operated by non-profit organizations and it was classified as an excessively hard work. to educate loggers. Some states make greater use of Felling, delimbing and logging with an average government regulation and government agencies to consumption of 6.58; 7.30 and 7.02 kcal/min do the job, an idea that is generally untenable in the respectively were classified as a heavy work. The minds of loggers and many other people, especially study indicated that along the working time the in rural areas. Although there is a lack of uniformity operator can perform a highest working load of 4.90 in the methodology for tackling the logger safety kcal/min (2,352.0 kcal/day) without physical issues, this is generally seen as good. The situation overloading. and social culture in each state is a little different, so each state has seized the opportunity to solve the The Human Factor in Forest Operations problem in their own way. Loggers and related Research forestry associations in all of the states are hoping John J. Garland that their initiatives will be recognized by Oregon State University, OR 97331 Corvallis, USA lawmakers and prevent unnecessary new laws and Tel: +1 541 737 3128, FAX: +1 541 737 4316, Email: regulations. [email protected] In this paper, some typical logging safety programs Keywords: ergonomics; human subjects; variation; are described. research; forest operations Describes the sources and magnitude of variability attributed to human subjects in forest operations research. The research environment of forest operations is characterized as different from other scientific study fields. Reviews human differences contributing to variability in research studies, e.g., sex, anthropometric differences, age, etc. Task differences are noted and the need for a task analysis emphasized. Attitudes, behaviors, and cultural

69 Division 3 differences are discussed. Special emphasis is given decisions: environmental, economic, safety, health, to research involving learning effects, learning and personal decisions. As a small community of curves, and experimental trials. Some experimental forest operations researchers, the belief in the need designs are critiqued and the sample sizes for to improve is only likely to be supported by internal hypothesis testing are examined. Concludes with and peer commitment. Researchers cannot ignore some practical considerations, improvements from the variation due to humans in forest operations ergonomic research and suggestions for better research. research for scientists. Until robots are commonly used for forest New Ergonomic Principles when operations, humans performing important tasks Assessing Forest Machines present substantial challenges to researchers Sten Gellerstedt studying these operations. Not all researchers Faculty of Forestry, Swedish University of Agricultural appreciate these difficulties and frequently make Sciences, Department of Forest Management and Products, Box 7060, SE 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden conclusions unwarranted by the limitations of the Tel: 46 18 673818, FAX: 46 18 673800, Email: research. Without large scale research efforts [email protected] involving substantial numbers of operators (perhaps in excess of 35-40 for a study), most reports of A new ergonomic guideline handbook to the design findings involving humans would need to be and assessment of forest machines has been considered case studies, limited to the operating completed in the Nordic countries. Its purpose is to conditions of study area, operations and specific assist manufacturers when developing new operators. equipment and help improve the machine operators' awareness of good design. The guidelines are Sources of variation come from the research mostly functional regarding the operator workplace, environment for forest operations, from the controlling the machine and its tools, and machine-human interface, from the tasks maintenance work. The guide's striven is to improve themselves, from the learning effects or experience the earning capacity of mechanised forestry of workers, from attitudes and motivation resulting operations by meeting the demands of the operators in behaviors, from the culture, and what can be on health, safety and well-being. About 100 collectively described as human differences. organisations in the Nordic countries were involved Examples of these human differences include: in the developing of the guidelines. As a foundation, Gender/sex a comprehensive scientific review was done Race regarding work in heavy-duty terrain vehicles. The Population/anthropometric differences new classification system is based on the work task Intelligence/education and the conditions in which the machinery is to be Literacy used. The principle is that work in a forest machine Age should give about the same impact on the operator's Cardiovascular fitness health and well-being, regardless how the machine Other sources of variation can be identified as well. is rated. This requires the machine to be used The magnitude of variation for human performance according it's designed purpose, and that is shown in sports competition and selected studies consideration is taken to work rate, time worked and to be on the order of 6-300%. A Task Analysis is the difficulty of the work. If e.g. a machine is seen as helpful in making research comparable. Five uneasy to use, the operator's time at the controls strategies are discussed to aid researchers with this should be reduced. issue of human variation. Keywords: Good design, manufacturing, purchasing Control the variation aid, health and safety. Measure the variation Use randomization strategies Explain the sources of variation Ignore the variation There is a tendency to continue with the status quo in all forms of human activities. Little pressure actually exists not to simply ignore sources of human variation in forest operations research. However, researchers do so in peril because wrong scientific conclusions are the basis for important

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measurement procedure was in accordance with the A research into the changes of ISO 7182. As at vibrations measurement, for each ergonomic characteristics of some rotational frequency five independent measurement chain saws during their usually values were taken. Again, the measurement results expected service life are presented in tables and diagrams. D. Vlado Goglia, Marjan Lipoglavsek, Stjepan Puljak The research has shown that there are almost no The University of Zagreb, Faculty of Forestry, indications of significant changes of the investigated Svetosimunska 25, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia ergonomic chain saws characteristics during the FAX: +385 - 1 - 230 22 88, Email: four-year normal operating period. This conclusion [email protected] suggests the necessity of monitoring the main The paper presents results of the research carried out ergonomic characteristics of the motor chain saws into the operating time influence on noise and during operation. vibration levels of motor chain saws.. The research was carried out on the sample of 32 (16 Stihl 038 Partially Autonomous Groups in Forest and 16 Husqvarna 266SG) chain saws in order to Work in Germany - A Challenge to Meet find out the possible changes that may occur during New Demands for Work Organisation in the four years operation period of the saws. For that Forestry reason the tested sample included chain saws that Edgar Kastenholz, Ewa Lidén, Siegfried Lewark had been in normal operation for one, two, three and Büro für Arbeitsschutz und Arbeitsgestaltung, four years. All tested saws were used in the same Leimbachweg 10a, 79283 Bollschweil, Germany operating conditions during which they had been Email: [email protected] maintained in the same way. Measurements were Significant changes are taking place in German carried out on normal production saws randomly forestry. These changes have considerable impact on chosen. Previous to testing all saws were examined the organisation of forest work. and adjusted in accordance with the producer's recommendations. - Forest companies and state forest services are reorganising their structure, forest districts and The vibrations transmitted to the hands of the chain saw operator were measured in accordance with ISO management areas are getting larger. 7505 measuring procedures. Prior to measurements, - The number of forest workers employed by forest the saws have been run and warmed. in accordance owners - the traditional model in German forestry - with the experiment plan the vibration is constantly being reduced. in some forest districts measurements on front and rear handle were carried there are no employed forest workers left at all. out. All three axes were measured simultaneously. - Contract labour becomes more and more important During measurement unweighted accelerometer in Germany. Information on the implications of signals from each of the three orthogonal directions outsourcing, migrant labour and precarious working were recorded on the tape recorder. The analysis of conditions is scarce. the recorded signals was made in laboratory conditions using a computer aided frequency Most of the German forest workers are well trained. analyzer. Vibrations at the front and rear handle They are predominantly professional forest workers, were measured at the following working conditions: having passed a three-year-apprenticeship. It can be assumed that their skills and knowledge in many a) idling rotational frequency cases are far beyond the requirements of their recent b) at full load - at the speed at maximum power tasks. c) at racing - at an engine speed which is 133 % of A diminishing workforce and rising professional the speed at maximum engine power demands, particularly resulting from changes in the objectives of silvicultural concepts, might lead to For each handle and for each rotational frequency conflicts and problems, which may possibly not be five independent measurement values were taken. solved by conventional changes in work After the 1/3 octave band frequency analysis the weighted accelerations as well as the WAS values organisation strategies, such as outsourcing and mechanisation. for each rotational frequency were calculated. The measurements results are presented in tables and One way to counteract is to develop groups of forest diagrams. workers into partially autonomous teams. It can be anticipated, that the implementation of teamwork in The noise level emitted by the chain saws at the partially autonomous groups will lead to job same working conditions was measured too. The enrichment and an increase of competence. Another

71 Division 3 expected result of partially autonomous groups is 8778 measured data or 24,3 hours were analysed. that the employees develop a closer identification The widely used types of chain saws of the middle with the enterprise. This usually results in higher job power class (mostly Husqvarna 254 and Jonsered satisfaction, which in turn promotes the 670) were investigated. The fuel mix of normal achievement of the enterpriseïs objectives. benzine and conventional (4-5%) or special (2%) Furthermore, a contribution to the improvement of two-cycle motor oil was used. Working operations: the working conditions is to be expected. felling, limbing, crosscutting simultaneously with Pilot projects have been initiated in order to measuring lengths were made by chain saw. implement partially autonomous groups in German The CO concentration near respiratory tract of forest forestry in a standardised way with external worker with chain saw lies most of the time during moderation, following a concept developed in chain saw operations under MAC of 30 ppm (0 - 15 Swedish forestry. Progress and outcome of these ppm). But in short time intervals it can reach the projects are subjects of an extensive research peaks (10 second means) over 250 ppm. This occurs program. A group with five machine operators and mostly during felling, when the workers posture is supervising foresters has been evaluated. Their task bend and his nose is near the chain saw. The is to perform mechanized harvesting with one duration of these peaks is short, the largest peak harvester and one forwarder. over 30 ppm lasted 6 minutes and 40 seconds. CO In this case it could be observed that the group concentration lies over the MAC values up to 10 % members have experienced both job enlargement of investigated time. It occurs more often in mature and job rotation. The supervisors suggest that yet forest at big trees, where felling cut lasts longer. The further tasks could be delegated to the team, e.g. calculated arithmetical means over the duration of work place inspection and handing over the the whole working operation with chain saw were harvested timber to customers. By that, the between 5 and 53 ppm. in the whole working time supervisors can make better use of their own on all working places the mean load was below 30 working capacity for planning and controlling. The ppm, because the time share of chain saw operations group members have become fully aware of their was always relatively small (52 %). The measured big influence on and responsibility for their own time intervals above 30 ppm of CO occur at limbing working conditions. Among others this has (up to 90 ppm) and felling (over 120 ppm) only. increased the job satisfaction. Worker's daily CO loads (4 - 26 ppm) are lower than in other similar studies (Stampfer et a. 1997). They Exhaust gases in the forest are going to were at the vast majority of working places above be a problem in technological transition 7,3 ppm (1/4 of MAC), and therefore measures must Marjan Lipoglavsek be taken to reduce it Investigations of other authors University Ljubljana, Biotechnical Faculty, Departement in Western Europe found similar results on peaks for Forestry and Renewable Forest Resources, Vecna pot and working operations, but their peaks occurred 83, SLO 1111 Ljubljana, Slovenia more often, lasted in some cases over 50 % of Tel: +386-61-123-1161, FAX: +386 61 27 11 69, Email: working time and the calculated working time [email protected] means were under 30 ppm MAC value too, but Keywords: exhaust gas, CO measurement, chain higher than in Slovenia. in the same time the saw, Slovenia, technological transition measurements of CO blood satiation in Germany gave too high values. In the past, no attention was dedicated to exhaust gases as a damaging health factor at forest work. The new studies found that HC (hydrocarbons: Measurements of air concentration of toxic matters benzol, benzopyren et c.) cause different health gave values under MAC (maximal allowed damages, cancer included. This means that the old concentration). Nowadays the CO (carbon MAC for HC are not suitable anymore. The health monoxide) measurements in the short time intervals damages from exhaust gases are important, where prove that the concentrations in some conditions are the chain saw is primarily used at cutting work. The above MAC during a large part of working time. forestry, the forest employers and above all the Too high air concentrations of CO are present at tree forest employees in the countries in transition are felling, at delimbing conifers with large branches not yet ready to pay improvements that producers of and at cutting in dense young forests. chain saws and fuels can make to reduce exhaust gases health damage. Therefore, this is not a In this paper some results of CO measurement at technical problem, but rather an economical one. chain saw cutting on 11 working places in Slovenia are given.

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Comparison of vibrations transmitted to absorbed energy was found with the saddle seat. the operator by a saddle type When the forwarder was driven off the ramp both suspension seat and an original seat in test persons experienced end-stop impacts in all a forwarder three trials with the traditional seat. With the saddle Dianne Staal Wästerlund, Tomas Nordfjell seat only one end-stop impact occurred for one test Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Division of subject. End-stop impact occurs when the Forest Technology, Dept. of Silviculture, S - 901 83 suspension system of the seat reaches it's maximal Umea, Sweden comprised level which exposes the driver to very Tel: +46 - 90 786 58 00, FAX: +46 - 90 786 62 78, high acceleration levels and is therefore accepted as Email: [email protected] a health risk. Ergonomically it is more desirable to drive a vehicle off-road in a standing position. Prolonged sitting 3.08.00 Small-scale forestry leads to disruptions in the blood supply causing mineral losses in the bone tissue of the spine, Twenty years of experience with a cost disturbance in the nutrition supply to the accountancy network in Farm Forest intervertebral discs as well as muscle fatigue in the Enterprises in Baden-Württemberg back. Besides a better blood flow, also the load on Helmut Brandl the discs is 20-40% lower in a standing position Forstliche Versuchsanstalt, Abteilung Betriebswirtschaft, than in a sitting. An elevated seat is however Wonnhalde 4, 79100 Freiburg, Germany required to relieve the strain on the legs. Exposure Tel: 0761-4018 262, FAX: +49 761 4018 333, Email: [email protected] to whole body vibration may accelerate degeneration of discs and increase the risk for The paper contents two main parts. in the first part a herniated discs. Situated on a normal seat, a comparison is made between the requirements for machine operator has no choice but to absorb the establishing and running a cost accountancy vibrations transmitted by the seat. Situated on an network according to the "Guidelines for elevated seat formed like a saddle the machine establishing farm forestry accountancy networks" operator would have the opportunity to rise up while (draft, European Forest Institute, 2000) and the facts keeping balance with the legs and in such a way which happen when establishing and running such a avoid exposure to the vibrations transmitted by the network in the practice. The necessities for a correct seat. and scientific appropriate outline of a network are confronted with the constraints and difficulties when A comparative study was done between a prototype going on work with the forest owners. saddle seat and a traditional seat, each mounted on a identical suspension unit and with identical In the second part the main results of a 20 year suspension settings. The seats were mounted on a running economic survey with an accountancy VIMEK 606D forwarder which was driven by two network in Baden-Württemberg with more than 170 test persons on a test track comprising of a series of participants are presented. This overview will show even size concrete blocks placed at intervals of 0.8 the key figures about profitability, costs, m for the left wheels and 1.2 m for the right wheels. expenditures and revenues in graphs and tables for The forwarder was driven along the track with a the years 1979-1998. This case study shows the speed of 0.35 m/s and 0.51 m/s. advantages of long-term data for analysing the socio-economic situation of farm forests. Also the Also the forwarder was driven off the end of a ramp possibilities for differentiation by regions and size- which was 0.3 m high and 3.4 m long at a speed of classes are mentioned. Some comparisons with 0.51 m/s. Acceleration at the floor and seat was economic results in other types of ownership's measured according to ISO standard 2631. To complete this part. determine absorbed energy, force and acceleration at the seat as well as beneath the feet were measured with a force plate, build by the department of technical hygiene, national institute of working life, Sweden. The results of the driving tests along the test track showed that according to ISO 2631 health and comfort evaluation the saddle seat showed significant lower root mean square acceleration levels while the vibration dose values showed no difference. Also a non-significant reduction of

73 Division 3 The capability of small-scale forestry to deliver Advantages by integrating small-scale selected high value timber in a long and short time forestry and local wood manufacturing perspective can be used advantageously by local Lennart Eriksson, Ager, B wood manufacturing industry. The technical Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department development of equipment to saw, dry, plane, finger of Forest Management and Products, Sweden join and glue wood has given possibilities to FAX: 4618673522, Email: [email protected] produce advanced forest products efficiently in It is found that small-scale forestry has remarkable small-scale wood manufacturing. Advanced vertical advantages compared with large-scale company integration of the production chain from the forest to forestry when a large share of the total revenue is the customer, including efficient logistics, is a produced as timber of high value. Low indirect costs promising way to increase the competitive strength of equipment used by self-active forest owners give of the small enterprises. Networks of horizontally the opportunity to perform thinning operations integrated wood manufacturing industries is another repeatedly in the same stand. The consequence is way to increase competitiveness of local forest that the trees may be cut when they have reached an based industry, increasingly applied in Sweden economically matured status, in other words when today. the wood characteristics of the trees to be cut will give the best profit in monetary terms. Summary of Small-Scale Enterprises in the Forestry Sector in Finland New studies show that also stands under Pertti Harstela, Katja Turunen, K. Kärhä establishment can be treated to produce timber of University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, Post Box # high value more efficiently by means of equipment 111, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland and methods used in the small-scale forestry. Dense Tel: +358-13-2513625, FAX: +358-13-2513590, Email: stands, naturally regenerated and completed by [email protected] plantation if necessary, should be kept dense up to a Keywords: Small-scale enterprise, forestry, strategy height of 6 to 8 metres. After that, the number of of enterprise, competitiveness, innovation. stems should be reduced markedly by means of one or more pre-commercial thinnings. The stand will Small enterprises may have an important role in then deliver timber of high value in a number of supporting local development in rural areas and also thinning cuts "from above". Stands planted in in improving employment. A literature analysis and relatively dense spaces (1.5 - 2.5 m) without some questionnaire studies were made in order to remarkably high numbers of natural regenerated find out the prerequisites for small enterprises to plants can with advantage be pruned followed by a compete in the forestry sector as well as to find cut programme similar to that of the naturally means to promote the establishment of new regenerated and pre-commercially thinned stand enterprises. above. Stands with larger spacing (>2.5m) are, The main strategic groups of small enterprises owing to a high pruning cost per tree and a long appear to be: period of healing over, not suitable for production of (1) Entrepreneurs in operations which big forest wood of high value. The most efficient cut companies desire to direct to smaller contractors. programme consists in this case of one or two (2) Enterprises in areas which big companies want thinnings from above and an early final cut. to externalise. The treatment programmes mentioned require a (3) Enterprises providing products or services to planning system that discovers the opportunities to limited local markets. use the efficient production alternatives. Since the (4) Enterprises working with special products, forest status varies frequently, even within the customer-oriented activities or flexible way of traditional compartments (treatment units) of a production. forest estate, the possibility of the technical logging (5) Enterprises opening services outside the system to vary the treatment gives remarkable traditional forestry, e.g. nature tourism and increase of the profit in terms of capital value of the memorable experience production. forest. Many opportunities to cut trees in thinning (6) Enterprises having products with special quality give possibilities to perform the treatment or narrow special knowledge. programmes, which most efficiently harvest the (7) Enterprises established to utilise a new given trees in different stands at an economically innovation. These are, such as, small forest machine matured status. or tool manufacturers, measurement equipment manufacturers and computerised system designers.

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The first two categories are a necessity for big and extending accounting practices to cover non- companies and these enterprises are established accounting items such as growing stock. The result without any external support. For developing can also be seen as an improvement and extension countries the fifth category may be very interest, of forest management planning. whereas the last one is perhaps the most interesting The theoretical background of several research for post industrialised countries. "Innovation is often projects has been synthesised and tailored to yield a new enterprise." thus, real innovations are management accounting systems for non-industrial important, however, innovative working methods private (NIP) forestry. Empirical evidence has been also seem be important means in competing in all widely and systematically employed in developing the above-mentioned groups. the management methodology for forestry and in Our theoretical conclusions were that all eight applying statistical methods to testing hypotheses factors (focusing, differentiation, custom- and constructing invariances. The data employed orientation, quality, knowledge, innovative acting, include: cost-effectiveness and enterprise networks) are (i) Aggregate regional data: The Finnish Forest highly important in competition. When small tree Research Institute (FFRI) and the Forestry nurseries and enterprises of graduated foresters were Development Centre Tapio have collected regional studied, it was found that innovative working income and cost information on NIP forestry for 30 methods were in the highest category in all highly years. profitable enterprises. Some of these working methods are connected to external relations of an (ii) The agricultural enterprise and income statistics enterprise (networks, patents or invincible (AEIS): The agricultural enterprise and income expertise), while other are internal (innovative statistics (AEIS) of Statistics Finland is based on acting, cost-effectiveness, high quality and enterprise-level forest tax revenue information. The customer-orientation) and some strategic. The best most interesting part of the AIES includes farms enterprises are good in all these internal dimensions which have chosen the new forest taxation based on working innovatively. We also designed a theory on sales profit in the tax reform of 1.1.1993. The data how special knowledge gained from a good analysed by the FFRI contains about 5000 experience or a high level education may lead to an observations. innovation, and how applying the innovation in (iii) Farm Accountancy Data Network (FADN): The production process can lead to a new level of book-keeping data on nearly 1000 farms from 1976 knowledge within the industrial sector in question. has been collected in the supervision of the Agricultural Economic Research Institute (MTTL). Enhancing the economic decision- in addition to agricultural information, this data making of non-industrial forest (NIPF) includes cash-based forestry accounting, which has owners been improved in accuracy in recent years as a result Markku Penttinen, Anssi Niskanen, Esa Uotila, Sami of scientific cooperation between agricultural and Veijalainen, Jukka Aarnio and Jussi Leppänen forestry researchers. Finnish Forest Research Institute, Helsinki Research Centre, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland (iv) Jointly owned forests (JOFs). The book- Tel: +358 9 857 051, FAX: +358 9 857 05 717, Email: keeping, income statements and balance sheets, and [email protected] forest management plans of 139 JOFs have been Keywords: forest management planning, analysed as a sample of forestry bookkeeping management accounting, ratio analysis, cost carried out according to the accounting law. Most of accounting, non-industrial private forestry the JOF areas are located in the northern parts of Finland. The profitability of JOFs has already been This paper considers the Finnish experiences in studied at the FFRI for 10 years. developing special accounting measures for monitoring the socio-economic performance of the (v) Case data: "The profitability of NIP forestry" - non-industrial private forests (NIPFs). These project collected very detailed test book-keeping measures improve and combine management data of some 70 woodlots, suited to developing and accounting and forest management practices based testing methods of NIPF book-keeping and cost on the relevant forest inventory and book-keeping accounting. data, enabling NIPF owners to cope with the (vi) Long term book-keeping woodlots: The FFRI economic challenges posed by their holdings. has collected long term NIPF book-keeping records, Management accounting, ratio analysis and cost voluntarily and independently by forest owners, for accounting in particular, is utilised in developing testing profitability and ratio analysis. At the

75 Division 3 moment there are records of about 20 case woodlots owners. We have therefore retained three criteria, for periods of minimum 15 and even 45 years i.e. money, wood and working time. The indicator records. The data also embraced information retained for each is the flow created. concerning the forest management plans and What is this tool for? standing timber. Forecast revenue research, human resource Help for Forest Management Planning: planning, memorising work with a view to Presentation of a Computerized Model succession, justifying the administrator's choices. for Private Forest Owners Computing, and particularly a data base structure is Olivier Picard the solution to process the large amount of data and IDF Toulouse, Maison de la Forêt, 7 Chemin de la to structure it according to management targets Lacade, F-31320 Auzeville, France (regular income, forest value, forest transmission, FAX: 0033 5 61 75 45 09, Email: optimal development of the biological potential), [email protected] and combined with a cartographic base, the This survey is aimed at contributing to thoughts at organization of work on the property can be aiding forest owners to make a decision. It was a displayed. matter of specifying which kinds of tools it would Possible outputs can be data files used by forestry be useful to set up to help forest management. The co-operatives to programme their wood supplies survey covered the strategic aspects of decision that efficiently. This level optimizes forestry forest owners find themselves faced with. It appears management and wood production by putting them that "classical" economic calculations such as the in contact. Current Net Value and the Internal Rate of Profitability, are seldom used to help make an 3.09.00 Economics and harvesting of investment decision. Is this because the updating thinning calculations over a period of 30 to 40 years are "not relevant", or does it come from the comparison Transition of the residual stand damage between different investments ranging further than a after a line thinning operation generation or, the lack of tools adapted to owner's Masahiro Iwaoka, Kazuhiro Aruga, Hiroshi Kobayashi, needs ? The method adopted was to, firstly, define and Siaw Onwona-Agyeman the representative framework of management Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Faculty practices. This was carried out by individual of Agriculture, interviews and the main conclusions were shared 3-5-8 Saiwai-cho, Fuchu-shi, 183-8509 Tokyo, Japan alternately. Through this survey, management Tel: +81-42-367-5880, FAX: +81-42-364-7812, Email: schemes, thoughts about strategic /risk relationships [email protected] and expectations about decision aid tools have been In recent years, the use of large-scale forest defined. machines such as harvesters and forwarders are The analysis is built around three levels of gradually gaining popularity in Japan. However, decisions: most of the plantations were established at a time where the use of such machines was not originally - the strategic level of going from the initial state to thought of. The introduction of large-scale machines the final state in the long term (10 to 30 years). is therefore likely to increase damage to residual - the tactical level of being in charge of the stand. in this paper, a report on the transition of the management over 3 to 5 years (adapting to changes, residual stand damage caused by a line thinning markets, new constraints or opportunities) operation with a tracked excavator based harvester and a rubber tracked forwarder after five years is - annual management follow-up. presented. The observations revealed that injuries, Forestry management oscillates between financial which were not so severe, did not impair the growth and proprietary logic. From self-financing and of the trees but light injuries such as those inflicted annual revenue and expenditure balances, the on outer or inner bark, became more severe like a permanent assessment of the stock value and sapwood injuries. These results showed that injured proprietary value, up to a naturalistic logic trees are likely to become weaker to the extent that combined with the search for a revenue/expenditure the injuries could easily become severe even if they balance. are originally very light. The importance of carefully carrying out thinning operations so as to Criteria retained in the decision aid tool are quantified and qualified and easily used by forest

76 Division 3 minimize the damage to residual trees were Environmental Damage Control by confirmed by this research. Information System for Harvesting Keywords: Transition, residual stand, damage, Vehicles tracked harvester, rubber tracked forwarder. Toshio Nitami University Forest in Chichibu, University of Tokyo, Hinoda 1-1-49, 368-0034 Chichibu, Saitama, Japan Productivity and costs of group work for FAX: +81-494-22-0272, Email: [email protected] harvesting mountainous broadleaf tokyo.ac.jp thinning stands Forest stands are easily hurt and disturbed by Ante P. B. Krpan, Zeljko Zecic, Marijan Susnjar Faculty of Forestry Zagreb, Department of Forest vehicles through timber harvesting operations in the Harvesting, Svetosimunska 25, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia natural forest management system. Many standing Email: [email protected] trees are scratched and hit which leads to degrade storage quality and succeeding small trees are lost Group work was researched for felling, processing, which leads to make severe to reforestation. Smart skidding and quality inspection activities in control for harvesting vehicles shorten the skidding mountainous broadleaf thinning stands with paths length between landing sites and timber approximately the same terrain and stand choking points by suppressing branching out of conditions. The stands were 55 and 70 years old. in skidding paths. Number of damaged standing trees the forest communities of the mountainous beech and the percentage of diminished succeeding small forest with dead nettle (Lamio orvale - Fagetum trees are mainly affected by run-about of skidding sylvaticae/Ht. 1938) and the forests of the sessile vehicles. On the gentle slope and steep terrain, many oak and horn beam with beech (Epimedio - succeeding trees disappeared. The clear deference CarPinetum betuli var. Fagus sylvatica/Ht. was found on the diminished percentage of number 1938/Borth.1963) the main tree species are beech of small trees less than 6 cm in DBH. Easy to run- and sessile oak with the addition of other broadleaf about for the skidder would be the reason for the species. former and easy to slip downward on terrain slope Productivity was examined on two groups. The first for timber being skidded would be the reason for the comprised of five workers (A) and the second of latter. An information system to show the skidder four workers (B). The first group was equipped with operator favorable paths from a landing to loading two tractors and three chain saws while the second points was discussed to reduce excessive run-about used two tractors and two chain saws as well as of vehicle in the stand. other necessary equipment. The effective time for Field trial for the discussion has been conducting for the cutters in felling ranged from 36 to 42.9%, in about forty years in university forest in Hokkaido, finishing and measurement 21%, while the effective University of Tokyo, through its stand based natural time for the tractors ranged from 42.4 to 59%. The forest management experiment. A feller-buncher or effective time per tree ranged from 3.62 to 3.77 a felling staff with GPS device collects GIS datum minutes, i.e. per unit it ranged from 8.46 min/m3 to 3 and they are compiled immediately into a database 12.91 min/m . The daily output achieved by the on a PC in the field or on a PC connected by Ecotrac and Torpedo tractors at a distance of 300 network. Manual data collection simultaneous for meters was for group A 20.77 m3/day while the 3 the felling, would be useful even if machine optimised output was 67.02 m/day. The output operation is not introduced into the process. This achieved by both tractors in group B was 17.25 3 3 real time GIS system informs the skidder on the m /day while the optimised was 30.72 m /day. The location and advancing direction. The information average performance per worker in group A was 3 3 would be transmitted to the skidders through field 4.15. m /day while the optimised was 8.38 m /day. LAN with radio communication. For group B the average performance per worker was 4.31. m3/day and the optimised was 7.68 The site disturbance would be reduced through m3/day. The optimisation of the groups lowered the shortening total length of skidding paths to the half unit cost of production (300 m distance) for group A when branching ratio of skidding paths decreased from 39.63 DM/m3 to 17.49 DM/m3 and for group B from 3.5, which was on the field operation trial, to from 40.38 DM/m3 to 22.73.DM/m3. 3.0. The branching ratio was based on the stream system ordering by assuming skidding paths from Keywords: group work, thinings, time study, choking points to landings to the ground water productivity, costs stream system from the source to the mouse. The path length would especially expected to be short at the gentle slope sites through decreasing

77 Division 3 dozing frequency for rebunching timber in order to The author investigated wounds of residual trees set timbers easy for choking. and compared their current status with the status of five years ago when the stands were thinned. Five The operational damages through the information plots were established in a typical man-made forest utilizing system, Real Time GIS, would be at least of Japanese cedar (Sugi; Cryptomeria japonica). A the half of that of the conventional operation short-span tower yarder logged the plots in 1994 system. The importance and need for control of through 1996. This report describes the result of the vehicles operating in the forest stands could be year 1999 investigation on two of the five plots that confirmed. Validity of the information system was were thinned in 1994. The other three plots will be confirmed on the forest harvesting operation for investigated in 2000 and 2001. conservation of forest environment. The information system for this operation control also enables timber The investigated two plots are 0.3 ha in area and had assortment design at landings, and affords design for 85 damaged trees. On the damaged trees there were natural forest management with higher accuracy 225 wounds in total. Status of the wounds was accompanied with stand geographical information. defined as four levels of severity that are defined from their appearance. Dimensions and severity Keywords: Environment, Information, Harvesting, levels of the wounds at the time of 1999 were GIS, GPS, LAN, and Skidder examined and compared with those of 1994. Ten damaged trees were selected for inspection of Damage to Residual Stands from wounded wood section. The selection was made Thinning with Short-span Tower concerning the distribution of severity levels as well Yarders: Re-examination of Wounds as management plan of the forest. Wounded sections after Five Years of the sample trees were cut and corresponding Yasushi Suzuki disks were obtained for detailed inspection of Kochi University, Faculty of Agriculture, 200 Monobe- wound area. otsu, Nankoku-shi, 783-8502 Kochi, Japan Tel: +81-88-864-5137, FAX: +81 888 64 5200, Email: Most of the wounds with lighter severity level have [email protected] already healed by occlusion or disappeared. Heavily damaged but now healed wounds are smaller in Keywords: Logging, Residual stand damage, horizontal dimension. Lightly damaged but now Thinning, Transition of wounds, Wounded wood badly developed wounds are smaller in vertical section. dimension. Inspection of wound sections revealed Residual stand damage from thinning is one of the that most wounds developed discolored area in the most important problems in the current Japanese wood. Only the lighter wounds that had healed forestry. The reason can be explained as the earlier have no or smaller discolored areas. following three points. (1) Thinning rather than Discolored areas of the wounds with still exposed clear-cut is preferable cutting method from both cambium have larger widths than the original environmental concern and forest management. (2) wound widths. As a conclusion, horizontal Mechanized thinning, which has been used in the dimension or width, rather than vertical dimension present decade, often causes damage to residual or length, of wounded area significantly affects stands of dense man-made forest managed under healing or occlusion of wounds. traditional procedures of Japanese forestry. (3) Japanese timber market requires higher quality for 3.10.00 Harvesting, wood delivery and domestic logs in contrast to imported logs. utilisation 1+2 There are three main subjects on residual stand Cut-To-Length Logging Systems of damage. The first subject is on logging technique by which the residual trees are damaged. The second Tomorrow Sten Gellerstedt and the third are on growth and quality of residual Faculty of Forestry, Swedish University of Agricultural trees, respectively. Wounds on damaged trees may Sciences, Department of Forest Management and reduce their expected growth after the thinning. Products, Box 7060, SE 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden Wounded sections of damaged trees may develop Tel: 46 18 673818, FAX: 46 18 673800, Email: stain or decay in the wood section and degrade their [email protected] market value as saw timber. The present study This article discusses the potential development of a focuses on the last point: transition of wounded logging system in which logs are made at the stump sections of damaged trees. from a harvester, and carried to the landing by a forwarder. The focus is on Sweden, but the proposal

78 Division 3 has international out-looks. Trends in logging over productivity and cost, machine design, and wood the past decade are described, and used to envision product quality. the next decade. in the analysis, I consider wood Within the above-defined scope, the report sets out markets, the call for sustainable forest management, to answer the following questions: safety and health, system produc-tivity and utilization, as well as operational organization, - What are the key scientific and technical issues? operator education, and technical development. - What do we know and what warrants additional Three mechanized logging methods are compared, research? as well as three different forest-worker education systems. Possibilities exist for using advanced On the issue of equipment productivity and the cost electrohydraulics, and GPS/GIS. I also include a of operations, we identified gaps in the modeling of discussion about the trend toward purpose-built equipment operating under a wide variety of harvesters. conditions, and in the understanding of the operator's impact on productivity. Our review also The use of cut-to-length logging will in-crease uncovered a number of gaps in the technology used worldwide, especially in central Europe. Hindrances in existing equipment; technologies such as traction that are found when introducing cut-to-length systems, controls, hydraulics, and vision systems include operator education, work crew organization, supply of maintenance service, and require refinement or adaptation to become more capital that is bound in other logging systems. useful for the forestry machines of tomorrow. Wood Future cost reductions can probably be achieved product quality must also be optimized; through more-precisely planned and completed understanding the interrelationship between wood logging operations. This will require motivation by cost and wood value is a research area that receives the work force. A crucial element will be to invest and warrants significant attention. 'Social issues in in building mutual trust between all parties forestry' is another area identified as critical and in concerned. need of additional attention. Keywords: ergonomics; forest machine; future; This broad review of the state of knowledge relating logging method; maintenance; operator education. to harvesting, tree processing, and product quality has uncovered a large number of areas that require A state-of-knowledge report on more science, more technology, and, therefore, more harvesting, tree processing, and R&D. in general, we conclude that, whereas the product quality basic functions are generally understood, the main Daniel Guimier, Loren Kellogg gaps usually lie in understanding how one function Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada, 580 affects other functions and the overall system. Many Boul. St. Jean, H9R 3J9 Pointe Claire, Qc, Canada research groups now strive toward modeling whole Tel: 514-694-1140, FAX: 514-694-4351, Email: daniel- systems and obtaining a clear vision of the overall [email protected] picture. This paper identifies key scientific, technical, and social issues relevant to harvesting, tree processing, Use of Information Technology (IT) to and product quality. Here, we portray the present Improve Wood-supply Chains in German state of knowledge relative to each of these issues. Forest and Wood industries Based on a survey of world experts on the various Markus Hecker topics, and on the authors' own experiences, the University of Freiburg, Forest Products Laboratory, paper highlights what we currently know and what Werderring 6, D - 79085 Freiburg, Germany Tel: +49-761-203-3764, FAX: +49-761-203-3763, Email: issues are not fully understood from the point of [email protected] view of scientific research. in some cases, technical solutions may not exist and, therefore, will warrant Forest industries in Central Europe and, especially, additional research or development. in Germany are now at a disadvantage on the international timber market. Very traditional The scope of this paper is narrowly defined to customs and structures, such as motor-manual address issues that are directly part of the Research harvesting systems and tree-length logging, are still Group 3.10.00 mandate. Specifically, we cover most common, but the random-length logs they technical and operational aspects related to the produce cannot be used without further harvesting and processing of trees, primarily in non- manipulation. Although the point of sale between mountainous terrain. Our discussion deals with forestry and woodworking industries is at the operational considerations, environmental issues,

79 Division 3 roadside, customer demands necessitate the implementation of a complete wood-supply chain. Harvesting and the Economics of In contrast to practices in Sweden and Finland, Thinning: A State-of-Knowledge Report modern logistic concepts and harvesting Pieter D. Kofman technologies currently are not applied here. Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute, Kvak Mechanized harvesting systems, however, are now Moellevej 31, DK 7100 Vejle, Denmark Tel: +45 75 88 22 11, FAX: +45 75 88 20 85, Email: used more frequently, particularly to reduce the [email protected] harvesting costs incurred by early thinnings in younger stands. Because technology recently has The practice of thinning is necessary for timber been further developed, harvesters can also operate stand improvements such as concentrating the in older stands and on steep terrain. Improvements annual growth increment in fewer trees but of better in production and marketing systems are necessary quality. in addition, thinning may help prevent wind to capitalize on the benefits gained with this newly- throw, forest fires, insect damage, etc. However, mechanized harvesting. thinning is increasingly difficult to carry out because of high labor costs and the low prices The main part of this paper is a comprehensive received for small assortments. Large fluctuations in presentation of the necessary improvements being assortment price nearly prohibit long-term planning. made within the wood-supply chain, as it is conducted under German conditions. Objectives of New technologies, e.g., multiple tree handling, this on-going investigation are to develop routines computers, and central tire inflation, may possibly for expediting the flow of materials, to apply new reduce the costs of thinning. Even more important techniques for simplifying and reducing than during ordinary harvesting are the links in the transportation, and to improve communication forestry wood chain, which operate together to among market partners by providing modern IT improve quality and reduce costs. These can be tools. A review of the potential for further accomplished by improving the logistics of all the rationalization of harvesting operations also is related operations. provided. Although research is still focused on finding more Field trials and studies of raw-material flow in rational ways to harvest and transport wood, sawmills showed that using the bucking-to-order or attention should be increased on combining bucking-to-value algorithms available from the silvicultural and operational research to make stands onboard computers in harvesters provided more easily harvested. Many of these issues will be significant economic benefits. Similar calculations addressed at the next meeting of 3.09.00, to be held were also made for added values along the wood- in Canada in September 2001. supply chain, as derived from the application of Keywords: forest wood chain; mechanization; newly developed transportation systems. A new motor-manual operation; new-product development; communication network has been organized to thinning costs improve information exchange between market partners; its structure and advantages are discussed Future Scenarios for Wood Procurement here. Applications are envisioned for using Internet Timo Antero Leinonen websites for marketing purposes. Mikkeli polytechnic, School of Forestry, Metsäopistontie Study results also are discussed. in addition to 100, FIN-76100 Pieksämäki, Finland drawing some final conclusions, the importance of Tel: + 358 40 5266834, FAX: +358 15 7861450, Email: appropriate education programs is deduced from the [email protected] personal challenge of modern IT applications. Forestry work has changed rapidly during the last Keywords: added values; information technology; decades. Some problems have also arisen; for mechanized harvesting; transportation; wood-supply example, loggers have become unemployed while, chain. at the same time, there has been a lack of professional harvester operators. Whenever a long- term investment is made - whether in industrial plant, machinery, or education - reliable knowledge about the future is always valuable. A decision made today has later consequences. Forecasting over a limited time period is specific to each branch of human activity, and can vary from days to decades. The period used for future studies is

80 Division 3 considerably longer than that for conventional forecasting. The Implementation of Bucking-to-Order The aim of this study was to analyse the changes in Harvesting Systems in Germany - Risks wood procurement until 2030, using future-study and Limits of Advanced Harvesting methods. The scope of the study was forest industry, Techniques wood-based energy production, exports and imports Johannes Ressmann of round wood, and international investments. University Freiburg, Forest Products Laboratory, Scenario methods were applied here. These methods Werderring 6, D - 79085 Freiburg, Germany were based on the presumption that no single Tel: +49761 2039242, FAX: +761 2033763, Email: predictable future existed, but a number of futures [email protected] were possible. Decisions made today impact the Because of relatively high timber prices, the future. The objective was to collect, analyse, and German forestry industry has not been forced to present, in written form, the knowledge of experts in rationalize logging operations as much as was forest technology. The results did not conflict with necessary in Scandinavia. Motor-manual harvesting the principles of forest-related scenarios created by systems and the production of tree-length other scientists. Such factors as globalization, roundwood were and are still most common. energy production, nature conservation, and Harvester technology was established in Germany employment will affect forestry and wood following heavy storms in 1990 that blew down procurement in the future. entire forests. Delphi is a commonly used method for future However, these harvesters cut only two or three studies. The base material for Delphi was collected different lengths of sawlogs and a pulpwood in a seminar and through thematic interviews. assortment, on a schematic basis. Except for a Answers in this study were completely anonymous. minimum specified diameter, crosscutting is done People involved in the study were not able to independent of any particular top diameter. This associate an answer with any particular person. The production of roundwood does not fit the demands five scenarios were described in written form, and of specialized sawmills for well-defined ratios of the collected data enabled many more scenarios to log length and top diameter. be devised. This method traditionally begins with The onboard computers of modern harvesters can three to six scenarios, which are supposed to cover optimize the bucking of stems to achieve maximum the possible futures from negative to positive. The value or fulfill a sawmillïs demand list. With five final scenarios used here were 1) Junkyard, 2) support from the State Forest Service, harvesting Low price, 3) Single-grip harvester and forwarder, contractors, and some sawmills, the Institute of 4) Terminals, and 5) Advanced Cut-To-Length. Forest Utilisation and Work Science has conducted The most important resource is not a natural a two-year investigation of when and how a resource like forests, but a human resource such as bucking-to-order harvesting system could be applied knowledge. Natural resources, e.g., the amount of under German forestry conditions. During this time, area covered by forest, are restricted by physical order lists for typical sawmills have been created. in factors. The degree of utilization and the value of several field trials, we compared the accuracy of products may be increased by using human measurements by harvesters as well as the success resources. This improves employment rates and in distributing logs (characterized by their length standards of living. in Finland, knowledge is vital and top diameter) to fulfill the sawmillïs demand concerning forests, forestry practices, and wood list. We used simulation routines to analyze the procurement and processing. The deepest possible monetary benefit of this new system versus that crisis results when forest-related knowledge associated with standard bucking. vanishes. In most cases, our accuracy of measurement was Keywords: future studies, scenarios, wood high under test conditions. However, general procurement. guidelines for calibration are necessary at the national level. Mill requirements for raw material can be formulated in price and demand lists. Following these lists in typical stands can change the total volume and revenue that can be realized. Total revenue can vary by about 10% when different bucking instructions are used, which can significantly affect the financial results of forest enterprises. Therefore, the use of simulation tools

81 Division 3 will become more important in pre-harvest goals have changed as personnel prepare for the planning. future. The profession of forest engineering and operations will market what it does best, while Although the concept of virtual organization and integrating with other professions to resolve critical operation is still far into the future, forest enterprises challenges, and providing the leadership necessary and the sawing industry can profit from the for sustainable forest management in the 21st advanced cut-to-length systems already in place. century. Improving the general harvesting and processing conditions will be necessary to permit practical Keywords: education; forest engineering; forest implementation of this technique. Maintaining a operations; harvesting; research. permanent supply of raw material to the sawmill could cause further problems. To totally optimize 3.11.00 Forest operations and this complex system, an on-line data link between environmental protection the harvesters would be helpful. An integrated optimization program could constantly control the The Dynamic Analysis of Soil processing status and adjust the entire chain of Deformation Caused by a Semi-legged production. International competition for timber Vehicle markets also will force the German forest industry Kazuhiro Aruga, Masahiro Iwaoka, Hideo Sakai and to rationalize the wood-supply chain. Our proposed Hiroshi Kobayashi advances in the shortwood system could be one part University of Tokyo, Graduate School of Agricultural of the possible solution. and Life Sciences 1-1-1 Yayoi Bunkyo-ku, 113-8657 Tokyo, Japan FAX: +81-3-5800-6994, Email: [email protected] U. S. Forest Engineering and Operations Research and Education in the Future Keywords: extended distinct element method; soil Bryce J. Stokes, Joseph McNeel and Richard Brinker deformation; reaction force of soil; pantographic USDA Forest Service, Vegetation Management and leg; semi-legged vehicle Protection Research, Post Box # 96090, DC 20090-6090 Washington, USA A semi-legged vehicle that has two front stabilizer Tel: +1-202-205-1147, FAX: +1-202-205-2497, Email: legs with pads, two rear legs with wheels and a [email protected] hydraulic boom for working implements and for moving the machine, has been studied for use in Forest engineering and forest operations have forest operations on steep and difficult sites. The provided the ways and means of utilizing a great hydraulic boom is lowered to the ground and the natural resource for the control and benefit of stabilizers are raised so that the machine rests on mankind. The discipline has been critical to the only the boom and the rear wheels and moves by development of our resources, and will continue to applying hydraulic power to the boom. If these play an important, if not pivotal, role in both the wheels are free-rolling and receive no driving consumption and conservation of our forests. power, great forces act on the boom. The machine Research and education in this discipline provide sometimes has difficulty in moving on soft soils scientifically-based methods for managing our because the boom sinks into the ground. The forest resources wisely and effectively. Trained machine needs to be improved to reduce the holes professionals apply science and new technologies in dug by the boom. Soil deformation caused by the a changing world to ensure sustainability. This machine was analyzed by EDEM (Extended Distinct requires that innovative techniques and advance Element Method). technologies be discovered and applied in road building, operations planning, road-layout design, FEM (Finite Element Method) has been applied to harvesting, and regeneration. More will be analyze soil stress and strain. Soil deformation demanded from the forest operations researcher, caused by the machine can not be analyzed by FEM educator, specialist, and practitioner in forest because of the shear band and high degree of resource management during the 21st century. material movement. in this study, EDEM was introduced. EDEM can analyze uncontinuous This paper provides a brief history of forest materials as it represents soil as independent engineering and operations, and describes how this particles. EDEM can also analyze continuous discipline and profession continue to meet materials by introducing pore-springs to represent challenges in timber production, conservation, and surrounding fill materials. Based on Newton's law, social forestry. We also explore programs for independent equations of motion for each element education and application of forest-engineering are established. A Voigt-type dynamic model of the principles. Funding sources and specific research contact point is created and is composed of an

82 Division 3 elastic spring and a dashpot. By solving all way to mitigate forest soil impacts. Little, if any, equations of motion progressively, the motion of work has been completed on understanding and elements in the time domain can be followed. optimizing woody biomass form and composition to lengthen carbon sequestration periods, increase soil In this method, soil strength was mainly decided by organic matter, and/or restore and improve site the spring constants and the coefficient of rolling quality. friction. The spring constants were decided by simple shear tests or triaxial compression tests. The A potentially effective means of increasing and coefficients of rolling friction were decided by stabilizing carbon in forest soils is through experiments with soils and a pantographic leg. The incorporation of biomass as a forest operational forces reacting on the leg were measured while the treatment. Mulching and rotor-tilling are methods leg was moved in soils. in this simulation, the that have been evaluated for incorporating logging coefficient of rolling friction was determined by trial slash and residual vegetation into the soil -- and error. As for the effect of compaction in soft and practices with potential for site conversion, fuel load hard soil, the difference in reaction forces could be reduction, restoring degraded soils, and enhancing expressed. Phenomena such as soil particles not productivity. Direct burial of biomass may offer falling into the holes dug by the leg could also be carbon sequestration potential and long-term site expressed, when the proper criteria were set up in quality enhancement. A synthesis of information on the simulations. operational aspects of below-ground incorporation of buried/incorporated woody biomass is presented External forces acting on the machine were gravity as are research needs pertinent to understanding and and the forces reacting on wheels and the boom. in managing the potential for woody biomass this study, only the forces reacting on the boom incorporation to mitigate forest soil impacts. were calculated by EDEM. Motion such as lowering the boom to the ground, raising the stabilizers, advancing the machine and soil deformation could Tree root development in compacted be expressed. The effect of the area of the foot was soils due to logging operations simulated. When the machine with a larger foot area Robert Robek, Hojka Kraigher, Bostjan Kosir moved on soft soil, the step became longer and Slovenian forestry institute, Vecna pot 2, 1000 Ljubljana, energy efficiency became higher. On the other hand, Slovenia FAX: 386 61 273589, Email: [email protected] the step scarcely increased and energy efficiency became lower on hard soil because the reaction Introduction forces of soil increased. In the investigations of the environmental stress caused by logging operations we often lack the Mitigating Forest Site Impacts -Role of parameters for alteration detection and judgements. Woody Biomass and Root Mass in study the authors have analysed the tree root Decomposition length structure and small root biomass structure as Marilyn A. Buford, Bryce J. Stokes indicators for stress situations caused by soil USDA Forest Service, Vegetation Management and compaction. Protection Research Post Box # 96090, DC 20090-6090 Washington, USA Material and methods: Tel: +1-202-205-1561, FAX: +1-202-205-2497, Email: Two studies were conducted: pot experiment in [email protected] nursery and skidder compaction field trial. in pot Keywords: site restoration; impact mitigation; experiment the four year spruce (Picea abies (L.) carbon sequestration; mulching; soil carbon Karst.) seedlings from nursery were assigned to one Many forest sites are depleted and have limited of the following treatments: field control, pot amounts of soil organic matter, nutrient pools, and control and compacted pot. Roots were washed free carbon capacity. Over many rotations, forest of media, scanned and replanted. Field control operations contribute to soil impacts by changing samples were planted back into the field in nursery. soil structure and removing above- and below- Pot control samples were planted into the ground woody biomass. Limited research has been homogenised soil from nursery in tin pots and conducted on understanding the role of biomass in grown in controlled conditions. Compacted pot below-ground processes, especially decomposition samples were planted into tin pots like control rates for buried/incorporated woody biomass and samples but the soil surface was compacted with root masses. Little is understood about the effects of 100 kPa and later on treated like pot control incorporating carbon on soil carbon availability, samples. After one year the samples were dug out carbon retention, and ultimately, nutrient cycles as a

83 Division 3 again and the root systems were analysed using based on visual criteria. The correlations between manual and computer assisted procedures. root morphology and visual disturbances are needed. Regarding plant rooting the area of direct In the second study the unloaded hydrostatic driven vehicle-ground contact can be considered as a long- skidder Woody 110 (Perkins engine 76.5 kW, mass term reversible handicapped area. in sustainable 5.5 t; 5.3 m x 2.1 m with 500 mm standard tyres) forestry temporary ground corridors have to be performed 10 passes on the undisturbed brown evaluated and managed as a distinct disturbance forest soils at the soil moisture near field capacity. category. Before and after traffic the cylinder cores at 10 cm depth were taken and soil dynamic deforming module and terrain profile was measured on 6 Biodegradable oils in the operation of profiles. Six months after the trial roots in the wheel forest machines rut were analysed using the computer assisted root Alois Skoupy morphology and the root biomass structure analysis. Mendel University of Agriculture and Forestry, Dept. Forestry and Forest Products Technology Results Zemedelska 3, CZ-613 00 Brno, Czech Republic Tel: 420-5-45134103, FAX: 420-5-45211422, Email: One year of growth of seedlings in pots resulted in [email protected] over six fold increase of the total root length in control pots and compacted pots compared to the Forest machines need for their operation relatively field control seedlings using computer assisted root considerable amounts of oils both for oil fillings and morphology measurements. The errors of the dissipative lubrication of cutting elements of computer assisted root length measurements were logging machines. Losses of these oils in the natural compensated using T/L ratio (number of tips per environment appear to be the cause of soil and water meter of total root length). When applied TL ratio pollution. A number of countries, particularly statistically significant difference between the European ones, tries to prevent the pollution using control pots compared to the compacted pots was laws on the obligatory use of biodegradable oils. obtained. The paper presented deals with selected aspects of The alterations of the soil physical properties in these measures: field compaction trial was confirmed with bulk - Measuring the dispersion of oils and its possible density, percentage of coarse pores and soil dynamic concentration on the soil surface. To evaluate oil deforming module. Applied traffic caused dispersion a radio-indicator method has been significant alterations in average values of the total developed making possible to quantify oil root biomass on both analysed depths as well as dispersion immediately after cutting. alive root biomass and live/dead ratio on the upper 10 cm. We found less alive fine and small - Evaluation of the usability of oils at low temperatures. A new method has been developed root biomass in the compacted soils. Computer making possible to evaluate pumping ability of oils assisted analysis of the fine and small root and to determine the minimum temperature of morphology confirmed the observations during usability with the accuracy of 1°C. processing of the volumetric samples. The average TL ratio between the compacted and control roots - Evaluation of the temperature-oxidation stability - form the 10-20 cm depth significantly differ. The oil polymerization, which can be the reason of the difference in fine root structure goes on the account increased failure rate of some operational parts of of the short root decline and the relative increase of forest machines. the dead thicker small roots. - Diagnostic signals for determination of the service Discussion life of fillings for hydraulic mechanisms and gear boxes. It is possible to say that oil should be In artificial and natural conditions the significant replaced at that time when peroxide number reaches alterations regarding root morphology were its maximum value and its decrease begins. observed. Root morphology of alive fine roots in disturbed mineral soils has showed decrease in the As for the evaluation of oil usability under low amount of nutrient-uptake-active short roots. Fine temperatures and their temperature-oxidation and small roots have shown high sensitivity for resistance it is possible to say that procedures harvesting impacts but existing measurement contained in the International Standard Organisation methods are too laborious for practical indicator. (ISO) Standard proposals do not provide utilisable Further investigations must involve root vitality results. determination instead of alive/dead classification

84 Division 3

The aim of the paper is to contribute to achieving densities due to high topsoil organic carbon the state when ecologically more suitable oils contents. On such soils low to moderate soil characterized at the same time by excellent technical compaction may improve water holding capacity of parameters will be used. Thus, one of the most the soils following compaction in generally water- important negative effects of forest machines on the limiting environments. It is likely that the negative natural environment would be minimized. effects of compaction on root development may be offset by perforation of compacted soils by root Keywords: forest technology; forest machines; channels from previous rotations and by root biodegradable oils; oil dispersion; oil evaluation systems gradually overcoming compacted zones. The effects of soil disturbance, e.g. rutting, Harvesting impacts and long-term site loosening and compaction in close proximity caused productivity: the South African by logger operations, have had a greater affect on experience growth than operations causing deep compaction. Colin Smith This suggests that key growth processes, such as Institute for Commercial Forestry Research, Post Box # fine root development and nutrient cycling in the 10028, 3209, Scottsville, South Africa topsoil, have been affected. Cumulative effects of Tel: +331 62314 FAX:, FAX: +331 68905, Email: [email protected] site damage are unknown and will be difficult to detect without multi-rotational trials being The widespread use of mechanical harvesting established. machinery during clear-felling operations in South African forest plantations has led to concern about potential effects on long-term site productivity. This paper describes the results from a series of long- term field trials, carried out by the Institute for Commercial Forestry Research (ICFR) during the last decade, addressing the effects of soil compaction and disturbance on soil physical properties and tree growth. A wide range of harvesting operations were tested on a number of sites throughout South Africa which were planted to species of Eucalyptus spp. (mainly E. grandis) and Pinus spp. in general, soil compaction/disturbance has resulted in a range of growth responses from a 6% increase to an 21% decrease in growth for Eucalyptus spp. and a 47% decrease for Pinus spp. depending on site characteristics and age of trees. The effect of soil compaction on tree growth depended on soil texture and depth. The greatest negative effect on tree growth occurred on silt loam soils and a slightly positive effect on very sandy soils. Measurements taken across the trial sites indicated that the effect of soil compaction on available water capacity (AWC) was complex and soil texture dependent. On the older trials, soil compaction levels, as measured by penetrometer soil strength, were still very high 5 and 7 years after the harvesting treatments. Changes in soil physical properties following the impacts helped explain growth differences but it is likely that nutritional effects were also playing an important role. The lack of major growth decreases of Eucalyptus spp. following substantial compaction and disturbance in some cases can be attributed to a number of factors. in most growing regions South African forestry soils have inherently low bulk

Division 4 Inventory, Growth, Yield, Quantitative and Management Sciences

Coordinator Prof. Dr. Klaus GADOW V. University of Goettingen Institut für Forsteinrichtung und Ertragskunde Büsgenweg 5, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany fax: +49-551-399787 tel: +49-551-393472 e-mail: [email protected]

Division 4

- Modelling spatial stochasticity through stand 4.01.04 Using models for forest growth and development. stand dynamics to evaluate sustainability - Incorporating spatial stochasticity in individual tree growth projections using stochastic prediction The characterisation and incorporation frameworks. of spatial stochasticity in individual tree The central objective of this paper will be to growth models determine if the characterisation and incorporation Julian Christian Fox of spatial stochasticity improves the accuracy and The University of Melbourne, Institute of Land and Food Resources precision of individual tree growth models for long School of Forestry, Victoria 3052 Parkville, Australia and short term projections of forest growth. Independent validation datasets will be used to This paper will outline a methodology for the assess the performance of models whose spatial characterisation and incorporation of spatial stochasticity is characterised and incorporated stochasticity in individual tree growth models. The against the purely deterministic alternative. methodology was developed in response to a Sensitivity analysis will be used to illustrate the growing realisation that the individual trees of sensitivity of model accuracy and precision to forests are not spatially independent. The spatial differing magnitudes of spatial stochasticity. This processes of competition and environmental research will determine if the characterisation and heterogeneity operating among individual trees in incorporation of spatial stochasticity is worthwhile proximity create an observed spatial dependence in in terms of improved model performance. Spatially individual tree attributes (Matern 1960). explicit individual tree data from both the native and Competition for limited resources creates a negative plantation estates of New South Wales, Australia, dependence of a tree's size and growth on that of its will be used for developing the methodology as well neighbours, while environmental heterogeneity as for validation. creates a positive dependence as neighbours are subject to similar local environmental conditions. The ratio of live crown length to Spatial dependence has been observed in tree sapwood area as a measure of crown diameters or basal areas (Reed and Burkhart 1985), tree diameter increments (Biondi et al. 1994), tree sparseness: relation to relative social heights (Samra et al. 1989), tree height increments position, foliage loss, and growth (Samra et al. 1989) and the residuals of individual potential tree growth models (Lui and Burkhart 1994b). The Douglas A. Maguire presence of spatial dependence in individual tree Oregon State University, Department of Forest Resources, 209 Peavy Hall, OR 97331 Corvallis, USA attributes invalidates many of the classical statistical Tel: 541-737-4215, FAX: 541-737-3049, Email: procedures (Matern 1994). Thus the only valid [email protected] statistical interpretation of spatially distributed individual tree attributes is as a field of dependent In many temperate forest species, sapwood cross- random variates from an unknown stochastic sectional area at some height on the stem serves as a process (Tomppo 1986). It is the central aim of this very effective surrogate for tree leaf area due to the research to identify this unknown stochastic process. physiological balance between the conductive Further, the spatial stochastic component of capacity of sapwood and the transpirational surface individual tree models is rarely studied (Dennis et area of foliage. Live crown length also functions as al. 1985) but is universally prevalent in applications a powerful predictor of tree growth and vigor due to of individual tree models (Burkhart and Gregoire its correlation with the total photosynthetic capacity 1994). A methodology for characterising and of the tree. However one possible pitfall of live incorporating spatial stochasticity in individual tree crown length is variation in leaf area density models will be described. Important stages in this allowing total leaf area to vary for a given crown methodology include. length. For example varying defoliation by insects - Identifying an optimal individual tree growth or premature needle loss from fungal diseases may model for a particular forest setting. not change the live crown length, but would result in - Identifying an optimal spatial stochastic structure. a significantly sparser crown with lower total leaf - Interpretation of spatial stochasticity in terms of area. in absence of significant pest problems, similar the causal biological variation in crown density can be observed across a processes of competition and environmental range in site quality for many conifer species in heterogeneity. Resolving the spatial stochastic western North America. Assuming a close dynamic component attributable to each biological process. equilibrium between foliage amount and sapwood area, the latter measure may be more reliable under

89 Division 4 such pest conditions or site variability. Application Stand volume increment is obtained by summing the of sapwood area to indicate total foliage area, predicted increment of individual stand components. however, provides no evidence of biologically Measures of tree vigor, other stocking parameters, significant differences in leaf area density. in this and structural development can also be projected regard, an index that combines both live crown over time. The result is a flexible system for length and sapwood area adds considerable designing stand structures using variables that are predictive power to either dimension alone. important to assessing ecosystem function and Specifically, the ratio of live crown length to productivity. This system is appropriate for stands sapwood area can be interpreted as an index of with two or more age classes, or stands typically crown sparseness: the greater the length of live described as uneven-aged. Applications from crown needed to accumulate a given amount of leaf several stand types including Pinus ponderosa, area (as represented in sapwood area), the sparser Pinus contorta, and mixed Picea abies/Pinus the crown must be. To assess its potential sylvestris are presented. performance, CL:SA was computed for Douglas-fir trees over a range in size, stand density, site quality, Accounting for interactions in and condition. This index ranged from 2 to 100 2 hypothesis testing of simulated when expressed as cm:m with a mean value of scenarios with a forest growth process approximately 12. in general, individual trees with a model high CL:SA have a lower relative height within the Pablo Parysow stand; however, even after correcting for stand Arizona University, School of Forestry, PO Box 15018, density and the relative size of a tree within the AZ 86011-5018 Flagstaff, USA stand, individual tree basal area growth increases significantly with decreasing CL:SA. Similarly, this Comparison of scenarios through process models is index increases with increasing severity of needle an important aspect in ecological simulation. loss on sites where Swiss needle cast is causing However, uncertainty (estimation error) is usually premature loss of foliage in western North America. not accounted for in simulation studies that compare Patterns in the variation of CL:SA within a tree, scenarios. in this work we propose and approach for among trees within a stand, and among stands hypothesis testing through process models across western Oregon lend some insight into the accounting for uncertainty in treatment entities complexity of this variable, as well as its potential (model factors that represent the scenarios or diagnostic power. treatments) and external entities (remaining model factors) that interact with treatment entities. External entities may be thought of as a representation of the Allocation of Leaf Area to Integrate environment where the simulation experiment is Stand Structural Features into Forest conducted. The method presented here generalizes Management Decisions previous work which assumed no interaction Kevin L. O'Hara between external and treatment entities. The University of California, Division of Forest Science, 145 proposed approach analyzes differences between Mulford Hall #3113, CA 94720-3114 Berkeley, USA Tel: 510 642-2127, FAX: 510 642-6632, Email: predictions produced by the treatments, rather than [email protected] absolute values of predictions from each treatment. Low-order orthogonal polynomials are fitted to Integration of stand structure features into identify entity interactions in the process model. The management objectives is a frequent requirement of example analyzed to illustrate this method is based evolving forest management strategies. These on indirectly testing the effect of tree spacing on the strategies attempt to accommodate multiple resource growth of a forest stand of a tree species for which objectives through design and maintenance of spacing is inversely related to wood density. certain types of stand structures. Generally, these Specifically, we applied a forest growth process objectives are met by stand-level treatments which model to test the effect of different wood densities create stands with a variety of tree ages, species, and (resulting from two initial spacings: 3 and 6 meters) canopy strata. A method of integration of structural on the growth of basal area in a stand of red pine features through distribution of leaf area has been (Pinus resinosa Ait.) from ages 36 to 60 years in the developed to design structures for management of Great Lakes region of North America. in turn, we multiaged stands. Stands are designed by allocating used results from a field study to characterize the leaf area to stand components such as stand age effect of spacing on wood density. Accounting for classes, species, or crown class groups. Increment of uncertainty in interacting external entities produced stand components can be predicted from component a variance of the mean difference between predicted leaf area.

90 Division 4 treatment means that was six times larger than the "Hybrid v3.0 model"(Friend et al. 1997. SYMFOR variance obtained when that source of uncertainty gives a representation of the environment in which was not accounted for. Basal area resulting from the each tree grows, from which the response and wider spacing was significantly greater regardless of interactions of individule tree sub-models can be whether uncertainty in interacting external entities calculated. Other sub-models necessary for was accounted for. However, the power of the test simulating the state of the forest are empirical, was considerably affected by the type of uncertainty having been devised and calibrated directly from accounted for. real data. The paper describes the framework, the models Individual-based modelling of tropical within it, the calibration process and the uncertainty forest growth and yield: structure and of results arising from the models. Comparisons are calibration of the SYMFOR 2000 made between the empirical and process-based tree- modelling framework growth models, and also between individual-based Paul Phillips, P.R. van Gardingen, G.J. Lawson, A.D. models and other model types more traditionally Friend, D.C. Mobbs used for tropical forestry. The paper concludes that The University of Edinburgh, Institute of Ecology and whilst different model types may be appropriate for Resource Management different applications, the influence of specific West Mains Road, EH9 3JG Edinburgh, Scotland silvicultural interventions may best be predicted FAX: +44 131 667 2601, Email: [email protected] using individual-based models, and that these have For several years there has been an identified need an important role to play in future sustainable for predicting the effects of silvicultural intervention forestry management practice. on future forest growth and yield. Forest concession companies in Indonesia collect data from permanent Modeling effects of metabolism and 3D sample plots (PSPs), but these data are not, in crown structure on tree growth general, analysed. Scientific researchers, forest Risto Sievänen, Eero Nikinmaa, Christian Messier and managers, policy makers and certification bodies are Jari Perttunen all interested in using PSP data to predict forest The Finnish Forest Research Institute, Vantaa Research growth and yield. SYMFOR 2000 is the latest Centre, Post Box # 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland version of SYMFOR (Sustainable Yield Modelling Tel: +358-9-85705373, FAX: +358-9-85705361, Email: for tropical Forestry), which is designed to meet [email protected] these needs for such users. We give an overview on the functional-structural SYMFOR is a computer simulation program using tree models (FMSs) that are outgrowth of PSP data in a framework designed to house developments in process-based models (PBMs) on individual-based forest growth and yield models. It one hand and morphological tree models on the makes predictions about the future growth and yield other. We analyze what kind of phenomena can be of tropical forests following silvicultural best studied using FSMs and outline briefly the interventions. The individual-based nature of the structure of FSMs. We identify the distribution of framework allows an explicit and unique treatment metabolites and growth as one of the main focal of the processes of damage and silvicultural points to be investigated in conjunction with FSMs. techniques, such as the creation of logging We discuss different approaches that can be applied skidtrails, damage due to felling and enrichment in construction of the model component for planting, and allows alternative methods to be tested distribution of growth. We present allometric on simulated forest. A combination of deterministic relationships, the pipe model theory, and more calculations and Monte Carlo representations of real complicated methods that are based on considering stochastic processes lead to a realistic representation the translocation of metabolic products. of growth and other forest processes in most areas Then we present a FSM Lignum that treats a tree as of lowland dipterocarp forest in Southeast Asia. a collection of a large number of simple units that The framework currently contains a process-based correspond to the organs of the tree. The model tree growth sub-model and empirical sub-models of describes the three-dimensional structure of the tree tree growth, natural mortality, ingrowth and crown and derives growth in terms of the damage, as well as several silvicultural management metabolism taking place in these units. The time option routines. The process-based tree-growth step is one year. The structural units are tree model incorporates the effects of competition for segments, branching points and buds. A branching light, water and nutrients to predict individual tree point separates each pair of tree segments. The buds growth after each model time-step derived from the produce new tree segments, branching points and

91 Division 4 buds. The tree segments contain wood, bark and development stages in two different regions, thus foliage. A model tree consisting of simple elements resulting in a total of 16 plots: translates conveniently to a list structure: the Clear cut system: (1) Clear cut, (2) Pole stage stand, computer program implementing Lignum treats the (3) Near mature stand, (4) Mature stand. tree as a collection of lists. Transition system: (1) Mature stand with We have adjusted Lignum to a number of tree regeneration < 1.3 m, (2) Mature stand with species, e.g. Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and regeneration > 1.3 m, (3) Two storey stand, (4) sugar maple (Acer saccharum). The structural units Steady state uneven-aged stand of Lignum have been modified for each modeled tree species. We discuss what kind of modifications In order to not confuse species mixture effect with different tree species (broadleaf versus conifer) that of uneven-aged management, only pure Norway require. We present simulations that depict how the spruce stands were selected, allowing only for less physiological traits and branching patterns affect than 10% basal are of other tree species. The tree growth in different light climates corresponding individual tree growth models MOSES and to different stand structures. Finally, in the light of PROGNAUS were used to simulate the transition the simulations, we discuss the utility of FSMs as a from one stage to the next. By trial and error the component of stand level growth models. type of thinning and individual tree harvesting was searched for, which best produced the structure of Uneven-aged forest management, does the following development stage, measured in terms it combine sustainability and of volume per hectare, tree number and dbh- productivity? distribution. Finally the harvesting in the steady- Hubert Sterba state uneven-aged stand was simulated for forty University of Agricultural Sciences in Vienna, Institute of years in a way that its dbh-distribution stayed Forest Growth and Yield, Peter Jordanstrasse 82, A-1190 unchanged. Vienna, Austria Using assortment tables and models to estimate Tel: +43-1-47654/4201, Email: [email protected] harvesting and hauling costs allowed to convert Uneven-aged Forest Management (Plenterwald, productivity in terms of wood into monetary values. Dauerwald) is frequently assumed to better meet the in this way three management systems could be requirements of sustainability than even-aged forest compared: 1st the clear cut system with a 125 year management with clearcuts, and at the same time rotation, 2nd the "natural regeneration system" allow high revenues, thus being most productive in where the old stand is removed as soon as terms of economic values too. The objective of this regeneration is established, and 3rd the steady state presentation is to compare productivity in terms of uneven-aged management system. These growth and yield and in terms of monetary value comparisons were based on the following using a combination of growth series methodology assumptions: (1) The felling and harvesting system and an individual tree growth modelling approach. is the same in all three management systems, namely tree felling by chain saw and hauling by By definition, in uneven-aged management assortments. in this harvesting and hauling system sustainability of wood production is given on the the costs per m3 depend on tree size, branchiness of stand level and not only on the level of the the trees and other technical parameters; (2) There is management district. Thus, to compare the two always sufficient natural regeneration, not hampered systems, clear cut and uneven-aged management, by anything except by competition; (3) There are no the unit to be compared with the steady state uneven differences in wood quality produced in all three aged stand must be a series of even-aged stands, management systems, except those resulting from their ages ranging from 0 (clear cut) until rotation tree diameter and height. age (Hundeshagen's "Normalwald") on the same site. This can be achieved by (i) searching for such The main results are: (1) The mean annual stands, assessing their increment and estimating the increment (m.a.i.) in the clear cut system is lowest; volume removed by thinning, or (ii) using an (2) Mean diameter of the harvested volume individual tree growth modelling approach, thus increases distinctly from the clear cut systems to the simulating thinning an even-aged stand in a way that steady state uneven-aged management system, and results in an uneven-aged structure similar to that of thus revenues per year and hectare increase in the the steady state uneven-aged stand. in a combination same direction. of both approaches first two growth series were built Keywords: Uneven-aged management, individual by selecting stands representing the following stand tree growth models, Norway spruce, Picea abies L.

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between height and height growth in the population. Dynamics of height differentiation in The model set results in constant height positions, single tree growth models for young slightly increasing absolute height differences and Norway spruce plantations decreasing height ratio differences between trees Sauli Valkonen except for the extreme smallest trees that retain their Finnish Forest Research Institute, Post Box # 18, FIN- low social positions. 01301 Vantaa, Finland Tel: +358 9 857 051, FAX: +358 9 857 05 361, Email: 4.01.08 Effects of environmental changes on [email protected] forest growth Keywords: modeling, simulation, stand dynamics, stand structure, growth, Picea abies. Recent changes in climatic conditions and their potential role in accelerated A tree level growth and yield model set has been tree growth on sites in Central Europe constructed for simulating the development of Hans-Peter Kahle young Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) University Freiburg, Institute for Forest Growth, plantations under alternative treatment regimes in Bertoldstrasse 17, D-79085 Freiburg, Germany Finland. A major part of the model set consists of Tel: +49 761 203 3739, FAX: +49 761 203 3740, Email: height distribution and individual tree height growth [email protected] models for spruce and two admixture species. Keywords: Forest growth; forest site productivity; The height growth model has two components: A climate change; time series modeling; geostatistical potential growth (dominant height) model, and a modeling multiplier model that accounts for the variation On many sites in Europe forest productivity has between trees within a stand. The chosen model increased considerably during recent decades. structure is intended to produce an exact match Accelerated tree growth is especially pronounced on between stand level dominant height development sites in Central Europe. Some exceptions seem to lie and the average height increment of each dominant on the periphery of Europe where the signal is less tree, and to describe the height differentiation within strong. in a current multidisciplinary pan-European stands that results from growth variations between study hypothesized important causes of the observed individuals. tree growth acceleration are investigated: (1) Surprisingly wide height distributions were changes in physical climatic conditions (2) observed in the data from 36 even-aged young increased atmospheric deposition (esp. nitrogen) (3) stands. Most of the height differences had resulted increased carbon dioxide fertilization, and (4) from growth differences during the earliest years, changes in land use. when the variation in microsite properties, weed In this report the potential role of recent changes in competition, and biotic and abiotic damages tends to climatic conditions (primarily air temperature and be largest. Having overcome the conditions that precipitation) in accelerated tree growth is induced a slow start, most (but not all) small trees addressed. The retrospective growth data used in increased their height growth. Competition between this study originate from several case studies as well trees was not intensive enough yet to control their as from forest inventories. Time series of height growth. Additionally, individual trees meteorological parameters have been obtained from showed large growth variations between successive meteorologic monitoring networks. Both data sets periods. A substantial proportion of the spruces had are analyzed in the temporal and spatial domain emerged from natural regeneration, adding younger using uni- as well as multivariate statistical individuals to the smaller end of the height methods. Trend-analysis methods are used in order distribution. All these components resulted in a to detect systematic changes in the behavior of the lively random type exchange in tree social positions time series, whereas changes in the realized spatial that decreased in frequency and amplitude with patterns of the variables of interest are identified and increasing stand height. described using geostatistical methods. The single tree height growth multiplier model was Climatic conditions have considerably changed designed to account for all these elements except for during recent decades. The changes in Central the random growth variations. The use of random Europe are characterized by a strong seasonal parameters in nonlinear models might offer a way to component: winter months have become solving the problem. The single tree model is significantly warmer and wetter, whereas during the intended for use in concert with the dominant height summer months the probability of moisture shortage growth model, expressing the general relationship

93 Division 4 resulting in drought stress for forest trees has different temperatures, and it can shift with changes increased. in the degree of water and nutrient limitation in different systems. Empirical models describing the relationships between variations in weather and tree radial growth Some of these differences between regions are fairly are retrospectively parameterized on a subset of the obvious: growth in boreal systems is more likely to data. These models demonstrate that moisture benefit from increasing temperature than growth in availability is control-ling tree growth on many sites systems already experiencing super-optimal in Central Europe. Based on time varying temperatures where further increases in tmpeature coefficient models it is shown, that trees have are more likely to have negative effects. Similarly, it responded increasingly sensitive to variations in is now fairly well established that the response of moisture availability during recent decades. systems to increasing CO2 concentration is more However, these findings are curious, because at the pronounced under warmer, and under water-limited, same time growth accelerated. Results of the conditions than under colder conditions or multivariate statistical analysis indicate that beside conditions with adequate water supply. Other meteorological parameters additional factors have to interactions are less obvious: how would growth be taken into account in order to describe the under water-limited conditions in cool conditions observed growth changes. A detailed outlook on respond to increasing temperature relative to the how these complex interactions will be approached growth response of similarly water-limited forests in the ongoing research project is given. already growing under warmer conditions? The effect of these direct and indirect effects and The likely effects of increasing CO2 and their interactions following climate change are temperature on forest growth in reviewed. A range of responses are investigated in different regions of the world detail with the forest-growth model CenW. It Miko U.F. Kirschbaum simulates the response of forest growth and the CSIRO, Forestry and Forest Products, PO Box E4008, storage of soil organic matter with climatic changes. ACT 2604 Kingston, Australia The interactions between these various factors on Tel: +61-2-6281 8252, FAX: +61-2-6281 8312, Email: ultimate forest growth are described for forests in [email protected] different regions of the world. Climate change can affect forest growth through many processes, and the ultimate response in Recent changes in atmospheric different systems may be affected by the response of deposition, soil chemistry, and stand any one of those processes, or through their nutrition as possible causes for an interactions. The work presented here concentrates increased forest growth in Europe on two aspects of climate change, increasing CO 2 Joerg Prietzel concentration and temperature. Munich University of Technology, Chair of Soil Science,

Increasing CO2 concentration directly affects Am Hochanger 13, D-85354 Freising, Germany photosynthesis and stomatal conductance, and Tel: +49 8161 71 4734, FAX: +49 8161 71 4738, Email: increasing temperature affects photosynthesis, [email protected] organic matter decomposition rates and vapour Keywords: Forest growth; Europe; recent changes; pressure deficit of the air and thereby the water loss stand nutrition; soil chemistry; atmospheric from tree canopies. Increasing temperature can also deposition reduce frost damage in cold regions, but increase heat damage in regions that are already hot. For many intensively-studied forest stands in Europe, a significant positive shift in growth has In addition to these direct effects, there are many occurred during the last 50 years. The systematic indirect effects. For example, the sensitivity of growth increases were particularly pronounced in photosynthesis to CO2 concentration increases with Central Europe and southern Scandinavia. The increasing temperature, and the optimum respective area has been also subject to changes in temperature for photosynthesis increases with forest utilization practices and climate conditions, as increasing CO2 concentration. There are further well as to increased atmospheric deposition of feed-back effects between carbon gain, water nitrogen and soil-acidifying agents. Atmospheric N economy and nutrient availability. and acid inputs often exceeded ecosystem demand Because of these interacting factors, the response of and acid consumption by weathering processes, respectively. forest growth to CO2 concentration and temperature can be different for regions currently experiencing

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Consequently, a significant N soil acidification and eutrophication, which often by far exceeded natural Accelerating forest growth in Europe rates, was noticed for many European soils. Soil Heinrich Spiecker acidification becomes become evident by a University Freiburg, Institute for Forest Growth, considerable decrease of the soil pH and a distinct Bertoldstrasse 17, D-79085 Freiburg, Germany depletion of base cation pools in the rooted topsoil Tel: +49 761 203 3739, FAX: +49 761 203 3740, Email: within a few decades. N eutrophication of forest [email protected] soils becomes evident by either a decreased forest Keywords: Forest growth; forest site productivity; floor C/N ratio, or by an increased pool of humus in European forests Growth of European forests has the humic topsoil, with its C/N ratio remaining changed considerably in recent decades. Forest unchanged. growth has increased on many sites. The observed Long-term (20 to 40 yr) temporal courses of stand changes may have been caused partly by nutrition in Central European forest ecosystems, inconsistencies in inventory methods, by changes in which often had been depleted seriously in N, P, and forest area, by changes in species as well as in age base cations by intensive, non-sustainable forest composition. Excluding these factors various studies utilization for centuries, indicate a recent recovery showed that site productivity has increased on many of the nutrition status of many European forests. forest sites. This recovery is particularly distinct for N, which is An increasing growth trend has been observed in the probably due to high atmospheric N deposition. southern regions of Northern Europe, in most Besides other factors, this improvement in N regions of Central Europe and in some parts of nutrition is suggested to be a key factor for the Southern Europe. Only in exceptional cases site increased growth that has been reported recently for productivity has decreased. Possible causes for the many European forests. However, there is also changes in site productivity are changes in land use, evidence for a tendency towards imbalanced in forest management, in natural disturbances and in nutrition on N-eutrophicated, acidified sites. For climate such as CO2 increase and nitrogen these sites, in the long run increasing nutrient deposition. The changes in site productivity may imbalances may jeopardize forest growth and have been caused by one factor, a factor ecosystem stability. combination or by regionally changing factors At present, information about the intensity of the which finally had similar effects on growth. The mentioned changes in soil chemistry and stand significance of each factor possibly varies in space nutrition as well as of recent growth increases in and time. Growth responses to the influencing European forests, and the relationship between these factors are modified by site and stand conditions. factors is hardly available on a spatial scale, but The observed results led to intensive public only for selected study sites. discussions, because they were connected with forest decline, an emotional topic, especially for the This contribution summarizes the currently German public. available information regarding the relationships between changes of the growth and the nutritional The long-term increase of growth clearly indicates status of European forests. It links the observed changes of site conditions. Consumers of wood may relationships to atmospheric deposition and soil appreciate the increased wood resources. Increased chemistry, and tries to draw some preliminary carbon storage potential may be an other effect of conclusions concerning the potential causes for the faster forest growth. However, these changes may recent growth increases that have been observed for also be associated with ecological and economic many European forests. Additionally, arisks. Increased growth affects nutrient cycling. comprehensive research approach to obtain more Changes in nutrient and water supply may also detailed information regarding the spatial pattern of affect species composition and tree health. The changes in the growth of European forests and the density of forests is rising, if removals do not dependence of these changes on changes of increase at the same time. Dense forests offer less important growth factors, is presented. This research space for light demanding tree species and ground approach is currently being realized within the EU- vegetation to live and therefore may affect funded research project REGOGNITION, where biodiversity. Higher trees and a high standing Relationships Between Recent Changes of Growth volume may increase the risk for water stress and and Nutrition of Norway Spruce, Scots Pine and storm damage. Wood quality may be altered as well. European Beech Forests in Europe are investigated Changes in site productivity have an impact on by intensive collaboration of 25 research groups in forest management, for example on species 14 European countries. selection, amelioration, regeneration techniques,

95 Division 4 weed control, tending, pruning and cutting strategies intended for situations where local permanents (incl. allowable cut). Past growth observations may sample plot data is limited or absent. not reflect actual growth adequately. Therefore, improved anal-ysis and prediction tools are needed Natural forest productivity in several to ensure continuous sustainable management. Venezuelan life zones and possibilities As long as neither the causes of the observed growth of their ecological sustainable changes are fully understood nor future management development of the causing agents can be predicted N. de Bello, Torres-Lezama, A. and Ramirez-Angulo, H. the risks involved in these changes cannot be Universidad de Los andes, Grupo de Investigación assessed in a reliable way. The amount and BIODESUS. INDEFOR Facultad de Ciencias Forestales complexity of the scientific problems evolving from y Ambientales, Vía Los Chorros de Milla, Marida, the observed forest growth trends show that Venezuela FAX: 58 74 714643, Email: [[email protected]] solutions can only be developed by the cooperation [email protected] of scientists covering various disciplines on a European or world wide level. One approach to get The understanding of changes in the productivity of a better understanding of the possible causes is the natural forests helps to adopt valid options for forest RECOGNITION research project which is management planning and the development of coordinated by the European Forest Institute and systems that assure forest sustainability. in this funded by the European Union. in this project 25 paper we study interannual variation of tropical partners work together. forest biomass productivity in several life zones (sensu Holdridge) of Venezuela. This is possible 4.01.00 / 4.02.00 / 1.07.00 Using growth because this country has a network of growth models for better forest management in the permanent plots that has been measured with a near tropics annual frequency for over 30 years; an exceptional case in the tropics. Twenty four 0.25 ha (50 x 50 m) A system for yield regulation in natural plots, located in six life zones, were chosen: tropical tropical forests thorn woodland (T-tw), tropical very dry forest (T- Denis Alder, Howard L. Wright vdf), tropical moist transition dry forest (T-m/df), Consultant in Forest Biometrics, 9 Stansfield Close, tropical moist forest (T-mf), tropical lower montane Headington, OX3 8TH Oxford, United Kingdom moist forest (T-M-wf) and tropical montane wet Email: [email protected] forest (T-M-wf). Forest productivity is estimated Conventionally, yield regulation in natural forests based on successive measurements, from the time of uses either aggregated stand tables and simple plot establishment, of tree girth at breast height, assumptions of growth and mortality rates which subsequently converted to diameter (d). Aerial treat the forest as spatially, floristically and biomass is calculated with individuals of d 10 cm structurally homogeneous, or complex dynamic by life zone and for the total period through models that require extensive permanent sample plot regression equations developed for tropical forests. information. This paper presents a method of yield The T-mf (km92) presented the highest mean -1 -1 regulation based on equal volume coupes that can be productivity with 3,83 Mg ha yr , following in derived from static inventory information alone. The descendent order the T-m/df (2,86), T-mf of Rio method allows for spatial variation in stand structure Grande (2,64), T-vdf (2,33), T-M-wf (2,09), T-tw (- and composition. Growth parameters for species are 0,01) and the T-M-wf) (-0,43). These results are estimated from tables of pan-tropical growth rates interpreted with regard to climatic characteristics, allied to information on typical size, wood density, soil texture, carbon and nitrogen soil content, and and ecological guild. Logging damage and stand forest dynamics. density effects on growth are also allowed for based on pan-tropical studies. The method seeks to provide sustained volume production over time from the whole managed area. Constraints can be imposed at the species level reflecting statutory, environmental, or commercial limitations. The system is packaged as a Windows-based computer program. It is designed to be practical for both small-scale management typical for community and for larger industrial-scale logging, and is especially

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from 9.08 mü/ha (1-yr), to 113.87mü/ha (4-yr) while Growth Performance and Yield Potential it was 5.95 mü/ha (1-yr) to 79.90 mü/ha (4-yr) in of Populus Deltoides Bartr. in case of tableland plantations. The timber weight Agroforestry Plantations in Punjab, production ranged from 5,21m tonnes/ha (1-yr) to India 92.9 m tonnes/ha (4-yr) in riverbed plantations, R. S. Dhanda, I.B. Kaur while it was 2.35 m tonnes /ha (1-yr) to 64.85 m Punjab Agricultural University, Department of Forestry tonnes (4-yr). The production was generally more & Natural Resources, College of Agriculture, Ludhiana, (42.5-43.3%) in riverbed plantations producing an 141004 Punlab, India MAI of 28.48mü/ha/annum at four years age. FAX: 91-161-400946 The similar aged plantations in these two situations The economy of the Punjab State, situated in the were compared on the basis of silvicultural north-western part of India, is mainly agrarian 83- treatments and soil characteristics. The overall 84% of its total geographical area under cultivation. performance of riverbed plantations was better than The recorded forest area in the state is just 5.6% of tableland plantation, verified through students' t-test. which only 2.7% has a crown density of 40% and The riverbed plantations performed better as this more and are distributed largely in the form of strip weregiven proper cultural treatments viz., soil plantations along the roads, rainway lines and working, irrigation and fertiliser application and fare canals. The rest are just of protective nature in the care operations by resident farmers. Also the water submontane Shivalik out crops, with no dense forest table was higher in reverie belt which definnitely worth the name. The agriculture in the state is contributed towards better growth of poplar during highly capital-intensive and over-exhaustive on summer. It is, thus, clear that poplar plantations in water and soil resources. Such a land use scenario agroforestry system require proper care and transformed the state into a wood-deficit state, silvicultural treatments while the neglected where 95-98% of its industrial and construction plantations suffer and not put up sufficient growth. timber requirements are met with imports from other states. The adoption of Eucalyptus tereticornis The second cut for hill dipterocarp plantations in agri silnvicultural system by the forests: What growth and yield models farmers in early eighties turned the state surplus in indicate? eucalypti timber (dhanda, 1989). The farmers had to Ismail Harun, S. Appanah resort to distress sale of farm grown timber. Now Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong, the farmers in the central part of the state are 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia planting populas deltoides in agroforestry and are Tel: 603-6342633, FAX: 603-6302321, Email: having sugarcane, wheat, oats, winter fodder potato [email protected] and turmeric crops along with poplar tree crop. The Growth and Yield models are explored for data from growth of Poplars in agri-silvicultural system is quit logged over Dipterocarp forests data at two scales: encouraging and farmers are harvesting poplar trees predicting the diameter growth, percentage mortality at a short rotation of 6 to 7 years when they attain and number of recruits for individual trees per 90cm GBH or more. hectare per year and predicting the growth, mortality The present study was undertaken to assess the and recruitment in terms of basal area per hectare. growth performance and productivity of poplars in The data for model fitting consists of all trees 10 cm agroforestry both in riverine belts and tablelands DBH and above in 18-1 hectare growth and yield under different cultural and management conditions. plots established after logging. Growth and Yield Four plantations of each age from one-to-four year models (individual tree and plot scale) are were selected in both locations and tree parameters developed for a permanent sample plot data set like DBH, total tree height, clear bole, utilisable established and re-measured over a 15 year period. bole height, basal area, and crown spread of poplars The models predict that the next harvest will consist were recorded. The mean DBH in riverbed primarily of non-Dipterocarp species, due to high plantations ranged from 6.8cm (1-yr) to 19.4 (4-yr), mortality of residual Dipterocarps and low while it was from 5.1cm to 17.72cm, respectively in recruitment. A sensitivity analysis indicates that the tableland plantations. Generally the DBH for river - mortality rate has the biggest influence on the bed plantations was more than that table land forecasts, and obtaining more precise estimates of plantations. Similarly, in observations for total tree mortality is needed. Because the mortality for height, utilisable timber bole height, clear bole and Dipterocarps was still high (3-4%) up to 10 years basal area were recorded and compared. This will be after logging, mortality models fitted using these dealt in detail in full-length paper. The timber data may be overestimating future mortality, as volume production in riverbed plantations ranged there is evidence that the mortality drops to 1 or 2

97 Division 4 percent by the 15th year. Nevertheless, the observed structure types. The model satisfactorily represents high levels of mortality during years 1 to 10 are real forest dynamics and timber increment in degraded and result in considerable reduction in the stocking and heavily logged forest stands. of Dipterocarps in the stand. This indicates that the Species grouping is based on light response classes effects of harvesting may last over longer time and supported by photosynthesis measurements; site periods than previously thought and several quality assessment uses plant-available water and modifications and refinements are needed in order to exchangeable nutrients in soils up to 50 cm depth. improve existing harvesting and management Stand structure types are derived from 1:25,000 system of Dipterocarp forest in Peninsular Malaysia. aerial photos using crown parameters for identification. A new approach for AAC calculation in tropical moist forest - An example from The model simulates forest development with and Sabah / Malaysia without timber harvesting. Silvicultural standards Jochen Heuveldop, Thomas Ditzer, Achim Droste, are considered by defining a cutting diameter Reinhold Glauner threshold, by limiting the number of trees to be Institute for World Forestry, Federal Research Centre for harvested per unit area, and by prescribing a Forestry and Forest Products, Leuschnerstr. 91, D-21031 minimum number of seed trees to be retained after Hamburg, Germany harvesting (i.e. volume control). The GIS Tel: +49-40-739 62 100, FAX: +49-40-739 62 480, environment enables the connection of the Email: [email protected] aforementioned stand and site classifications to a Keywords: growth & yield; tropical rainforest; spatial database. The thus produced site-specific- annual allowable cut; management planning stand-type map (SSST) includes three crucial forestry planning parameters: increment, harvested The annual allowable cut (AAC) for a forest volume, and area. management unit in Sabah, Malaysia, is derived by a recently developed method which links a process By selecting areas to be harvested in 10 years oriented growth model with a Geographic intervals (i.e. area control) and defining a Information System. The investigations, where the preliminary working cycle of 40 years, this area- and volume-control systems are combined, approach leads iteratively to a realistic, site-and- have been carried out in the 55,000 hectares stand-specific and area-related calculation of stand Deramakot Forest Reserve, consisting of heavily improving sustainable harvesting-levels. logged over and partly degraded lowland The calculations reveal that timber harvesting is dipterocarp forest. presently possible. However, harvesting levels range 3 3 Underlying principle for this approach of calculating from 200 m to 10,000 m per year for the next 60 years depending on the silvicultural standards the AAC is to rehabilitate the forest conditions by 3 increasing the present growing stock to its optimum, applied. Thereafter an increase to 80,000 m would where maximum increment of commercial species be possible if harvesting damages are kept at 20%, can be obtained. The management concept at least three mother trees per hectare are retained, comprises a modest, gradually increasing timber and the threshold for the minimum number of trees harvest under strict control of harvesting techniques, to be harvested per unit area is neglected. natural regeneration, and silvicultural measures. Patterns of vegetation recovery on the The commonly applied estimations of annual 1922 and 1959 lava flows on Mount growth are based on small scale sample plots representing minor portions of today's degraded Cameroon stand types. Data obtained by such empirical Nouhou Ndam LIMBE Botanic Garden, Mount Cameroon Project, method in selectively logged stands cannot be P.O.Box 437, Limbe, Cameroon extrapolated to the wide range of devastated forest Tel: 237 43 18 85 extension 381, FAX: 237 43 18 83 381, structures with the required precision. Instead, this Email: [email protected] would lead to a bias in the prediction of the potential growth and thus to a non representative calculation To assess the role of volcanic eruptions in the of harvestable volumes and regeneration time. maintenance of species richness on Mount Cameroon, the resulting course of primary For the here presented growth / increment succession and the mechanisms controlling this estimations the process-oriented model FORMIX were investigated. in 1995, a census was carried out was applied to determine stand development in five of the vegetation on the 1922 and 1959 lava flows; species groups on three site qualities in four stand the results were compared with those of surveys

98 Division 4 carried out in 1936/37 and 1951. Numbers of plants possible in great extension due to a network of and species were significantly different between the permanent plots established in the sixties. in this two lava flows (P = 0.001), but not between the paper we present a particular case study of the edges and centre of each flow. The primary application of an individual-based model (ZELIG) succession process was complex with a high to a Venezuelan western plain forest, classified as turnover of species, a larger number appearing and tropical dry transition to humid, after Holdridge. We disappearing from the lava flows between 1936 and used a data set with over 35 years of measurement 1995 than numbers persisting throughout. The from the University Forest "El Caimital" to results are compatible with a relay floristics model parameterize the model. Due to the large number of of succession. However, given the slow rate of tree species (64), and the difficulty to run the model vegetation development of the sites it is for such a number, we selected the top 14 species questionable whether the high rate of species based on a Value Index (VI = 75%). This index is turnover reflects mechanisms of facilitation and then calculated dividing relative basimetric area by competitive exclusion. It may be more of a relative stand density. The remaining species were reflection of stochastic processes in the populations classified in six ecological groups, according to their of the species. Trees > 1 cm DBH tend to colonise light requirements and maximum tree height. The from the edges of the flow towards the centre values of the parameters to run the model were whereas the distribution of seedlings and herbaceous obtained, and a good adjustment was reached after plants seems to reflect a more stochastic contrasting the model results with the field data. colonisation process. It will take 300 to 600 years Based on this parameterization the model was for the initial forest to be reconstituted on those lava applied to predict selective logging effects on forest flows as estimated from current trend of species dynamics. Four selective logging options were composition, basal area and density. About 8% to simulated with regard to the minimum felling 18% of species colonising the lava flows are unique diameter legally established for Venezuela. in the to this type of environment, therefore contributing first option, we harvested the total merchantable constantly to the richness of the biodiversity on stand and considered vegetation damage caused by Mount Cameroon. current logging methods; in the second, the damage was estimated for a planned logging; in the third Simulation models as a tool for option we only harvested approximately 50% of the sustainable forest management in total merchantable stand under the current logging Venezuela method; and, finally, in the fourth option we cut the Hirma Ramirez-Angulo, Torres-Lezama, A. and M. same proportion as in the third but vegetation Acevedo damage was estimated for a planned logging Universidad de Los andes, Grupo de Investigación method. For each logging option the following BIODESUS. INDEFOR. Facultad de Ciencias Forestales parameters were evaluated: mean stand density, y Ambientales, Vía Marida, Los Chorros de Milla, mean basimetric area and total timber biomass. Venezuela Furthermore, we determined the degree of FAX: 58 74 714643, Email: [email protected] ecological sustainability depending on the level of Use of simulation models have become wide spread remaining forest recovery with respect to the initial as a tool for natural resource study and management. values of the non logged forest. We also calculated Particularly, simulation models are a valuable tool the benefit/cost relationship. in conclusion, the last in predicting the responses of forest ecosystems to option assured a faster forest recovery, but from an natural and anthropogenic disturbances, given the economic point of view the first option resulted complexity and longevity of such systems. more profitable in a short term. These results show Consequently, since the seventies a considerable the necessity of reconciling ecological and number of simulation models have been developed economic interests in order to pursue sustainable with that purpose, mainly for temperate forests. in development. The social aspect should be the tropics, however, these models have been incorporated as well. scarcely applied, despite the fact that forest management is the subject of strong criticism. Venezuela is one of the few countries where this approach is developing; since 1993 we have worked steadily on this line of research line, which is specially oriented towards the study of forest dynamics in order to analyze and predict the effect of several management strategies. This has been

99 Division 4 from the current recommended BR to BBBR Optimising planting density of banana intercrop resulting in an estimated 350% increase in to improve resource use efficiency and profits from the banana crop during the productivity of smallholder rubber lands establishment phase. in Sri Lanka. Increased productivity in the high density intercrop V. H. L. Rodrigo, C.M. Stirling was driven by an increase in resource capture per Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka, Department of unit land area and on average, radiation and water Plant Sciences, Agalawatta, Dartonfield, Sri Lanka use in the BBBR intercrop increased by 73% and FAX: +94 34 47427, Email: dir [email protected]. 140%, respectively, over the currently Perennial tree crops, such as rubber, play an recommended BR intercrop. Increased shading in important role in income generation for smallholder the BBR and BBBR intercrops had no major impact farmers in the humid and sub-humid tropics. on photosynthesis and respiration per unit leaf area. Because rubber provides no income during the early Consequently, the increase in light-use efficiency years of establishment, farmers are advised to utilise and whole plant photosynthesis (due to the larger the wide spaces between immature trees to grow canopy under shade) were identified as major shorter duration crops. The versatility of banana, factors responsible for the improved biomass being both a food and cash crop makes it an productivity per plant in the high density intercrops. important component of these intercrop systems. Intercropping also had beneficial effects on growth The Rubber Research Institute of Sri Lanka (RISL) of rubber, resulting in an increase in both girth and currently recommends a planting density of one row plant height. The increase in of intercropped rubber of banana between each row of rubber; this is based has been sustained through to the sixth year of largely on the performance of banana when grown growth with the result that tapping will start earlier as a monoculture and is designed to impose in the intercrop than in the sole crop rubber. We minimum risks of latex yield losses through conclude that amongst intercrops, the highest competitive effects on rubber. Prior to this study, density BBBR treatment always performed best in there had been no systematic evaluation of the terms of both stand parameters and performance of effects of planting density on productivity of individual component crops. The implication of component crops and so it was not clear whether the these findings for improved income generation on present recommendations represented an optimal smallholder rubber lands is discussed. use of land during the unproductive phase of rubber. The overall aim of this study was to determine the 4.02.01 Forestry products collection and extent to which planting density of banana could be sustainable forest management manipulated to improve resource use and productivity of immature rubber lands. Urban Tree Database Information A large-scale experiment was established on 5 ha. System (Infoplant): Dissemination of Treatments comprised, sole crop rubber (R), sole Research Findings crop banana (B) and three intercropping treatments Mohammad Adnan, Ahmad Azaruddin Mohd. Noor, consisting of an additive series of one (BR), two Azali Adnan (BBR) and three (BBBR) rows of banana to one row Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong, of rubber. Biomass productivity increased in direct 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia proportion to planting density in the rubber/banana Tel: 603-6342633, FAX: 603-6302105, Email: [email protected] intercrop. Despite an increase in leaf area index and shading with planting density, there was no Urban forestry and tree planting activities are now evidence that growth was limited by light. Instead, receiving due recognition. to make Malaysia a growth of both rubber and banana benefited from "Garden. To this effect, dissemination of urban tree mutual shading in the high density BBBR crop with information is very crucial and would give a great a 20 and 41 % increase in biomass per plant of impact to the landscaping activities. Realising this, rubber and banana, respectively relative to the single and towards making Forest Research Institute row BR intercrop. As a result, the Land Equivalent Malaysia (FRIM) a center for the Malaysian Urban Ratio (LER) for biomass increased 76% from the Forestry research, FRIM is making the first move to BR to BBBR intercrop. Treatments had little affect bring the wealth of information on urban trees into on bunch yield per banana plant or harvested superhighway by developing a web base computer percentage, with mean values of 6.2kg and 65% application known as Plant Information System - respectively. As yield per plant was similar across INFOPLANT. It is a dynamic database system treatments, yield per hectare increased three-fold containing useful information on trees for urban

100 Division 4 landscape purposes. The system will serve as an effective tool for the dissemination of information Role of Local People in Sustainable on urban trees to the public. As it contain up-dated Management and Conservation of information gathered from experts. The InfoPlant Bamboo and Rattan Diversities in will intensify and facilitate research work in the Bangladesh related fields. Ratan Lal Banik Infoplant was initiated and created based on systems Bangladesh Forest Research Institute, P. O. Box 273, that were already established in other country like in 4000 Chittagong, Bangladesh the USA. Infoplant, the first of its kind in Malaysia FAX: 880-31-681584, 681566, Email: is an interactive and dynamic program. It was [email protected] designed to match specific tree species to particular Bangladesh is basically a plain land country lies in uses and sites based on compatibility characteristics. the north-eastern part of the South Asian sub- The database system includes descriptions and continent. The state owned forest occupies about pictorial information of tree species. It provides 14% land of the country which is mostly located in ready information for fast and effectual retrieval. At the hills and coastal areas. The country enjoys a present there are informations for 164 urban tree tropical monsoon climate. The population of species with 32 parameters/criteria and a total of Bangladesh is about 13 million, of which 0.13 365 pictures. This number will increase so as to million is tribal people. So the 98.7 per cent are achieve a target to cover all trees that grow in urban plain land people (Bangalees). There are 14 areas and that are proven suitable for urban identifiable tribes mainly residing in the hills. Both landscaping. Major advantages of the system bamboo and rattan are most priority plants of the includes on-line access via internet, easy-to-work country. The natural bamboo and rattan forests are and user friendly, practical and time saving. The located in the hills while people of vast plain land development of the database system was divided have been cultivating them in rural areas. Bamboos into two stages. in the first stage, existing records are being used as a main construction material for and data in dbase file were converted into Microsoft about 90% of the rural housing. The economy of the Access file. A search request was then developed country mostly depends on agriculture. Almost all based on the existing and additional parameters or the agricultural implements are made of bamboo. field using Visual Basic Application Software that The use of bamboo as a raw material for the pulp resulted in the stand-alone version of Infoplant. and rayon mills has added its importance to the Stage two concentrated on further enhancement and national economy. Both bamboo and rattan are improvisation of Infoplant Database System into the important raw materials for cottage industries and Internet version using Internet Database Converter. generate employment for the rural poor. Presently To subsequently strengthen and support the system, there is a shortfall of bamboo resource by 82 million apart from accessing Infoplant Database for plant culms. The increased productivity through search, users may also access other additional and sustainable management by application of related information pages which are created and indigenous and modern knowledge can fill the gaps. displayed in this web site. This includes plant check There are about seven species of bamboo occurring list, plant price guidelines, nursery information and naturally in the hills. Among them M. baccifera is pictorial guidelines to tree planting. The release of most common and constitute 80-90 per cent of the Infoplant is definitely in line with government’s total bamboo vegetation. Besides these about 30 aspiration towards both the greening program and species of bamboo have been cultivated in the plains IT development. It aims to provide an interesting of Bangladesh. Among them Bambusa balcooa platform for FRIM in packaging, disseminating and Roxb. and B. vulgaris Schrad. are most common. commercialising information on urban trees and Rattan being a climbing palm grows naturally in the landscaping as well as to enable the general public high forests. Only two genera of rattans Calamus to retrieve it comfortably. As a technological and Daemonorops occur in the country. solution for information dissemination, Infoplant Daemonorops is represented by a single species D. will ultimately evolve to integrate the latest jenkinsiana (Griff.) Mart. and Calamus is reported supporting technology available. to be represented by 9 species. Among them C. guruba and D. jenkinsiana are commonly used by the local people for weaving and binding purposes. Due to clear felling forestry operations rattans are disappearing in an alarming rate. The hill tribes usually lead nomadic lives. However, in some settled areas of the forest people have been

101 Division 4 cultivating some bamboo and rattan species in their d’actualité mériteraient encore un éclairage homesteads and farm land from generations for day particulier. Il s’agit par exemple de suivre la baisse to day uses. Agroforestry practice, and shifting de fertilité des sols de ces formations boisées, de la cultivation (Jhumming) are traditional systems for poursuite d’études de régénération de la végétation sustainable management and conservation of ligneuse (notamment la multiplication végétative bamboo resource. During jhumming for up-land rice naturelle), du fonctionnement hydrique de certains cultivation, the tree seedlings are also planted. écosystèmes, des conséquences de l’émondage Occasionally rattan seedlings and bamboo répété sur la vitalité des arbres fourragers, de la propagules are planted as inter crops. Jhumias concurrence et / ou de la complémentarité de (shifting cultivators) maintain genetic diversity by l’exploitation des productions forestières et borrowing or exchanging propagules. Harvesting of pastorales, etc. Au niveau culturel et socio- rattan cane starts from 7 or 8 years after planting, économique, les processus de prise de décision des when the stem become mature and reaches 6-7m in pasteurs, leurs choix stratégiques et les pratiques length. Out of 10 rattan species only Calamus tenuis d’exploitation des ressources face à la concurrence is widely cultivated in the plain land homesteads, exercée par les agro-pasteurs, le savoir faire specially in marshy low lying areas. Both in hill traditionnel, l’importance des revenus tirés de forests and plain land rural areas local people are l’exploitation de produits ligneux et pastoraux sur managing and conserving diversities of bamboo and l’économie des foyers, etc... sont encore rattan resources in sustainable way mainly on three insuffisamment connus. Mais, face à la nécessité de principles-utilisation, cultural value and ritual belief, développer des actions d’aménagmen » à une and environmental stability. An endeavour has been échelle plus large que la station, les principales made in this paper to discuss these principle in lacunes à combler se situent au niveau des multiples details. interactions, telles que « arbres-ruminants », « strate-herbacée-strate ligneuse », « pratiques Recherches sylvo-pastorales prioritaires pastorales-gestion des arbres », « couverture en Afrique de l'Ouest végétale-feu-sol », etc. Ronald Bellefontaine, AndreD., Cesar J., Dia A., Maiga La production durable et simultanée de bois-énergie, A., Mbaye M., Ickowicz A., Petit S., Toutain B., de produits forestiers non ligneux et de produits Zoumana C. animaux, nécessite une nouvelle approche, globale CIRAD-Forêt, BP 5035, 34 032 Montpellier, France FAX: (33) 4 67 59 37 33, Email: et non sectorielle. De plus, celle-ci est à situer dans [email protected] un contexte de décentralisation et de co-gestion contractuelle des ressources naturelles par les La gestion durable des formations ligneuses sèches populations. De nouveaux modes d? exploitation des d’Afrique de l’Ouest est à un tournant de son ligneux apparaissent, induits par la croissance de la histoire. Les changements quantitatifs et qualitatifs démographie et par la mise en valeur de terres déterminants, qui ont marqué au cours des vingt- marginales. cinq dernières années ces formations ligneuses fragiles, mettent en évidence les faibles possibilités Une recherche-action, basée sur de nouveaux outils, de reconstitution et posent la question des seuils est proposée ici afin d’améliorer les modalités critiques à ne pas dépasser si l’on vise la d’exploitation des ressources sylvo-pastorales et de pérennisation de ces écosystèmes. Les réflexions pouvoir proposer rapidement des solutions à la menées par ce groupe de chercheurs sur divers demande des habitants de ces deux régions. Parmi terrains portent principalement sur deux zones ces outils, l’appui de la modélisation de processus écoclimatiques, celles correspondant aux climats biologiques ou de prélèvement, ou l’analyse sur des désertiques et sub-désertiques (dénommée ici zone représentations spatialisées, trouvent naturellement saharo-sahélienne), et aux climats tropicaux secs et leur place. Pour évaluer l’impact des nouvelles sub-humides (dénommée zone soudanienne au sens règles nées de la cohabitation avec des agro-pasteurs large). sur les pâturages herbacés et ligneux, les systèmes multi-agents devraient être plus fréquemment L’impact du pastoralisme sur les formations utilisés afin de modéliser à la fois les pratiques ligneuses, associé ou non à celui des feux de brousse coutumières, le fonctionnement de l’écosystème et (accidentels ou provoqués), ainsi qu’à celui des la dynamique sociale. autres activités humaines, comme la cueillette et l’exploitation forestière, a fait l’objet de nombreuses Après une esquisse synthétique des principaux études sectorielles, dont on tire déjà d’importants acquis des dernières recherches, les auteurs enseignements. Malgré cet apport, divers thèmes présentent un choix de thèmes prioritaires de

102 Division 4 recherche en sylvo-pastoralisme adaptées à des deux management planning. No organised market régions. structure for forest produces particularly for non- timber - Forest - Produces (NTFP) can be developed Rural communities as a corner stone of without reliable data. This has a direct bearing on sustainable forest management the economy of tribals and rural poors who greatly Mohammed Ellatifi depend on forests for their sustainance. Similarly, Forest Service, PO Box #20100, Casablanca, Morocco for large scale afforestation planning, it is not FAX: +212-2-98 24 28, Email: enough just to have basic forestry data but also we [email protected] must have information on meterological data, soil Forest ownership is very variable throughout the types, genetic variability, availability of seeds of world; the percentage of state-owned forests goes various species etc. The present paper focuses on the from near 100% to less than 50%. But whatever is need for authetic data/collection kinds of data this percentage, the populations living in the forest required problems associated with data collection neighborhood play a key role in its preservation and and possible improvements in existing system of its development if people are are intensely and data collection using latest trends in Information continuousely involved in its management. On the Technology. opposite -and this is particularly true in rural areas Keywords:- Resource, data, forestry, Planning, of developing countries-if the grassroots sustainable development communities are ignored and not fully involved in what scientists are planning and doing alone in the The characteristics of forest forest, the population could become the major ecosystems with its sustainable source of prioblems for the forest, putting in utilization around Yalu Tsangpu Grand jeopardy its preservation and causing in some areas Canyon of Tibet its degradation and even itsdisappearence. This Bosheng Li paper analyses the situation in developing countries, Institute of Botany, The Chinese Academy of Science, and put emphasis on the necessity to consider 20# Nanxincun, Xiang San, Haidian District, 100093 people as part and parcel of the forest environment. Beijing, China Their hope, their vision and their basic needs should Email: [email protected] .ac.cn carefully examined, with them, and included in abnu sound sustainable forest management. Examples of There are three kinds of characteristic with forest successful, as well examples of failibng forest ecosystem obviously have been summarized via the managements are given and analysed in some six times of the field investigation around Yalu countries. Lessons are brought up from these cases, Tsangpu Grand Canyon region over past ten year . and field-tested recommendations are given for the 1. Abundance of forest ecosysterm biodiversity general preservation and development of our forest reach a peak value on the zone of identical latitude environment. throughout the world. As a result of the strong influence on it's warm ~ humidity current with Data collection for sustainable forest moisture passage come from Indian ocean through development Yalu Tsangpu Grand Canyon, therefore the Ravindra B. Lal, Lokho Puni & Charru distribution of tropical monsoon rain forest Government of Manipur, Special Secretary (Forests & ecosystem up to 290 30'north latitude. Around Yalu Environment), Imphal, India Tsangpu Great Canyon region, the low mountain ever green and semi-ever green monsoon rain forest; Sustainable development of a country particularly in the montane everygreen and semi-everygreen broad tropics will greatly depend on scientific leaf as well as the subalpine taiga niddle leaf forest management of its natural resources. in India, forest have been composed of a richest mountain forest is considered an important natural resource. The ecosystem in order of vertical zones. Within this resource management planning requires availability region, Only 2,200 square meter is less than1.8% of of adequateand authentic data. The main agencies, Tibet total area .So far we know, there are: that are involved in forestry data collection in India are Forest Survey of India(FSI) and State Forest 3768 species of vascular plants, accounting for 65% Departments (SFD). The Indian Council of Forestry of the total species found in Tibet . Research and Education (ICFRE) also undertake 512 species of mosses amounting 65% of the total Collection and compilation of forestry data through species found in Tibet . various State Forest Departments. However, the forestry data collection in India is still inadequate 686 species of fungi taking 78% of the total species and at times not upto data to facilitate resource found in Tibet .

103 Division 4 206species of rust amounting 77% of the total of forest consumed every year is for fuel, so the species found in Tibet . study on development of fuel wood in Chinese rural area is very significance. The dissertation includes 63 species of of mammals, taking 50% of the total four parts. The first part reviews the present species found in Tibet. 232 species of birds situation about fuel wood consuming in Chinese ,amounting 49% of the total species found in Tibet. rural area. The requirement and provident of fuel 25 species of reptile taking 43% of the total species food in Chinese rural area is compared, and how found in Tibet. 19 species of amphibious animal much of forest consumed as fuel wood every year is amounting 47% of the total species found in Tibet. analyzed. From these materials and analysis, we can 1500 species of insect ,taking 60% of the total get the idea, The rural community is poorer, and species found in Tibet. their connection with fuel wood is more closely. 2. The Yalu Tsangpu Grand Canyon with it's length, Being short of fuel wood has lead much more forest depth, and water flow hit an all ~ around world cut down for fire that is one important factor supreme. The biological species on richest and effecting climate changing all over the world. So original forest on densest, covering in high snow that developing fuel wood is urgent. The second part mountain and deep valley, composed of a most forecasts the role of developing fuel wood in magnificent landscape in the world.. There is a most Chinese rural area. Firstly it can resolve the most attractive canyon nature reserve for ecotourism as important problem for community in aural area well. where fuel wood is the main energy resource. Secondly it would prevent a mount of forest being 3. Owing to advantageous water heat regimes, the destroyed that is helpful for improving on biomass and growth rate of Taiga needle leaf forest environment quality, so it can reduce the loss bring around this region meet top level in the world . about by natural disaster. Thirdly it would bring According to the characteristic has been described direct income for those poor community, for above, the masterplan on forest ecosysterm example, Providing for forage, fruit, and etc. and if protection with its sustainable utilization should be fuel wood can be planted in a large area, it can be carried out in scientific way as following: made used for papermaking and other industries. From the forecast, we can see that once fuel wood is · in the southern the part of Yalu Tsangpu Grand planted in large area, it would benefit the aural Canyon reign is the area of the biodiversity on people in many perspectives. The third part looks richest will be built a protected area at national into the elements that have prevented fuel wood level as a gene bank of mountain bio-resource developing in rural area. Poverty is the most for biodiversity conservation and sustainable important element. One hand the rural communities utilization. are wishing to get fuel wood, on the other hand they are eager to get direct economy reciprocation and · in the northern part of Yalu Tsangpu Great have no much more interests in planting fuel wood. Canyon reign, the national forest Park will be Then having no ownership of fuel wood they established. Via the ecotourism as an planted is another main element that caused fuel appropriate means of helping to achieve poverty wood be destroyed seriously. Other elements are alleviation. and change the traditional practices, also analyzed. These elements are obstructive to fuel such as timber extraction and slash-and-burn developing. The fourth part looks for ways that lead cultivation. fuel wood to sustainable management. The first step · On the periphery of Yalu Tsangpu Great is the ownership exchanging. For example, the Canyon reign, the sustainable forestry base ownership of fuel wood should belong to the local under scientific management will be built up for people and not to state. Then management the economic timber supply. technology should be improved on. For example, the administrating system should accept the free Development of Fuel Wood in Chinese market rule that is who gets benefits should Rural Area response for. Let people, who need fuel wood Huiqing Li mostly, take part in making decision, and the main Chinese academy of forestry, Research institute of thing state should do is to stimulate and encourage forestry, 100091, China the local people on policy. Then long-term task, Tel: 0086-10-62889669, FAX: 0086-10-62872015, invest and others are also be plunged into for fuel Email: [email protected] wood sustainable management. The potential amount of fuel wood in 17 provinces of China can't meet the need. About thirty percents

104 Division 4

Participative Strategic Planning for questions about local peoples participation and the Sustainable Community Forestry in design of strategic action plans for community Chihuahua, Mexico development, among others. After that, a SPI was Concepción Lujan Alvarez, Joel A. Diemer, Lois conducted in Basihuare. Later, a post-test (same as Stanford the pre-test) was applied in both communities. Universidad Autonoma de Chihuahua, Privada de In addition, qualitative research including Avenida Quinta Sur No. 1102, C.P. 33000 Ciudad Delicias, Chihuahua, Mexico ethnographic interviews, participant observation, Tel: Office(14) 72 19 67, Email: [email protected] direct observation, and follow-up encounter provided further insights into evaluating the forest Chihuahua, Mexico has 5.1 million hectares of resource management, and the impact of the forested area that occupies 27% of the states total intervention. Comparisons were carried out between area. During historical development, Chihuahuas two ejidos before and after conducting the SPI to forests typically were harvested by private measure the changes in attitudes The results showed enterprises and, rarely, by ejidos and communities. that: 1) ethnographic interviews were a valuable Folllowing the Mexican Revolution, the government complement to and cross-check on the participatory instigated agrarian reform programs, establishing approaches to obtaining views from the community the ejido as a land grant to peasants. members about their community forest resource Peasants or ejidatarios have use rights over the land management, and 2) the SPI achieved a greater and harvest the ejidos forest resource communally. awareness of development needs and created more Over time, ejido communities often included both positive attitudes and perceptions about community ejidatarios, with land use rights, and avecindados, development (Basihuare). As a result, it is possible those who live in the community but do not exercise to note that SPI significant changed the respondents land rights and cannot participate in harvesting attitudes and perceptions in intervention community. forest resources as owners but they can just Statistically, there were significant differences in participate as workers. Thus neither ejidos nor their attitude changes in people that participated in the communities have obtained the major benefits from SPI (Basihuare) compared to people who did not forest resources. However, they now demand to (Cusarare). Additionally, the planning conference participate actively in the productive process to helped the Basihuare community to design its own obtain more benefits. New forestry strategies strategic action plan for future development. The propose to integrate social and economic community not only developed its own strategic development with environmental protection, and to action plan, but also, because of the participative expand participation of different sectors. and democratic process they used, they developed community plans. in the research, even though, This research study focused on strategic planning Basihuare lacked financial resources for investment, for sustainable community forestry in Chihuahua, profits from its sawmill, and resource planning, Mexico. The research focused on two forest ejidos local people did not display negative attitudes in the Sierra Tarahumara: Basihuare and Cusarare. toward for community development in the future. If We hypothesized that Basihuare (the intervention resources are available, they are motivated and community) would have more positive and interested in implementing the action plans for their statistically significant changes in attitudes toward community. The results confirm the initial community development than Cusarare (the control hypothesis and suggest that the study can serve as a community). Our objectives were: 1) assess the model for the application of the Open Systems current forest resource management in both approach to the development of sustainable communities, 2) conduct participative strategic community forestry for the Sierra Tarahumara and planning methodology (Search Conference) for elsewhere. forest-based community development to achieve a greater awareness of development needs, positive Forest Research and Sustainable Forest attitude change and to design a strategic action plan for a future community, and 3) assess the attitudinal Management in Estonia Yuri Martin, Rein Ratas and perceptual impact of the strategic planning Toompuiestee 24, 15172 Tallinn, Estonia intervention (SPI) of local people toward FAX: 372 62 62 801, Email: Dr. Mohammed ELLATIFI community development. [[email protected]] A static group comparison was conducted in this Forests (2.01 million hectars) cover about 48% of study. The study consisted of applying a pre-test the territory of Estonia. Since 1940, forest area has (attitude questionnaire) in both communities. The increased by 1.07 million hectars. The gross annual questionnaire consisted of 20 statements, including increment is 9.5 million cubic metres. Timber and

105 Division 4 timber products account for up to 18% of Estonian environmental, social and economic factors, export. Forest and timber related production forms biodiversity both on the stand and landscape level. 1/3 of the GDP. Sustainable forest management in Estonia is based on: The objective of forest related research is to provide - scientific research; scientific background information in support of - Act on Sustainable Development (1995); practical decision-making in forest management, - Forest Act (1993, 1998); conservation and multiple use of forests. - Law on Protected Areas (1994); To complement investigations on forest ecology, - National Environmental Strategy (1997); increased emphasis will be laid on analysing the - National Forest Policy (1997); entire chain of forest-based production. Other - Development Plan for the Estonian Forest Sector priority areas of research include the development of (1997); environmental monitoring systems, research on - European Union Habitats Directive, including biodiversity management and environmentally NATURA 2000. friendly forest management. Forest research will also support the formulation and evaluation of forest The Challenge of Meeting Domestic related policies by conducting scientific analyses on Energy Demand in Sub- Saharan African key issues. countries Basic research is integrated with teaching activities K. S. Nketiah in the Faculty of Forestry of Tartu Agricultural Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, University PB 63, University. Institutional environment will be Kumasi, Ghana developed in view to enable research and FAX: 233-51-60121, Email: [email protected] development activities to be carried out in Most Sub-Saharan African Countries depend collaboration with forest enterprises. heavily on wood for their domestic fuel. Even To rationalize resource utilization, full benefit will though the countries are rich in vegetation, there are be taken of the research carried out within the localised wood deficits. Moreover, wood resources international research community. Long-term are often far removed from areas of population empirical research programmes will be concentrated concentration. Populations are growing at very high in areas where the peculiarity of Estonian conditions rates, and with that, increasing demand for wood for warrants the effort. in order to ensure balanced fuel. development of forest research and efficient use of These countries are characterised by strong resources, the identification and implementation of traditions and cultures, some of which are research programmes will be carried out in inconsistent with modern day scientific thinking. coordination with other forest related research People still cling to traditions and customs some of institutions. which are inimical to sustainable forest management Today, Estonian science of forestry receives only and hence sustainable supply of fuel wood. Even 2% of the finances allocated to the scientific though the use of wood for fuel has been a century research sector from the national budget. old practice, woodfuel is not given the requisite In 1998, the total volume of cuts was 6 million attention in national energy balances; forest policies cubic metres. The total annual maximum volume of also do not give due prominence to woodfuels. wood harvesting in all Estonian forests not Attempts at meeting future demand (for woodfuels) exceeding the sustainable level, is 7.8 million cubic have been rather haphazard and unsustained or metres. Forest, as a renewable resource, should be isolated. Instead of planning to increase the supply used within the limits of its regeneration. in our base, countries have resorted more to control forests we have stopped excessive felling already in measures most of which have been difficult to 1961. The area of protected and protective forests enforce or police. Such measures have included will be maintained at the current level (15% of the bans, fines and legislation. Some countries have also total forest area). The leading role in environmental tried to promote substitutes for woodfuel. Others and forest policy and legislation belongs to the have tried to introduce fuel-efficient production- and National Forestry Board (NFB) which operates conversion technologies and devices. Due to the within the administrative area of the Ministry of the generally weak economies of these countries, the Environment. The NFB is responsible for the interventions have invariably had a donor-assisted implementation of forest policy, monitoring of component. forest resources taking into consideration the

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This paper looks at efforts made by different countries to meet demand for wood fuel for Estudio florístico de diversidad de domestic use. Various supply scenarios are especies en bosques de premontana en evaluated and realistic proposals made for meeting la Cordillera de Guaniguanico domestic fuel demand in this sub-region on Yudel Garcia Quintana, Yarelys Garcia Garcia sustainable basis. Universidad de Pinar del Rio, Marti final # 270, CP 20100 Pinar del Rio, Cuba Gestion de la Biodiversité: Relations Email: [email protected] aux plantes et dynamiques Vegetales A lo largo de los últimos diez años la conservación chez les Dani de la Vallée de la Baliem de los bosques se ha convertido en un tema de gran en Irian Jaya, Indonesie prioridad, tanto para los que formulan políticas Yohanes Purwanto como para el público en general en todas partes del Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Laboratory of mundo. En 1992, los bosques templados y tropicales Ethnobotany, Research and Development Center for tuvieron un lugar prominente en la agenda de la Biology, Jl.Ir. H. Juanda 22, 16122 Bogor, Indonesia Cumbre de las Naciones Unidas sobre Medio Tel: 62 (251) 322035, FAX: 62 (251) 325854, Email: Ambiente y Desarrollo (CNUMAD), Río de Janeiro. [email protected] A pesar de estos esfuerzos, la destrucción y This study was conducted in order to have a better deterioro de los bosques ha ido en aumento; understanding in the interrelationship between the provocando serios daños sociales, ecológicos y Dani-Baliem and their environment as well as the económico e incluyen pérdidas de biodiversidad y evolution of their traditional activities in its tierras natales para los habitantes de los bosques. ecosystem. The consequences of their activities in Actualmente en Cuba los territorios con vegetación the evolution of environment are shown by different natural son escasos y se encuentran en áreas methods that they modify, utilise, manage its montañosas, cársicos, pantanosos, serpentiníticos y environment and its vegetation diversities. otros que poseen suelos de escaso valor agrícola. En This research consists: analyses the knowledge and cambio se caracterizan por un elevado endemismo utilization of vegetation and its environment. We en ocasiones a nivel local. also describe the field organization and the local Nuestros bosques presentan un elevado grado de knowledge of botany. We treats the agriculture alteración y destrucción, sin contar las áreas que han activities of the Dani-Baliem. The other, this desaparecido completamente producto de la acción research also analyse the floristic diversity in antrópica. Es por ello que los estudios de diversidad different environment existence in the Baliem en zonas montañosas adquieren gran importancia y valley. This part consists of analyse floristic of the sirven de base para la protección y conservación de primary forest of different altitude, secondary forest la flora. Los bosques de premontaña contiguos a los (fallow system of different ages), transition zone mogotes cársicos de la Cordillera de Guaniguanico, (zone ecotone), home garden, villages and sacred al norte de la Provincia de Pinar del Río son de gran sites. and than, we discuss the relationship between riqueza biológica. El estudio de la diversidad the Dani-Baliem and their environment based on florística de un área de 5018 m2, se realizó a través their knowledge of plants, its utilization, its dynamic de la metodología de Brawn Banquet, basados en vegetation and its floristic diversity. Here we índices matemáticos, a partir de seis muestras donde discuss environment by confronting the point of se contó el número de individuos y se calculó en view of Dani-Baliem and the ecology, in the way cada muestra; evaluándose la biodiversidad de how they exploite them. in conclusion we especies bajo diferentes condiciones ecológicas, emphasized how the Dani-Baliem influence the además del estudio edafológico y climático, evolution of their environment and the floristic determinando a través de la ecuación universal una diversity. pérdida de suelo de 90 toneladas por hectáreas y un clima típico de la región insular. Los resultados florísticos condujeron a calificar la zona como bosque degradado, cuantificándose una inmensa pérdida de recursos madereros, fundamentalmente de Cedrela odorata, madera preciosa de alta demanda en el mercado, lo cual representa el no aprovechamiento de este recurso en la construcción de inmuebles, conociendo que con ese volumen (24.92 m3 por hectárea) se pueden

107 Division 4 fabricar 24 juegos de livin y 104 sillones, equivalentes a una pérdida en ingresos de 199200 Population dynamics of tropical trees in pesos para esa porción de la Cordillera. Esta the Western Ghats of Tamil Nadu, South investigación realizada en un lote forestal del India municipio La Palma perteneciente a la Sierra del S. M. Sundarapandian, P.S. Swamy Rosario, Cordillera de Guaniguanico permitió Madurai Kamaraj University, School of Biological recomendar especies para otros sitios degradados Sciences específicamente en zonas montañosas; además de Department of Plant Sciences, 625021 Madurai, India recuperar una zona de este tipo desvastada por el Tel: 91 452 858928, FAX: 91 452 859139, Email: E- hombre y los resultados fueron excelentes. El mail: [email protected] objetivo del trabajo es proponer un proyecto, The tropical forests at Veerapuli and Kalamalai incluyendo métodos silvícolas con vistas a forest reserve, falling within the Agastyamalai hill recuperar, rescatar y conservar esta formación range (a proposed Biosphere Reserve), is considered boscosa compuesta por un gran número de especies one of the 18 hot spots of biodiversity in the Indian autoctónas. sub-continent. During the past few decades these forests were subjected to unscientific exploitation Problematique de l'amenagement des particularly for agriculture, construction of Forêts Naturelles des Zones Tropicales hydroelectric project raising monoculture Seches plantations and other developmental activities. in Bassirou Sougoufara, Souleymane Gueye addition to that the deciduous forests in these DEFCCS, BP. 1831, Dakar, Senegal regions also affected by annual fires during summer. Email: Dr. Mohammed Ellatifi [[email protected]] Such anthropogenic perturbations have often Le présent mémoire souligne d'abord la complexité resulted in gradual fragmentation of these forests de la tâche de l'aménagiste de forêts naturelles and such fragmentations inturn has lead to loss of tropicales par rapport à celle des zones tempérées. biodiversity. Successful conservation of theses Ensuite il passe en revue les principales contraintes forests will ultimately depend upon the clear que peut rencontrer cet aménagiste dans sa mission, understanding of the forest ecosystem dynamics. contraintes générées par les divers facteurs Therefore, the present study was undertaken (1993- d'évolution d'ordre physique, humain ou technique. 1996) to evaluate short-term population dynamics of Partant de la necessité de l'adoption d'une approche trees in both tropical deciduous and evergreen terroir dans l'aménagement de forêts naturelles forests in Veerapuli and Kalamalai Reserve Forest (AFN) en zones tropicales sèches (ZTS), impliquant in the Western Ghats of Tamilnadu, South India by permanent plot method i.e. thirty randomly located d'une part, une responsabilisation et une 2 participation effective des populations rurales 10 x 10 m permanent quadrats in each study site; 10 locales dans la conception, la mise en oeuvre et le in each sub-site. suivi de l'aménagement préconisé, et d'autre part, Mortality of trees (> 10 cm Girth at breast height - une intégration des divers systèmes de production GBH) was lower in both the forests compared to existant (Agriculture-Elevage-Forêt) il analyse les recruitment. As a result, there was net gain in interfaces entre ces derniers et propose le population density of trees. Similarly an increase in développement des interelations positives et des basal area per hectare was also recorded. The actions à mener pour réduire voire lever celles increase in population density and basal area of tree négatives. species could be because of their entry into adult Mots-clés: Facteurs d'évolution, Approche Terroir, stage from the already existing sapling and seedling interelations entre systèmes de production. bank. Both mortality and recruitment of trees were greater in the evergreen forests when compared to that of deciduous forests. Comparatively low recruitment of trees in deciduous forests could be attributed to annual wild fires caused by human interference. in the deciduous forests no adult trees of Dalbergia latifolia were found, but the young ones (seedlings) were appeared during the rainy season. This could be ascribed to persistent soil seed bank or immigration of seeds from the neighboring area and also may possibly through vegetative reproduction. However, the survivorship of these

108 Division 4 seedlings were very poor and which could be due to problems on land tenure as affected by conflicting wild annual fire caused by anthropogenic Presidential Decrees, Migration of other tribes perturbations. Greater recruitment of trees to within the region and dependency of the people in compensate mortality has resulted in a net gain of the forest will be presented. The contribution of the population in evergreen forests. This net gain of local people in educating the tourist as a livelihood population may be attributed to favourable option and the role of the research service of the microclimatic conditions for better growth and Phil. Government during the experimentation stage survival of seedlings. Greater mortality of juveniles will be discussed. compared to that of adults occurred during the study The various forest products whether raw or period. This could be due to intense competition for processed which has played integral part on the limited available resources at the juvenile stage. daily life of the people and its implication to the However, population dynamics of trees at species conservation and management of the forest were level varied considerably. The present study documented. Likewise, data on the role of women suggests that the forest ecosystems here are at and men in these indigenous forest management building phase and needs long-term demographic system (IFMS) whether in the protection and studies to understand the regeneration niche. utilization were gathered and analyzed. Indigenous Forest Management System The objectives of the study are (1) to document the (IFMS) and Forest Products different indigenous forest management practices in Commercialization: The Upland People's the Cordillera Region, (2) to assess the bio-physical component of the Mt. Pulag National Park, (3) to Strategy on Forest Conservation in the determine the attitudes and perceptions of the Cordillera Region, Philippines indigenous peoples regarding Presidential Fatima T. Tangan Proclamation, (4) to determine the role of men and Ecosystems Research and Development Service, Department of Environment and Natural Resources, women in the establishment, preservation Loakan Road, 2600 Baguio City, Philippines management and utilization of the various FAX: 0063-442-4531, Email: erds-car@mozcom. Com indigenous forests.

The Cordillera Region is rich with endemic and 4.02.03 / 4.02.06 Update calibration and exotic species whether shrubs, trees or vines. From enhancement of forest inventories through generation to generation various tribes in the region the inclusion of remotely sensed data have somehow practiced their indigenous knowledge in the management of the forest. Thus, Vertical and horizontal integrated different terms were created by the natives to inventory of forest resources describe their different forest conservation Alparslan Akca measures. For instance, saguday is describe as a Institut fuer Forsteinrichtung und Ertragskunde, former portion of the communal domain originally Buesgenweg 5, 37077 Goettingen, Germany awarded to an individual family devoted to pine Tel: 49-(0)551-393473/72, FAX: 49-(0)551-399787, plantation, and of which continue to be corporately Email: [email protected] owned by the second generation of heirs. Other With the ever increasing use of the forest for forms of forest management includes Komonal, purposes other than wood production, such as Tayan and others depending upon the forest type recreation, watershed management, wildlife refuges, and tribe who practices the system. protection of nature, etc., the scope of forest A case-study on the commercialization of forest inventories has been expanded. products (wildfood plants, bamboo, rattan, A complete forest inventory for timber evaluation medicinal plants, etc.) had been carried out as a part should also provide so-called non-timber of larger project which was conducted in some information on: communities of the Cordillera Region. The topic to * Recreational, touristic interest be presented covers specifically how the natives * Soil and land use capabilities protect and manage their ancestral land domain * Watershed values claims at the Mt. Pulag National Park while - Biodiversity wildfood and medicinal plants and other products * Protection of nature, impact of deforestation are extracted for their domestic and economic needs. It is not sensible, nor even possible, to compile all Other features of the study are the advantages and forest-related or relevant information into one forest disadvantages of the proclamation of Presidential inventory. On the other hand, an inventory corrected Decree 75 in 1987 and Republic Act 7586. The with this in mind, is not only cost-effective and

109 Division 4 time-saving, but also provides the opportunity of documenting environmentally-relevant information, Complementary methods to assess which can be analyzed in view of ecological forest landscape structure: Shannon's landscape management. entropy and fractal dimension of In order to make sound political, administrative and remotely sensed imagery management decisions at the different levels, it is Piermaria Corona, Marco Marchetti, Carlo Ricotta, necessary to have reliable and current data relevant Roberto Scotti to forest resources and the changes therein. Forest Universiti degli Studi di Firenze, Istituto di Assestamento inventories can usually be categorized into four e Tecnologia Forestale (forest management institute), Via levels, according to the scale or size of the inventory S. Bonaventura, 13, 50145 Firenze, Italy FAX: +39055319179, Email: [email protected] area studied and their significance and relation to economical and ecological forest management Landscape structure, interpreted as indicator of policy, regional planning, planning at the forest functional processes, has become a main attribute of enterprise and stand level. multiresource forest inventories, enhancing its value * National (or international forest inventories) with respect to society needs. This approach implies * Regional forest inventories effective use of earth observation techniques and * Forest enterprise inventories geographic information systems, enabling a global * Forest stand inventories view of the inventoried landscape mosaics. The objective of this paper is to discuss two In most cases, and in the majority of countries, the complementarily targeted approaches to assess inventories are carried out independently at the forest landscape structure and complexity: a method different levels so that an information flow between based on information theory as introduced by the varying levels is not possible. in the age or time Shannon, and one based on the estimation of local of informatics, a "vertical" integration would be fractal dimension. Both methods together provide an very valuable for decision making at all levels. An objective assessment of landscape structure at the effective forest inventory concept should integrate given resolution. the information flow of all four levels, as described above, taking the necessity of the information required at the varying levels into account. This Estimating the Density of Rare Tree means that the national, regional, enterprise and Species - A case Study from Ethiopia stand level inventories must originate from a joint Alfred de Gier, G. Dessie inventory concept, filtering down from the top level, International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences (ITC), Hengelosestraat 99 Post Box # 6, 7500 i.e., from a national inventory down to a stand AA Enschede, Netherlands inventory and/or from the bottom to the top level. Tel: +31 (0)53 4874309, FAX: +31 (0)53 4874399, The efficiency of forest inventories can be increased Email: [email protected] by employing remote sensing methods using aerial Rarity is one of the problems in biodiversity photographs, air-borne scanner and satellite images. assessment, because estimates of the density of in the last years, remote sensing methods have these species are often imprecise. It is therefore undergone a very rapid development because new, necessary to identify sampling designs, which can high-resolution sensors and perfect data processing yield precise estimates. in this research a relatively methods are being developed, which allow new method called adaptive cluster sampling was economical digitized data recordings on a large applied to a forest area in Ethiopia, and compared scale. Traditional aerial photographs are still being with simple random sampling. The comparison of employed as valuable supplementary inventory aids, adaptive cluster sampling and simple random especially at the enterprise and stand levels. sampling was based on the relative efficiency of However, aerial photographic methods can only be their variances. The results reveal that under certain effectively applied in combination with terrestrial conditions, adaptive cluster sampling of rare species recordings and mathematical-statistical methods. is more efficient than simple random sampling. The Taking this into consideration, aerial photographic degree of efficiency of this sampling design was methods can applied at varying levels of intensity, found to be influenced by the level of rarity, and the from the most simple to the most complex analytical size of the rare species groups. evaluation, depending on the subject of interest.

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Thornthwaite System. The map-overlay method was Automatic estimation of volume factors used Holdridge life zone classification model to in real stands by digital image produce 11 climatic regions in Taiwan. There are processing 948 habitat clusters reclassified into climatic region Kim Dralle diagram by average linkage method by multivariate The National Forest and Nature Agency, Haraldsgade 53, clustering method. These 948 habitat clusters in DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark Taiwan environment factor database were clustered Tel: +45 39 47 25 16, FAX: +45 39 47 98 99, Email: from the 1km*1km grid of Taiwan by 12 habitat [email protected] factors. The 12 habitat factors include elevation, A practical application of automatic stem number slope, aspect, mean temperature per year, mean high estimation by kernel smoothing on digital aerial temperature of July, mean low temperature of photos is presented. This application improves January, total precipitation per year, precipitation forest inventory results compared to results obtained winter semester, precipitation summer semester, soil by established methods, for e.g. Norway spruce class, soil texture, soil effective depth. The (Picea abies [L.] Karst.), through improved stand relationships among each classification system were level stem number estimates. Rough estimates of discussed in the paper. tree characteristics such as height and diameter of The climatic region maps and the intercross tables the mean tree corresponding to basal area retrieved are showed the relationships among the Chen's for example by ocular assessment can, in a climatic regions, Holdridge life zone classification roundabout way, be used to assess other volume model in Taiwan and climatic cluster regions in factors. However, the first step to improve stand different levels. There are 8 Chen's climatic regions level volume factor estimates is to obtain in Taiwan, which were (1) North-East (NE), (2) sufficiently accurate estimates of stem number. North (N), (3) South-West (SW), (4) South (S), (5) Kernel smoothing of digital aerial photos is East Coast (E), (6) Central Mountain (CM), (7) demonstrated to yield this stem number estimate in West Coast (W), (8) Peng-Hu (PENG), according to real stands. Further, it is demonstrated how the factors: (1) monsoon (2) precipitation (3) potential method in a second run will provide individual tree evapotranspiration and moisture balance (4) average characteristics such as position in a global co- annual thermal efficiency. The factors used in ordinate system, heights and diameters. A Holdridge life zone classification model were (1) comparison to other "similar methods" as for mean annual bio-temperature (2) average total example ray tracing will be presented. annual precipitation (3) potential evapotranspiration ratio to map-overlay. There are 11 life zones Climatic Regions Classification of developed with Holdridge model. Those zones are Taiwan (1) sub-alpine rain forest (2) mountain rain forest (3) Fong Long Feng, Jian-Tai Kao mountain wet forest (4) lower mountain rain forest National Chung Hsing University, Dept. Forestry, (5) lower mountain wet forest (6) lower mountain Taichung, China-Taipeh moist forest (7) subtropical moist forest (8) Tel: 886-4-2854060, FAX: 886-4-2873628, Email: subtropical dry forest (9) tropical wet forest (10) [email protected] tropical moist forest (11) tropical dry forest. The The ecosystem should be based on multiple factors. climatic regions diagram shows there are stable Ecosystems are defined by multiple factors. As climatic clusters where Euclidean distance between Sokal (1974) pointed out, "Classifications based on 0.8 ~ 1.4. There are plain, slope-land, mountain, many properties will be general: they are unlikely to northeastward wet forest, southwestward wet forest, be optimal for any single purpose, but might be slope-land where summer monsoon and winter dry, useful for a great variety of purposes." This is like Tai-Wu, Ma-Jia region, southern wet forest, Da- termed a "natural classification". and some scientists Wu-Mountane region as stable climatic clusters. use land-use, landscape vegetation pattern, ... et al. The difference among three methods were due to But most scientists use the criteria of climatic diverse in interest classified factors. characteristics, because climate is the limit factor of biology distribution. There are three methods: regionalization, map-overlay, and multivariate clustering method introduced to reclassify the climatic regions in Taiwan. There were 8 climatic regions by regional and Zheng-Xiang Chen (1957) abbreviated regions from 20 climatic sub-regions that used 100 climate stations according to

111 Division 4 Modeling regeneration establishment for Forest and Woodland Ecosystems in Austrian forests using neural networks Dinder National Park: A challenge to Hubert Hasenauer, Dieter Merkl integrate Conservation University of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Forest Salwa M. Abdel Hameed, Nadir M Awad, Amna A. Growth Research, Peter Jordan Strasse 82, A - 1190 Hamid Vienna, Austria Wildlife Research Centre, Post Box #16- Elmourada, Tel: +43 1 47654 4205, FAX: +43 1 47654 4242, Email: Omdurman, Sudan [email protected] Tel: 313532-314798, FAX: 491(11) 777017-770735, Artificial neural networks represent a computational Email: [email protected] methodology widely used to uncover the structure National Park status is desirable for most of a large variety of data. in general, one may conservation areas because this confers greater legal recommend the application of neural networks in security for the land and usually allows greater areas characterized by noise, poorly understood power of control and law enforcment. However, intrinsic structure and random impacts. Each of with human population increasing rapidly and the those characteristics is present in predicting short-full in food production increasing annually, regeneration establishment within uneven aged many national parks in Africa have become islands mixed species stands. in this paper we describe the of natural resources in good condition surrounded design and estimation procedure to predict by high human population densities occupying regeneration situation in uneven-aged mixed species degrading lands. The conservation of the biological stands using neural networks. The result of the study diversity they contain affect the livelihoods of the is that the number of juvenile trees per unit area and rural populations in the surrounding because of the the relative percentage of individuals by tree species regulation needed to support conservation. DNP in can be predicted with neural networks and that the Sudan is facing the same situation. estimation procedure is more accurate versus the conventional statistical approach based on Knowledge of the nature and seriousness of any regression analyses. conflict require accurate assessment and true evaluation of the resources available and the needs Keywords: Regeneration, Neural Networks, of the local communities. A vegetation and Uneven-aged mixes stands landscape survey including interpretation of Land Sat MSS images and aerial photographs, was Draining and secondary inundation in conducted in Dinder National Park, accompanied by the Leningrad Region social studies via questionnaires and informal V. K. Konstantinov, G.B.Velikanov interviews during 1996-1999. The landscape Saint-Petersburg Research Institute, Institutsky pr., 21, ecology vegetation map was produced. Four major 194021 Saint-Petersburg, Russia landscape units were found:- alluvium, clay plain, FAX: (812) 552-80-42, Email: [email protected] depressions, hills and pediments with varied soil During the last two centuries approximately 750- types and vegetation subsystems. The distribution of 800 thousand hectares of forest stock in Leningrad the vegetation in DNP seems to be influenced by region were drained. That is no less than 14% of its several factors; water regime, topography, soil types area or 55% of the water-logged land. At present the and human activities in the park. The local area with still working draining systems is reduced communities (Rahad villages and Maggno to 480 thousand hectares. Region forests growing on indigenous population) in their sharp reaction water-logged lands (with peat or without it) are against laws and regulations resort to antagonistic divided into four main groups. The first, the second actions, utilizing the resources illegally. They and the forth groups are represented by pine, spruce, suffered from penalty and under development. Their birch and partly by other broad-leaved forests, continuous demand for the resources might lead to which refer to swampy-grassy soil on the eutrophic severe destruction of the productive ecosystems peat, grassy-bog mossy(grassy-sphagnous) on the Riverine forest and Woodland ecosystems have mesotrophic peat and long mossy-blueberry on the great potentiality of providing wide range of peaty(less than 0,2-0,3 m of peat) and mineral economic, social and environmental benefits. New gleysol soils, respectively. The third group(named strategy for management, utilization and "bog-mossy") is characterized by pine forests on the conservation should be addressed to suit the new oligotrophic and oligotrophic-mesotrophic peat. concept of community based integrated resource conservation, in order to safe guard the remaining Draining of the first and the second forest groups resources towards sustainable development. produces the greatest forestry effect. The quality of locality increases from IV-V to II-I, and the annual

112 Division 4 mean increment of timber is 2-5 m3 per hectare. in The research was conducted in the forests in the the third and the forth groups the annual mean province of Trento (Italy). The prevailing species in increment doesn't exceed 0,5-3 m3 per hectare. this Alpine area, and also the most interesting from a commercial standpoint, is Norway spruce (60%). Secondary bogging of drained lands happens Consequently, this species was chosen as the subject because the work of draining channels deteriorated of this study. due to the lack of care and inadequate extent of draining(density and depth of channels), established The study can be divided into three distinct phases. in the projects. Losses of annual increment of timber The first phase foresees: due to the bad condition of channels reach about 30- 60%. More than that, up to 50-60% of drained and - the preparation of a set of operating tools adjacent to them earlier drained lands are flooded (methods, protocols, instrumentation, because of beavers' dams, built on the channels. classifications, etc.) suitable for identifying the main parameters that will be considered for the study on Up to 200-300 hectares are flooded by roads; correlations between standing trees and timber approximately the same territory is flooded by characteristics; reservoirs. Nowadays, among the factors determining bogging dynamics the leading one - the writing up of a visual classification of standing comparable to the natural process of bogs-growing trees, with allocation of each single plant to quality is a technogenic factor; that is construction of roads, classes; dams, oil and gas pipe-lines. - the calculation of the sawn yields according to Forecast of the balance between over-drained and round wood quality and determination of the drained lands for the next twenty years indicates Quality Index (QI) of the visual classes adopted (QI reduction of the area with provided draining norm indicates the value of the unit volume of round on 112 thousand hectares; 70 thousand hectares will wood expressed as the value of the final boards). be transferred into the category of secondary The second phase consists of extensively applying bogging. It is necessary to take prompt measures to the protocols and methods perfected in the first carry out repair works in the draining systems. phase. A map of a small pilot area is prepared, on which wood quality is indicated both in terms of the Technological Inventory for Norway "intrinsic quality" of the raw material and in terms Spruce in Italy of the value of the final assortments obtained. M. Negri, C. Pollini Mapping is performed on the basis of a very high Wood Technology Institute, National Research Council, number of sampling areas concentrated in a Via Biasi 75, I - 38010 S- Michele a/A, Italy restricted area so as to obtain a dense sampling FAX: +39.0461.650045; Email: [email protected] lattice. The pilot area is selected so as to contain Knowledge of the quality of timber produced in areas with various exposures and gradients and to natural forests allows for rational management. cover a wide altimetric range. The identification of Although in forests growing in the Alpine chain the the laws of distribution of the variability of the productive function plays a complementary role, the parameters researched allows us to modulate the revenue from timber sales covers the cost of cultural mesh of the sampling lattice necessary for the third and thinning operations. Since the quality of the phase. timber is strictly related to the quality of standing Preparation of the standard map constitutes the third trees, a large study to relate the properties of trees to phase of the study. The model obtained can then be the properties of sawn timber was carried out. applied progressively to the forest areas with A thematic map on wood quality is therefore an production functions in the provincial area. important element towards better planning and management of forest assets and of mountain areas in general. The main objective of the research is to identify significant correlations between the morphological parameters of standing trees and the quality and quantity characteristics of the products obtained from primary processing, such as defining wood quality on a geographic scale and thus creating a specific thematic map.

113 Division 4 because of lack of time, efforts and costs. Then, the Monitoring Forest Cover Changes in effective method has been needed for monitoring the Malaysia Using Remote Sensing state of unsuccessful young plantations in Technique inaccessible mountainous regions. The objective of Aswati Surep this study was to develop the method to estimate the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Regional survival rates of planted trees in young Sugi Centre for Forest Management, Kepong, 52109 Kuala (Cryptomeria japonica) and Hinoki (Chamaecyparis Lumpur, Malaysia obtusa) plantation sub-compartments by analyzing Tel: 603-6377633, FAX: 603-6377233, Email: the Landsat TM data. The study sites were young [email protected] plantations in Kyushu University Forests in Forests are a renewable resource that play a vital Miyazaki that were located in southern Kyushu, role in the development of the national economy. Japan and within the cool-temperate deciduous Malaysia is endowed with extensive tropical forest zone. The series of plantation has been developed resources. It was reported in 1992 that about 19.06 since 1978 under the clearcutting system in blocks million ha or 57.9% of total land area is covered by surrounded by shelterbelts. Each cutting block was forests. Remote sensing is acknowledged as the divided into slope units by slope azimuth because most powerful tool to monitor detect any changes of the survival rates have varied with azimuth. The a forested area. This paper reviews the potential of method of this study was composed of three using remote sensing technique in detecting land use principle parts. 1) Interpreting survival rate of and land cover changes in Malaysia. Studies in planted trees on a pair of aerial photograph. 2) Field Sabah (197601983), Rawang (1988-1995), Sungai measurements of spectral reflectance on both Buloh Forest Reserve (1988-1995) indicated that planted trees and grass to examine the difference in that were significant forest cover changes occurring spectral reflectance characters of two vegetation in the study sites. Causes and rate of forest cover types. 3) The analysis between the TM data and the change were quantified and discussed. The survival rates of trees under two MODELs. MODEL usefulness of remote sensing technique in detecting I using NDVI and MODEL II using the TM band 3 forest change in Malaysia has been explored digital number (DN) for detecting the difference in significantly. Although much of the efforts are still spectral reflectance between planted trees and grass. at the infant stage, the potential use of the technique As the results, 1) there were wide differences in the at the operational level is very promising. survival rates among slope units and also among cutting blocks, and a northern exposure slope had a Monitoring for Survival Rates of Young relatively high survival rate comparing to a southern exposure slope. 2) It was difficult to estimate the Plantation Trees in Japanese survival rates of planted trees by NDVI. 3) DNs in Mountainous Region Using Landsat TM the TM band 3 were preferable to estimate the data survival rates of planted trees. The relationship Yukio Teraoka, Akihisa Hirata, Shigeru Iida, Nobuya between survival rates and average DNs for northern Mizoue, Shigejiro Yoshida, Morio Imada and Susumu and southern exposure slope groups showed strong Inoue negative correlations with the coefficient of Kagoshima University, Dept. Environmental Science and Technology, 1-21-24 Koorimoto, 890-0065 Kagoshima, determination 0.98 and 0.62. in addition, two Japan correlation lines had the same regression coefficient Tel: +81-99-285-8574, FAX: +81-99-285-8575, Email: from the result of 5 % significant level test. From [email protected] this the difference in intercepts of both lines might indicate the reflectance characteristics of two slope According to the increase of plantation area, the azimuths. This study would supply the effective afforestation has progressed to inaccessible monitoring method for unsuccessful plantations in mountainous regions located at high altitude and in inaccessible mountainous regions. cool temperate conditions. The plantations in inaccessible mountainous regions were liable to be under severe conditions because of Kyushu Deer Inventory of Remote Sensing (Cervus nippon) grazing impacts freezing and Applications in Forestry: State of the Art drought damages. Therefore, unsuccessful Yousif Ali Hussin, Witske Bijker plantations have been increasing with planted trees' The International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Science (ITC), 7500 AA Enschede, Netherlands disappearance and competition with naturally FAX: (31) 53-4874-399, Email: [email protected] invaded broad-leaf trees. It was hard to monitor the state of every plantation by field observations To consistently and repeatedly monitor forests over large areas, it is desirable to use remote sensing data

114 Division 4 and automated image analysis techniques. Several types of remote sensing data, including Aerial 4.02.05 Remote sensing and forest photography, Optical Multispectral Scanner, Radar, monitoring Lidar (Laser) and Videographic data have been used by forest research and operational agencies to Global Observation of Forest Cover: detect, identify, classify, evaluate and measure How IUFRO can help achieve an elusive various forest cover types and their changes. Over goal the past decades tremendous progress has been Frank Ahern, Jacques Trencia, Tim Perrott, Carolyn made in demonstrating the potentials and limitations Goodfellow of the applications of remote sensing in forestry. Canada Centre for Remote Sensing, GOFC Project Office, 588 Booth Street, K1A 0Y7 Ottawa, Ontario, For several types of applications of remote sensing Canada in forestry in specific regions of the world such as Tel: (613) 947-1295, FAX: 1-613-947-1385, Email: tropical areas, users of forest information are [email protected] demanding new establishment of sensors and Keywords: remote sensing; monitoring; global platforms. in order to see what kind of information forests; forest cover; forest changes; climate change; we can extract from the current remote sensing biodiversity sensors and platforms, an inventory of all remote sensing applications in forestry is needed. Since the launch of Landsat-1 in 1972, earth This paper presents a literature review of the use of observation satellites have been promoted as a remote sensing for measuring, estimating or means of obtaining information about forests and describing forest characteristics and mapping forest other natural resources on a global scale. Many cover types. It deals with all forest types around the organizations, including international agencies, the world, on all latitudes and climates, natural as well global change research community, and non- as man-made, but not with other land cover types. governmental organizations have had a long- The paper starts with an introduction to remote standing interest in such information. National sensing, followed by definitions of forest types and forest ministries are also interested in the "big characteristics, as will be used in the remainder of picture", and are often willing to participate in the paper. Then an overview of the applications for efforts to assemble regional and global information. forestry per type of sensor "type" which defined by More recently, additional impetus has come from the portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that is several international conventions. All of these used and the way of recording (digital or analogue), groups have recognized the impossibility of not by the platform. The paper will then discuss the assembling a reliable, global picture of forest applications of the sensors in forestry. A section on conditions (especially forest changes) from the synergy, where applications using a combination of diverse and inconsistent data obtained by hundreds different sensors are reviewed. The publication ends of different agencies using different methods for with conclusions and an outlook. different purposes. Although satellite data cannot provide all of the information required (e.g., stand Remote sensing can detect, identify, classify, age), they are the only source available for evaluate and measure various forest characteristics objective, timely and consistent worldwide forest in two ways: qualitatively and quantitatively. in a observations. The IUFRO working group on qualitative way remote sensing can classify forest Remote Sensing and World Forest Monitoring has cover types to: coniferous and deciduous forest, completed a landmark document which provides mangrove forest, swamp forest, forest plantations, guidelines for combining plot measurements with etc. While the quantitative analysis can measure or remote sensing observations to produce a consistent estimate forest parameters (e.g. dbh, height, basal global picture. area, number of trees per unite area, timber volume and woody biomass), floristic composition, life However, the potential of satellite observations to forms, and structure. monitor forests on a global scale has not yet been realized. Recognizing this, the Committee on Earth Observation Satellites selected Global Observation of Forest Cover (GOFC) as one of six pilot projects which form the core of its Integrated Global Observing Strategy. The GOFC strategic design calls for implementation of three major components: forest fire monitoring and mapping, forest cover characteristics and

115 Division 4 changes, and forest biophysical processes. Forest cover characteristics and changes is the most Forest Information from Remote sensing difficult component to implement, but is also the - Biomass and Wood Volume component of greatest interest to a wide variety of assessment and mapping potential users. During GOFC's design phase and P. Kennedy, S. Folving, C. Estreguil, M. Rosengren, E. early implementation, institutional and technical Tomppo, J. M. Pereira, M. Nilsson challenges have been identified which must be Space Applications Institute, Joint Research Centre of the addressed before this component can be realized. European Commission, Sector for Forest and Catchment Institutional action is needed to: Studies, Environment and Geo-Information (EGEO) - develop mechanisms which make information Unit, 21020 ISPRA (VA), Italy more accessible and easy to use; Tel: +39 0332 785009, FAX: +39 0332, Email: - foster a policy environment that promotes the [email protected] broadest sharing of remote sensing information on Keywords: Remote sensing, bio-mass, volume. forests; - overcome shortages of technical skills in remote In 1997 the CEO (Center for Earth Observation) sensing and GIS which exist in many organizations. Project launched two application projects in support Technical challenges include: to the FIRS (Forest Information from Remote - acquiring and processing fine resolution (~25 m) Sensing) Project. One of these projects, the data for a large fraction of the world's total forest FMERS-II project, was a research and development area; study to investigate if existing remote sensing data - merging data from multiple satellites in an could be used for inferring two of forestry's optimum fashion; important variables, namely above ground woody - developing appropriate information products biomass and volume of forest and other wooded which can be produced in a highly automated land. The study investigated three different spatial manner (to minimize costs); resolutions of RS data, namely, medium resolution - detecting and quantifying changes which result (100-300m from the IRS-WiFS), high resolution from partial removal of trees; (less than 100m, from Landsat-TM), and very high - collecting and analyzing substantial amounts of in- resolution (less than 10m obtained from aerial situ and airborne data for calibration and validation; photos). Two different approaches were tested. The - ensuring the continuity of fine resolution data with application of K-nearest neighbour classification global coverage; and estimation method (kNN), and regression - making information available in a rapid, simple, models. and meaningful way to all interested parties. Two test sites were used for the study. One in the GOFC is intended to address global information Atlantic-Mediterranean region of central Portugal, requirements related to international policy, and one in the Boreal zone in northern Sweden. The particularly with respect to the sustainability of latter was extended to western Finland to evaluate forest resources, climate change and biodiversity. the performance of the models when extrapolating There is a crucial need to demonstrate and evaluate them to areas outside the calibration site. A products which can provide such policy-critical comparative analysis between TM-derived estimates information, and to develop the infrastructure in the Finnish NFI and the WiFS-derived estimates needed for data and information sharing. gave results of mean biomass of 59.5 tonnes/ha and 58.3 tonnes/ha respectively. Direct research priorities include developing, testing, and automating the extraction of Whereas the results from the Boreal site were information from large regional and global data sets, convincingly good, those for the Portuguese site combining satellite, aircraft, and ground were rather poor. The reason for the poor results observations. It is hoped that these research efforts from the Atlantic-Mediterranean test site is not will spur international capacity building, particularly completely clear. Possible explanations include the in developing countries, and lead to increased use heterogeneity of the stands, the presence of an and sharing of earth observation data and derived established understorey (which influences the information products. spectral signal) and the inadequacy of the available ground data for correlative and calibration analyses. More research clearly has to be carried out in order to reach a better understanding of the potential of using RS data for estimating biomass of the

116 Division 4 complex and heterogeneous forests and shrublands Classification of the native vegetation of of the Mediterranean. the Conguillio's National Park in the Following the results from FMERS-II, the andes Mountain in Central Chile through monitoring of biomass and volume in the boreal Landsat-TM images and Geographical forests could be carried out on an operational basis Information Systems using remotely sensed data. The medium resolution Nelson Herno Ojeda Ojeda, Miguel Angel Herrera WiFS data render the possibility to cover Europe (in Machuca approximately 40 scenes) with an appropriate Universidad de Cordoba, Avenida Men‚ndez Pidal s/n, temporal frequency and at a relatively low cost. The Aptdo. de Correos 3048. 14080, 14080 Cordoba, Espana Tel::++34 957 218657, FAX: +34 957 21 8563, Email: derived information could be foreseen to support the [email protected] EU's external commitments, such as the Kyoto Protocol and serve as input to internal policies of the Keywords: National Park, Forest Ecosystem, Union, such as the European Forest Strategy. Remote sensing Natural forest ecosystems belonging to The role of scale in monitoring tropical Mediterranean-Temperate climate in Central- forest from space Southern Chile have been deeply harvested. Vladimir Kremsa However some relicts are remained in andes Research Center for Applied Science and Advanced Mountain. A good sample of that is placed in the Technology, Legaria 694, Col. Irrigacion, 11500 Mexico National Park Conguillio. in this National Park there City, Mexico are several species of great scientific importance Email: [email protected] such as the millenarian conifer Araucaria araucana Keywords: remote sensing, cartography, forest in cohabitation with some hardwoods belonging to monitoring NothoFagus genus. The effects of spatial and temporal scales must be This study has a main purpose to classify the Park considered in both theoretical and applied forested cover in different category of ecological importance landscape ecology.The structure, function and in a volcano environmental. The above is reached changes of forested landscapes ate scale dependent, through the visual and spectral analysis of Landsat because of their spatial heterogeneity. Recent TM "Volc n Llaima. The false color image TM3,4 theoretical developments in landscape ecology have and 5 allowed the analysis of landslide in forest emphasized the relationship between pattern and areas. From the NDVI 29645,8 ha of vigorous process and the effect that changes in spatial scale vegetation was detected. At the same time 3157 ha have on our ability to extrapolate information across in critical conditions were observed. The same spatiotemporal scales. The landscapes have critical Index registered a positive value (0,13) in beds of thresholds at which ecological processes will show basaltic lava colonized by liqueur. Furthermore the dramatic qualitative changes. Different landscape band 1,2,3 have allowed the detection of 33 indices may reflect process operating at different categories recognizing forest, grasslands, beds of scales. Quantitative methods linking spatial patterns lava, shadows, water, soil and snow. The k obtained and landscape-ecological processes at broad spatial in this study was of 68%, in the case of the forest and temporal scales are needed. One of the methods cover the reliability was of 77% as an average. that can be applied to forested landscape data collection, processing and interpretation at multiple Monitoring of protection forests in spatiotemporal scales is remote sensing. The article Alpine region describes the theoretical principles of space, time Mathias Schardt, Klaus Granica, Ursula Schmitt & Heinz and scale concepts ( effects of scale changes, impact Gallaun of scale on analysis) in landscape ecological Joanneum Research, Wastiangasse 6, A-8010 Graz monitoring and analysis of forested landscapes in Fax-Nr.: 0043-316-876-1720 the tropics, as well as operational spatiotemporal Email: [email protected] scales for forested landscape analysis with the Alpine forests are exposed to immediate and examples (deforestation, patch dynamics, ecotones, considerable environmental threat. This is due to an etc.). Hierarchical organization of landscapes (with aggressive development drive in the past, huge examples and corresponding soil, vegetation and numbers of tourists as well as environmental land units according to the classification of selected damage. Particularly protection forests have recently authors), recommended mapping scale and remote been subjected to particularly damaging natural as sensing platforms are given. well as anthropogenic influences. The catastrophic storms of 1990 and 2000, the resultant, and lasting

117 Division 4 problem of the bark beetle, and global climatic pilot project aims to create an operational changes have weakened the resilience of alpine geographic information system for forest forests. The culminative effect of all these factors monitoring, updating and mapping. often proves disastrous, resulting in irreversible The created forest information system gathers changes in the composition and distribution of information on the environment from many sources alpine forest cover. Far-sighted national and cross- in two related databases: spatial and relational. The border planning is necessary to ensure that spatial database contains not only information preventive measures can be implemented by Forest obtained from satellite images and also digitised Authorities and Nature Conservation. The success data from topographic and thematic maps. The of such measures crucially depends on the relational database is created from inventory availability of information about the distribution and information from forest management and other condition alpine protection forests and their information on the environment. This is related to development dynamics. The Forestry Services in spatial information through reference to actual forest Austria are responsible for these measures. For long stands, compartments and units of forest term planning most of them have installed a administration. The use of data gathered in the Geographical Information System (GIS) using geographic information system describing the state different raster and vector based data, but they do of forest stands allows for a more detailed not have enough data to cover the entire region of classification of satellite images. interest. The results of the above study have brought to the Behind this background a pilot project concerning conclusions about forest monitoring with the use of the assessment and monitoring of forest parameters a remote sensing. They regard the selection of the in alpine regions by means of satellite remote best satellite images channels and stands parameters sensing for its use in protection forest planning and which can be differentiated and cartographically control was carried out. The results of this project presented as separate classes. will be introduced in this paper. Quantitative parameters, such as species composition, natural age The geographic information system serves for and crown coverage, have been assessed using spatial analyses and may be used as a tool for the SPOT4 satellite data. It can be stated that with the cartographic presentation of gathered data and new mid-infrared band of SPOT4 the main tree results of spatial analysis. species spruce, larch and broadleaf could be The GIS, containing remote sensed data and other separated. The results also demonstrate that in information about the forest, can play a large role in comparison to Landsat TM data the SPOT4 data nature protection, correct running and management yield significant improvements in terms of species of the forest. The advantage of these systems is the discrimination, crown coverage estimation and age possibility to combine multi-source and multi-type determination. Using these results the planning information about the environment, conduct spatial personnel of a Country’s Forestry Service can analysis, update databases, and edit maps and improve the planning and controlling tasks with reports. region covering data.

Remote sensing as a source of information for nature protection of landscape and National Parks Emilia Wisniewska Institute of Geodesy and Cartography, Department of Cartography, Jasna 2/4 St, 00-950 Warsaw, Poland Tel: (48 22) 827 03 28, FAX: (48 22) 827 03 28, Email: [email protected] Keywords: remote sensing, nature protection. Changes in the environment have caused the necessity of large-scale monitoring and cartographic presentation of its condition and the changes it is undergoing. The Institute of Geodesy and Cartography conducts work on the use of a remote sensing and geographic information system for forest monitoring. The Kozienice Landscape Park

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derived from explicit hypotheses of intertemporal 4.02.07 Scenario approaches, models and harvest behavior for industrial and nonindustrial assumptions behind the forestry analysis owner classes. The relations link harvest to prices, used in regional, national and global policy inventory levels, interest rates, and for nonindustrial making owners, income from nonforest sources. Large-Scale Forest Scenario Analysis in The FASOM model is a linked model of the U.S. the United States: Comparison of forest and agriculture sectors developed for use by Approaches the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in Ralph J. Alig, Darius M. Adams, Richard Haynes studies of global change and energy policy. FASOM USDA Forest Science, Pacific North West Research is an intertemporal, price endogenous, spatial Station, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, OR 97331 Corvallis, equilibrium model in which market solutions are USA obtained each decade in the entire 100-year FAX: (541) 750-7329, Email: [email protected] projection period at one time. Endogenous variables include: (I) land transfers between sectors; (ii) forest The Timber Assessment Market Model (TAMM) management investment activity; (iii) timber harvest and the Forest and Agriculture Sector Model and log prices for nine U.S. regions, two species (FASOM) are examples of two large-scale forestry groups, and three classes of products; and (iv) scenario models that have been employed to analyze agricultural prices and production in eleven regions the U.S. forest resource situation. The models have for 40 primary and 46 secondary commodities. The been applied to make projections of the U.S. forest FASOM model draws upon demand-side sector in regional and national studies, such as the information from the TAMM system, as well as also periodic Timber Assessments and Updates by the utilizing ATLAS timber yields. USDA Forest Service. The purpose of the Timber Assessment is to analyze the timber resource With respect to analyzing forest scenarios, use of the situation over the next 50 years to provide TAMM and FASOM models can be complementary indications of the future cost and availability of when analyzing forestry and natural resource timber products in the context of U.S. demands. The policies. For example, the intertemporal analysis also identifies resource situations that may optimization framework of FASOM allows ready be judged desirable to change and developing examination of adjustments or responses to policies opportunities that may stimulate both private and that may fall outside the historical range of public investments. observations. Examples of large-scale scenarios the models have been employed to examine include: log The TAMM system has been used for more than 15 exports, carbon sequestration through tree planting, years in the quinquennial Timber Assessments and reduced public timber harvest, recycling of Updates. Using a price-endogenous, spatial wastepaper, global climate change, farm programs, equilibrium approach, market solutions are obtained production of short-rotation woody crops for pulp one period at a time using either reactive fiber, biomass production for energy, agricultural programming or direct optimization of the nonlinear land reallocation programs to promote objective function, depending on the model version. environmental goals, and sustainability of The TAMM system projects prices, consumption production in both sectors. and production of softwood and hardwood sawtimber products, and harvest of timber from private lands using an annual time step. Exogenous Analysis of Flow-Stock Relationship projections of land allocation are provided by through Stimualation by Means of a regional area change models, and timber growth and Forest Optimization Model yield projections by the area-based Aggregate Ricardo Armando Bratovich, Julio Eduardo Arce, Raúl TimberLand Analysis System (ATLAS). Exogenous Marcos Marlats projections of forest management investment are Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Virrey Cevallos, 646 – 7°"A", 1077 Buenos Aires, Argentina based on single-acre analyses and expert opinion. Tel: +54-11-4381-4149, Email: [email protected] Projections of fiber products and fuelwood, which were part of the earliest version of TAMM, are now Simulation is a very powerful tool in the planning of derived from models linked to TAMM through companies and institutions in the field of forestry, demands for, and prices of, roundwood and since it allows to carry out different sensitivity tests residues. On the resource side, the TAMM system in different scenarios within a field that has two uses parameters for most behavioral equations (e.g., main features. The first one is that, from the relative private timber harvest) that are estimated from comparison of the impacts of the main factors historical data. Private timber supply functions are affecting wood supply and demand, it can be seen

119 Division 4 that, in most cases, the demand for primary forest whole, good handling of the flow-stock relation of products takes much shorter to change than the forestry systems belonging to industries can allow to supply of those products. The second special feature put into practice an administration policy in order to is that in forestry systems, the production level of a avoid risks of depriving the factory of supply. certain period depends on the production level of previous periods, thus giving rise to a particular Timber production possibilities of the interaction between long and short term supply and Norwegian forest area and measures for demand: ceteris paribus, the more wood is used up a sustainable forestry today, the less we will have tomorrow, and surely at Hans Fredrik Hoen, Tron Eid & Petter Ökseter a higher price. The planning methodology this paper Agricultural University of Norway, Department of Forest will use, based on lineal programming, proves to be Sciences, P.O.Box 5044, Aas, Norway an extremely useful tool when it comes to FAX: +47 6494 8890, Email: [email protected] understanding some basic forestry relations such as A public discussion on how to bring forest the one between production flow and stock. The management practices in a more environmentally model was applied to planted poplar forests oriented direction is going on between Norwegian belonging to a paper producing company in the organisations of forest owners, environmentalists, province of Buenos Aires, Argentina. This company forest industry and governmental offices. Certain obtains their raw material mainly from their own requirements or standards as they may be stated in forests, and gets the rest from the market. certification documents or as governmental policies The flow-stock relationship can be managed so as to are likely to appear in a near future. reach specific operative and strategic aims of the In addition to timber the forest is producing a company. The managing of flow an stock may allow number commodities not traded in any market. If to handle the response capacity of a forest facing the management of the forest area is designed changes in the demand, by increasing several times mainly with respect to timber production, the effects its regular production in a certain period of time so of this management on the provision of the non- as to supply the factory when there is a shortage in market commodities may be negative. On the other the market. The model can be used as to a hand, an environmentally designed management simulation tool to show the evolution of stocks with may reduce timber production. The aim of this different extraction flows for all planning horizon. paper is to present some long range timber This will allow to fix the new extraction flows to be production analyses where the objective has been to applied to the forest in order to obtain the necessary map consequences for potential harvest level and net stock at the right moment. It is shown the way the present value, related to varying forest treatments in model carries out the planning, keeping the stock a environmentally oriented direction as might be levels at a minimum, which is important if the defined in the future. consequences of the existence of stock on the Analyses are done with GAYA-JLP, a model based accounts of the company are born in mind. On the on simulation of treatment schedules for individual one hand they generate costs - opportunity, management units and linear programming for insurance and maintenance costs- which have an solving the management problem at forest level. The effect on the results account; on the other they analyses cover the productive forest area in Norway. increase the assets. Both consequences reduce the This forest area is divided into 10 regions. Sample income yield capacity of the company, thus making plots from the National Forest Inventory are it necessary to keep stock levels at a minimum, so aggregated into 1000 treatment units for each that they can allow to bring together the process of region, i.e. the entire forest area is described by primary production and the industrial one. Through 10000 units. The forest management problems are a better understanding of the basic developed solved at county level, while the country level relationships, it is shown the way companies with results are obtained by summing over the individual their own plantations can not only use them to regions. cushion the effects of the market over the short-term supply, but also handle them so as to avoid The analyses aim at providing a realistic description shortages in the mid and long term. of the timber production possibilities of the productive forest area in Norway given consistency This helps solve the problem of many forestry in treatments with respect to the real rate of system managers who pose the question of how the discount. Management strategies with maximization forest is to be handled so as to satisfy immediate of the net present value (NPV), with and without a needs, changing at the same time its structure in non-declining felling path constraint, have been order to be ready for future circumstances. On the analyzed. The following environmentally oriented

120 Division 4 constraints on forest management practices, UN/ECE-FAO in the European Timber Trend separately and joint, have been analyzed: Studies. - certain areas of current old growth forest set aside for permanent protection Three Approaches for Large Scale - minimum target levels for area covered by old Forest Scenario Analysis in Finland growth forest through time Tuula Nuutinen, Seppo Kellomäki, Gert-Jan Nabuurs - leaving continuity trees after final felling Finnish Forest Research Institute, Joensuu Research - restricted management practices for border zone Station, Post Box # 68, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland areas around lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, Tel: +358 13 2514043, FAX: +358 13 2514111, Email: agricultural land and roads [email protected] The results include estimates on possible In Finland, three models have been applied for development for a period of 100 years with respect large-scale forest scenario analysis. The oldest, to potential harvest levels and volume of growing METLA, is a forestry model designed in the 1970s stock. The NPV according to a real rate of discount for the regional and national analysis of timber of 2.5% and with a non-declining felling path production based on the sample plot and tree data of constraint, was reduced by 8.7% when 5% of the the Finnish National Forest Inventory (NFI). SIMA total area was set aside for protection. The is a gap-type ecosystem model utilised in 1990s for corresponding NPV reductions were 2.4%, 1.0% regional predictions on how the changing climate and 12.7% respectively with a minimum target level may affect the forest growth and timber yield in of 10% for area covered by old growth forest, by Finland. The European Forest Information Scenario leaving 10 continuity trees ha-1 and with restrictions Model (EFISCEN) is originally a Swedish area on management practices for a medium border zone matrix model developed in the early 1980s. width (15 m) around lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, In the SIMA model the growth of trees is based on agricultural land and roads. the diameter growth, which is controlled by light conditions, temperature, soil moisture and nitrogen. What will the European forest look like The same factors control the success of in 2050? regeneration, which can be based on natural Gert-Jan Nabuurs, Risto Päivinen, Mart-Jan Schelhaas, processes or planting. The thinning rules and the Ari Pussinen, Eric Verkaik, Alexander Lioubimow, & length of rotation can vary according to site type, Frits Mohren dominant tree species, and location of stand. European Forest Institute, Torikatu 34, Fin 80100 Joensuu, Finland The thinning limits are defined according to Tel: +31.317.477897, FAX: +31.317.424988, Email: dominant height and basal area, and the length of [email protected] rotation by the mean diameter of trees in the stand. In Europe, where wood production used to dominate According to the SIMA simulation based on the the goals of forest management, nature conservation permanent sample plots of the NFI the stocking on values are now becoming more important as well. mineral soils (ca. 80 percent of the total stocking) These changes in management may have large would increase from the current (1990) 1535 mill. implications for the long-term development of the m3 to 1898 mill. m3 by the year 2050, if standwise forest. The other potential changes are related to silvicultural recommendations were applied. in this environmental changes, like the climate change. scenario fellings on mineral soils would exceed 80 3 This article describes an instrument -the European mill. m in the period of 1990-2000 and drop thereafter close to 24 mill. m3 - rising up to 50 mill. Forest Information SCENario (EFISCEN) model - 3 which provides an insight in the long term m during the next few decades. Under the gradual elevation of temperature at the rate of 0.04 oC yr-1, implications of these changes. It is a harmonised 3 tool for natural resource analyses of the forests in 30 the stocking stabilised at the level of 2000 mill. m European countries. A whole new database has been by the year 2040. gathered with the help of practically all national The EFISCEN model requires area, volume and forest inventory institutes. EFISCEN uses an area increment data per age class by forest types. The matrix approach to simulate the forest development user specifies future development of demand at the for a period of 50 to 70 years national level and possible afforestations. Based on Two case studies utilising the model have been growth dynamics, age class distributions, and described - one in Leningrad region in North- theoretical management regimes, the model Western Russia, and one comparing the EFISCEN calculates if and where to harvest, and generates results with national scenarios compiled by projections of growing stock, increment, timber

121 Division 4 harvest volumes, age class development over time In the third NFI the information provided will be by country, region, and species. According to extended from forested areas to fallow land and EFISCEN scenario based on data provided by the extensively managed areas. in addition to the Finnish NFI the average annual felling would primary objectives of the forest inventories the remain at 55 the level of mill. m3 until 2040. The structural and biological diversity will be corresponding growing stock would exceed 2500 emphasized. mill. m3 in 2040. The paper discusses the process of transferring an The METLA model consists of two parts: an information needs assessment to the final system of automated stand simulator based on individual trees nomenclature and measurement rules of attributes, and the optimisation package based on LP. A finite the evaluation of data sources (terrestrial survey, number of sound and acceptable management satellite imagery, digital aerial photography) and the schedules - differing from each other, for example, comparability problems with previous inventories. by timing of management activities - are simulated for each sample plot. Hundreds of variables Temporal and spatial error budgets for describing the management schedules are produced. woody plant biodiversity The variables available in the LP problem and the George Gertner, Xiangchi Cao and Guangxing Wang report writer describe the state and the development University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign, Department of the forests, as well as forest production and its of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, W503 economy over the calculation period. The optimiser Turner Hall, Illinois 61801 Urbana, USA selects simultaneously the production program for Tel: (217) 333-9346, Email: [email protected] the whole forestry unit and the corresponding In this paper, a stochastic dynamic management schedules for sample plots. The monitoring/modeling system for plant and forest management of forests is endogeneous. biodiversity is presented. The system can project Since 1980's three national level analysis with a biodiversity both in time and in space. With the standard set of three scenarios based on data from system, spatial and temporal error budgets can be NFI have been carried out. The first scenario generated. The error budgets show the overall resembles the EFISCEN scenario and the second uncertainty of regional and localized SIMA scenario. The third scenario was allowable estimates/predictions of biodiversity. The cut calculated by maximising the net present value uncertainty can be partitioned according to different of the future revenues subject to non-decreasing types of error sources within and outside of the flow of timber, saw logs and net income over a 50- system. Some of the errors that are accounted for are year period. The recent estimate of this maximum sampling errors, measurement errors, mapping regionally sustained felling for the period 1996- errors, calibration errors, prediction errors. The error 2006 was 71 mill. m3 (of which nearly 90 percent on budget provides a means for the systematic mineral soils) and rising close to 80 mill. m3 by improvement of a system and its inputs. Based on 2040. The stocking would remain stable. the error budgets, recommendations can be made for reducing the more important sources of controllable 4.02.00 / 4.11.00 Design of small and large errors. Results for one case are presented. scale multipurpose forest inventories Bayesian synthesis for assessing Extending forest resource assessments uncertainty in mechanistic models to landscape inventories Edwin J. Green Peter Brassel Rutgers University, Ecol Evol & Natl Res, 14 College Swiss Federal Institute of Forest, Snow and Landscape Farm Road, NJ 08901 New Brunswick, USA Research, Birmensdorf, Switzerland Tel: (732) 932-9152, FAX: (732) 932-8746, Email: Email: [email protected] [email protected] The first swiss national forest inventory (1983- As concerns over global change heighten, some 1985) was planned as a multipurpose and forest modelers have begun to emphasize the use of multiresource inventory in forested aereas. in the mechanistic models of forest growth, derived from second NFI (1993-1995) the list of attributes to be specific theories regarding tree and/or stand assessed was extended in order to obtain development. Some believe that such models have information on Non-Wood Goods and Services. greater potential predictive accuracy than more Among others new attributes describing forest traditional empirical models. However, it is often margins and tree resources outside the forested area difficult to assess the error associated with were introduced. predictions from mechanistic models. in this paper I

122 Division 4 present the Bayesian Synthesis method for for several reasons: the resource is highly constructing posterior distributions of model heterogeneous as to floristic composition, spatial predictions. I will demonstrate the method with a arrangement and dimensions, and has a relatively naive two parameter model, and then present results low density. To come to regional estimates, ways obtained for PIPESTEM a realistic mechanistic have therefore to be found how to efficiently forest growth model. combine different data sources like field measurements, remotely sensed data, and existing On bootstraping species diversities statistics. indices This paper outlines an EU funded research project, Biing T. Guan, Y. M. Perng that aims at developing a method of how to a assess National Taiwan University, Department of Forestry and tree resources outside the forest (TROF) and Department of Agronomy, China-Taipeh integrate them in a geographical information Email: [email protected] system, and at capacity building in a number of Species diversity indices are central to relevant institutions in the region. The study sites of environmental monitoring and management. Under the project are located in Central America. The its current paradigm, it is explicitly assumed that general relevance of the resource from a Central changes in species diversity represent changes in the American point of view is addressed, as is the target ecosystem's compositions, abundance or both. definitions and classification issue. Thus, species diversity indices are used as estimators of ecosystem conditions. However, as Infrared-triggered camera: a tool for estimators, statistical properties of species diversity measuring the biological diversity indices are poorly understood, especially how to Toru Koizumi, Tsuneaki Yabe, Carlos Eduardo Rittl, obtain standard errors for such estimators for Niro Higuchi, Leonid G. Kondrashov constructing confidence intervals and hypotheses Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Kyushu tests. in this paper, we will discuss the use of Research Center, Kurokami 4-11-16, Kumamoto, Japan bootstrapping for obtaining standard errors for Tel: +81-96-343-3168, FAX: +81-96-344-5054, Email: commonly used species diversity indices. in [email protected] particular, the setup of resampling schemes will be Keywords: biological divesity; mammal; infrared- thoroughly discussed for applications in ecology. triggered camera; terra-firme forest; boreal forest

Tree resources outside the forest: how We used an automatic camera for recording mammalian inventory and evaluated its validity in to assess a scattered heterogeneous the tropical forest (terra-firme forest) of Brazilian resource? Amazon and the Russian boreal forest. The camera Christoph Kleinn, Alfred de Gier system consists of a passive infrared sensor and a Tropical Agriculture and Higher Education Center (CATIE), Costa Rica 35-mm fully automatic camera with flash. The Tel: +506 556 1530, FAX: +506 556 7954, Email: sensor has a wedge-shaped or a cone-shaped [email protected] detection field. It records a warm-blooded animal passing through a detection field because it Presence, relevance and functions of tree resources differentiates between animal heat and background outside the forest (TROF) are highly diverse and field. However, sensor is triggered when sunlight locally different. They occur in natural and moves across the sensor window. Therefore the cultivated landscapes, and serve then a number of sensor was hung or placed on a pole 1.0-1.3 m ecological (like conservation of biodiversity, erosion above the ground so that the sensor detected control, carbon sequestration), and economic vertically to minimize the false triggering. The functions (like provision of timber, firewood, sensor was shielded in a plastic tube. The camera fodder, fruits, shadow for cattle). has an automatic film advance devise and built-in Being present in various land use classes, this flash. It is modified to be triggered by an electrical resource does not form a land use class by its own. signal from the sensor and equipped with data back in many regions, the decreasing forest cover, the that allows to record the time and date of exposure increasing forest fragmentation, and the presence of on each photograph. Camera was attached to the trees in agroforestry systems make its relative sensor with a cable so that we could choose the importance grow. appropriate placement of the camera and the sensor flexibly. The camera and controls of sensor were However, compared to other natural resources little packed in a plastic box and weatherproofed. Bait is known about tree resources outside the forest on a was placed in the center of detection field. large area basis. Large area assessments are difficult

123 Division 4 In Brazil, we conducted investigation for terrestrial mammals in a terra-firme forest located 60 km north Efficient Modelling of Stem Curves of Manaus. We recorded 24 species and 3 genera Jouko Laasasenaho, Heikki Karttunen and Mark-Leo based on about 8300 pictures taken between Waite February 1996 and March 1998. Varisized University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Resource mammals were recorded, ranging from mouse Management, PL 24 (Unioninkatu 40 B), 00014 (Neacomys sp) to puma (Puma concolor). This Helsingin yliopisto, Finland indicated that vertical detection reduced the size- Email: [email protected] related (therefore, species-related) bias of the sensor The purpose of this research is to investigate the pointed out by Wilson et al. (1996). We identified possibility of deriving accurate stem curve models 63.6% of the midium and large mammals (body with small numbers of sample trees. The stem curve weight > 500g) in a list by Voss and Emmons model investigated is based on relative stem (1996), which was compiled from trappings and diameters and relative stem heights and can, in direct observations for 5 years. The cameras newly principle, be derived by a single sample tree. The recorded 4 species that Voss and Emmons expected main issues investigated are (i) how many sample the appearance but could not record actually. trees are required in order to achieve a given In Russia, 2-week investigation was conducted in accuracy and (ii) how should the sample trees best September 1999 in the boreal forest located 45 km be selected. The accuracy of a given stem curve south of Khabarovsk. We focused on Muridae and model is mainly quantified by the accuracy of the Sciuridae, relating to the seed dispersal. 8-10 predicted total stem volume. species were expected to occur in the study area. of The research material comprises 2326 scots pine these mammals, 6 cameras recorded 3 species and 1 (Pinus silvestris) sample trees covering the whole of genus, while only two species were captured by 20 Finland. Each sample tree was measured for live-traps during the same period. This showed that diameters at 14 different relative heights. The jack- infrared-triggered cameras were effective to record knife technique is utilized extensively in the the species composition of the mammalian analyses which were performed with common community within a limited period. spread-sheet software extended by specific stem The method we adopted here has some curve modelling functions. The resulting software disadvantages. For example, classification of related can be used for deriving totally new stem curve species belonging to the same genus was difficult models. Functionality for utilizing derived stem even on the clear photograph, especially in a group curve models, for e.g. volume calculations, was also of Muridae. Information on weight, and included. The investigation showed that since reproductive condition cannot be also obtained with relative tree form is independent of tree size, cameras. On the other hand, infrared-triggered accurate stem curve models can be derived by as cameras have several advantages over other few as five sample trees. methods, such as trappings and direct observations. The animals do not have to be captured. Large areas Optimal Forest Inventories based on the can be surveyed by only a few people, and anticipated variance investigators do not have to attend constantly. These Daniel Mandallaz advantages are effective to record rare and cryptic ETH Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland species. in addition, combination of infrared- Email: [email protected] triggered camera with trapping and marking will This work presents optimal sampling schemes for provide valuable data on abundance, movement, and forest inventory. The sampling procedures are activity of mammals inhabiting in the forested optimal in the sense that they minimize the environment. anticipated variance for given expected costs or conversely, the anticipated variance is the average of the design-based variance under a local Poisson model for the spatial distribution of the trees. Exact and best feasible approximations are given for two- phase two-stage cluster sampling schemes. The resulting optimal inclusions probabilities are a combination of probability proportional to prediction and probability proportional to the expected error. Simulations and practical examples illustrate the theory.

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Guided transect sampling in theory and In addition to the country-by-country survey, the practice FRA 2000 also includes an objective pan-tropical Göran Stahl remote sensing survey of forest cover change; Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept of production of global maps of forest cover and Forest Resource Management and Geomatics, S 901 83 ecological zones; and special studies on various Umea, Sweden aspects of the interaction between people and Email: [email protected] forests. in total, the results of FRA 2000 will consist Guided transect sampling is an inventory design of 11 printed volumes, plus a comprehensive developed to incorporate high-resolution prior presentation on the world wide web. information in the selection of inventory paths FRA 2000 is carried out by the Food and within transect based inventories. It consists of two Agricultural Organization of the United Nations stages. in the first, strips too wide to be entirely (FAO) with the assistance of donors, partners and sampled are laid out in the area of interest. in the member countries. One important partner is the UN second, prior information - e.g. from satellite Economic Commission for Europe, that constitutes imagery - is used to decide the exact route of a the focal point for temperate and boreal countries. transect through each first stage strip in a PPS- FAO has been given the mandate to regularly report sampling manner. Primarily, the method is on the world's forest resources by its member developed to increase the efficiency of transect countries, that also take active part in the based methods when sampling sparse populations. assessment. It is expected that FRA 2000 will in theoretical studies, results have been promising. stimulate discussion at all levels, as well as foster The relative efficiency of the method, in relation to decision-making on the management and protection a "non-guided" alternative, increases the sparser the of forests on a global scale. elements of interest are. in practise, problems of two basic kinds are encountered. Firstly, the method Accuracy and Reliability of the may lead to increased costs due to complicated fieldwork. For example, the method relies on the use Temperate and Boreal Forest Resources of GPS differential in real time. Secondly, it is not Assessment (TBFRA) 2000 possible to follow the exact paths of the Michael Köhl and Risto Päivinen TU Dresden, Forest Biometrics and Computer Sciences, predetermined transects in field. Therefor, the Wilsdruffer Str. 18, D-01737, Tharandt, Germany precision of estimates will decrease slightly. Tel: +49-35203-381615, Fax: +49-35203-381628 Email: [email protected] 4.02.00 / 4.11.00 Forest resources assessment 2000 Keywords: forest resources assessment, TBFRA, systems of nomenclature, harmonisation, The Global Forest resources standardisation assessment 2000 Data collection of the TBFRA 2000 is based on a Robert Davis, Peter Holmgren questionnaire approach utilizing forest resources FAO, Forest Department, Via delle Terme di Caracalla, I- assessments conducted on the national level. 00100 Roma, Italy Despite the fact that standardized terms and Tel: +39 06 57051, FAX: +39 06 57052151, Email: definitions have been formulated for the TBFRA, [email protected] data submitted are subject to different sources of The presentation will reveal the final results of the errors affecting the reliability of the TBFRA results. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 (FRA In this presentation the reliability and accuracy of 2000). For each country, available information the TBFRA 2000 are evaluated in terms of effects of about extent, composition, protection and utilisation differences in the national and TBFRA systems of of forests have been compiled and analysed. Special nomenclature, non-responses, assessment period and attention has been given to estimate the rate of likely ranges of true values. change of forest resources and to document the underlying factors. This presentation is the first occasion for presenting the global forest change estimates. The FRA 2000 is a transparent process in the sense that all background material and analyses is published. This means that the FRA 2000 constitutes a comprehensive baseline survey of forest resources in all countries.

125 Division 4 following main issues: Area of Forest and Other The UN-ECE/FAO Forest Resource Wooded Land (OWL): Situation and Changes, Assessment 2000: an overview Ownership and Management Status of Forest and Alexander V. Korotkov OWL, Wood Supply and Carbon Sequestration: UN Economic Commission for Europe, Geneva, Situation and Changes, Biological Diversity and Switzerland Environmental Protection Forest Condition and Email: [email protected] Damage to Forest and OWL, Protective and Socio- The UN-ECE/FAO Temperate and Boreal Forest Economic Functions, etc. Resources Assessment, as a part of the Global FRA- The TBFRA-2000 data set will be the most 2000, was launched soon after the high level expert comprehensive international assessment ever made consultation held in Kotka (Finland) in June 1996 for the temperate/boreal forests. The information on had proposed the Global Framework (guidelines, forest and other wooded land areas, species key parameters, terms and definitions) for the distribution, naturalness of forests, their availability Assessment. The main instrument of the data for wood supply, growing stock, increment, collection for TBFRA-2000 was a detailed enquiry ownership, fellings and removals, biodiversity, non- built on the above global platform, and circulated to wood goods and services, forest condition and national correspondents of the 55 temperate and damages, etc (in digital and textual formats) will be boreal industrialised countries. The majority of structured into an electronic database and made countries have satisfactorily replied to the available on Internet. challenging enquiry (25 tables with more then 500 parameters) by August 1998. The range of the 4.04.00 Advances in combining productity information which was received from countries (and and sustainability in forest management analysed) is extremely wide; the quality of country replies was good in general, taking account the A New Planning Approach and Criteria complexity of the task of national correspondents to used for Sustainable Forest respond to all the questions, and to adjust national Management in Turkey data to the TBFRA standards. Üal Asan Since UNCED (1992) many industrialised countries University of Istanbul, Forest Management Planning Department, Bahçeköy, 80895 Istanbul, Turkey have reviewed (and revised) their national forest Tel: 90 212 2261103-272, FAX: 90 212 2261113, Email: policies, and have prepared strategies on sustainable [email protected] forest management (SFM). The on-going international forest policy dialogue under the A new planning approach titled as Functional CSD/IPF/IFF umbrella has noted the importance of Planning (FP), and the criteria which should be used FRA-2000 process to provide factual, for sustainable management planning in the comprehensive and reliable information at the Turkey's forests are pointed out in this paper. After global international level, which would serve the giving a short knowledge about the forest resources, SFM objectives. The results of the assessment are and forest functions expected from the forests in the expected to be widely used by researchers in country, basic principles of the FP approach which different areas of the forest sector, as well as by was developed for the forest enterprises managed many others working closely with forests and for timber production as well as the other protective forestry (ecologist, environmentalists, forestry functions of the forests such as erosion control, specialists, forest engineers and managers, forest water yield, visual effect, recreational use and, products suppliers, wood consumers, forest wildlife habitats and bio-diversity are presented. practitioners, etc). The concepts of "Continuous Forest " and, "Sustainability" are also elaborated in short in the The interim temperate/boreal FRA-2000 paper. The planning procedure followed in information, covering 36 participating countries, construction of FFM, and in separation of different was reported to the pan-European Ministerial working circles, combination of various Conference on the Protection of Forest in Europe management objectives are clarified. Advantages of (Lisbon, June 1998). The Main TBFRA-2000 the New system as flexible and capable in order to Report on the forest resources presenting more than realise the rational utilisation of the forest resources 2.4 billion hectares of forest and other wooded lands in the case of multiple use forestry, and its current will be published by the Year 2000. The statistical deficiencies which should be promoted for more and descriptive country information has been effective use are explained in the paper basing on analysed by high level experts in the specific experiences gained in the last ten years. thematic areas. The Assessment will cover the

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Keywords: Sustainable Forest Management, Part III of the paper demonstrates how reaction- Functional Planning, Multiple-Use, Turkey diffusion can be combined with other ecological factors that limit populations to form spatial Sustaining Wildlife Populations in optimization models. These models are suitable for Productively Managed Forests identifying efficient forest management Michael Bevers, Curtis H. Flather, John Hof, H. Fred opportunities and for estimating tradeoffs between Kaiser wood fiber production and wildlife population USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, response. An example combining distinct forage and 240 West Prospect Road, Colorado 80526 Fort Collins, breeding site requirements with reaction-diffusion Colorado, USA processes demonstrates the approach. Possible Tel: (970) 295-5911, FAX: (970) 295-5959, Email: limitations, alternative approaches, and further [email protected] research needs are discussed. Keywords: Spatial optimization; Harvest scheduling; Population Persistence; Reaction- Putting Sustainable Forest Management diffusion into Practice in Peninsular Malaysia: Wildlife population status is becoming a key Minimum Requirements consideration in determining whether wood fiber Christoph Muziol, Gerd Weinland and Rolf Krezdorn production from managed forests can be sustained. Malaysian-German Sustainable Forest Management and Conservation Project / GTZ, Forestry Department Concerns for wildlife have become a very important Peninsular, c/o Forestry Department Peninsular, Jalan part of public land management in many parts of the Sultan Salahuddin, 50660 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia world, and are being given increased weight on Tel: +60-3-294-8859, FAX: +60-3-294-3945, Email: privately owned lands. Jointly maintaining wood [email protected] fiber production and wildlife populations requires the ability to spatially and temporally design The goal of Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) silvicultural activities so as to mitigate negative is to manage forests as multifunctional resources. impacts on wildlife habitat. Consequently, research This paper describes the strategic approach to SFM efforts blending wildlife population persistence with recommended for Peninsular Malaysia. It focuses on traditional forest management modeling can three minimum elements required for SFM, which potentially play a crucial role in maintaining future are (1) Forest Zonation, (2) growth-based yield forest productivity. The purpose of this paper is to regulation, and (3) the mitigation of the synthesize recent and ongoing research combining environmental impact of forestry operations, population reaction-diffusion models with spatial especially road construction and harvesting. The forest management optimization methods for implementation of these elements is also planning the location, timing, and intensity of indispensable for successful Forest Management harvests that will simultaneously sustain wildlife Certification. and wood fiber production. Following the Forest Zonation is based on Forest Function introduction, Part I of the paper describes a discrete Mapping. Its objective is to safeguard the various space and time approach to reaction-diffusion forest functions within each Forest Management modeling that addresses the effects of various Unit. It ensures that the needs of human society are contiguous or fragmented habitat systems on compatible and balanced with the production and wildlife populations. An ability to model survival of buffering capacity of the natural environment, and dispersing organisms as a function of the amount of derives specific functions (e.g. soil conservation) for available habitat surrounding breeding sites, with a each forest area. Based on that, the synoptic process suitable distance decay, is the primary feature of this of Forest Zonation results in the differentiation of method. Part II of the paper discusses stochastic three Forests Zones: "Protection", "Timber considerations. We explore the differences in results Production" and "Restricted Timber Production". from deterministic versus Monte Carlo simulations The latter two (minus permanent infrastructure of population abundance, distribution, and critical areas) constitute the Net Production Area, which is habitat thresholds in discrete reaction-diffusion the basis for the calculation of the Annual models. Implications regarding the application of Allowable Cut (AAC). mathematical programming for habitat design are discussed. Although much research on the topic of The simple area-based yield regulation currently uncertainty remains to be done, initial indications used in Malaysia is appropriate only for uniform are that deterministic methods suitable for virgin forest. The majority of forests, however, are optimization modeling are reasonably robust with now logged. Having developed differently regard to prescribing suitable habitat arrangements. depending on the harvesting intensity, site

127 Division 4 conditions and silvicultural treatments, they are solving the management problem at forest level. The much more heterogeneous. Therefore, area control analyses cover the productive forest area in Norway. should be replaced by a volume-based yield This forest area is divided into 10 regions. Sample regulation, which takes into account the present plots from the National Forest Inventory are growing stock (provided by a Forest Management aggregated into 1000 treatment units for each Inventory), growth data from representative (i.e. region, i.e. the entire forest area is described by local) permanent sample plots, computer-based 10000 units. The forest management problems are growth simulation, and deductions according to the solved at county level, while the country level extent of harvesting impacts on the residual stands. results are obtained by summing over the individual regions. To mitigate the impact of logging on the natural environment (residual trees, soil, water, and The analyses aim at providing a realistic description habitats) areas assigned for Timber Production must of the timber production possibilities of the be logged strictly following Reduced Impact productive forest area in Norway given consistency Logging standards (i.e. improved tractor skidding). in treatments with respect to the real rate of In Restricted Timber Production areas, furthermore, discount. Management strategies with maximization only Low Impact Logging with aerial yarding of the net present value (NPV), with and without a technology (e.g.cable crane systems) is admissible. non-declining felling path constraint, have been analyzed. The following environmentally oriented All prescriptions are included in Forest Management constraints on forest management practices, Plans, which cover individual Forest Management separately and joint, have been analyzed: Units over a planning period of 10 years. - certain areas of current old growth forest set aside for permanent protection Timber production possibilities of the - minimum target levels for area covered by old Norwegian forest area and measures for growth forest through time a sustainable forestry - leaving continuity trees after final felling Tron Eid, Hans Fredrik Hoen & Petter Ökseter - restricted management practices for border zone Agricultural University of Norway, Department of Forest areas around lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, Sciences, Post Box # 5044, N -1432 A, Norway agricultural land and roads Tel: +47-64948901, FAX: +47-64948890, Email: [email protected] The results include estimates on possible A public discussion on how to bring forest development for a period of 100 years with respect management practices in a more environmentally to potential harvest levels and volume of growing oriented direction is going on between Norwegian stock. The NPV according to a real rate of discount organisations of forest owners, environmentalists, of 2.5% and with a non-declining felling path forest industry and governmental offices. Certain constraint, was reduced by 8.7% when 5% of the requirements or standards as they may be stated in total area was set aside for protection. The certification documents or as governmental policies corresponding NPV reductions were 2.4%, 1.0% are likely to appear in a near future. and 12.7% respectively with a minimum target level of 10% for area covered by old growth forest, by In addition to timber the forest is producing a -1 number commodities not traded in any market. If leaving 10 continuity trees ha and with restrictions the management of the forest area is designed on management practices for a medium border zone mainly with respect to timber production, the effects width (15 m) around lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, of this management on the provision of the non- agricultural land and roads. market commodities may be negative. On the other hand, an environmentally designed management may reduce timber production. The aim of this paper is to present some long range timber production analyses where the objective has been to map consequences for potential harvest level and net present value, related to varying forest treatments in a environmentally oriented direction as might be defined in the future. Analyses are done with GAYA-JLP, a model based on simulation of treatment schedules for individual management units and linear programming for

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landscape planning”, such as the ASIO and the Key Swedish efforts for a sustainable, multi- Habitat – Corridor Model, were elaborated in a more resource forestry: the role of research in or less formal collaboration between companies and management planning researchers. Typically, however, the latter planning Ljusk Ola Eriksson, Tomas Lämås, Ola Sallnäs instruments and traditional timber management Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department planning have been used simultaneously but not in of Forest Resource Management and Geomatics, SE-901 an integrated manner. 83 Umea, Sweden Another area of research of interest for resource Tel: +46 (0) 90- 786 5840, FAX: +46 (0) 90- 77 81 16, Email: [email protected] management is improved methods for data acquisition. For example, by combining remote Keywords: Data acquisition; Ecosystem sensing data with ground measurements, estimations functioning; Spatiality; Planning system of spatial continuous forest parameters can be Until the late 80’s sustainability to Swedish obtained to describe forest landscapes. That the foresters essentially meant safeguarding the timber spatial arrangement can be depicted is essential for production potential of the land base. Today, forest the management of many resources. Moreover, management in Sweden, as in many other places, methods for gathering data on rare objects also means the management of multiple resources. These exist, primarily for biodiversity management. resources include, e.g., biodiversity, recreation, Typically, these methods are based on field hunting, carbon sequestration and reindeer herding. measurements but methods using the combination of At the same time, market pressures require that the remote sensing and field measurements are under timber production is made more competitive and development. environmentally friendly. The increased complexity Unless planning for different uses can be made of forest management has created a surge for simultaneously, dangers of sub-optimality are improved decision support. obvious. Therefore, research efforts in different The research community has answered to the areas need to be gathered in a common framework. demand for improved decision making capability in The Faculty of Forestry has initiated a project for several different areas. They can be grouped under the development of a new system for forest three headings: general knowledge concerning the management. It should be designed (i) with a forest ecosystem, models for ecosystem functioning modular structure to allow for the development of including silviculture and the growth process of the different applications, (ii) with the landscape as the trees, and management planning methods. basic planning unit, (iii) with the tree as the basic unit of projection of the tree layer, (iv) with models Much research is directed towards modelling the for processes interacting with the management of effects of forest management on ecosystem the tree layer, and (v) with models for risk and functioning, such as the consequences of uncertainty of data and model projections. fragmentation on species diversity and acidification of streams and lakes. Active research is also One of many challenges is to be able to give a conducted in carbon and nutrient budgeting and reasonable description of the landscape, not only in estimation of effects of global warming. terms of trees but also, for instance, of soil conditions. Another is to try to combine empirical Results of research concerning tree growth, models for tree growth with process models. silviculture regimes, forest survey methods etc., are Although the working name of the project, Heureka, contained in computer based systems for forest may be associated with a flash of genius, the efforts resource management developed the Faculty of of coming years will rather be Herculean. Forestry of SLU. Systems have been developed for forest management planning at a company level and Estimating the thresholds of criteria and for the analyses of timber yield, growing stock etc., indicators in Japan on a regional level. The systems were, however, Takayua Hiroshima initially designed in the 70’s and almost exclusively University of Tokyo, Lab Forest Manage, Dept Forest Sci directed towards timber management. When the Grad School Agric Life Sci, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-Ku, biodiversity issue emerged, methods and 113-8657 Tokyo, Japan instruments to be incorporated in forest management FAX: +81-3-5689-7253, Email: [email protected] planning were requested. in the beginning of the tokyo.ac.jp 90’s, case study areas were established by Thresholds of criteria and indicators accepted in companies and research institutions. A number of Montreal Process countries were estimated using a conceptual planning models for “ecological linear programming model. The concept of

129 Division 4 thresholds contains "feasible region" and "optimum A spatial approach to participatory solution", which mean region of indicators planning in forestry decision-making satisfying the conditions of sustainable forest Leena Hytonen, Leskinen, P. & Store, R. management and optimum value of indicators in the Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research feasible region respectively. First, four criteria were Station, Post Box # 44, FIN-69100 Kannus, Finland selected for the subject of this study, which are FAX: +358 6 8743 201, Email: [email protected] -Biological diversity, -Productive capacity, -Carbon During the last ten years the concept of the cycles and-Socio-economic benefits, and then sustainability of the forestry has been extended from tentative indicators, -Area of old growth forest, - economic sustainability to include also ecological Growing stock of commercial forest, -Growing and social sustainability. To reach ecological stock of total forest and -Harvesting volume were sustainability e.g. The Finnish Forest and Park set for each criteria at the national level. Service applies landscape ecological planning for large (10 000-150 000 ha) forest areas. Participatory Next, the thresholds of the indicators were estimated planning, is one mean to reach the social using a linear programming model. The model sustainability. Important question is the ability to covers the entire forest in Japan which is divided produce planning solutions which are acceptable for into four groups, private plantation forest, national the decision-maker and the interests participated. plantation forest, private natural forest and national natural forest and has some basic parameters such as In participatory forest planning public is allowed to planning horizon and number of age class which are tell their opinions about forests and forest set for ten terms (= fifty years) and seventeen management. Public is those people to whom classes (= eighty five years). in the model decision current decision-making affects. in participatory variables are cutting area by group, term and age planning they also have right to expect that their class and objective function is to maximize the total opinions are somehow taken care of. The nature of harvesting volume in the planning horizon. the information concerning public's values and Constraints consist of the requirements for opinions is that it is context dependent. This means sustainable forest management that all of indicators that values and opinions are valid only in certain are basically non-decline over planning horizon and situation. Situation is part of those peoples some other equations such as cutting regulations, lifeworld. When managing qualitative information forest transition and so on. The requirements related in decision-making, the context should be involved to sustainable forest management are as follows: 1. too. Area of old growth forest is non-decline. 2. Normal In this paper/poster, an approach is presented to age class distribution is achieved for ending forest collect and analyse qualitative and geographic structure. 3. Area of commercial forest is constant. information and to process it to quantitative and 4. Growing stock of total forest is non-decline. 5. spatial format. in this study the qualitative research Harvesting volume is non-decline and cannot analysis, numerical preference analysis and spatial increase by more than ten percent from the analysis are utilised. preceding harvest. Last, optimum solution was found and feasible region was sought by a method For example, the Finnish Forest and Park Service of parametric linear programming. in the constraints receives a great amount of qualitative information indicators are defined as accounting variables by about publics' opinions and values as meeting term, so thresholds have time-series change. To seek records, letters, and personal contacts during the the feasible region, the value of optimum solution is participatory planning process. Participants have given to the indicator by a new equation and the messages concerning hunting, beautiful landscapes, value is changed to find out the region where picking wild berries etc. These messages usually solution exists. The result was that optimum refer to certain location, i.e. include geographic data. solution of harvesting volume reflects the trade-off in this approach messages are analysed by their relation toward other three indicators because only contents location and context. Qualitative methods, harvesting volume corresponds to _gactivity_h and making typologies searching facts and norms, and others _gresource_h in the model structure. and each discourse analysis are used to understand relevant feasible region becomes broader as time passes context and situation. Context determines the because the choices of solution become wider in the classification of the messages by their contents. A final stage of planning horizon than the early stage. database for GIS application is created. It was concluded that the concept of threshold is Geographical Information System (GIS) efficient in judging the progress toward sustainable applications offer many tools by which information forest management. from different sources can be connected and used in

130 Division 4 the analysis. Cartographic modelling is an area of numerical models based on empirical research application for spatial analysis employing would mean waste of valuable information. concurrent analyses of many sources of information. There usually exists much more or less qualitative Using cartographic modelling and modern decision- information of the ecological consequences of analysis methods to combine the data collected in alternative treatment schedules and production the process of participatory planning enables better programmes. One such source of information is the understanding and visualisation of the different expert knowledge held by ecologists. There exist objectives of people. in spatial analysis, an some applications where expert judgment has been aggregation method is needed to combine individual utilized in choosing the best management preferences. in this task, two different approach are alternatives, with respect to some ecological being discussed. in the first approach, each concerns. individual evaluates the relative magnitude of his/her proposed areas, and the overall preferences It is also possible to model these expert opinions to are aggregated over individuals. in the second a form of mathematical model, which can then be approach areas are classified and the relative utilized in optimization calculations. On the other importance of classes are determined with respect to hand, models describing population dynamics, for large-scale potentials of the planning area. example, are too complicated to be used in usual planning packages. Thus, the information included The advantage of this approach is the ability to in such models needs to be reformulated to a carefully organise qualitative information into simpler form in order to be applicable. quantitative format. The most preferred areas are Often, the uncertainty involved in calculations has named and their relative magnitude according to the not been taken into account in forest management participants preferences are measured. By planning. The uncertainties inherent in ecological integrating qualitative and spatial analysis it is also considerations probably are greater than possible to clearly point how and where the uncertainties of, for example, growth and yield participants' opinions have been taken care of. This predictions of the growing stock. Information on the could be used as a tool to motivate participants uncertainty involved in the decision support is behind the decision. useful in any natural resource and environmental decision making. For example, when evaluating the Incorporating Ecological Information ecological sustainability of alternative production into the Forest Management Planning programmes for a forest area, it is important to Jyrki Kangas, Annika Kangas know the risk that the sizes of populations of species Finnish Forest Research Institute, Kannus Research of interest would fall below presumably critical Station, P.O. BOX 44, FIN-69101 Kannus, Finland limits (if the management alternatives chosen in the FAX: +358-6-8743201, Email: [email protected] programmes would be implemented). This is Keywords: Ecological modelling; Expert especially the case with rare species. The judgements; Forest planning; Multi-functional uncertainty needs to be taken into account in forestry; Optimization; Uncertainty planning to minimize the risk of the population sizes Ecological information about the impacts of forestry falling below a given threshold value, or to become on the environment, such as the effects on wildlife extinct, due to forestry actions. populations, and assessments of ecological In this presentation, possibilities to use different sustainability have rarely been used in calculations forms of ecological information in optimization of forest management planning. However, some calculations of forest management planning are applications exist where models predicting sizes of presented. Also the importance of being aware of wildlife populations, habitat suitability, or the uncertainty involved in ecological assessments biodiversity have been used in optimization applied, as well as the possible consequences of calculations. The most important reason for not ignoring the uncertainty inherent, are discussed. using ecological information in calculations of Examples of utilizing ecological knowledge in forest management planning has been the lack of forest management planning are given. These information that can be used in numerical planning include modelling suitability of forest habitats for packages. These packages, usually based on black grouse (Tetrao tetrix, Lyrurus Tetrix L.) on mathematical optimization, require the ecological the basis of pairwise comparisons data, and using an knowledge to be presented in the form of relatively ecological threshold function as a multiplicative part simple models. However, all available information of a utility model in multi-objective optimization should be utilized in decision making. Ignoring calculations. other kinds of ecological knowledge than only

131 Division 4 Application of Criteria and Indicators for would satisfy the maintenance of ecological balance Sustainable Forest Management to GIS- and vitality and safety to human lives. in this study, based Multiple Criteria Decision Making a criterion representing human impacts on forests is Approach for Forest Conservation also devised as potential threats to forests. in the Planning in Kinabalu Region, Sabah, ITTO's C&I human impacts on forests are emphasized only within the permanent forest estate. Malaysia Mui How M. Phua, Mitsuhiro Minowa The indicators, adapted from the C&I or devised, Fac of Agric and Life Sci, Univ Tokyo, Department of are generated from map sources or derived by using Forest Science, Laboratory of Forest Management, Yayoi known relationship between a spatial factor and the 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, 113-8657 Tokyo, Japan indicator. Forested areas are prioritized to produce a Tel: +81-3-3812-2111 ext. 5221, FAX: +81-3-5689-7253, forest conservation zoning map based on a Email: [email protected] computed conservation coefficient. The results are In 1994, during the Second Meeting of the compared to existing protected areas. It is Intergovernmental Working Group on Forests, conceivable that high conservation priority areas are forest was recognized as having cross-sectoral representations of the important forest functions that linkages that can be dealt with integrated landuse maintain the ecological vitality and balance, and to planning. Recently, the importance of the GIS-based ensure safety of the society. in short, forest multiple criteria decision making (MCDM) conservation planning using GIS-based MCDM approach in planning has been widely recognized. approach has gained legitimacy from the application The MCDM approach implies a process of of the C&I. As such, community of forest science assigning values to alternatives that are evaluated profession has contributed toward a better along multiple criteria. However, there have not construction of criteria and indicators for landuse been criteria in common for landuse planning planning. involving forested land. Development of the Criteria and Indicators for The Analytic Hierarchy Process in Sustainable Forest Management (C&I) was initiated Natural Resource and Environmental in 1992 by International Tropical Timber Decisionmaking Organization (ITTO), followed by other efforts such D. Schmoldt, Kangas, J., Mendoza, G., and Pesonen, M. as Montreal and Helsinki processes. The C&I USDA, Forest Service, Southern Research Station, VA contain the most important forest functions that Blacksburg, USA provide various benefits to the society. However, Email: [email protected] the forest functions have not been incorporated into The analytic hierarchy process (AHP, developed by the landuse planning process. The C&I have great Thomas Saaty in the 1970's) has been applied to a potentials not only in dealing with the sustainable variety of decision-making problems. For example, forest management but also in landuse planning at it has been used for planning, resource allocation, regional level as far as forest is concerned. in this and priority setting in business, energy, health, study, we propose the application of the C&I to the marketing, forest management, and transportation. GIS-based MCDM approach for forest conservation Three important components of the AHP that planning in Kinabalu region, Sabah, Malaysia. facilitates the analysis of complex problems are: (1) decomposition of a problem into a hierarchy The study area is located in western part of Sabah, consisting of a goal and subordinate features of the Malaysia. Urbanization has been spreading out from problem, (2) assignment of a numerical weight to the state capital, Kota Kinabalu. As a result of each element in the hierarchy (through pairwise timber harvesting and agricultural land conversion, comparisons between elements at each level), and forest has rapidly disappeared in this area. Major (3) aggregation of those weights into an overall conservation effort in this region is represented by 2 preference score for the alternative decision the initiation of Kinabalu Park (735 km ) in 1964. outcomes. Encroachment occurs in western and northern parts of the park boundary by local farmers. in 1986, The AHP is relevant to nearly any natural illegal logging was spotted in northeast side within resource/environmental management application the park. This shows the conflicting nature of that requires multiple opinions, multiple landuse activities in this area. participants, or a complex, decisionmaking process. Considering the complexity of most management The criteria adapted are biodiversity conservation issues and compliance regulations, the AHP can and soil and water conservation. Evaluation of forest extend to a wide array of managerial and planning conservation priority based on these forest functions tasks. in addition to its breadth of application, the

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AHP is relatively easy to apply, to understand, and higher borrowing levels? Could the result be to interpret. higher-than-optimal levels of leveraged forestry investment, strictly from a financial efficiency 4.04 Recent advances in forest resource viewpoint? Further research is needed to determine management and economics the degree to which such inefficiency is manifested in actual practice in forestry and other investment Does standard discounting incorrectly areas. show an advantage of leveraging forestry investments with debt? Forest Ownership as an Inflation Hedge David Klemperer Antrei Lausti Professor of Forest Economics, Department of Forestry Helsinki School of Economics and Business Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Administration, Center for Doctoral Programs, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061, USA Runeberginkatu 15 A, 00100 Helsinki, Finland. Tel: +358943138371, Fax: 358943138305, E-mail: Typically one uses a risk-adjusted discount rate [email protected] (RADR) larger than the risk-free rate to calculate the net present value of a project with risky cash Keywords: forest ownership; private housing; return flows. In those cases, one can show a present value and risk; inflation; hedging advantage of borrowing funds at a loan interest rate This paper analyses the extent to which forest lower than the RADR. This results because, under ownership, private housing and stocks were a hedge the above conditions, the negative present value of against the expected and unexpected components of loan payments will be less than the positive loan inflation in Finland, using the traditional method of value. Using a zero inflation example for dividing inflation into expected and unexpected simplicity, at a 5% loan interest rate, annual components. The expected inflation is proxied by payments on a $100,000, 10 year loan will be the inflation forecasts of the Research Institute of $12,950. Incorporating this loan into a discounted the Finnish Economy (ETLA). Unexpected inflation cash flow analysis using a 7% real risk-adjusted is the difference between actual inflation and this discount rate, the negative present value of loan inflation forecast. payments is $90,955, or $9,045 less than the loan amount, thereby boosting the project’s present A novel contribution of this study is to construct and value. However, the borrower should view loan use comprehensive, national return series for forest payments as risk free cash flows based on a legally ownership to estimate their relationship to inflation. binding contract, in which case payments should be This estimation of the inflation-hedging discounted with a risk-free rate, say 3%, which is characteristics of forest ownership is also the first to lower than the risk-adjusted rate and lower than the use systematically created value-weighted return loan interest rate. In that case, the negative present series that include all economically relevant value of loan payments will exceed the loan value roundwood assortments. Moreover, this study is the because the loan interest rate will be above the risk- first in Finland to estimate the inflation-hedging of free discount rate. For the above example, the other asset classes than stocks, namely, private negative present value of loan payments would be housing, in addition to forest ownership. $110,466 at 3% interest, which is $10,466 more Results indicate that forest ownership did not than the loan amount. Thus, the previously- provide a hedge against expected inflation over the calculated present value advantage of borrowing is period 1973-1998 at all, but provided some hedge really a disadvantage. Analyses show how results against expected inflation over the period 1978- will vary depending on levels of relevant interest 1998. One reason for this may be that expected rates, inflation, income tax interactions, loan inflation was at very high levels during the 1970s. duration, project life, and the degree to which To summarise, it can be said that the forest borrowing increases the overall risk of a project. ownership has provided a hedge against expected Forest policy implications are that typical inflation only to some extent and has offered a very discounted cash flow analyses of leveraged forestry effective hedge against unexpected inflation. Forest investments could make borrowing appear ownership, or more precisely stumpage prices, have deceptively attractive. The result could be however been a leading indicator of the inflation overpayment for leveraged investments in forested trend. Private housing provided a hedge against properties or forest management. The analysis unexpected inflation at a statistically significant raises interesting questions about economic level. Forest ownership and housing provided some efficiency. Do incorrect analyses of leveraged hedge against expected inflation, but not at a investments cause a sub-optimal distortion toward statistically significant level.

133 Division 4 Stocks did not provide a hedge against expected inflation at all; in fact, the relation was even 4.11.00 / 4.01.03 Planning of long-term negative, but stocks provided some hedge against observations unexpected inflation, although not at a statistically significant level. It seems that forest ownership and Long term observations and research in private housing are better assets than stocks for the forestry institutional investor in terms of inflation hedging. Christoph Kleinn Both these asset classes have provided effective Tropical Agriculture and Higher Education Center hedges against unexpected inflation. It is valuable (CATIE), Costa Rica to have a hedge against unexpected inflation, Tel: +506 556 1530, FAX: +506 556 7954, Email: because an inflation hedge against expected [email protected] inflation can often be obtained through bond Long term and large area are amongst the principal markets. characteristics of experiments and observations in When the longer five- and ten-year holding periods forest research. When the International Union of are considered, the results are almost the same. Forest Research Organisations (IUFRO) was Forest ownership is a hedge against expected founded in 1891 one of the most urgent tasks was inflation to some extent and a very effective hedge the exchange of knowledge and experience against unexpected inflation. It turned out that the regarding the planning of long term experiments. longer the holding period, the more effective a While in those days long term experiments were hedge forest ownership has provided against mainly conducted to study timber production, it is expected inflation as well. These inflation-hedging nowadays widely accepted that long term properties of forests may support regeneration and experiments are an outstanding tool to describe, other investments by forest owners and therewith quantify and model the effects of changes in economically sustainable forestry. environmental conditions.Various aspects are relevant in the context of long term observations: statistical considerations with respect to plot Trees outside forests: why should number, plot size, number of replications; aspects of foresters think about this resource? data management; practical aspects of establishing Christoph Kleinn long term experiments. CATIE, Costa Rica This paper summarizes an IUFRO 4.11 International Trees outside the forests are increasingly discussed Symposium that was held in February 1999 in as an important natural resource. Agroforestry and CATIE, Costa Rica. urban forestry are but two examples of disciplines dedicated to trees outside the forestry context. While the great majority of studies on trees outside Characterization of central tendency and forests has a local, small area focus, the present spatial variability of growth and paper attempts to look at it from a large mortality of forests: A comparison of some statistical models area, landscape perspective, discussing the different George W. Weaver, Harun, Ismail; Appanah, S. functions of trees outside forests. Some preliminary USDA Forest Service, 3200 Jefferson Way, OR 97331 results of studies in Costa Rica are presented that Corvallis, USA underline the relative relevance of this resource. Tel: 541-758-7779, FAX: 541-758-7760, Email: Comparisons to the forest resource are made, though george.weaver/[email protected] one should clearly see trees outside forests as a Forest growth can be expressed as single tree annual resource on its own, that needs particular attention diameter increment or as annual basal area and a particular management. increment for an entire stand. Mortality can be expressed as single tree annual probability of mortality or as annual basal area lost to mortality. These measures exhibit differences in variation over time as well as differences in central tendency, depending upon whether they are expressed at the individual tree or whole stand spatial scale of measure. This talk will contrast/compare several models for characterization of central tendency and variation of these measures of growth and morality: generalized least squares, generalized linear models

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(Poisson regression for growth, logistic regression New information technologies make possible the for mortality), and quantile regression. Estimates of development of more advanced systems of data central tendency are similar for these models, the gathering and analysis which can accurately assess biggest differences between the models are in the the current status of forest cover. way that they model the variation of growth and In the framework of the TREES-II project, mortality rates over time. Differences between the techniques for the assessment and monitoring of models indicate the degree to which they partition moist tropical forest cover are developed at the pan the variability in growth and mortality as spatial tropical level. These techniques make use of an variation or random variation. Differences between extensive satellite data set analysed in an ad-hoc the models will be illustrated using a 15 year manner. This paper presents a new approach for the permanent sample plot data set from a Hill assessment of deforestation rates in the moist Dipterocarp Forest in Peninsular Malaysia. tropical regions for the period 1992 to 1997 using Earth observation techniques. The approach is based Long-term experiments: long-term on intensive sampling with fine spatial resolution commitments satellite image pairs, focusing on the most active Andreas Zingg deforestation areas. WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland Email: [email protected] As a first step the humid tropical forest belt was mapped using coarse spatial resolution imagery Long-term experiments in forestry research lay (NOAA-AVHRR), with fine spatial resolution within a area of conflict: on side research needs satellite data (Landsat-TM) used as a reference data good data e.g. long data series of optimal quality, on source. The 1.1 km resolution of NOAA AVHRR is the other side there are costs and long-term well adapted to the geographic scale of the commitments which are necessary to get such data. monitoring exercise (pan tropical). However, this Long-term commitments can be guaranteed best by spatial resolution leads to a loss of detail that makes forest research institutes. But due to shortage of it difficult to derive a good proxy variable for the funds these long-term commitments are questioned measurement of deforestation rates. in such institutes too. Forestry research and research in related fields, e.g. in other ecosystem types, is At the global level a sampling scheme for forest based on long-term experiments because of the change assessment has been defined using sampling relatively slow development in these ecosystems. units independent of any particular satellite sensor. Therefore changes in such ecosystems can be For this purpose an equal probability sampling monitored only using adapted "slow" research frame has been chosen. methods. Investments, as long as the experiments In the case of spatially correlated data, such as forest are not intensive studies usually are overestimated. cover change, estimates can be improved by This can be shown on the basis of long-term performing a preliminary stratification to reduce the recorded time studies. Examples of long-term variance of the estimated variable. However, at the experiments illustrate the usability of data which pan-tropical scale little reliable spatial information exceeds often the questions asked, when the is available to stratify on the basis of deforestation experiments were started. rates. Stratification is performed using percentages of forest area (derived from the 1.1 km resolution 4.12.00 Integration of GIS and Remote Sensing for Assessment of Forests and maps) and areas of known current or recent Landscapes deforestation activity (elucidated from expert consultation) estimated for each sampling unit. Forest Cover Change Assessment at the Sample site selection is performed by using a Pan-Tropical Scale using Earth sample frame based on a tessellation of hexagons on observation satellite data a sphere. This approach allows for sensor Frederic Achard, Hugh Eva, Philippe Mayaux, Tim independent sample from which unbiased estimators Richards and Hans-Jürgen Stibig and error variance may be computed. Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, Space Applications Institute, 21020 Ispra (VA), Italy This sampling scheme is currently in the FAX: +39-0332-789960, Email: [email protected] implementation phase. The total target sample size has been set up to ninety-five as a feasible target Of major concern is the issue of forest distribution. linked to availability of resources. Observation units Assessing the state and the evolution of tropical have been selected and image pairs for the nominal forest cover is relevant for studying the impact of period 1992 to 1997 have been acquired. These human activities on the global environment. image pairs are currently being photo-interpreted

135 Division 4 on-screen by local experts who have ground method, it became time consuming when a large knowledge of the forests. Digital copies of the amount of information is processed. Therefore, in interpretations will be collated and analysed and the latter case - that is the usual situation that one estimates of deforestation rates over the observation can expect when monitoring forest fuel maps - period determined. The latest results of estimation principal component demonstrated to be more of forest cover change in the humid tropics will be efficient. Finally, some recommendations are presented during the congress. concluded.

Monitoring forest fuel maps for helping User Requirements for remote sensing- control and prevention of forest fires based spatial information for the Carlos Bahamondez, Gerardo Mery sustainable management of forests Instituto Forestal de Chile, Huérfanos 554, Santiago, Alfred de Gier, Edouard Westinga, Sjaak Beerens, Chile Patrick van Laake and Herman Savenije Email: [email protected] International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth The aim of this study is to provide a direct, rather Sciences (ITC), Hengelosestraat 99 Post Box # 6, 7500 AA Enschede, Netherlands simple and friendly methodology for monitoring Tel: +31 (0)53 4874309, FAX: +31 (0)53 4874399, forest fuel maps. The classification of the vegetation Email: [email protected] cover of Chile in fuel classes according to its inherent flammable characteristics was the Sustainable forest management requires proper procedure utilized for developing the maps. The decision-support systems. The effectiveness of forest fuel maps were developed in order to provide these, however, is jeopardized by problems related basic information for applying fire behavior models. to the timely availability of relevant information, as The use of these models facilitates forecasting and confirmed, e.g., in Agenda 21, the control of forest fires. Additionally, application of Intergovernmental Panel on Forests and the the models allows an optimal resource assignation Intergovernmental Forum on Forests. The FAME for forecasting, prevention and extinction of forest (Forest Assessment and Monitoring Environment) fires. Two methods for monitoring fuel maps were concept addresses this problem, by suggesting an compared, namely the principal component method end-to-end forest assessment and monitoring and the images difference method. These methods system, ranging from data acquisition, up to the haven been used in many forestry applications and delivery of information to the desk of the user. are well documented. However, their utilization for As a first step, the Dutch government charged a monitoring of fuel maps seems to be a novelty. For consortium of Dutch organizations and FAO with a carrying out the comparative study, satellite imagery User Requirements Study to assess the needs for data, ground field information and forest fuel map spatial information on forests from a user classification in a pilot area were utilized. The perspective. This study included an interactive satellite material consisted of two SPOT scenes of questionnaire survey among stakeholders/users, the same area (the pilot area covered approximately detailed studies in four tropical countries, an 20 000 hectares and it was located in Malleco assessment of capabilities of current and planned Province, IX Administrative Region in the central- remote sensing-based systems, the development of south part of Chile) acquired in 1991 and 1994. The an international user network and an international Chilean Forest Research Institute (INFOR) provided workshop. The study revealed a substantial and ground field information as well as the fuel map of urgent global need for spatial data and information such an experimental area. The methods were on forests, referring to both "state" and "change" selected considering that they can be applied in a parameters. This was particularly observed at a local straightforward manner and they do not specially and at sub-national levels. These information needs demand sophisticated software. The results pointed cannot be fully satisfied by current or near-future out that both methods are not necessarily mutually remote sensing-based systems. On the other hand, excluding, but are rather complementary ones. The there is a considerable under-utilization of existing application of principal component method data sources. Accessibility to and affordability of demonstrated that this approach is particularly existing data and information are the major sensible to detect small changes of canopies as well constraints for all users, with distribution being the as large and destructive ones like clearcuttings or weakest part of the chain. The concept of an "end- forest fires. to-end" information system was re-defined, Although images difference seems simple and including the required information infrastructure, highly intuitive compared with principal component comprising data capture, data acquisition and

136 Division 4 distribution, data processing, data integration and also regarding environmental issues. They will, capacity building as essential components. An among other things, address the development of information strategy at national level should support operational Criteria and Indicators on sustainable this system. Furthermore, international protocols are development and bio-diversity, the development of needed for the exchange of data. A further automatic or semi-automatic methods for assessing validation of the end-to-end concept is needed. forest growth conditions and forest health, and, new means for assessing the protective function of European forest mapping and forests. Methods for integration of statistics and monitoring within the frame of the FIRS mapped information from Earth Observation data (Forest Monitoring from Remote will be developed in support to the EFICS Sensing) Project - a review on progress (European Forest Information and Communication System). and results. Sten Folving, Pam Kennedy Joint research Centre of the European Commission, Forest Cover Monitoring and Sector for Forest and Catchment studies, Environment Assessment in South and Southeast and Geo-Information Unit, 21020 Ispra (VA), Italy Asia Tel: +39 0332 785009, FAX: +39 0332 789469, Email: Chandra Prasad Giri, Surendra Shrestha [email protected] Asian Institute of Technology, UNEP Environment The FIRS (Forest Information from Remote Assessment Programme for Asia and the Pacific, Post Box # 4, 12120 Klongluang, Pathumthani, Thailand Sensing) Project was launched early 1994 as the Tel: (66-2) 524-6236, FAX: (66-2) 516-2125, Email: main European forest activity of the EU Space [email protected] Applications Institute under the 4th FrameWork Programme. After a two-year foundation action Keywords: Forest Resources, Deforestation, Remote phase, during which studies on regionalization and Sensing, GIS stratification of pan-European forest eco-systems Deforestation is one of the major environmental and on European forest nomenclature for remote concerns in South and Southeast Asia. Accurate, sensing applications were carried out, the project timely and accessible information base on the launched several major application studies in present status of forest resources and their change collaboration with other services of the European patterns is lacking in many countries. This is one of Commission. the limitations in formulating sound forest resources The four most important studies concerned: 1) The planning and management strategies at national, provision of a 1km forest probability map of the regional and global levels. The present study pan-European area based on NOAA-AVHRR data; provides a synopsis of forest cover monitoring and 2) an evaluation of high resolution satellite data for assessment project of UNEP Environment mapping European forest types and other wooded Assessment Programme for Asia and the Pacific. land --followed by a study on using medium Monitoring and assessment was performed using resolution (200m) satellite data for regional time series coarse spatial resolution satellite data mapping of forest and OWL; 3) a study on the such as NOAA AVHRR. The paper presents the assessment of above ground biomass and volume in outcome of forest cover change analysis of 12 Mediterranean and Boreal forest types using high countries in South and Southeast Asia. Major resolution imagery; 4) a study on the assessment of deforestation fronts (called "hot spots") were changes in forest areas using high resolution identified and investigated in detail using high- satellite data combined with a study on the resolution satellite data such as SPOT and Landsat development of methods for assessing the structural supported by field information. GIS and socio- diversity, at a landscape level, of forested areas in economic databases were prepared and used for various European test sites. All studies have been further analysis. The major forest cover change carried out under external contracts on a competitive patterns and underlying causes of deforestation and basis. They have been supported by in-house and forest degradation were underlined. Policy options external software development. to arrest the problem of rapid and unprecedented forest cover change were suggested. Based on the results from the first phase of the FIRS Project new forest mapping and monitoring activities have been defined and launched for the 5th FrameWork Programme. These activities are strongly linked to the support of the development of rural areas, both regarding economic aspects, but

137 Division 4 quality can be assessed immediately. One of the Relationship between Forest Parameters main problems, however, has been that in order to (Volume and Basal Area) and Jers-1 Sar analyse large areas thousands of images are needed, Backscatter and a single image only covers a small proportion of Khali Aziz Hamzah the area of interest. A related problem is that the Regional Centre for Forest Management (RCFM), images often have large radiometric and geometric Kepong 52109, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia differences. Tel: 603-6377633, FAX: 603-6377233, Email: In order to overcome these problems a system has [email protected] been developed for collecting the data and creating Keywords: JERS-1 SAR, backscatter coefficients, large image mosaics. The airborne part of the peat swamp forest. system includes digital camera, GPS, navigation and The empirical relationships between Japanese Earth camera control hardware and software. After the Resources Satellite-1 Synthetic Aperture Radar flight the mosaics are created semi-automatically on (JERS-1 SAR) backscatter and two forest a standard PC. in order to obtain a result of good parameters (volume and basal area,) are evaluated. radiometric and geometric quality a These parameters were collected from nine field photogrammetric mosaic is made by correcting for plots covering a wide range of peat swamp forest aircraft inclination, camera distortion, terrain classes including Primary, Regenerating and elevation differences, sun angle differences and Disturbed forests. The backscatter coefficients were local radiometric differences. Digital terrain models extracted from SAR image acquired in a dry season. can be created internally or entered from external A window size of 5x5 pixel was used to suppress sources to eliminate the prevailing elevation the effects of speckle and to correspond to the size differences, i.e. to produce an orthomosaic. of the actual field sample plots. The relationships The system is in operational use and more than one were evaluated by correlation and linear regression million hectares on four continents have been analyses. Results show that basal area and volume imaged and processed for forestry mapping, land (forest parameters that are commonly used in forest use planning and monitoring of natural resources. inventory) exhibit positive correlations with Further developments are on way for digital infra- backscatter coefficients for the dry season SAR red imagery, image processing system based on image. The highest significant correlation (r= parallel computers and for automatic single tree 0.7186) was observed between the dry season JERS- detection based on pattern recognition. 1 SAR backscatter coefficients and forest basal area. The system is in operational use and more than one This suggest the usefulness of JERS-1 SAR data in million hectares on four continents have been determining the density of peat swamp forest stand. imaged and processed for forestry mapping, land use planning and monitoring of natural resources. Large Digital Aerial Imagery Mosaics in Further developments are on way for digital infra- Land Use and Forestry Planning red imagery, image processing system based on Mikael Holm, Janna Puumalainen, Janne Sarkeala, Seppo parallel computers and for automatic single tree Väätäinen & Markku Rantasuo detection based on pattern recognition. VTT Automation, Measurement Technology, P.O.Box 13002, FIN-02044 VTT Otakaari 7, Finland Tel: +358 2046 24957, FAX: +358 2046 24960, Email: Remote sensing and spatial data for the [email protected] establishment and visualisation of 3D The poster presents the latest developments of an computer landscape models for impact airborne digital camera image acquisition and image assessment mosaic creation. The developed methods are Barbara Koch, Harm J. and Reidelstürtz P. reviewed for their potential for land use and forestry University of Freiburg, Forestry Faculty, Tennenbacherstr. 4, 79085 Freiburg, Germany planning particularly in regions where the use of Tel: 0049-761-203-3694, FAX: 0049-761-203-3701, traditional optical remote sensing data is difficult, Email: [email protected] for instance in the tropics. In many cases there is a need to assess and visualise Airborne digital camera imagery is a convenient tool the landscape in order to evaluate measures, which for gathering rapid and accurate true or false colour are suspected to have an impact on the landscape. data of the environment with an adjustable There are many methods to assess a landscape, resolution of 0.4 - 4 m. The image acquisition can according to beauty, individuality, diversity or other be done from below the clouds and the image parameters to estimate the impact of measures on

138 Division 4 landscapes. Until now the assessment of the impact on the landscape was in general based on qualitative Identification of landscape types in parameters and 2D data based visualisation like Croatia using remote sensing methods maps and photographs. Nevertheless for the and spatial analysis acceptance and realisation of planned measures, the Vladimir Kusan, Renata Pernar, Oleg Antonic inclusion of quantitative parameters and a 3D data University of Zagreb, Faculty of forestry, Svetosimunska based visualisation seem to be good tools. 25, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia A research project at the department of remote FAX: +385-1-218616, Email: [email protected] sensing and landscape information systems deals Landscape analysis is the process of describing and with the potential of 3D landscape models for the interpreting the landscape ecology of an area. development of for quantitative impact assessment Resource patches and a landscape network of parameters and visualisation. The models were connecting corridors are identified, described and based on photogrammetric measurements from classified. Theusual set of data acquired for a aerial photographs on one hand and auxiliary spatial landscape analysis includes :topographic maps, data from different data pools on the other hand. forest cover maps, digital elevation models, satellite images and air photos. A geographic information The measurements were taken with an analytical system is very useful inthis process. In the process plotter (Zeiss P3) which was connected to a CAD- of landscape analysis combined methods of remote programme (Bentley MicroStation). The sensing, spatial analysis and terrestrial works should measurements included the land-surface as well as be used to identify and quantify landscape variables surfaces of different forest stands, roads, individual and/or spatial, temporal and functional aspects of trees and houses. Objects close to the planned landscape. impacts (power-lines) were measured, the other objects were modelled based on auxiliary spatial In Croatia there are a variety of different landscapes, data. from lowlands inthe north, hilly and mountain region in the middle and the coastal areasin the The planned power-lines were also modelled with south. Different agricultural use and urban MicroStation. development in such variety influenced very much In contrast to photographic layout manipulations, the forest landscapes. The investigation of this method is based on 3D data. That allows to relationships between different agricultural, urban visualise the impact on the landscape from each and forest types was performed on the set of 15 x 15 position within the model and to calculate kilometres LandsatTM subscenes. The subscenes quantitative parameters like sensitivity of the were chosen around the most important settlements landscape, visibility of the impact, a.s.o. on a solid in all regions in Croatia. On each subscene the 3D geometric basis. There were two categories of several classification methods were used to describe parameters derived from the model, the first was land use of each region.The accuracy of each used to assesses the sensitivity of the landscape to classification was calculated using possible impacts. The other category is used to topographicmaps, fotointerpretation and terrestrial quantify the size of the impact. in addition to the work. The best classification of each subscene was usual planners point of view, in which the landscape used for landscape analysis. The results show how is studied from above, the individuals point of view, many different landscapes can be found in Croatia. which studies the landscape from within, was used to calculate the visibility of the impacts. Various Estimation of Land Cover Change in images and animations of the landscape models Peruvian Tropical Rainforests using were rendered, to visualise the impact, in addition to JERS-1 images the above mentioned parameters. Most visualisation David Lopez Cornelio products employed the individuals point of view Shimane University, Faculty of Life and Environmental from within the landscape. Science, Office #505, 690 Matsue, Japan In addition to the assessment of the status quo, Email: [email protected] different situations could be simulated in the model, In Peru, nearly 1,800 acres of tropical and including variants or future changes, like the growth subtropical forests are cut daily, amounting to of vegetation or seasonal aspects. 670,000 deforested acres each year; this phenomena eliminates critical habitats for wildlife and plants species (Peru ranks number two in the world in bird diversity, number three in mammal diversity and number five in plant diversity, within it's borders

139 Division 4 exists 83 of the world's 114 natural community being used to automate the polygonization of the types ). An accurate and up to date assessment of stand boundaries, soils, and ecosites with expert forest area and rates of depletion is fundamental to systems and user defined attributes. The combined the development of improved national forest applications he combined applications are an management strategies. Satellite observations integrated inventory and information system that provide an objective and quantitative approach to will have multiple values in developing forest the measurement of land-cover change; a research is management plans and implementing operations. proposed in order to determine the land use change, the conversion from active agriculture to secondary Multiple Criteria Analysis and forest (re growth), infer the patterns of land use by Geographic Information Systems for type in the long term considering the past and Assessing Criteria and Indicators in present trends, and propose an ideal map of Sustainable Forest Management sustainable land use according to the ecological and Guillermo A. Mendoza, Ravi Prabhu socioeconomic characteristics of the site, in a University of Illinois, Department of Natural Resource representative area of Peruvian tropical rainforests and Environmental Sciences, Urbana, USA (Iquitos region, a 75km x75 km area located in the Tel: (217-333-9347), FAX: (217)-244-3219), Email: Amazon watershed at 3*43*46" South Latitude, [email protected] 73*14*18" West Longitude) using JERS-1 images. Keywords: Criteria and indicators, multi-criteria The Japanese Earth Resources Satellite - 1 has been analysis, geographic information systems continuing to observe and collect data since 1992 with a mission data recorder by the high This paper describes applications of Multiple performance Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and Criteria Analysis (MCA) in assessing criteria and Optical Sensor (OPS); TNT mips will be used in indicators (C&I) in evaluating sustainable forest order to process the images, a processing system for management. The MCA methods include: ranking, geo spatial analysis with fully integrated GIS, CAD, rating and pairwise comparisons or Analytic TIN, desktop cartography and geo spatial database Hierarchy Process. These methods were used in a management. participatory decision making environment under two evaluation approaches; a top-down approach A forest inventory and information and a bottom-up approach. The former involves a system for forest operations and team of interdisciplinary experts from different planning disciplines such as social forestry, resource David H. McNabb economics, ecology, forest management, Forest Resources Alberta Research Council, Bag 4000, silviculture, and forest policy and administration. Alberta T9C 1T4 Vegreville, Canada The latter involves a local team representing various Tel: (780) 632-8264, FAX: (780) 632-8379, Email: stakeholders, interest groups, and other community [email protected] people affecting, and affected by, the management The measurement, classification, and interpretation of the forest. The top-down approach essentially of forest resourcesfor a multitude of forest values is consists of selecting relevant sets of C&I from a constrained by single purpose databases of often generic set such as those proposed by the Forestry poor quality. Contemporary data bases must allow Stewardship Council (FSC) and the Center for spatial and temporal manipulation to meet the International Forestry Research (CIFOR). The dynamic planning and operational needs of forestry. bottom-up approach involves both the generation of The Alberta Research Council in partnership with sets of C&I and their final selection at the field level private industry has developed and tested an by local forest communities and other stakeholders. integrated hardware andsoftware system that Both approaches are structured and organized in a automatically links digital image data with elevation participatory decision making environment. that has many uses in forestry. The initial product of In addition to describing the procedural details of this system is the automated production of ortho- the two approaches above, the paper also describes rectified images and photo mosaics. Other software the concepts and the underlying theory behind the has been developed that analyses these primary data MCA methodologies. Computational details and to give tree location, crown diameter, height, and other concepts related to consistency of group species, which are combined to produce forest decisions, priority rankings, and the estimation of inventories. New software to automate the mapping relative weights or degrees of importance of each of landforms and combining landform and other C&I as estimated by the MCA methods are forest attributes into a system to automatically map discussed. The steps involved in the application of soils is also under development. These data are also the MCA methods in assessing C&I on a Forest

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Management Unit (FMU) are also described. The environmental quality and traffic disturbances. The evaluation process detailing how the Teams provide objective of this study is to assess the usefulness of their expert opinions on each C&I along with their Landsat TM data in "green" cover mapping of a new judgment on the suitability and applicability of each township Putrajaya. A Landsat TM image of 126/58 C&I to a FMU is also described. Ultimately, the (path/row) in Computer Compatible Tape (CCT) estimation of a performance index of the FMU form, taken on June, 1996, with less than 5% cloud, based on the ranked or prioritized list of C&I is also was acquired for image processing and analysis. described. Results indicated that band of 4-5-3 False Colour Composite (FCC) was the best combination for the A forest concession located in central Kalimantan, purpose of the study since it can clearly differentiate Indonesia is used as the FMU for the case study. the "green" cover. A supervised classification of the Results from the study show that the multicriteria image result in 12 classes of "green" cover methods are effective tools that can be used as categories. A total of four classes were allocated as structured decision aids to evaluate, prioritize and potential sites for the development of a forest select sets of C&I for a FMU. Feedbacks received landscape map. The overall accuracy obtained for from the two Teams and other participants indicate this study was 70%. Urban forestry landscaping and that the methods are transparent easy to implement, planning has great potential in Putrajaya because the and provide a convenient environment for area is still mostly surrounded by a "green" cover. participatory planning and decision making especially for a complex problem such as the 4.04.02 /4.13.00 Sustainable forest assessment of sustainable forest management. management under conditions of growing Finally, the paper also describes an integrated global pressures modeling framework for assessing forest sustainability using the biodiversity conservation Possible unfair competition from criterion. The framework essentially involves two international taxation differences: general methodologies -- Geographic Information examples from Scandinavian and other Systems (GIS), and MCA. in assessing overall selected countries sustainability using the biodiversity-based C&I Finn G. Andersen elements, the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is Norwegian Agricultural Economics Research Institute, used to determine the relative importance of each Postboks 8024 DEP, 0030 Oslo, Norway C&I. Besides measuring the relative importance of Tel: + 47-22-36 72 33, FAX: +47-22 36 72 99, Email: each C&I, their impacts (i.e., degree of negative and [email protected] positive impacts) are also calculated using a method Keywords: Taxation, Forestry, Scandinavia based on fuzzy set theory. Ultimately, the integrated MCA and GIS-based model allows the estimation of This paper will deal with taxation of forestry, both area-specific sustainability index values. Hence, in principle and with description of the actual tax sustainability can be measured particular tracts of scheme in some selected countries. Forestry taxation land, which can also be geographically identified on is of course part of the general tax regime in each the ground (i.e. site-specific). An illustrative country, but in this paper the emphasis is attached to example based on an actual forest in Indonesia is possible special taxation conditions to forestry. described to demonstrate the applicability of the The main purpose of a national taxation scheme is model. to confiscate capital from the citizens for public use. in addition to this main purpose, there can be many Mapping of 'Green' Cover in Putrajaya other purposes the politicians also want to stimulate New Township Using Landsat Tm for instance development of forestry. Aswati Surep In forestry it is most common that income assesses Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Regional Centre for Forest Management, Kepong, 52109 Kuala directly to the annual result. Both in Sweden and Lumpur, Malaysia Norway there are different possibilities to distribute Tel: 603-6377633, FAX: 603-6377233, Email: the annual result for a couple of year. The mean [email protected] reasons to insert these rules is to cut the top of the result in years with special high cutting and with The need to manage the resource in a more that a high income. Some years ago the marginal tax sustainable way and the changing demands of rates were extreme high in the Scandinavian society on its forest are confronting the modern countries and therefor the permission to distribute forester. Rapid population growth and development the result for several years was of big importance. activities has caused high growth of urban

141 Division 4 To day the marginal tax rates are lower so the distribute rules are of less importance than earlier. International Interdependencies of the Another way to assess the yield of forest is to use Forest Accounting System and Their sustainable yield, annual increment or area of Effects on Business Management productive forestland as base for taxation. The James N Hogg, Hans A Jöbstl taxable amount is for example total annual Jaakko Pöyry Consulting (UK) Ltd, Century House, increment or total productive forestland multiplies Station Way, SM3 8SW Cheam, Surrey, United Kingdom with a standard value. in Norway the annual Tel: +44 181 770 2144, FAX: +44 181 770 2115, Email: [email protected] increment was the base for income taxation till 1954 as the productive forestland was it in Finland down Forest business accounting has long proven its to 1993. Finland has now changed over to assess the positive contribution to management of forest annual result but with a voluntary changeover enterprises. Accounting supports the management in period till year 2006. The tax system Finland now monitoring the success of fulfilling the business leaves has given tax advantage to active forest strategy be it continuation of the business or owners and tax intensification for more passive shareholder value creation. Due to the high owners. proportion of small-scale holdings only a small part of forest management units utilise accounting to Directly taxation of the annual result stimulates to support decision-making and information. The save capital in standing timber and forest variety of business accounting systems around the regeneration, and can in this way be an obstacle to world is also reflected in the accounting of forest increase the cutting volume. The increase of capital enterprises. While most rules and regulations of in the forest will not be taxable before the timber is standard business accounting can be applied in sold. forest enterprises, some particularities of forestry In some countries as United Kingdom and the have posed problems for both foresters and Netherlands, forest incomes from woodlands are accountants: The nature of the forest asset as taken completely out of the scope of income tax. appreciating, self-regenerating asset and the long This tax exemption applies to sales of both felled time horizons involved in forestry can be considered and growing timber, but other incomes as shooting as the two most important specific problems. rights are taxable. On the other hand there are no The valuation of the forest assets and treatment of deduction for operating expenses etc. The reasons growing stock changes through growth, for the income tax exemption are both to get more management and removals and the reflection of standing timber and the multifunctional use of land. these values in accounts has not only engaged the In a lot of countries they are in the beginning to try minds of leading forest economists since the last to use subsidies and tax structure to support century, but is also facing forest enterprises and environmental quality and sustainable economic corporations around the world. While the treatment development in the forestry. in internal operating accounts is up to the information requirements of the enterprise and In many countries they use a lower VAT rate than therefore developed individually to the demands of the standard rate for sale of timber and other forest management, the financial reporting legislation products. Some of the EC countries also made use determines the reflection of forest assets in external of a special system with flat rate for farmers. The accounts. flat rate scheme should be a neutral system, but as a matter of fact in some countries the system uses to Globally a number of methods has been developed subsidise the farmers. to capture forest values and their change in accounting, but a both accurate and feasible method remains elusive. The different methods contrasted using examples from Europe, North America, Asia and Oceania show the interdependencies of forestry accounting practices with cultural traditions, forestry practices, legislation, economic theory, etc. Differences as paramount as the distinctions between Central European small-scale forestry, Tropical concession forestry or large-scale plantation forestry in Oceania

142 Division 4 also exist in the different methods of accounting for prevalence of different elements of path the growing stock and its changes. dependence. While international accounting harmonisation aims The latest reforms, in both countries, can be at improved comparability and the emergence of characterized by search for equity-consistent multinational forest industries results in increased economic efficiency, devolution of the decision attention from the accounting profession, the task of making to local communities, and adaptive finding more accurate and workable methods will efficiency. Multiple equilbria are another common remain a challenge for the next millennium. feature in both countries. These common elements and their impacts on sustainable forest management The Evolution of Forest Regimes in elements from two Asian giants with different India and China (A Comparative governance structures can be used for designing Analysis) forest regimes for sustainable forest management in Shashi Kant developing economies. University of Toronto, Faculty of Forestry, Toronto, Canada Operations research, economic Neo-classical framework based on profit planning and decision models: how can maximization leading to a single equilibrium is not international co-operation help sufficient to understand the dynamics of forest administration and decision making in regimes. in the world of imperfect markets, forest enterprises transaction costs, and uncertainties, the observable Jean-Luc Peyron regularities are not a solution to a static problem, but ENGREF/INRA, 14, rue Girardet, CS 4216, F-54042 are outcomes that understandable dynamic processes Nancy, France have produced from known and plausibly conditions Tel: 00 33 (0)3 83 39 68 31, FAX: 00 33 (0)3 83 32 73 81, Email: [email protected] in the past. These dynamic processes can be understood in the framework of evolutionary As in most of the research fields, international co- economics which has the elements of increasing operation is essential to improve the grounding in returns, path dependence, multiple equilibria, decision making relative to forest enterprises. The institutional hysteresis, and adaptive efficiency. The general reasons underlying this statement are dynamics of forest regimes in India and China is probably the same in each part of sciences and refer analyzed in this framework. in India, forest regimes to the similarities between questions raised in have completed a full cycle from the community different countries, to the complexity of the real regime in the pre-British period through state world in comparison with available analysis regimes during the colonial period and the first post- methods and models, to the weakness of means independence phase, and finally back to allocated to research beside the hugeness of the task, community-based regimes in the 1990s. in China, and to the continuous change of social demand that forest regimes have also completed a full cycle but requires to solve permanently new problems. starting from private ownership in the hands of Obviously, after they are brought back to the landlords and bureaucrats prior to 1950's and administration and management of forest reverting back to private regime in the form of enterprises, these items are worth being commented. household responsibility system in 1980's. in India, Forest management has been developed at the during the colonial period, change in forest regimes international level for about three centuries. France, has been discontinuous but path-dependent in a Germany and Austria have played a major role at geographical sense which reflected organizational the beginning. Methods elaborated in these inertia of colonial structure developed in other countries have then been exported to the rest of the countries. in the first phase of post-independence world where they have been adapted to other period, many self-reinforcing mechanisms such as situations and supplemented with new tools, increasing returns organizational and institutional exported in their turn and so on. Thus international inertia, and adaptive expectations contributed to co-operation is an historical fact. Today, there is still temporal path dependence. in the second phase, a more favourable context because common forest regimes have moved closer to adaptive international issues have been highlighted, such as efficiency. in China, in late fifties and early sixties, habitat conservation programmes, carbon sink the transition from private regime to commune issues, criteria and indicators for sustainable forest system was discontinuous, and was a result of management, ecocertification and labelling, organizational energy similar to change in forest environmental accounting. regimes in India during colonial period. However, continuation of commune system demonstrated the

143 Division 4 Decision making is a complex subject that uses related to the "rules of the game" as reflected in the advanced developments in operations research, various standards applied for sustainability. economic theory, statistics and even computer science. According to this complexity, any co- Pricing Carbon Retention by means of operation is essential to progress, not only Reduced Impact Logging: a Case Study interdisciplinary one but also international one. This from East Malaysia is all the more true that many new methods are John Tay, J.R. Healey and Colin Price nowadays available, that some fundamental School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of economic concepts are not yet quite clear (e.g. Wales, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, UK discount rate value), that risk and uncertainty are Tel: +44-1248-382454 / 382281 / 351098, Fax: +44- involved in the processes under study, that 1248-354997, E-mail: [email protected] environmental considerations have to be integrated Reduced impact logging in tropical countries with economic ones, that biological bases become enhances the local sustainability of forest more and more important in economic models. management. It also significantly reduces the It must be recognised that ecology, on the one hand, amount of carbon volatilised during and after and forest products, on the other hand, concentrate logging. For this reason, it may attract finance most of attentions on them. Conversely, only a few globally as a means of achieving carbon offsets. A researchers work on forest economics in each model of forest regrowth and of necromass country. in such a context, international co- dynamics allows long-term estimation of the impact operation gives the opportunity to gather of different logging systems on both crop complementary approaches on the same subject, to regeneration and on carbon fluxes. Overall, reduced create synergies between researchers, to broader the impact logging had the expected advantages over scope under consideration, to generalise existing conventional logging. However, there were several methods and, in a dynamic perspective, to increase kinds of additional financial outlays. Moreover, the the chance, when a new problem occurs somewhere, reduced volume yield from reduced impact logging to find first features in another country. means that either a large opportunity cost is incurred; or, to achieve a given level of production, Keywords: decision making, quantitative methods, a greater area must be exploited. This spillover economic planning, international co-operation, effect can be incorporated in cost–benefit analyses. forest management. These show that, according to the assumptions made about the appropriate level of analysis and the Sustainable Forest Management Under discount rate adopted, the cost of retaining carbon Conditions of Growing Global Pressure - by reduced impact logging may be much greater, or Challenges for Forest Enterprises from much less than carbon prices which have been International Agreements to Market derived in other ways. Pressures Keywords: pricing carbon retention, reduced impact Roger A. Sedjo logging Resources for the Future, 1616 P Street NW, Washington, D.C., USA Tel: (202) 328 5065, FAX: (202) 939 3460, Email: [email protected] Correspondence address: Colin Price, Prof., School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, This paper briefly describes some of the recent University of Wales, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, changes designed to promote sustainable forest United Kingdom management globally. These changes can have important implications for the types of products that Tel: +44-1248-382454 / 382281, Fax: +44-1248- reach markets, the cost and availability of various 354997, E-mail: [email protected] wood products and, importantly, on the comparative competitive position of various regions and countries. The discussion examines these implications with particular focus on the comparative advantage and the comparitive position of various countries for forest products trade. The role of forest certification and ecolabeling is also discussed. The paper argues that the regions advantaged and disadvantaged are importantly

144 Division 5 Forest Products

Coordinator John A. YOUNGQUIST USDA Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory One Gifford Pinchot Drive Madison Wisconsin 53705-2398, United States of America fax: +1-608-2319265 tel: +1-608-2319398 email: [email protected]

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Division 5

that control the structure of lignin in the cell walls. 5.01.00 Wood quality (4) Ethylene produced in the xylem seems to be a major signal in controlling the initiation, size and The control of cambium activity and spacing of rays. Ethylene also reduces vessel width, wood formation in forest trees promotes tracheid differentiation in the radial Roni Aloni direction and is involved in reaction wood Tel Aviv University, Department of Plant Sciences, formation. 69978 Tel Aviv, Israel FAX: 972-3-6409380, Email: [email protected] Wood Quality Challenges and Prospects The problems to be dealt with concern the biological for the New Millenium control of wood production in forest trees and David J. Cown, Phil Wilcox solutions for improving wood quality and New Zealand Forest Research Institute, PO Box 3020, productivity by hormonal modifications. As the Rotorua, New Zealand vascular tissues are complex, being comprised of Tel: +64 7347 5525, FAX: +64 7347 507, Email: several types of cells, they are induced by a number [email protected] of developmental signals which flow in the axial As the world's natural forest continue to decrease in and radial directions. The hormonal signals control area and production, the role of plantations will the type of differentiating cells, their wall structure inevitably become more important. They will serve and chemical composition. Therefore, understanding to increasingly supply the wood products needs of the nature and biology of the signals is needed for expanding populations and simultaneously reduce improving tree quality and productivity by genetic the need for the harvest of natural forests. The wood modifications. Studies on transgenic plants with characteristics of plantation-grown material cannot altered levels of hormones confirm this general be assumed to be the similar to the same species strategy for improving wood production and quality. from natural forests: factors which can strongly The major signals that control cambial activity and influence physical properties and performance xylogenesis are the following four hormones: auxin, include: cytokinin gibberellin and ethylene. (1) Auxin is the The potential for plantation-grown wood to supplant primary controlling signal involved in all aspects of natural forests is great because there are greater vascular differentiation. The continuity of the options for vascular tissues along the plant axis is a result of the - species selection steady polar flow of auxin from leaves to roots. Low - site and climate level streams of auxin induce phloem in strands and - silvicultural regime phloem anastomoses between the strands, while - genotype selection higher auxin levels induce xylem. Auxin which moves preferably through the cambium controls A large body of research results already exists together with gibberellin, the activity of the comparing the wood properties of plantation and cambium. Auxin also controls the gradual increase natural forests. in some species (eg pines) which in vessel size from leaves to roots. During evolution, exhibit strong juvenile wood characteristics, it is increased sensitivity of the cambium to auxin common to observe a decrease in average quality occurred in limiting environments resulting in the when expressed in terms of properties such as wood development of the specialized ring-porous wood density, fibre length, spiral grain. This is mainly that maximized the efficiency of water conduction. because artificial forests are encouraged to growth The wide earlywood vessels in ring-porous trees are rapidly and are harvested at relatively young ages, induced by low-level streams of auxin at early resulting in a significantly higher proportion of stages of bud development. (2) Cytokinin from the juvenile wood. To counteract these, often negative, roots increases cambium sensitivity to shoot signals effects, silvicultural management enables some and promotes vascular differentiation along the tree operations such initial spacing, thinning and pruning axis. (3) Gibberellin which promotes tracheid and manipulation of felling age to improve general elongation, has become during evolution a specific log quality and uniformity (size, shape, branching). signal for fiber differentiation. From the original Characteristically, the effects of features such as mechanism for tracheid differentiation in conifers, a hidden internal defects, (decay, compression wood) combination of auxin and gibberellin, the signals for are less in managed plantations. each xylem element in angiosperms became specific: auxin by itself induces vessel elements In some parts of the world, plantations have become whereas gibberellin, in the presence of auxin, the dominant form of commercial forestry during induces fibers. Auxin and gibberellin are the factors the past 50 to 100 years, and many lessons have

147 Division 5 been learned along the way. The importance of matching species (and provenances) to available Density and Sapwood Variation of sites is now accepted. There are many examples of Malaysian-Grown Teak outright failures with species which have specific S. C. Lim requirements. A broad trend is apparent: Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong, 1. Species trials and selection of "winners" 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Tel: +603-6342633, FAX: +603-6367753, Email: 2. Development of management schedules to [email protected] maximise growth rates Five trees each of plantation-grown teak in Malaysia 3. Commencement of tree improvement programs ages 8 and 28 years were studied. Discs of 50mm in focused on volume production thickness were cut at 10%, 30%, 50%, 70% and 90% heights of the clear bole. The sapwood 4. Selection and propagation of genotypes yielding thickness was measured at four different positions desirable wood characteristics of a disc and an average sapwood percentage was Wood products manufacturers and end-users are calculated. For the density determination, specimens increasingly seeking uniformity in wood properties were obtained from the same disc at two radial and predicability in performance attributes. We are directions opposite each other with three samples at about to enter an era in which the power of each radius. The volume of sapwood presence was molecular breeding technology will be challenged to fond to be quite substantial in both the 8 years and extend both the range and uniformity of available 28 years old teak. The results of the study also wood properties from plantations. Clonal forestry indicate that three was a slight decrease in the offers some exciting possibilities. sapwood percentage with age. On the variation in density, it was found that the Malaysian-grown teak Mechanical Properties of Acacia was comparable to teak found elsewhere. Age of the mangium planted in Sarawak, Malaysia tree has also been found to have a significant effect Alik Duju, Takashi Nakai on the density of the timber. TRTTC, Forest Department, Sarawak, Km10 Old Airport Road, 93660 Kuching, Malaysia Physical and Anatomical Features of Tel: +60-82-612211, FAX: +60-82-612490, Email: Acacia mangium planted in Sarawak, [email protected] Malaysia Ten trees of 13-year old Acacia mangium were Andrew Tukau Salang, Tomoyuki Fujii sampled and fifty-four small clear specimens were Timber Research and Technical Training Centre, Km. 10, tested. The British Standard (BS 373.1957) method Old Airport Road, 93660 Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia on testing small clear specimens of timber was Tel: 082-612211 (O), FAX: 082-612490 (O), Email: adopted to obtain the strength properties of the [email protected] species. It was found that the mean values of The Acacia mangium is a major species planted in modulus of rupture, modulus of elasticity and the reforestation sites throughout the State of compressive strength tested at green condition were Sarawak. To complement reforestation project, the 86.4 MPa, 10.9 GPa and 36.8 MPa respectively. The economic utilisation of this species must be found in average moisture content was 114 % and their basic order to be sustainable. The utilisation potential density was 0.51 g/cm3. Based on their compressive depends on the properties of the timber. This study strength, the timber was classified under Strength investigated and quantified the physical and Group C by Burgess's grouping. It was revealed that anatomical features of 13-year old Acacia mangium the strength properties and basic density were higher planted in Compartment No. 8401 and 8402 in at outer portion compared to the inner portion of the Sampadi Forest Reserve, Lundu, Kuching, Sarawak. wood. in this study, 12 timber sample discs were collected at DBH and specimens were made from two strips Keywords: Acacia mangium small clear specimens, crossing one another through the pith at 90°. The strength properties and basic density physical features that are important to the utilisation aspect of the timber are the thickness of sapwood, colour and density. The anatomical features that have the greatest influence on wood properties and secondary processing are the vessels parameters (such as vessel grouping and arrangement, diameter, content,

148 Division 5 frequency and vessel element length), and fibre We have studied the changes in tracheid length, cell parameters (such as length, diameter and fibre wall form, lumen diameter and cell wall thickness from thickness). the pith to the bark and at various heights in the stems of Norway spruce with image analysis using The average thickness of the sapwood is 11 mm, thin sections cut by a cryo-microtome. A fast and whitish in colour and the heartwood is slightly pale convenient method is described to analyse the brownish to purplish brown on prolonged exposure. dimensions of tracheids from a thin section. The Average oven-dried density of 469 kg/m3, analysis is based on 2-dimensional fast Fourier substantial variation amongst trees from 419 to 584 transformations. Data created by the model will be kg/m3, higher variation within a tree of 340 kg/m3 at compared with the original data. Cell wall thickness the pith and 585 kg/ m3 at the sapwood, and density will be analysed accurately with the method. increases towards the sapwood. Mostly solitary vessels, multiple vessels common especially The effect of fertilization on wood structure of multiple of 2; average diameter of 200 µm*, Norway spruce is also investigated. Trees (34-years- progressively increases towards the sapwood; 4 old) have been fertilized and irrigated the last 10 vessels/mm2*; evenly distributed. Average vessel years. The structure of the annual rings is compared element length of 332 µm that also increases with samples from control trees without towards the sapwood. The average fibre length is fertilization. in this way we could study how mature 1,073 æm that also increases towards the sapwood. wood structure is affected by increasing diameter Fibre length variation is higher from the pith up to and height growth. According to the preliminary 80 mm radially and variation decreases to constant data, cell length decreases slightly with increasing length towards the sapwood. Preliminary findings diameter growth but tracheid diameter remains showed that fibre diameter and fibre wall thickness unaffected. Tracheid diameter is correlated more do not showed significant increases from the pith to strongly with distance from the pith than with ring sapwood. Preliminary results as some measurements number from the pith. and counting are still not completed and this data will be amended in the paper later. Pulping, Bleaching and Papermaking Characteristics of Some Native Effect of environmental factors on the Sumatran Hardwoods fibre properties of Norway spruce (Picea Yu-Chang Su, I-Chen Wang abies [L.] Karst.) Taiwan Forestry Research Institute, China-Taipeh Pekka Saranpää, H. Mäkinen Email: [email protected] Metla - The Finnish Forest Research Institut, PO Box 18, Thirty-seven native species of Sumatran hardwoods FIN-01301 VANTAA, Finland were collected and analyzed for their chemical Email: [email protected] compositions. Subsquent to kraft pulping, bleaching Wood quality is an important basis for forest and handaheet making, their pulping characteristics industry. While the external features of the trees, were elucidated. Lignin content of the woods ranged e.g. branchiness, straightness of the stem, have from 37.6 to 20.2%, averaging 29.6%; holocellulose received attention from tree breeders, the physical contents were 76.7 to 55.7%, averaging 68.6%; and chemical properties of wood have been less Alcohol-benzene extractive contents ranged widely, studied, except for specific gravity. Until now the from 1 to 18.1%. Pulp yields ranging from 34.7 to pulp and paper industry has examined the physical 51.7% of bone-dry wood at an equivalent kappa properties of the fibres and the chemical number of 20. Pulp yields tended to decrease composition of wood mainly after processing, but slightly with increasing wood densities. Chemical the biological aspects related to wood formation charges also tended to increase with wood density; have not been studied. However, variation e.g. in the but digester efficiency was higher with higher fibre length and cell wall thickness, or the chemical density woods. in terms of pulpability, Diospyros composition of the wood have influence both on the puntielosa and Poyena sp. were the best, while quality and quantity of the end products. The Alphonsea javigata and Palaquium gutta were the variation of fibre properties in pulp could be due worst. A standard regime of C-E-D-E-D bleaching partly to the processing methods to methods of sequence could give all the pulps brightness of 80% forest management, seasonal and environmental ISO or better. PC numbers of the bleached pulps factors, and to the genetic characteristics of the were generally acceptable. Average breaking length, trees. The main cause for the variation of fibre tear index, bursting index and compound strength properties within-tree is the maturation of the index were 6.94 km, 11.6 mN·m2 g-1, 4.97 kpa ·m2 g- cambium (cyclophysis, topophysis). 1, and 8.83, respepctively. Pulp from Artocarpus eluticus had the best strength index, while

149 Division 5 Tetramerista celabra pulp showed the poorest This study shows that a thinning intensity of 3,500 strength index. Bleached pulps showed the same trees/ha or less is required to achieve a significant order of strength ranking for these two species. gain in tree diameter. Furthermore, precommercial thinning of dense balsam fir stands also increases Impact of precommercial thinning on merchantable wood volume and product value at the tree and wood characteristics, Product stand level. Overall, this study suggests that quality and value in Balsam fir precommercial thinning of very dense young balsam Shougong Zhang, Y. Corneau, and G. Chauret fir stands appears to be an effective and viable Chinese academy of forestry, Forintek Canada Corp, 319 silvicultural treatment. It can reduce rotation age by rue Franquet, Sainte-Foy, G1P 4R4 Quebec, Canada up to 10 years. A reduced rotation age will also Tel: 86-10-62884229, FAX: (418)-659 2922, Email: reduce the possible occurrence of rot and decay in [email protected] balsam fir stands. Furthermore, a larger tree Based on a 47-year-old precommercial thinning diameter in thinned stands will reduce harvesting trial, this study examined the response of various and manufacturing costs, and produce larger tree and wood characteristics, product quality and dimension products. Since the difference in stand value in balsam fir to different thinning intensities. value between thinning intensities of 1,000 to 3,500 in 1995 (35-year after precommercial thinning), 150 trees/ha is relatively limited, an appropriate thinning merchantable trees were selected to cover all the intensity to be taken for balsam fir, to a large extent, merchantable diameter classes in the control, depends on what the industry really wants to moderate and heavy thinning plots. Based on the achieve. For the lumber industry, a thinning sample trees, impact of precommercial thinning on a intensity of 2,500-3,000 trees/ha is required to number of parameters was evaluated at the diameter maximize the stand (product) value and to produce class level. Parameters studied include tree quality products. For lumber producers whose major diameter, tree height, tree volume, tree taper, live objectives are to maximize diameter growth and to crown length and width, length of the log without minimize rotation age, a heavier thinning intensity live crown, branch diameter, bark thickness, wood of 1,000-2,000 trees/ha could be considered, but in density, heartwood content, moisture content, log this case product quality may decrease significantly. volume recovery lumber volume recovery, lumber For both pulp/paper industry and panel industry, a grade recovery, lumber dimension recovery, lumber thinning intensity of 2,500-3,000 trees/ha appears to value recovery, lumber strength and stiffness, chip be optimal. volume and value recovery, chip and paper properties, and total value recovery. Furthermore, Occurrence of Pith Flecks in Tropical this study examined the 25- and 35-year response of Timbers of Malaysia selected parameters (e.g., basal area, tree diameter, Ani Sulaiman merchantable volume, product value) at the stand FRIM - Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, level. 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Tel: +603-6342633, FAX: +6036367753, Email: Based on the responses, optimal thinning intensities [email protected] were recommended for specific objectives and for Pith flecks are abnormal parenchymatous tissues different industries. Other important questions (e.g., embedded in the wood as irregular strands and on when to thin balsam fir stands, which stands should longitudinal surface appearing as a streak. Th be thinned) were discussed. affected tissues showed large parenchyma cells with Compared to trees of the same diameter class from random orientation. Pith flecks were formed as a control plots, the trees from thinned plots are result of traumatic conditions during tree growth, generally characterized by a shorter tree height, a which injure the cambium locally. Such xylem larger tree taper, a larger live crown width and formation may be caused by many factors such as branch diameter, a shorter length of the log without mechanical wounding, harsh environmental live crown, a lower tree volume and lumber volume conditions (drought, wind or low temperatures), recovery, and a lower total product value recovery microbial infections or insect attacks. The abnormal per tree. Lumber from trees of the same diameter xylem may vary in structure according to the cause class in heavily thinned plots has a lower recovery and tree species involved. Callus may be formed by for the best grade, and a lower MOE and MOR the proliferation of parenchyma cells adjacent to the value, but moderate thinning has a relatively limited cambial injury and eventually restored the orderly effect on lumber strength and stiffness. On the other divisions of cambial cells. hand, tree and wood characteristics, product quality and value vary remarkably with tree diameter.

150 Division 5

Normal cells on all sides enclose the callus or pith sawmill must be able to predict the strength of the flecks. The size of the callus pocket presumably sawn products before the actual sawing operation. corresponds to the extect of the injury. Malaysian The strength of the sawn products is correlated to timbers showing the presence of pith flecks are density and knottiness. in order to be able to those from the family Aceraceae, Alangiaceae, measure internal properties of saw logs an industrial anacadiaceae, Anonaceae, Apocynaceae, X-ray LogScanner has been developed. Simulations Aquifoliaceae, Bombacaceae, Burseaceae, have shown that this scanner can measure variables Combretaceae, Casuarinaceae, Celasstraceae, that would be possible to use for prediction of the Polygalaceae, Rosaceae, Sapindaceae, Sapotaceae, strength of the sawn products, e.g. knot volume and Sterculiaceae, Theaceae and Thymetlaceae. green density. Hence, the aim of the study was to 5.02.00 Timber engineering investigate the possibility of predicting the strength of centerboards from Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) saw logs, based on simulated X-ray Analysis and classification of acoustic LogScanner measurements. emission waveform Shih-Hao Lee The study was based on eight logs. Two fast grown Chi-Yi Institue of Technology, The Department of Forest and two slow grown logs from northern Sweden and Products Industry, 600 University Road, 600 Chi-Yi, two fast grown and two slow grown logs from Taiwan, R.O.C. southern Sweden. After CT-scanning, four Tel: 886 5 2717510, FAX: 886 5 2717497, Email: centerboards were sawn from each log and the [email protected] modulus of elasticity and the bending strength of the Keywords: Fracture; Acoustic emission; Signal boards were measured. The CT-images were used processing; Cluster analysis; Classification for simulations of the industrial X-ray LogScanner resulting in simulated measurements of knot volume Detection of AE (acoustic emission) from failure of and the green density of heart and sapwood. Finally wood is becoming more important as wooden frame multivariate models were calibrated using PLS- houses grow rapidly in Taiwan. AE is released regression. These models predict the bending energy from micro or macro fracture of material. To strength and modulus of elasticity based on the classify the relationship between wood fracture and variables measured by the X-ray LogScanner. Both AE, AE signals were recorded during the bending bending strength and modulus of elasticity were test of red oak and their features of AE were defined as the mean value of the four boards from extracted and analyzed. The event rate feature might each log. be excellent indicator of loading phase. Features in time and frequency were selected for classification. The results were very promising with strong models Cluster analysis showed that AE signals could be for prediction of both bending strength (R2=0.73) successfully classified. Each class might be and modulus of elasticity (R2=0.77). The results associated with individual fracture source from fiber also showed that the measured variation of knot breakage, debundling, debonding and matrix volume between different parts of the log explains cracking. some of the difference in strength between different centerboards from the same log (R2=0.41). Predicting the strength of sawn The study is based on a very small material with a products based on X-ray scanning of number of special properties. The fact that the logs logs are of approximately the same dimension and that Johan Oja, Stig Grundberg, Anders Grönlund all logs have relatively large amount of heartwood Lulea University of Technology, Skelleftea Campus, probably makes the predictions better compared to a SKERIA 3, S-931 87 Skelleftea, Sweden larger and less homogenous material On the other Tel: +46 910 585373, FAX: +46 910 585399, Email: hand the large logs have other properties, e.g. large [email protected] pith shakes and four boards from each log, that The successful running of a sawmill is dependent on make it more difficult to predict the strength of the its ability to achieve the highest possible value boards. recovery from the saw logs. Today many sawmills are increasing the amount of customer adapted products. One such trend is that strength graded lumber is becoming more common. When sawing lumber for strength grading in special dimensions it is very important to select the right logs, i.e. the

151 Division 5 constant relative humidity (RH) and/or temperature. White Spruce behavior during However, LVL is a layered structural wood compression perpendicular to grain composite made of veneers which are biological Taghi Tabarsa, Y.H. Chui materials and hygrothermal-elastic in nature. University of New Brunswick, Faculty of Forestry & Obviously the large fluctuation of RH and Environmental Management, E3B 6 C2 Fredericton, NB, temperature in our living environment will have Canada some weakening effect on LVL's structural Tel: (506) 453 - 4501, FAX: (506) 453 - 3538, Email: performance but such information is very limited. [email protected] Thus, experiment of long-term exposure of LVL in The intention of this study was to provide an open-shed environment will provide useful advanced understanding of wood behaviour during information for wood composite industries to transverse compression at ambient and elevated improve LVL's manufacturing design as well as for temperatures. in addition the feasibility of a Timber Engineers to better design structures that are mechanical based model for predicting wood using LVLs as components. behaviour in transverse compression based on cell geometry and cell wall properties was examined. A In this study, the effects of open-shed environment new test procedure and apparatus were developed. on the edgewise bending properties of LVL were investigated. Three types of 13-ply LVL were This study was carried in two phases: in phase one, fabricated with southern pine veneers of B, C, and D specimens of white spruce were subjected to grades and liquid phenolic formaldehyde and their compression tests under microscope at room layups were: LV L-1: all B grade veneer; LVL-2: temperature at three levels of magnifications (low, two plies of B grade veneer on both faces and all C medium, and high). Wood behaviour at different grade veneer in the core plies; and LVL-3: all D levels such as: gross behaviour (specimen grade veneer. The dimension of specimens was 3.8 possessing several annual rings), one annual ring, cm (thick) x 8.9 cm (deep) x 244 cm (long). Twenty early-wood, late-wood, cell wall deformation, and five randomly selected specimens in each LVL type mechanism of failure (collapse) was characterized. were edgewise bending tested after being exposed in addition load-deformation data was collected under the open-shed environments for one and two during compression tests under microscope at low years. and medium magnification. Geometry of all cells located in one annual ring subjected to compression Air temperature, as hot as 37.8 C (100 F) and as test was measured. Cell wall properties (modulus of cold as -9.4 C (15 F), under the open-shed roof was elasticity and yield point) was determined based on recorded. The highest temperature recorded on the transverse compression test results and average cell inner surface of open-shed roof was 52.2 C (126 F) geometry of same annual rings. The validity of while average values of 43.9 C (111 F) and 37.2 C findings of this study was approved during (99 F) were recorded respectively on the top and verification tests. The second phase of this study is bottom specimens in the LVL pile when the air in process, during this phase the effect of temperature was 37.8 C (100 F). During a year, temperature on cell wall properties will be many high RH (90-98%) days were observed while investigated. The results of this study will provide lowest RH recorded was 23%. Testing results from valuable benefits for modelling applications. previous studies indicated that structural performance of southern pine LVL was affected by Effect of Open-Shed Environment on the the veneer grade and MOR values: 77.44 MPa, 72.30 MPa and 51.13 MPa and MOEs: 14.64 GPa, Edgewise Bending Properties of 14.25 GPa and 11.56 GPa, for groups of LVL-1, Laminated Veneer Lumber LVL-2 and LVL-3, respectively, evaluated under R. C. Tang, J. H. Pu, J. N. Lee constant 65% RH and 23.9 (75 F) were used as Auburn University, School of Forestry, USA FAX: +334-844-4221, Email: [email protected] controls for comparison in this study. After 1-year open-shed exposure, 8.9%, 13.0% and 4.9% In recent years, Laminated veneer lumber (LVL) reduction in MORs were observed respectively in members have been popularly used in the light- and LVL-1, LVL-2 and LVL-3 and further reductions, medium-frame of building constructions as headers, 11.4%, 13.7% and 15.3% were recorded in the joists or flanges in I-beams because of its high specimens subjected to 2-year open-shed exposure. strength and uniform stiffness and they can be The reduction of MOEs for these LVLs after 1-year fabricated in unlimited lengths and/or sizes. At open-shed exposure was insignificant, and however, present, most experimental works concerning the 6.6%, 16.8% and 13.1% reductions were observed structural performance of LVL are conducted under in the members after subjected to 2-year exposure.

152 Division 5

Thus, tests of longer open-shed exposure of LVLs may be needed for the development of models for Leaching Characteristics of Water Borne accurately predicting the degradation rate of MOE Preservatives According to Tree and MOR due to the long-term open-shed Species environmental exposure. Ayben Kilic, Hasan Vurdu, Hikmet Yazici Keywords: Laminated Veneer Lumber, Southern Zonguldak Karaelmas University, Faculty of Forestry, Pine, Bending Strength, Bending Stiffness, Open- 74100 Bartin, Turkey Shed Environment. FAX: +90.0378.2277421, Email: Mehmet Sabaz [[email protected]] 5.03.00 Protection of Wood from decay and In this study, leaching degrees of four different tree fire species impregnated with Tanalith C-S a waterborne preservative were determined. The Effect of Borate Preservatives on Scotch pine, Fir, Beech and Chestnut were Preventing Decay of some Wood impregnated by 3 % Tanalith C-S. Wood samples Species Used in Egypt were prepared in three different dimensions as Hussein Ibrahim Mahmoud Aly, I.E.A. Kherallah, M. 50x25x15, 30x20x10 and 10x10x10 mm. Using Abou El-Seoud and A.S.O. Mohareb thirteen different methods leaching degrees of wood Alexandria University, Forestry and Wood Technology Dept., Alexandria, Egypt samples were determined. FAX: 00203-5446914, Email: [email protected] Results showed that, among four tree species the This investigation was carried out to study the effect highest leaching was found in Scotch pine. Leaching of boric acid and borax against wood decay fungi. It was found to decrease in the order of Fir, Chestnut also aimed to study the penetration and retention of and Beech respectively. When comparing the effect borate in selected woods. The fungus species, which of dimension, it was found that there is a linear showed serious affect on poplar wood, were relation between leaching and sample dimensions. Schizophyllum commune Fr. and Trichoderma viride The eluted preservative increased by the increase of (Fr.) Pers. The EC50 values were varied according sample dimension. Highest leaching occurred in to preservatives and fungi types. Wide effect of 50x25x15 mm. boron compounds against the two species of fungi was detected. Application of Electron Microscopy in Wood Protection Research The results indicated that the ability of boron Adya P. Singh, B.S. Dawson and A.H.H. Wong penetration in selected wood species was New Zealand Forest Research Institute Limited, Private significantly increased by increasing the wood Bag 3020, Rotorua, New Zealand moisture content. The mean values of penetration in Tel: +67-7-347-5889, FAX: +64-7-347-9380, Email: poplar wood were 5.95 mm and 15.32 mm at 12% [email protected] and 80% MC, respectively. On the other hand, Keywords Electron microscopy, Wood boron retention in seasoned poplar wood was higher biodegradation, Wood protection, Preservative than that of the poplar wood of 80% MC in outer penetration, Coating penetration layers. For decades electron microscopy has played a Also, there were significant differences between the crucial role in understanding the process of wood retention of boron in Casuarina glauca at 12% and formation and has helped unravel those factors and 40% MC. This study is considered the first processes affecting the utilization of wood. A investigation in the wood preservatives field of notable example of the extensive application of imported wood species in Egypt. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Keywords: boric acid, borax, penetration, retention, Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) in wood Casuarina glauca . processing is in the field of wood protection research, in particular, wood preservation. Extending the service life of wood requires effective protection of wood from the factors which adversely affect its performance. The methods of protection with wood preservatives and other wood protecting chemicals (including coating materials) vary depending upon the environmental conditions to which wood is exposed. Optimization of the performance of these wood protectants depends on

153 Division 5 detailed knowledge of the mode of interactions and smoke development of materials. Research in between these chemicals, the wood substrate and this area includes a study on the fire performance of their target degrading organisms. Such hardwood plywoods. ultrastructural studies have made significant in- Fire containment is mainly the fire resistance or fire roads in understanding the fundamentals of endurance of structural members and assemblies to deterioration in a selection of important tropical and contain a post-flashover fire. Unlike the tests for fire temperate wood species by specialized wood- growth, the test for fire resistance of members and degrading bacteria and fungi. For example such assemblies has remained essentially the same studies have helped confirm the high preservative or throughout the world. The fire endurance of wood wood extractive tolerance of wood-degrading members often depends on the charring rate of the bacteria and specific rot fungi attacking certain wood. The charring rate of wood has been preservative treated and naturally durable timbers, extensively researched. Recently, the charring rates respectively. Indeed a thorough understanding of of composite lumber products of both softwood and wood degradation factors, assisted in part by hardwood species have been investigated. advances in EM, has helped advance the field of wood protection research overall. Examples of the Like most wood properties, fire performance use of electron microscopy in the research work properties are affected by density, moisture content, related to these areas will be presented, including and chemical composition. The high densities of studies on wood biodegradation and patterns of many hardwoods contribute to relatively low flame penetration and distribution of preservatives, spread indexes and slow charring rates. However, protective coatings and other wood protection and the low lignin content of the hardwood species property enhancing substances. reduces the residual char content which results in higher flame spread index and faster charring rates. Fire Performance of Hardwood Species Fire retardant treatments can be used to increase the Robert H. White residual char content. The limited extractive USDA, Forest Products Laboratory, One Gifford Pinchot contents of hardwood species contribute to reduced Dr., WI 53705-2398 Madison, USA flame spread and heat release. Tel: 1-608-231-9265, FAX: 1-608-231-9508, Email: rwhite/[email protected] Wood protection of six U.S. species by In this era of performance-based building codes, NHA: the wood anatomical perspective there is an increased need for models and data of fungal decay pertaining to the fire safety of building materials. in Alex C. Wiedenhoeft, Regis B. Miller, Willy Stockman, addition to data for the prescriptive regulatory fire and Frederick Green III tests, material property data are needed to optimize USDA, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, One the advantages of the performance-based building Gifford Pinchot Drive, WI 53705-2398 Madison, USA codes that are being introduced worldwide. in this Tel: 608-231-9200, FAX: 608-231-9592, Email: review of our research on the fire performance [email protected] characteristics and fire safety engineering of wood Progress in understanding the mechanisms of wood products, we will present results on the fire decay has not resulted in concomitant improvements performance of hardwood species. Two broad areas in protection of wood from decay. Most wood of fire safety engineering of materials are (1) Fire preservatives fail to target decay-specific processes, initiation and growth, and (2) Fire containment. but rather are broad-spectrum biocides. in part, this Fire initiation and growth include ignition, the failure comes from a lack of understanding of wood spread of flames, and fire growth to flashover itself, how wood preservatives bind to and interact conditions. The introductions of heat release with wood, and the steps fungi must use to colonize calorimeters in the 1980's reflect the changes from wood in order to destroy it. older prescriptive fire tests to tests that produce data Sapwood of six U.S. species with different pit types suitable for fire safety engineering analysis. With were selected: spruce (Picea sp.), red pine (Pinus information on ignition characteristics and heat resinosa), western red cedar (Thuja plicata), release rates, it is increasingly possible to model the northern white-cedar (Thuja occidentalis), yellow spread of flame over a material and the fire growth birch (Betula alleghaniensis), and poplar (Populus in a room. The best known of the heat release sp.). Blocks were cut into 19 mm cubes and then calorimeter is the cone calorimeter. The worldwide were vacuum treated with a 1% aqueous solution of use of the cone calorimeter has increased the the calcium precipitating agent N- availability of information on ignition, heat release napthaloylhydroxylamine (NHA). Half the treated

154 Division 5 samples were leached for two weeks in daily studied. Despite this failure to prevent colonization, changes of distilled water, untreated control blocks NHA did decrease the weight loss caused by these were added, and then all blocks were subjected to a decay fungi. modified ASTM D-2017-81 standard soil-bottle test. Current experiments examining the potential Three bottles were prepared for each treatment cytotoxic properties of NHA are incomplete, but (leached, unleached, and untreated, per fungus, per suggest that NHA protects wood in part by wood species) with two blocks per bottle. Four inhibiting normal cellular processes in fungi were used: the brown-rotters MAD 698 Postia basidiomycete fungi, rather than targeting wood placenta, MAD 6137 Tyromyces palustris, MAD decay mechanisms as expected. Localizing the 617 Gloeophyllum trabeum, and the white-rotter preservative to the pit membranes is nonetheless an MAD 697 Trametes versicolor. One block of each elegant delivery system perhaps fungi, which treatment was removed at four weeks and another at typically seek the pits to pass from cell to cell, eight weeks and was sectioned for light microscopic encounter locally high concentrations of a toxic evaluation of colonization progress. At twelve substance and are partially thwarted. weeks, the remaining four blocks were ovendried and weight losses were calculated. Common Problems of Inadequate Anatomical observations were broken into two Treatment of Mixed Species of categories; comparisons among the softwoods and Peninsular Malaysian Hardwoods with comparisons among the hardwoods. Four softwoods Copper-Chrome-Arsenic Preservatives were chosen to represent variations in specific and general features. Spruce and red pine both have for Structural Use A. H. H. Wong, S.C. Lim, K.H. Henriksen, K.T. Choo, S. axial and radial resin canals and ray tracheids, but Salamayh, and J. Mohd. Dahlan red pine has large fenestriform cross-field pits and Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong, spruce has small piceoid cross-field pits. Northen 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia white-cedar and western red cedar are softwoods Tel: +60-3-6342633, FAX: +60-3-6367753, Email: that lack resin canals but have taxodioid cross-field [email protected] pits. These pits are smaller than those of red pine, Industrial timber preservation has had a long history but larger than those of spruce. Furthermore, of development in Malaysia, virtually from the time northern white-cedar is known to have a when the nation's sawmill industry developed from differentiated torus in the circular bordered pits, about the beginning of the twentieth century. Wood whereas western red cedar lacks a well- preservation research in Malaysia began in 1918 differentiated torus. with research activities focusing treatment of The hardwoods were chosen because they are Malaysian hardwoods of quality strength and diffuse-porous woods with similarly sized vessels permeability with oily creosote for use as railway- and little axial parenchyma. Birch has scalariform sleepers and in ground-contact. Performance of such perforation plates while poplar has simple plates, wood products was gauged from numerous wood but the spaces between bars are ample for hyphae to durability field trials conducted by The Forest pass through with ease. The major differences Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) particularly between these woods are in the nature of the pitting; through the 1930's and 1950's. From these trials birch has minute intervessel and ray-vessel pits commercial hardwoods of high strength group and whereas poplar has large intervessel pits and large, permeability with preservatives were identified apart simple ray-vessel pits. from the durable woods, and many of these woods are members of the Dipterocarp species. >From the With the exception of Tyromyces palustris, which 1960's the water-borne Copper-Chrome-Arsenic caused an average of 25% weight loss in both (CCA) gradually replaced creosote for both unleached and leached samples, the fungi caused economical and environmental reasons, with the generally less than 10% weight loss in unleached introduction of the Bethell process in the country. NHA-treated blocks, and roughly 13% weight-loss Through much of the 1980's and 1990's, shortfall in in leached blocks. The untreated blocks showed an quantities of commercial logs has led to the wider average of more than 45% weight loss. By light treatment of lesser used species conveniently microscopy, differences in the degree of grouped as the mixed hardwoods with a mixed of colonization and visible damage to the wood dense and light material and preservative between untreated, leached, and unleached blocks permeability. The wider use of competing materials were evident at both four weeks and eight weeks. made of concrete and galvanized irons from the late The anatomical observations indicated that NHA did 1980's have replaced treated wood for ground- not prevent colonization of any of the woods contact applications. Currently practically all CCA

155 Division 5 treated hardwoods in Peninsular Malaysia are used in the building industry for roof and ceiling 5.04.00 Wood processing into the next construction (roof rafters, purlins and battens), and millenium (I) essentially for above-ground contact. Control of quality of sawn wood in the Occurrences of inadequate treatment of such wood products with CCA in the building industry are not state of Paraná, Brazil Martha Andreia Brand, Danièlle Previdi Olandoski recent, being a major factor prompting the Universidade Federal do Paraná - FUPEF - Rua Bom preference for alternative construction materials for Jesus, 650 - Juvevê - 80.035-010 - Curitiba - PR - Brazil ground-contact use since the 1980's. Due to Tel: (5541) 352.2443, Fax: (5541) 253.2332; E-mail: changing availability of wood resources, an [email protected] increased utilization of lesser used mixed hardwoods with a dearth of research on their wood Palabra clave: Calidad de madera asserada, Paraná, properties and inadequate appreciation of correct Brasil. industrial wood treatment or pre-treatment Las ventajes del control de calidad en el sector conditions, are among the common problems in the maderero son obvias, pero en Brasil el es solamente production of quality CCA treated wood. praticado en las maderas aserradas destinadas para Inadequate treatment of hardwoods with CCA is exportación. Asi es que se percibe la necesidad de also attributed to the lack of a regulated wood realizar trabajos de investigación con el objetivo del treatment industry, despite the existence of official control de calidad en la industria maderera en national standards on wood preservation in general, y principalmente en aserraderos, donde el Malaysia. Inadequacies of certain specifications of problema es mayor, con un gran desperdicio de CCA treated wood in these national standards and matéria prima y generando mayores costos de building by-laws also need to be redressed.. The producción. inevitable abuses of preservative treatment with El trabajo desarrollado en el Centro de Estaciones CCA, in the midst of a price- (versus quality-) Experimentales de Cangüiri, de la Universidad competitive domestic market for CCA treated Federal de Paraná, localizadado en la región products has prompted action for improvement in metropolitana de Curitiba, Paraná, tuvo como wood treatment. This paper highlights the wide objetivo principal la determinación de calidad de la range of mixed species Malaysian hardwoods used madera aserrada de 60 rollizos de Pinus spp, por el in the building industry and their relative método de clasificación por defectos. permeability to CCA preservatives, wood durability Los rollizos fueron clasificadas en 6 clases segun la or strength groupings, examples of poor pre- longitud y la distribuición diamétrica, con 10 treatment timber conditions, adoption of inadequate rollizos en cada clase. Estos rollizos fuerón Bethell process treatment schedules, and examples aserrados en sierra sinfin ancha para retirar los of inadequate preservative penetration and retention costaneros, sierra circular para retirar recortes y versus that for for well treated mixed hardwoods. A sierra circular pendular para despuntes. Fue summary outline of a national quality control realizada la clasificación visual cualitatiba de las system for CCA treated Malaysian hardwoods is tablas, antes de secar, con base en las normas TB proposed to overcome production of CCA treated 397, NB 1381, PB 1560, CB 205 e EB 2169, wood which does not meet the required preservative elaboradas por la ABNT (Asociación Brasileña de retention for protection against a termite and decay Normas Técnicas) para clasificación de madera hazard in the country. aserrada de coníferas provenientes de rreforestación para uso general, adecuadas por las investigadoras. La calidad de las tablas fue evaluada segun 4 clases: en la 1a clase ausencia de bolsas de resina y médula y el número y gravedad de los defectos deberia ser menor en relación a las clases posteriores. En la 2a clase podria presentar médula en menos de la mitad del espesor y menos de 1/3 de la longitud de la tabla, diferencia entre una extrenidad y otra de la tabla en espesor deberia estar entre 0,2 cm e 0,5 cm y la diferencia de ancha entre las extrenidades de la tablas entre 0,2 cm y 0,5 cm. La 3a clase fue dividida en dos sub-clases A y B, siendo que na sub-

156 Division 5 clase 3A a diferença de espessura y largura entre Development (DANCED) and executed by Forest uma extremidade y otra da tablas deveria ser mayor Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) since October que 0,5 cm, con corteza ocupando menos de ¼ do 1996 and ended on October 1998. Under the project longitud de un o ambos lados de la tablas. La sub- there were three main activities viz. 1) clean clase 3B deberia tener las mismas especificaciones technology, 2) waste management, and 3) de la sub-clase A, pero con corteza ocupando mas occupational health and safety. It was under the de ¼ de la longitud de un o ambos lados de las third activity that a workplace improvement tablas. program was adopted and introduced to two groups of furniture companies in assisting them to identity Después de la clasificación, el nível de calidad fue and implement areas of possible improvements. The através de la observación del mayor número de program is based on the Workplace Improvements tablas en determinada clase. Do total de 193 tablas in Small Enterprises (WISE) methodology analizadas, 38 tablas pertenecierón a la 1º clase developed by the International Labour Office. It (19,69% del total), 26 a la 2º (13,47%), 105 a la 3ºA aims to demonstrate to entrepreneurs and workers (54,40%) y 24 a la 3ºB (12,44%). that better working conditions can result in higher La evaluación de los resultados mostró claramenta productivity and improvements in quality of work. la falta de calidad de la matéria-prima y del proceso For example, simple measures such as the regular de aserrado convencional en aserrraderos de cleaning of the work area and machines, improved pequeño porte, pues mas de 50% de las tablas lighting or proper storage of materials, can reduce fueron clasificadas como de 3a clase. La inferioridad work hazards while upgrading efficiency. Well de calidad puede ser atribuída a los equipamientos y designed equipment and organisational a las técnicas utilizados, además del poco improvements can increase the efficiency, entrenamiento de los operadores. motivation and capability of employees, while Se sugiere la utilización de equipamientos y técnicas reducing fatigue, strain, absenteeism, and labour mas modernas, uso de sierras com dientes menos turnover. gruesos y equipamientos com menores desvios de Activities in the program are oriented in according corte, realización de manutención preventiba y with the concept of learning by doing and the adecuada de los equipamientos de las sierras, participation of participants are greatly encouraged aserrado de los rollizos con mayores diámetros y through trained facilitators. These activities are longitudes, siendo estos de mejor calidad. outlined and described in this paper. These include visiting participating companies by the program Workplace improvement program for the facilitators, workshops to present technical subjects furniture industry in Malaysia and ideas, and two intermediate periods for K. S. Ho preparing action plans and implementing proposed FRIM, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia improvements. All these activities were spanned Tel: 603-6342633, FAX: 603-6367753, Email: over a period of one month. Follow-up workshops [email protected] were carried out in 5 - 6 months' time after the The furniture industry in Malaysia has played an completion of the above activities as a mean to important role in the country's economic growth. monitor the progress of the participants in relation to The growth in furniture export is very impressive the implementation of improvements and to provide from RM 171 million in 1989 to over RM 2.8 any technical assistance as needed. billion in 1997. There are over 2000 furniture Achievements of the program were highlighted manufacturers in Malaysia, of which over 200 based on the results from the two groups of manufacturers are engaged in the export of furniture companies. These are supported with statistics on and the remaining are small- and medium- sized the planned improvements and also on the enterprises. Being small- and medium- sized improvements that were fully implemented. entrepreneurs, they are very busy looking after Examples of improvements are selected to illustrate problems of finance, production and marketing the situations before and after implementation. giving them very little time to spare for improving These cover areas on material storage and handling, environment of workplace, operational safety and work station design, lighting, productive machine efficiency, motivation and efficiency of workers and safety, control of hazardous substances, welfare their welfare. facilities, work organization, ventilation and A project entitled "Environmental improvements in premises. A reasonable balance between the the wood processing industry" had been funded by productivity and occupational health and safety side Danish Cooperation for Environment and of the implemented and the planned improvements can be seen from the results of the WISE program.

157 Division 5 surface checking and cell collapse can be studied CT-scanning during drying simultaneously. Tom Morén, Pär Wiberg The conclusions for soft wood of pine and spruce Luleå University of Technology, SE-931 87 Skellefteå, are Sweden Tel: +46 910 585300, FAX: +46 910 58 53 99, Email: - A receding evaporating front develops in green sap [email protected] wood creating a thin dry shell between the surface and the evaporating front Wood drying has been studied for several years on a - The resistance to water flux within green sap wood more fundamental level, as well as in more applied is little as long as there is capillary contact in the projects often in co-operation with the wood wet portion of the wood working industries. in such projects the objective - The heat- and mass transfer flux between the has often been either to develop fundamental ambient air and the evaporating front controls the mathematical models for the moisture migration drying rate during the capillary regime of drying within the wood during drying, or on an applied - Since heat- and mass transfer controls the drying level, to optimise and construct drying schedules for process in the capillary regime, industrial kiln dryers different wood species and plank dimensions. can be constructed for much higher power input A serious drawback in such cases is often the lack of than what is normally the case today. The drying reliable experimental techniques for verifying time can thus be dramatically shortened for sap moisture migration models by in situ measurements wood planks without causing damage to the wood. of the moisture redistribution. Such techniques should ideally be non-destructive in order not to Sawing characteristics and mechanical disturb the drying process. The development of strength properties of branchwood of medical CT-scanning technology has made it Aningeria robusta and Terminalia possible to make high-resolution X-ray images ivorensis where the X-ray attenuation is converted to a Reynolds Okai, Abubakar I. Mohammed density image by image processing of for instance a Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, University P. O. cross section of wet wood, or even more interesting, Box 63, Kumasi, Ghana wet wood during drying. Tel: 233-51-60123, FAX: 233-51-60121, Email: [email protected] Green wood contains a lot of water; often the weight of the water is more than the weight of the dry wood Keywords: Branchwood; Sawing characteristics; substance. Most of this water is capillary bound in Lumber yield; Specific gravity; Strength properties the sap wood portions of a plank, while In Ghana, it is estimated that for every tree felled, approximately 30% of the moisture content is bound nearly 50% of the tree volume are left in the forest in the cell walls by hydrogen bonding. The moisture in the form of branches and stumps. To ensure that migration mechanisms are quite different for these timber harvest can be sustained into the future, there phases: The bound water moves mainly with the is the need to utilise a greater proportion of the total vapour partial pressure acting as the major driving tree volume. in this regard, sawing characteristics force, while the capillary water migrates from and mechanical strength properties of branchwood interior to the surface driven by capillary forces. of Aningeria robusta and Terminalia ivorensis were If free water is present in the sapwood, the density determined to clarify the suitability of branchwood will be affected in a significant way. This fact as raw material for downstream processing at the makes it possible to use CT-scanning for wood industries. Sawing tests were then conducted determining the decrease of density caused by for on branchwood of Aningeria robusta and instance air circulation or micro-wave drying of a Terminalia ivorensis. The log length was 2 m and its piece of wood. The X-ray attenuation values are diameter ranges from 10 cm to 25 cm. The machine then transformed into density levels, which in turn used for the log breakdown is a horizontal mobile can be visualised by adopting image processing bandmill. The saw blade (spring set) had the which correlates colours to density levels. following dimensions: tooth pitch 22 mm, width 30 mm, kerf 1.6 mm, gullet depth 5 mm. The logs were Using such CT-scanning technique during drying grouped into four diameter classes and sawn into experiments of green wood, we have been able to boards of dimensions 25 mm ? 75 mm using live show some significant phenomenon that are of and cant sawing patterns. The surfaces of the sawn major interest for modelling moisture transport in lumber were examined for woolly or fuzzy grain, sap wood as well as to reaching a phenomenological knot, pinworm holes and washboards. They were understanding of the process. Also, the formation of then graded into first and second grade boards. It

158 Division 5 was observed that washboards were induced on Plasma and corona treatments of wood: some of the boards from Terminalia ivorensis. modification of surface properties There was absence of woolly or fuzzy grain on all Laurence Podgorski, F. Schambourg, Bruno Chevet, the boards from Aningeria robusta and Terminalia Ludivine Onic, Andre Merlin ivorensis. The mean lumber value yields for first CTBA Technical Center for Wood and Furniture, All‚e grade boards from Aningeria robusta and de Boutaut BP 227, 33028 Bordeaux Cedex, France Terminalia ivorensis were 25% and 20% FAX: +33.556436486, Email: respectively, and the mean lumber volume yield was [email protected] 40% for Aningeria robusta and 32% for Terminalia The durability of an outdoor wood-coating system is ivorensis. Within each diameter class there were no low, especially when the coating is a stain. The most significant differences in lumber yield between live important degradations come from the dimensional and cant sawing patterns. However, significant variations of wood which strain the coating and lead differences in lumber yield exist between some of to its cracking. Thus the service life of a wood the diameter classes. coating system can be increased through different The bending strength, modulus of elasticity, routes: compressive strength, tensile strength and shear - improvement of the coating flexibility: it can be strength of small clear test specimens of standard obtained by decreasing the glass transition dimensions from branchwood of Aningeria robusta temperature (Tg) below the temperature of use. But and Terminalia ivorensis were determined. in in this case the coating is more sensitive to water. addition, the moisture contents and nominal specific gravity were also determined. The results of this -dimensional stabilization of wood: thermal and study indicate that branchwood of Aningeria chemical treatments (acetylation) are efficient but robusta and Terminalia ivorensis were more most of them decrease the wettability of the wood hygroscopic, that is, their green moisture contents surface and therefore the adhesion of the coating is based on the oven dry weight were higher than that no more guarantee Surface treatments are of their corresponding stemwood. It was observed convenient either to improve wettability and that the moisture content has an influence on the therefore coating adhesion or to decrease wettability strength properties. in particular, as the moisture in order to provide an extra protection. content increased, the strength properties decreased That is why plasma and corona treatments have and above the fibre saturation point the strength been applied to wood in two ways: properties of branchwood did not further decrease -the first one consists in improving the wettability of but remained constant. It was also observed that the wood surface to increase the coating adhesion nominal specific gravity of branchwood was higher especially after a thermal treatment. First than the nominal specific gravity of the experiments consisted in selecting treatment corresponding stemwood. The specific gravity of parameters (type of gas, treatment duration, power) the heartwood from a branchwood was higher than leading to better surface characteristics of wood, the specific gravity of the sapwood whereas for before and after thermal treatments. Plasma and stemwood the reverse occurred, that is, the specific corona treatments are effective to improve the gravity of the sapwood was higher than the specific wettabilty of wood but no improvement of the gravity of the heartwood. Statistically, there were no coating adhesion has been observed. significant differences between specific gravity of branchwood and stemwood. This indicates that the -the second one consists in decreasing the branches used for the study are not reaction wood or wettability so that the surface becomes waterproof. tension wood. The strength properties of the Some tests have been performed to deposit thin branchwood were slightly less than the strength films (based on ethylene or flourine) by plasma or properties of the corresponding stemwood. Within corona treatments. This kind of deposits can be species, there were no significant differences considered either on bare wood or on coated wood between strength properties of branchwood and with a low Tg stain, that is to say a stain whose stemwood. However, there were significant sensitivity against water will be solved thanks to this differences in strength properties between species. kind of films. This is the aim of an on-going Branchwood of Aningeria robusta exhibited the research programme. highest strength properties. Judging from the results obtained for lumber yield and strength properties, it is satisfactory to use branchwood of Aningeria robusta and Terminalia ivorensis as raw material for downstream processing.

159 Division 5 Most timber is harvested in natural forest stands, New Opportunities in Forestry for the where wood quality characteristics are more varied Woodworking Industry in the Russian in comparison to planted stands. The level of wood Federation quality on a volume basis can be determined by Irina Rykunina three different quality characteristics: knot-free Moscow State University of Forest, Institutskaya-1, timber, timber with sound knots, and timber with 141005 Mytischi, Russia unsound knot. These quality characteristics are not Tel: +7 095 588 52 21, FAX: +7 095 586 80 12; 7 095 taken into consideration in the present inventory 586 91 34, Email: [email protected] system. New methods are needed to evaluate timber Since financing for forest operations is presently quality to meet the specific needs of the saw mill. limited and only 25 percent of the allowable cut is Keywords: quality, forest inventory, sawmills, harvested, forestry in the Russian Federation should economics be more oriented to demands from industry. More than half of the timber harvested in Russia is 5.04.00 Wood processing into the next directed to saw mills. Large-scale saw mills millennium. II profitably produce chips, but the chip production at small saw mills is not always profitable. Performance of Coated Carbide Tools in Possibilities to increase the chip production are not Cutting Wood-Based Materials (The realistic in the near future because of large Effect of Coating Materials and Cutting investments needed for the further stages of the Speeds on the Wear, Noise and Forces production process. So the main customers for Characteristics of the Coated Carbide timber from the forests are saw mills and Tools) woodworking enterprises. The number of small saw Wayan Darmawan, Chiaki Tanaka, Hiroshi Usuki, mills (which produce less than 10 thousand cubic Tadashi Ohtani, Kiminori Sato meters of lumber per year) is increasing. Shimane University, Department of Natural Resources, For these smaller mills, it is critical that the quality Nishikawatsu 1060, 690-8504 Matsue, Shimane, Japan of raw materials should be strictly determined. The Tel: +81-852-32-6562, FAX: +81-852-32-6598, Email: present study was conducted to find some [email protected] opportunities for the Russian forestry and Keywords: coated carbide tool; tool wear; cutting woodworking industry to work more efficiently speed; turning; wood-chip cement board under current economic conditions. Introduction Information was obtained from interviews with managers of saw mills, woodworking and forestry Machining wood-based materials such as enterprises. For one woodworking enterprise, an particleboard or wood-chip cement board causes analysis for profit maximization was done with the cutting tools to wear out much faster than machining help of linear programming methods. solid wood. Rapid dulling of cutting edge of steel router bit, saw teeth, or other cutting tolls when Presently, the importance of wood quality by saw machining particleboard is well-known occurrence. mills and woodworking enterprises has not been Furthermore, the use of tungsten carbide tool, which stressed. Many forest management approaches, is widely used in the wood working industry for which originated under the old centrally planned cutting particleboard is also limited because of system, can produce obstacles for development in relatively high rate of wear. An effort of coating the the new economic environment. If an enterprise surfaces of the carbide tool with a hard coating does not take into consideration the features of the material has been already developed in order to present economic system, the enterprise can lose increase the wear resistance of carbide tool. considerable money. There are also some logging technology features which are not favorable for Experimental procedure wood quality identification. But on the other hand This paper presents the performance of coated more and more managers of saw mills and carbide tools when turning wood-chip cement woodworking enterprises have begun to realize that board. Coating materials studied were titanium, wood quality could be a key factor in making a carbonitride (TiCN), titanium nitride (TiN), profit. in the centrally planned economy, forestry chromium nitride (CrN), and titanium was oriented to volume of material and not aluminumnitride (TiAIN), which were synthesized necessarily to wood quality. on the P30 carbide substrate. Cutting tests were

160 Division 5 perforrmed in turning at cutting speed of 30, 40, 50, and 60m/s and feed of 0.05mm/rev. An overview of the light organic solvent Results and discussion preservative (LOSP) treating of radiata pine: Modelling of solvent loss, residual The results of the study that the coated carbide tool solvent composition, and paint provides better performance especially in reducing the progression of tool wear and in retaining lower adhesion Bernard Dawson, H. Kroese cutting forces and noise level compared to the Forest Research, Private Bag 3020, Rotorua, New uncoated P30 carbide tool at every cutting speed Zealand performed. The TiAIN coated carbide tool could be Email: [email protected] the best in retaining a gradual increase in these values with an increase in cutting speed. Radiata pine boards were treated with a light Furthermore, the results in Table 1 will suggest that organic solvent preservative solution, placed in a the TiAIN coated carbide tool will provide wider randomised manner in a timber stack of five layers ranges of cutting speed in its application. TheTiCN and the residual solvent loadings in the boards were coated carbide tool was the lowest both in amount monitored over time by measuring weight change. of wear and rate of wear cutting speed of 30 m/s, An exponential model was fitted to the residual however these values after cutting speed of 50 m/s solvent loading data, expressed as a percent of the increase drastically and matched with those of the initial solvent loading, to allow calculation of CrN and TiN coated carbide tools investigated. solvent loading, at any position in the timber stack Therefore, the TiCN coated carbide tool would be at any time, over the 108 day trial period. The suitable to be used only for low cutting speed, by exponential model was linearised by a natural log considering that the TiCN coated carbide tool retain transformation in order to estimate parameters of the hardness at the low cutting speed due to the cutting involved variables in the model, i.e. time and the x, tool temperature (435°C) fell under its limit y and z positions of each board in the timber stack. oxidation temperature (435°C). A stepwise multiple regression procedure was used to select the significant variables in the model. The Table 1. The amount of clearance wear (µm) at final coefficient of determination (r2) for the fit of the length (5 km), the rate of wear of the tools model to the data was 0.88. investigated and cutting temperature during cutting at four different cutting speeds Solvent uptake, rates of solvent evaporation and Tools Cutting speed (m/S) consequent change in the composition of the 30 40 50 60 residual solvent in another set of LOSP treated pine Uncoated P30 carbide 125 247 289 399 (39.0) (118.0) (167.9) (276.5) boards were examined. The variability in LOSP CrN coated carbide 112 228 283 335 uptakes in timber was large and was attributable to (37.3) (112.9) (159.8) (241.5) the natural heterogeneity of timber. TiN coated carbide 90 169 278 324 (35.0) (76.6) (163.3) (242.7) There was a measurable difference in residual TiCN coated carbide 76 139 270 343 (24.2) (61.6) (164.5) (276.1) solvent composition in samples taken from the titian coated carbide 78 83 104 110 centre and from the outside of treated boards. The (25.7) (33.4) (47.4) (52.2) Cutting temperature solvent composition of samples taken from the (°C) 435 630 800 1010 boards at various stages of ventilation shows, as expected, a relative increase in the concentration of Values in the brackets determine the rate of wear. the higher boiling alkylbenzene components. Both the cutting forces and noise level of the tools The control of residual LOSP solvent content investigated increase with an increase in cutting appears to be the single most important factor speed, and could show the same behavior during the affecting paint adhesion on radiata pine wood and progression of the tool wear. High cutting forces its impact is seen strongly with a paint system generated during turning with high cutting speed are combining oil-based and water-based paint layers. probably causes by more wear attained by the tools Results show the average residual LOSP solvent for the high speed turning. Then, the high noise after ventilation was 51 % of initial uptake at 13 level for the high cutting speed is probably due to days, 36 % (22 days), 23 % (41 days) and 18 % (92 high impact force to be imposed on the cutting tools. days). Blocking (sticking together of paint surfaces) was high for the acrylic primer and low for the oil- based primer. Acrylic layers dried rapidly through water evaporation while oil-based paint layers cured slowly through solvent evaporation and paint resin oxidation. Adhesion failure was highest where

161 Division 5 acrylic undercoats or topcoats were applied over an across the thickness and another one across the oil-based primer/undercoat when the initial LOSP width into two identical pieces which were solvent uptake was 30 L/m3 or higher. Adhesion measured for warp again. Internal checking was failure, while decreasing 92 days after painting, was assessed from the resawn face of each of these still significant. pieces. Profiles of residual stresses across the thickness were also determined on some of the High-Temperature Drying of Black studs. The results showed that high quality products Spruce for Value-Added Products can be obtained from black spruce dried at low Gordon Duplain, Yves Fortin, Pierre Laforest moisture contents by the high-temperature drying Université Laval, Departement des sciences du bois et de process. The drying strategy has, however, to be la Forêt, G1K 7P4 Québec, Canada adapted accordingly and the drying time increased FAX: (418) 656-3177, Email: [email protected] substantially. Presteaming and top-load restraint High-temperature (HT) drying in eastern Canada were shown to be effective ways of controlling warp has been so far mainly applied to softwood lumber in both the raw product and the resawn lumber, used in construction. The lumber is thus dried to an although a good proportion of the pieces with average final moisture content (MC) of about 15% diagonal grain or spiral grain were affected by with an allowable fairly large variation in the MC internal checking. between boards. The export markets for dimension lumber becoming more and more competitive, and Measurement of Internal Features in because of the imposed quotas on Canadian Logs softwood dimension lumber exported to the US, the Anders Grönlund, Stig Grundberg lumber industry in eastern Canada is looking for Lulea University of Technology, Skelleftea Campus, ways to diversify its production. The remanufacture Skeria 3, S-931 87 Skelleftea , Sweden Tel: +46 910 585307, FAX: +46 910 585399, Email: of lumber into value-added products such as doors, [email protected] furniture and windows appears to be a very attractive alternative. A great proportion of the Today many sawmills strive for an increasing dimension lumber manufactured in eastern Canada amount of customer adapted products. in a customer comes from high-temperature kiln dried black adapted production it is crucial to be able to select spruce (Picea mariana Mill.) B.S.P. This species is the right logs for a certain product, i.e. we must be in general fairly easy to dry although its tends to able to predict the properties of the sawn products show severe warp when being dried at MC's below before the actual sawing operation. 10%. There are several systems used in sawmills for the The ultimate goal of this project was to develop a scanning and automatic grading of logs. These HT drying strategy for black spruce lumber with systems use either optical scanners or gamma-ray respect to the production of value-added products scanners. The optical scanners used for grading logs dried at low moisture contents. The specific measure the log diameter every 10 mm along the log objectives were to develop: 1) a HT drying strategy in two or three directions. From these consecutive that leads to a final MC of 10% with 90% of the diameter values new variables such as taper, butt boards between 8 and 12%; 2) a HT drying strategy taper and bumpiness are calculated. that minimizes warp and check formation; and 3) a With the aid of these new secondary variables, HT drying strategy that minimizes residual stresses statistical classification algorithms can be and final MC gradients. developed. The gamma-ray scanner called Tina is Dimension stock of 2.4 m in length and 42 mm x 69 principally used in the same way, but Tina is using mm in cross-section (2x3) was kiln dried using two green density variables together with the outer shape different drying schedules and two levels of top- variables for prediction of the internal log quality. load restraint. Eight matched batches of 182 studs 3 The log-grading scanners described above have so each were dried in a 2.5 m capacity HT steam- far been more or less focused on normal export heated laboratory kiln. All the required grades for commodity products. in the future it is measurements were taken before drying (width, anticipated that the selection of sawn timber for a thickness, weight, twist, bow and crook). The same specific customer will be more and more based on a measurements were repeated after drying and the specific feature or some specific features. in order to final MC was measured in two locations of each be able to measure specific internal features of logs stud with a resistance-type moisture meter. Warp an industrial X-ray LogScanner has been developed. was assessed after planing the lumber to a final size The measurement performance for this X-ray of 38 x 64 mm. A sample of 25 studs was resawn

162 Division 5

LogScanner has been studied. The objective with efficiency measure originally developed by Farell this investigation was to determine if it is possible to (1957). It distinguishes between technical change develop accurate models for knot volume, knot type, and changes in production efficiency. annual ring width and distance between whorls using a LogScanner with two modern industrial X- Production Structure in the Swedish ray sources. The study was based on simulated Sawmilling Industry signals from the LogScanner. Anders Roos, Matti Flinkman, Armas Jöppinen, Mats The study shows that when the different models Warensjö were tested against a test set the strongest model had Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Management and Products, Post Box # 7054, S- a R2 =0.95 (the distance between whorls for Scots 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden pine) and the weakest model R2 = 0.66 (the annual- Tel: +46 18 671564, FAX: +46 18 673522, Email: ring width for the twenty innermost annual rings on [email protected] Norway spruce). The results indicate that a two- direction X -ray LogScanner can be a good tool for Wood products face market competition from a control of a customer adopted production. range of materials, e.g. plastic, concrete, steel. These materials are furthermore constantly being improved and adapted for different end-users. On the other Analysing the Efficiency of Norwegian hand, wood products have important competitive Sawmilling advantages-especially aesthetical and environmental Anders Qvale Nyrud, Baardsen, S. qualities -- that need to be recognized and better University of Norway, Department of Forest Sciences, 270199 P.O. Box 5044, N-1432 Aas, Norway exploited. One way for the sawmilling industry to Email: [email protected] meet the market challenges is to diversify and adapt the production according to the needs of different Norwegian commercial sawmilling consists of about customers. This involves for example more drying 200 units (5 employees or more). Its annual to orders, length trimming, stress grading, finger 3 production amounts to approximately 2.5 million m jointing, surface treatment-and less bulk production. sawnwood and planed sawnwood, equivalent to a gross value of about NOK 5.6 billion ($ 750 For the sawmills this approach requires more efforts million). Even though the size of the sawmills and investments in training, computers, drying differ, production ranging from < 10000 m3 to technology, and other equipment to add more value 140000 m3 per year, the output is relatively to the product. in this way a mutually beneficial homogenous. situation could be reached, where the customers of wood products receive a higher grade good and In this paper the efficiency of Norwegian sawmills -- and the whole forest sector -- receive sawmilling will be examined using Data better prices for their products. Envelopment Analysis (DEA). By the means of linear programming efficient production units are However, more advanced and specialized identified, and, when assuming convexity, an production can also increase risks as investments efficient ("best practice") production frontier is increase and niche markets sometimes are rather fitted. The inefficient units' distances to the frontier volatile. Therefore the production structure and are minimized with respect to input saving or market conditions of the sawmilling industry have production expansion regimes. Thus, corresponding to be thoroughly analysed in order to allow the efficient peer units are identified, and the relative industry to identify feasible strategies and to find efficiency of the units located inside the frontier can factors for success. What characterizes, for instance, be measured. the technologically advanced sawmill and how do different types of sawmills perform concerning The analysis will be carried out on an extensive value-adding processes? One step in this analysis is panel data set consisting of 3101 individual sawmill to conduct systematic empirical studies of the observations over the period 1974-1991. Several sawmilling industry. input and output variables are available - physical quantities as well as economic measures. The DEA In this study, production strategies by Swedish approach is cross-sectional by nature. Using panel sawmills today are described and analysed. The data adds the dimension of time to the analysis, focus of the study is on input factor use, innovation making it possible to investigate the development of and value adding processes. We compare different Norwegian sawmilling (for example technical categories of sawmills and describe the most change and production efficiency) throughout the frequent ways to organise the production. Plant level period. For this purpose, the Malmquist productivity data from 1995 about the Swedish sawmills is used index will be used. This index corresponds to the in multivariate statistical analyses.

163 Division 5 The results include a description of the general nearly twice the weight loss as the controls but there situation of the production structure of the was no significant difference between 5% and 10% sawmilling sector. Relationships between plant size, manure treatments. A reduction in toxicity occurred ownership, productivity, log handling, saw type, in all treatments and all treatments maintained value-adding processes, drying, and computer use neutral pH after 30 days. are investigated. Moreover, different alternative In the second study, phenolic-bonded plywood ways to organise a sawmill today, especially softwood sawdust was amended with 5% chicken regarding technology adoption and value adding manure, 5% cow manure, 5% horse manure, 3% processes, are identified. cotton gin trash, and 500 ppm inorganic fertilizer The adoption of different value adding processes is solution with the unamended sawdust as control, fast in the industry. It follows different dimensions, and three replications per treatment. Sampling, which reflect the technical and the market watering, and aerating was done as described for the orientation of the enterprise. Value added shares of first study. All treatments showed a reduction in the total production depend generally on ownership, toxicity and maintained a neutral pH after 30 days. location and size of the sawmill. All treatments showed almost double the percentage of weight loss compared to unamended control. Still, however, an important share of the sawmills treats only small quantities of lumber in value The composted sawdust was also evaluated in a adding processes. Many sawmills apply 'standard' greenhouse study to determine its effect on the value adding processes based on planing and extra growth of row crop plants. Twenty-five percent by drying to orders. Smaller groups of sawmills have a weight of the composted sawdust was mixed with more specialized production where the lumber is potting soil, in which corn, soybean, and cotton treated for specific uses. seeds were planted. The pots were watered daily and allowed to grow for 55 days. The chicken manure Sawmills are classified in different strategic types treatment showed no significant difference in mean along the axes: size, value added share and labour weight of the plants when compared to potting soil productivity. A number of strategic groups in the only. Other treatments were comparable to chicken Swedish sawmilling industry can be identified. The manure, except gin trash, which showed implication of the results for the competitiveness of significantly less plant weight compared to the the sawmilling industry will finally be discussed in others. the presentation.

5.04.00 / 5.05.00 Innovations in wood Aspects et tendances concernant bonding and utilisation of wood residues l'utilisation des lignosulphonates techniques dans les adhesifs pour Composting of Furniture Manufacturing l'industrie du bois Woodwastes and Phenolic-bonded Valeriu Petrovici, Daniela Mihai, Valentin Popa Softwood Plywood Sawdust Universiti Transilvania Brasov, B-ul Eroilor 29, 2200 Hamid Borazjani, Susan V. Diehl and Harold A. Stewart Brasov, Romania Mississippi State University, Forest Products Laboratory, Email: [email protected] Box 9820, MS 39762 Mississippi State, USA On connait le fait que la lignine technique est Tel: 601-325-2116, FAX: 601-325-8126, Email: obtenue dans la phase industrielle, comme un [email protected] sousproduit à la désincrustation alcaline ou acide du Two six-month outdoor studies were conducted to bois de résineux ou de feuillus et par la hydrolise de evaluate different amendments for composting of celui-ci dans le milieu acide. Jusqu’à présent, les furniture woodwastes and sawdust from phenolic- tentatives de créer une industrie pour valorifier la bonded plywood. in the first study, furniture wastes lignine résiduelle ont eu des succès partiels, pour les were amended with 5% and 10% horse manure with produits obtenables, en employant, en général, des the unamended wastes as controls. All treatments quantités réduites de trois types de lignines and controls were replicated three times. Moisture techniques. was provided through precipitation and substrates On y ajoute aussi certaines difficultés dans la were aerated once or twice weekly. Samples were transformation des lignines, liées à une collected at 30-day intervals and analyzed for pH connaissance insufisante sur la nature et sa structure and toxicity. All treatments showed a significant chimique complexe, la diversité de ses unités reduction in dry matter by 180 days. The treatments structurales, des liées avec les autres composants containing 5% and 10% horse manure showed chimiques du bois et surtout des aspects

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économiques concernant la rentabilité de tels lignines techniques n'ont pas dépassées 20-25% des procédés. composants substituées. Partant des considérations de ci-dessus et du fait que Les éssais d'augmentation de la proportion de ce produit aromatique naturel qu’on isolé du bois, lignine au dessus de ces valeurs n'ont plus conduit à mais qui d’une facon où d’autre revient dans ce des produits agglomérés ou stratifiés de qualité, même bois, aurait une compatibilité meilleure ceux-ci présentant des caracteristiques physico- envers les polymers synthétiques, nous avons étudie mécaniques inférieures aux éprouvettes témoins. quelques posibilités de valorisation sous diverses Pour accroître le degré d'emploi des lignines formes des lignines techniques, comme produits techniques, y compris dans le domaine des adhésifs chimiques employés dans le secteur de pour l'industrie du bois, nous estimons résoudre l'industrialisation du bois. L'emploi de deux problèmes importants à présent: lignosulphonates techniques d'amonium ou du la réalisation d'une uniformisation du degré de calcium s'est realisé soit sous forme de poussières polydispersion; atomisées, soit sous forme de solution ayant des l'augmentation de la réactivité chimique des lignines concentrations variables entre 35-45%. techniques. Dans une prémière catégorie d'expériments ceux-ci Dans la réalisation de tels désidérats il faut ont étè employés comme de simples suppléments conjuguer les efforts de tous les chercheurs dans des adhésifs uréo-formaldéhidiques pour: scientifiques qui travaillent dans ce domaine, par la la fabrication des panneaux de particules de bois en réalisation des programmes communs de travail, des substituant 25% de l'urée technique pour la couche échanges d'expérience, des publications et, pourquoi extérieure ou pour celle de l'intérieure ; pas, l'organisation d'une rencontre scientifique internationale dédiée à ce sujet. la fabrication des panneaux type sandwich pour les meubles, en substituant intégralement la farine de seigle; Adhesive innovation and production of North American glued-wood and related le placage des panneaux pour les meubles, en products substituant intégralement ou en proportion de 50% Terry Sellers la clorure d'amonium, 50% de l'urée technique et Mississippi State University, Forest Products Laboratory, 75% de la farine de seigle. Forest and Wildlife Research Center, Box 9820, MS Dans une autre catégorie d'expériments les mêmes 39762 Mississippi State, USA Tel: +1 (601) 325-3110, FAX: +1 (601) 325-8126, Email: lignosulphonates techniques d'amonium ou de [email protected] calcium ansi que ceux qu’on à métalliquement complexes avec les cations mentionnés ci-dessus on Based on 1998 estimated m3 data, about 36% of the a utilisé comme substituants en proportion de 15, 20 wood composites in North America were plywood et 25% du phénol technique, utilisé à la synthèse de and laminated veneer lumber products, 29% la résine phénol-formaldéhidique classique, en oriented strand products, 19% particleboards, 6% obtenant ainsi deux résines phénoliques modifiées: medium-density fiberboards and 10% a variety of other glued-wood and fiber products. The expanded résine lignin-phénol-formaldéhidique type P pour la array of glued-wood products has increased demand fabrication du contre-plaqué pour d'extérieur; for a variety of wood adhesive resins and fostered résine lignin-phénol-formaldéhidique type F pour la adhesive systems with enhanced properties. in 1998 fabrication des panneaux de fibres de bois. in North America, consumption of adhesive resin solids required to bond the glued-wood and related En partant du lignosulphonate technique d'amonium products were estimated to be about 1780 kilotonnes et de calcium par des modifications chimiques (kt). Considering the percentage of glued-wood adéquées, on a obtenu aussi deux produits tannants products in North America as a basis, the calculated végétaux pour la tannerie et le retannage du cuir. resin solids consumed by country were 1370 kt La lignine de hydrolise acide de la cellolignine en (77%) for the United States of America (U.S.), 374 bois de chêne a été utilisée aussi comme un kt for Canada (20%) and 36 kt for Mexico (2%). supplément simple à l'adhésif uréo-formaldéhidique In 1998 in North America, particleboards, pour la fabrication du contre-plaqué pour l'intérieur, fiberboards, and decorative and hardwood plywoods en substituant totalement la farine de seigle. were bonded principally with amino resins (1060 On remarque le fait que dans toutes ces recherches kt). The ratio of resin solids consumed by the expérimentales, les limites des suppléments de particleboard and medium-density fiberboard

165 Division 5 industries was similar to the ratio of production of the two products (76:24) since both industries add a The Role of Temperature, Humidity and similar amount of resin binder to the respective Fungus On The Adhesion Failure of products. The vast majority of the amino resins are Alkyd Paint On Timber Substrate urea-formaldehyde based, however, METLAmine is Ahmad Shakri Mat Seman, P.D. Evans added for some upgrades. METLAmine- Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong, formaldehyde resins in North America are primarily 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia applied in overlay coating applications for wood Tel: 603-6342633, Email: [email protected] products. Phenolic additions to amino resins are During natural weathering opaque paint finishes on being explored. wood experience surface discolouration, checking In 1998 in North America, the quantity of phenolic and loss of finish adhesion. These effects are resin solids consumed by the wood composite through to be due to the action of complex industries was 568 kt. The phenolics are primary combinations of weathering factors such as binders for oriented strand products, construction moisture, heat and micro-organisms. The relative plywood, and laminated veneer lumber. in addition, importance of each of these factors has not been selective medium-density fiberboards and high- well defined. The controlled laboratory experiment density compressed fiberboards (wet- and dry- was then carried out to determine the importance of process hardboards, including dry-process door each of these weathering factors in the adhesion skins) are bonded with phenol-formaldehyde (PF) failure of paint on wood. resins, and other engineered lumber products are Painted Kempas (Koompassia malaccensis Maing. bonded with phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde Ex Benth.) specimens were exposed to controlled modified resins. environments in which each of the factors, Over the past 15 years in North America, polymeric temperature, humidity and fungus exposure, were diphenyl methylene diisocyanate (PMDI) has held at pre-determined, fixed levels. Additional established an entry into the glued-wood products factors investigated were the effects of artificial pre- industry. The consumption of PMDI for these weathering of substrate and cutting of the paint products is estimated to be 90 kt with 90% of this finish. The ultraviolet light factor was not taken into volume being applied as binder in oriented strand consideration. panel and lumber products. About 18% of the binder Results showed that a relative humidity had the requirements for oriented strand boards (OSB) are most deleterious effect on paint adhesion, followed estimated to be PMDI with the balance OSB binders by the presence of the stain fungus. Loss of paint being liquid PF and powder PF resins. PMDI resins adhesion was further increased when pre-weathered have been shown to be the preferred binder for specimens were exposed to a high relative humidity. agrifiber boards (wheat straw furnish, etc.) unless The presence of a cut on painted wood surfaces the agrifiber has been modified by mild chemical increased the deleterious effect of the blue stain and steam pretreatment and fiber bundle refining. fungus on adhesion presumably because it allowed Vinyl compounds (50 kt) for gluing wood in North the fungus greater access to the underlying wood. America are consumed mostly as assembly glues, but some are utilized as adhesives for hardwood Application of Industrial Wood Waste for plywood and hardwood lumber flooring products the Development of Multipurposes Glue (flatbed trailer and railway car flooring). The vinyl Galia Shulga may be a homopolymer polyvinyl acetate or an State Institute of Wood Chemistry, 27 Dzerbenes St., LV upgraded cross-linked vinyl product. The vinyl 1006 Riga, Latvia upgrades may be based on phenolic, isocyanate or Tel: +371 7 553063, FAX: +371 7 310135, Email: other thermosetting additions to the emulsion [email protected] polymers. It is known that environmental restrictions put Excellent historical data, including cost, have been sulfite pulps mills that produce industrial recovering published on many wood-based composites for lignin - lignosulfonates (LS), a large-scale wood Canada and the U.S. Substantial research and waste, out of business. At the same time, a chemical development on wood adhesives continues in North modification of LS offers the great opportunities to America, including amine, phenolic, polyurethane, produce novel polymer products on their basis. in vinyl, soya and accelerator modifications. such a way, environmental demands, economic reality and a high efficiency of the biomass conversation might be involved into producing of

166 Division 5 the multipurpose, environmentally friendly and high forming a composite polymer-sand coatings, which quality polymer products. are able to withstand wind and water erosion and prevent blowing off a fertile layer. Field tests have In this work, we would like to show how it is shown that composite coatings formed reduce the possible effectively modificate lignosulfonates and evaporation of moisture from the soil, but at the what the real applications of the polymer products same time, do not prevent water and air transfer into formed are. Synthesis of lignin-based interpolymer the soil. Perennial grass seeds germinate easily complexes (LIC) is based on the interaction between through composite coatings, forming the turf of a the oxidized lignins and the water-soluble polymers good quality with a thick-branched root system. or oligomers (Shulga et al. 1997). LIC obtaining proceeds, as a rule, in water media at room References: temperature, normal pressure, and without using of Shulga,G., Telysheva, G., Soms, A., et al., 1990. any catalysts. These polymer products exist both in Lignosulfonate-based compositions as chemical water-containing solvents and a solid state. The admixtures in manufacture of building materials. main reason of LIC structure stability to the action Proc.Int.Scient.Conf. "Application of chemical of different outward factors ( pH, elevated admixtures in manufacture of cellulose, paper, temperature, UV-radiation) is conditioned by a timber and building boards from wood fibres, cooperative system of the macromolecules coupling Bulgaria, Sofia, pp.30-31. that has entropy nature. The nature of linking between LS and synthetic polymer/olygomer can be Shulga, G., Telysheva, G., Zezin, A., 1997. Specific different: ionic, donor-acceptor, covalent etc. features of the interpolymer interaction between sodium lignosulfonate and polyacrylic acid in The established relationships and mechanisms of aqueous solutions. Polymer Science, vol.39A, interpolymer reactions as well as the nature of the no.10, pp.1130-1134. interaction with different interfaces have allowed to developed the new glues on the LIC basis with Shulga,G., Rekners F., Varslavans, J., 1998. controlled adhesive properties. Environmentally friendly lignin-based adhesives for reinforcement of drainage channel slopes. Proc. 8th LIC-based glues are able to substitute almost 45- Int.Scient.Conf. on Agricultural Engineering, 55% of UF-resin in the fibres composite materials Norway, Oslo, pp.989-990. (Shulga et al .1990). Besides that, it is no any necessity in additional power consumption for their producing at an increased lignin-based glue content. An environmental friendly composite The advantages of the composite materials obtaining made from hydrated lime, pozzolanic are as follows: using of the significantly lower material, spent carbon dioxide and temperature for pressing and drying, no necessity of reinforced with recycled cellulose fibers any curing agent. There are some advantages of the Maruli H. Simatupang composite materials themselves in comparison with Universiti Sains Malaysia, School of Industrial ones obtained with UF-resin such as a higher Technology, Division of Wood, Pulp/Paper and Coating mechanical strength, a higher hydrophobicity, a Technology, 11800 Penang, Malaysia FAX: 60 4 65 65 326, Email: [email protected] significant lower evaluation of formaldehyde during the manufacture and in use as well as a lower cost. The reasons why asbestos fibers reinforced cement composites are still used in many developing and LIC-based glues may be applied as ecologically less industrialized countries are briefly elaborated. A friendly soil conditioners with pronounced new kind of cellulose reinforced laboratory board structure-forming and adsorbing properties on sandy was developed as possible alternative for non- soils (Shulga et al. 1998). For their obtaining, the compressed asbestos cement panels. Pinus radiata formation of LIC proceeds in the presence of salts kraft cellulose (PKF), recycled newspaper (RNF) or of multivalent metals. It allows to approximate LIC- oil palm trunk soda fibers (OPF) were used as based conditioners to the structure and the reinforcement. The binder consist of slaked lime and properties of soil organic-mineral formations. ground rice husk ask (RHA) or pulverized-fuel ash The soil structure obtained by LIC application has (PFA), also designated as fly ash. The web was the important influence upon water-holding formed by mixing the reinforcement and the binder capacity, water transport, aeration and heat transfer mixture with water and dewatering the slurry. It was in soils, and indirectly improves the conditions of then compacted by vacuum and pressure. The still the vitality of plants and microorganisms. Owing to soft board was placed in a pressure vessel. structural peculiarities, LIC-based conditioners are Pressurized carbon dioxide was introduced after capable of cementing the particles of sandy soil and vacuum treatment. The gas reacted with slaked lime

167 Division 5 to form calcium carbonate, which gave the panel its in 1997. Five percents of odd, 0.5 % of sawdust, and early strength properties. If the carbonated panel is 1 % of chip were generated from the total timber cured in a moist cubicle for 14-28 days the machined at the precut factories. The odd is utilized uncarbonated slaked lime reacts with RHA or PFA for manufacturing pulp chip, small size lumber, and to form calcium silicate hydrate. This binder glue laminated lumber. The sawdust and chip were contributed significantly to the ultimate strength utilized as livestock bedding and fuel. in Japan, properties and improved the moisture resistance and almost the residues at the sawmills, plywood mills dimensional stability. The parameters influencing and precut factories are effectively utilized. carbonation were examined. It was feasible to use a mixed gas with 15% carbon dioxide content. Such Production Technology and Advantages carbon dioxide enriched gases are emitted from of Environment Protective Fibreboard thermal power stations fired with coal or liquid fuel, Cao Zhongrong at calcination of lime stone or magnesite and in the Research Institute of Wood Industry, Chinese Academy fermentation industry. Carbon dioxide is one of the of Forestry, 100091 Beijing, China main green-house gases. in the new process this gas Tel: +86 10 62889424, FAX: +86 10 62881937, Email: is recycled. The technological properties of the [email protected] novel board are compared with those of asbestos- In order to meet the requirement of environmental free commercial panels. protection, the production of environment protective wood based panels will become a development Utilization of residues at sawmills, trend. This paper introduces the production plywood mills, and precut factories in technology and advantages of environment Japan protective fiberboard. On proper conditions, Tsutomu Takano, Kohji Murata, and Katsumi Nishimura environment protective high density fiberboard (S2S Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, P. O. HDF) can be produced, on the general dry-process Box 16 Tsukuba Norin Kenkyu Danchi, 305-8687 hardboard or medium density fiberboard (MDF) Tsukuba, Japan production line, without adhesive and change of FAX: +81-298-73-3798, Email: [email protected] equipment. Japanese total timber consumption was 110 million The production process of environment protective cubic meters in 1997. of total timber are 44 % for fiberboard is as follows: sawn lumber, 40 % for pulp and papers, 14 % for plywood. We investigated how many residues were Raw materials - chipping - screening - refining (- remained and how the residues were utilized at wax addition) - fiber drying - forming - prepressing sawmills, plywood mills, and precut factories. of the - cross- cut - loading - hot pressing - unloading - residues at the sawmills, 10 % was bark, 20 % was trimming - stacking - inspecting and grading - slab, and 14 % was sawdust. The bark is utilized as product storage. fuel, livestock bedding, and fertilizer. The slab is The results studied show that the hot-pressing utilized for manufacturing pulp chip. The sawdust is technique is the main key to produce environment utilized as fuel, livestock bedding, fertilizer, and protective fiberboard. The technological parameter culture ground of mushrooms. Less than 10 % of the of hot-pressing includes a temperature of 190 ~ residues at the sawmills was thrown away or thrown 200°C and a pressure of 4.0 ~ 5.4 Mpa. The pressing into fire. time depends on the thickness of board to be made Plywood recovery was 64 %, and main kind of and wood species. Generally, the pressing time for residues at plywood mill was green veneers (25 %), each one millimeter board thickness does not exceed dry veneers (24 %), cores (16 %), and plywood one minute. edges (13 %). 76 % of the residues was used as After completing a technology study on the boiler fuel for veneer drier and hot?press, and 20 % manufacture of environment protective fiberboard at of the residues was reused as wood chips for particle the laboratory, a pilot-scale trail was conducted on board, MDF, fiber board, or fuel. Only 1.5 % of the the MDF production line with an annual capacity of residues, which contained 95 % of bark was thrown 10000 cubic meter to examine further technological away or thrown into fire. Precut means machining parameter obtained by a series of technology of timber joints of building members for Japanese experiments and determine the physical mechanical traditional wooden houses (post and beam properties of the commercial environment protective construction) at a factory (precut factory) instead of fiberboard is suitable and feasible. hand cutting by a carpenter. We machined about 20 million cubic meters of timber at the precut factories

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More reliable and higher performance wood 5.05.00 Composite and reconstituted composite products are being developed by aligning products the elements along the fiber direction; a cylindrical LVL made of helically wound veneer tapes provides The wood- based composite industry in a bio-mimetic structure of wood cell and proves to Chile: a general overview exhibit high bending performance despite its light Aldo Ballerini weight. in panel products, an advanced OSB is Universidad del Bio-Bio, Relaciones Internacionales, manufactured with thin strands in order to achieve Casilla 5-C, Concepción, Chile improved surface properties, dimensional stability Tel: (56-41)26 12 61, FAX: (56-41)31 67 37, Email: and mechanical properties. This advanced OSB is [email protected] now in the process of being produced on a The wood-based composite industry in Chile has commercial scale. High performance oriented MDF been playing a mayor role, in the forest product with long lignocellulosic fibers is now being sector during the last 10 years. Growth has averaged developed, whereas vertically oriented fiberboard 15% per year based on the volume produce. There is with an ultra low density has been marketed as a an installed capacity of 1.28 million cubic meters substitute to the foam plastic materials. A new within 19 mills, which are producing particleboard, technology for producing high-performance cement medium density fiberboard (MDF), hardboard, bonded particleboard by using rapid curing process plywood and veneers. The Chilean wood-based of either super-critical fluid or gaseous state of composite industry is very dynamic, and is currently carbon dioxide is now under development. investing in other Latin American countries: Currently, new concepts of zero-emission and Argentina, Brazil and Venezuela, to produce recycling processes have been introduced to support particleboard and MDF. in addition, several new the sustainable utilization of wood resources. New plants are projected for the next five years. processing technology to convert forest residues, The Chilean market account for 64% of the total non-wood lignocellulosic materials, agricultural panel products produced. The remaining 36% is wastes, and recycled wood into new types of lumber exported mainly to Europe, America and Asia. and panel composite products is necessary to ensure Current and future new plantations in Chile assume sustainable utilization of the existing forest the availability of commercial timber, which suggest resources. significant increase of the panel sector over the next 10 years. Jute Composite By Resin Transfer Moulding -A New Techno Economically Developments in Composite Research Viable Product and Industrial Manufacture of M. Sarkar, A. Mandal, A.K. Rana, K. Jayachandran Composite in Japan Indian Jute Industries' Research Association, 17, Taratola Shuichi Kawai Road, 700 088 Calcutta, India Kyoto University, Wood Research Institute, Uji, 611- Tel: +(033) 401 4615/17 - 20, FAX: +(033) 401 0011 Kyoto, Japan 4621/4298, Email: [email protected] Tel: +81-774-38-3673, FAX: +81-774-38-3678, Email: Various forms of jute reinforcement alone and [email protected] alongwith glass were used successfully to reinforce Recent developments in the research on wood composites moulded following Resin Transfer composite products and their applications in the Moulding process using Unsaturated Polyester industrial manufacture in Japan are being reviewed. Resin as the matrix. Products include panels, chair Engineered wood products are playing an seats, trays, angles, etc. Properties of these types of increasingly important role in timber constructions; composites were evaluated. Advantages of using glulam and laminated veneer lumber (LVL) are now jute reinforcement include reduction of costs, widely accepted as timber construction members, lowering of density and the use of an and are already produced commercially by using environmentally friendly, renewable, reinforcement. domestic softwood species. Structural panels such The lower mechanical properties of jute composites as plywood and oriented strandboard (OSB) are could be compromised where higher mechanical often used, even as Japanese conventional post & properties of high value glass reinforced composites beam housing structures for bearing wall panels. are not justified. Commercial viability of resin Medium density fiberboard (MDF) is used transfer moulded jute composites has been dominantly as a base panel for secondary established from techno-economic feasibility processing. studies.

169 Division 5 Wood Modification Towards Practical thermoplastics, however, is a more recent Application: An European Perspective innovation. Broadly defined, a thermoplastic softens Joris van Acker when heated and hardens when cooled. SHR Timber Research, Wildekamp 1c, NL-6704 AT Thermoplastics selected for use with Wageningen, Netherlands lignocellulosics must melt or soften at or below the Tel: +31-317-425422, FAX: +31-317-425783, Email: degradation point of the lignocellulosic component, [email protected] normally 200oC. These thermoplastics include During decades, efforts are made by research polypropylene, polystyrene, vinyls, and low- and organisations and industries to develop wood high-density polyethylenes. modification methods. Most of the efforts, however, Markets for these hybrid composites have expanded were done on laboratory scale and never reached in the past 6 years to include a host of consumer practical application. Whereas the research in the products, components for the automobile industry, 1960's and 70's mainly concentrated to the US and packaging materials, and now, products designed for Japan, during the last decades different European building applications. research and development programmes were directed to wood modification. Main goal in most of This paper reviews technologies used to produce these programmes was the search of environmental these materials, reports on recent research acceptable modification chemicals and reactions accomplishments in the field, and provides a with potentials for the European wood industries. As detailed review of products now on the market or outcome of these efforts, the last few years some of being developed for commercial application. A look the developed methods were yet introduced to to the future will also be included in this review. practice or under pilot scale evaluation. This paper will give an overview on these technologies. State- 5.06.00 Properties and utilization of tropical woods of-art, problems and challenges will be discussed, for solid wood modification as well as composites modification treatments. Wooden school furniture for underdeveloped and developing Wood/polymer composites - a state-of- countries the art review Carl Eckelman, Eva Haviarova, Hui Zui, and Jorge Acuna John Youngquist Purdue University, 1200 Forest Products Bldg., IN USDA Forest Service Forest Products Laboratory, One 47907-1200 West Lafayette, USA Gifford Pinchot Drive, Wisconsin 53705 Madison, USA Tel: (765) 494-3635, FAX: (765) 496-1344, Email: Tel: 608-231-9398, FAX: 608-231-9582, Email: [email protected] [email protected] Keywords: school furniture, underdeveloped, Interest has burgeoned in combining wood and other developing countries, plantation thinnings, wood raw materials, such as plastics, into composite residues, cottage industries. products with unique properties and cost benefits. The primary impetus for developing such products In many underdeveloped and developing regions of has come from one or more of the following the world, school furniture is poorly designed, of reasons: low quality, and often unfit for school use, yet it is - Reducing material costs by combining a lower cost costly and consumes a disproportionate share of material (acting as a filler or extender) with an limited educational budgets. This situation need not expensive material. continue. Our research indicates that attractive, - Developing products that can utilize recycled well-designed, durable, maintenance-free furniture materials and be recyclable in themselves. can be produced from locally available woody - Produce composite products that exhibit specific materials including plantation thinnings and semi- properties that are superior to those of the processed materials such as pallet deck boards by component materials alone. local industry. Only the simplest machining and joinery processes are required to construct the Composites made from wood and other materials furniture. Cost of the furniture is generally less than create enormous opportunities to match product that of competing products, yet performance tests performance to end-use requirements. indicate that the furniture produced is several times The use of lignocellulosic materials with more durable than furniture currently in use. thermosetting polymeric materials, like phenol- or Production techniques vary from those best-suited to urea-formaldehyde, in the production of composites cottage industries to those more appropriate for has a long history. The use of lignocellulosics with

170 Division 5 small factories in more developed areas. Small Among the fast growing tree species promoted in stems can be converted into squares or dowels that Malaysia is Acacia mangium. A. mangium are subsequently cut into furniture parts, or the plantations now cover some 80% of the total forest stems can be converted into small strips that are plantation areas (51,745 ha.) in Peninsular Malaysia. subsequently used to fabricate individual furniture General aspects of research on this timber have been parts or entire frames. Curved laminated conducted but records and proper documentation on construction can be used when woods can be easily its potential usage are still lacking. steam bent. Creep bending with simple jigs can also In order to assess the suitability of using A. be used to form parts with sharp corners and straight mangium for construction, a house was built in sides. Green bending can be used to form parts with 1998. The objective was to analyse the utilisation of mild bends such as seat and back slats. Simple A. mangium as a building material taking into chemical bending with household ammonia may account the preparation of raw material, drying and also be used to form extreme bends in the ends of preservative treatment, timber engineering aspects such items as seat slats. and construction. This will be followed by Cross lap laminated construction can be used with monitoring the in-service performance to determine those woods in which only short lengths of clear its performance under local environmental wood can be obtained or which have poor bending conditions. Special attention will be focussed on the characteristics. This method of construction structural performance of the engineered produces strong, durable, geometrically accurate components. The economic aspects of the project frames with very simple equipment. will however not be discussed in this paper. Round mortise and tenon construction provides a Logs of 1.8m and 2.4m lengths were obtained from simple yet strong and reliable method of connecting 13 year-old thinnings. Owing to the inherent members and side frames together. Round tenons presence of heart rots in the logs, care was taken to may be produced on a conventional wood lathe or exclude or minimize them when obtaining the sawn they may be cut with a simple hole saw. timber. The timbers were conditioned to about 10- 12 percent and then cross-cut, planned, finger In conclusion, preliminary results indicate that jointed and glue-laminated with PRF to obtain the sturdy, well-designed school furniture can be required lengths for the construction. Each stage of produced from small woody stems and other wood production of the glue laminated members was residues by a variety of production processes -- monitored although it was not possible to strictly some best suited to cottage industries, others to adhere to the established regimes in preparation of more developed industries. Thus, school furniture the material. and the accompanying production processes can be matched to the level of development of essentially Various problems encountered during the any interested country. Finally, none of the preparation of the components and construction are processes involved in the construction of the frames discussed. However, the project has indicated the are inherently costly so that attractive, sturdy, easily potential of using A. mangium as building maintained furniture can be produced at modest cost components. Being able to control the sawing of the in any developing country. logs and the use of smaller size logs will help to optimise utilisation of the timber. The performance Acacia mangium An Alternative Timber of the house constructed will be monitored and the Building Material: A Case Study data collected will contribute towards information Hamdan Husain on the use of plantation grown timbers for FRIM, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia construction. Tel: +603-6342633, FAX: +603-6367753, Email: [email protected] Keywords: glue laminated-Acacia mangium, alternative building material, engineered components The diminishing supply of timber from natural forests due to increasing demand for forest products has stimulated interest in forest plantations. Natural forest takes considerable time to rejuvenate and compensatory forest plantations are seen as alternatives to fulfill the needs of sustainability.

171 Division 5 - Current trends in reforestation in Latin America, Eucalypts from South America: a with a special focous in Brazil is presented together sustainable raw material in the and changes in the silviculture of Eucalypts required international market for solid wood to meet solid wood industry requirements; products - Impacts of eucalypt plantations in Brazil; Erich Gomes Schaitza, Antonio R. Higa, Admir Lopes Mora, Jose Carlos Duarte Pereira - Wood quality for solid wood of E. grandis, E. National Centre of Forestry Research, CP319, 83411-000 dunnii, E. urograndis, E. pilularis, E. saligna Colombo, Brazil planted in Brazil; Tel: 55 +41 766 1313, FAX: 55 41 1276, Email: - Perspectives of using log splitting, board splitting, [email protected] warping, shrinkage and collapse in breeding South American countries, specially Brazil, Chile programs of eucalyps for solid wood, with basis on and Argentina, have a large experience in the the analysis of Eucalyptus pilularis, E. grandis, E. production of Eucalyptus pulp and charcoal, but the deanei provenance and progeny combined tests, use of Eucalypts as solid wood was somewhat clones of urograndis hybrid and open populations of limited to small companies. in the last years, due to E. dunnii and E. deanei; a reduction in the offer of woods tradicionally used - Market possibilities of solid products of the main by sawmills and plywood industries, consumption Eucalypts planted in Brazil based on a comparison of Eucalypts has been graddually increasing. of their wood quality and machining properties with As this region has 4-5 million hectares of high that of tradicional tropical woods. productivity eucalypt plantation, it is expected that once Eucalypts solid wood establishes a domestic Selection of Pulpwood for Plantation market and production scale grows, Eucalypts Development for Pulp and Paper Making products will also be sold to the international in Tropical Countrys - the case of Ghana market. Some large companies from Brazil as Daniel Sekyere Aracruz, Klabin, CAF and Flosul are operating or Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, Post Box # 63, will start to operate new saw mills using Eucalypts. UST Kumasi, Ghana The same process is occurring in Argentina, Chile, Tel: +233-51-60123, FAX: 233 - 51 - 60121, Email: [email protected] Paraguay and Uruguay. Eucalypts wood present a series of problems for solid wood industry as it has a Keywords: Selection, pulpwood, plantation very strong tendency to log splitting, board splitting Musanga cecropiodes, hardwood and warping during sawing process and collapse An indication is given of ways in which wood during drying. species with properties suitable for pulp and paper Research on eucalypt wood properties and tree manufacture can be selected. Before any such breeding has followed the same trend of its selection can be undertaken it is essential to know utilization, i.e. most early research was focoused on just what are the desirable characteristics from the pulping and heat properties and only lately problems pulp and paper aspect. related to eucalypt solid wood production were The present study was conducted on Musanga seriously considered. Currently, utilization of cecropiodes to determine the desirable properties eucalypt wood as sawn timber, specially the control and their influence, namely: longer than average of growth stresses through silviculture and genetic fibre length, Runkel ratio less than 1, average basic breeding and development of sawing and drying density, low extractive content, low lignin content techniques are considered as a key point for forest and suitable hemicellulose content. in addition to research. these the pulp characteristics were also determined. Lignin, cellulose and extrative contents and specific Musanga cecropiodes was obtained from gravity are some traits usually considered by genetic experimental plots in Kumasi, Ghana. The sample improvement programs when final product was pulp was debarked and sawn into discs of approximately or charcoal which are not of real importance when 18mm thickness and then split along the grain with solid wood is considered, and log splitting, warping, a knife to give a chip size of approximately 18 x 18 shrinkage and collapse have been introduced as new x 6mm. A portion of chips prepared for pulping was variables of the breeding process. ground in a Wiley-Mill. This paper discusses the following topics: Chemical analyses were made on wood meal which passed a BS 40 mesh sieve (425µm) but retained on

172 Division 5 a BS 60 mesh sieve (250µm). For the chemical cecropiodes yielded 55% pulp with a kappa number analyses an extractive: free sample of wood meal of 28.2. The burst strength of 6.8 kPam2g-1 and was prepared by successive extraction with tensile index of 115 mNm2 g-1 for a hardwood paper alcohol/benzene, alcohol and water. The following sheet of basis weight 60 gm-2 form at a pulp analyses were also carried out: cellulose, acid freeness of (Canadian Standard Freeness, C.S.F) insoluble lignin, 1% sodium hydroxide and hot 300 reported for M. cecropiodes are very water. remarkable paper strength properties for a hardwood whose average fibre length is 1.25mm. However, Preparation for fibre measurements were made the tear index of 4.1 mNm2 g-1 recorded for the according to Franklin's (1945) method. For the species was low. measurement one hundred fibres were made. The fibre dimensions, chemical analyses and pulp For the pulping trials chip samples (600gm) were evaluations show that it is possible to produce pulp weighed and placed in a 15 litre digester with from M. cecropiodes and that there is a need to internal electric heat exchanger. This digester slow study its silviculture for plantation development for but constant rotation when in operation. The the species for use as source of pulpwood. cooking conditions adopted were the following: Active alkaline (%) - 15, 16.5 and 17.5 Eucalypts, according to some literature reports, Sulphidity (%) - 25 render the soil infertile after some period. This is Time at maximum temperature (mins) - 90 attributed to the excessive intake of water from the Cooling time (mins) - 15 soil which later on renders the soil unsuitable for Wood to liquor ratio - 1.5 cultivation of other species. To overcome this and Maximum temperature (°C) - 170 other problems associated with introduction of exotic species emphasis should be placed on local The cooked chips were washed off black liquor and wood species with characteristics similar to our broken up in a disc refiner with a clearance of superior to Eucalypts. One of such species is 0.5mm. The yield of pulp was determined by the Musanga cecropiodes. Musanga cecropiodes is a dilution method. The physical characteristics of the tree species which grows in West Africa Central pulp were determined by preparing sheets from the Africa and East Africa and extends to Angola. Its pulp in a British sheet mould. The sheets of natural growth is very prolific. It is a small to approximately 60gm/m2 were tested after medium -sized tree up to 90 feet high and has a girth conditioning at 65% relative humidity. The of over 6ft at full maturity. following tests were made: Tensile index, tear index, burst index and Canadian Standards Freeness. For pulp and paper plantation established species of fast growing species should be considered. Some of The results indicate that the density of Musanga the other important characteristics to be considered cecropiodes 320 kg/m3 oven dry weight/green include: volume was lower than that for some hardwoods, (i) fast growing species for economic plantation such as birch, beech and Eucalyptus commonly used (ii) longer than average fibre length for pulp; but similar to others, such as poplars and (iii) Rynkel ratio less than 1 aspens. Fibres were slender (24.11µm) and thin- (iv) average basic density walled (3.00µm) and consequently flexible. Thus (v) low extractive content Musanga cecropiodes with Runkel ratio of 0.32 and (vi) higher than average cellulose content co-efficient of flexibility of 0.75 stands out as (vii) low lignin content having good fibre structure suited for pulp and (viii) suitable hemicellulose content paper-making. A high co-efficient of flexibility, like a low Runkel ratio is desirable in a fibre because The features listed above indicate clearly that the this leaves a thin-wall material which is suitable for anatomy of raw material as well as its chemical strong inter-fibre bonding in paper sheets. composition must be carefully considered in a plywood plantation establishment. The cellulose content of 53.7% for the species indicates that the pulp yield will be high. Compared These various features which are the most desirable with values usually found in temperate hardwoods will depend largely on the product to be used for pulp, the alcohol-benzene solubility manufactured but for all products, long fibres high (3.70%) and 1% Na0H solubility (13.1%) were proportion of fibres in the wood volume, low average. extractive content, high cellulose content and low lignin are the most valuable characteristics. Using 15% active alkali for sulphate cook, a maximum temperature of 170°C with 1 hour to Musanga cecropiodes as a tropical hardwood reach and 1 hours at that temperature Musanga species satisfies most of the features listed and

173 Division 5 should be encouraged to be used for plantation reason and due to the depletion of its natural stands, establishment, especially in developing tropical teak is increasingly coming from plantations of countries for use as a much shorter rotations. It would therefore be of interest to determine whether the wood quality is Woods from mediterranean and similar when it comes from natural forests and subtropical dry areas: possible uses plantations. After defining the method of wood besides fuel and charcoal quality assessment, results from the literature and Bernard Thibaut from the teak wood research programme of CIRAD- CIRAD-Forêt, Maison de la technologie, 73, Rue Jean- Forêt indicate significant between- and within-tree Francois Breton, BP. 5035, 34032 Montpellier, Cedex 1, variations in plantation-grown teak. France This need for assessing wood quality of plantation- Tel: 33.4.67.61.44.97, FAX: 33.4.67.61.57.25, Email: [email protected] grown teak has led CIRAD-Forêt to develop its own methodology and non-destructive techniques on Due both to climatic and human historical reasons, standing trees, which are presented hereafter. The mediterranean and subtropical dry forest ecosystems methodological options proposed here are are today rather poor, with low standing volume per specifically focused on teak, taking into account its hectare and mostly small diameter trees. financial value, its specificity in terms of colour and More often the demand in these countries is high high oleoresin and chemical extractive content. But, both for energy and for wood material dedicated to a basically, the same methodology could be applied to lot of domestic uses: tools, furniture, small other plantation tree species, after some key carpentry, poles, . adjustments (e.g.: in spectrocolorimetry or NIR spectroscopy calibration as described hereafter). Although the information about these woods are few in the classical wood data banks, most of them have A new promising but more sophisticated technique, interesting basic properties like fine grain, aestetical currently explored by Cirad-Forêt, is presented here, aspect, high hardness, high natural durability, so is fully justified by the high market price of teak they can fit lots of uses for the local communities. wood as well as the high investments required for teak plantation establishment and maintenance. Besides the need for more information on these species, there is also a huge need of specific Technology Packages for Quality Wood technology dedicated to small diameter logs. Products of Teak Plantations: After a short review of main dry forest species with Challenges and Promises for the 21st their specific properties and of today available Century technologies in sawing or peeling and of today K. M. Bhat available technologies in sawing or peeling small Kerala Forest Research Institute, Wood Science Division, diameter trees, a possible way of value added wood 680 653 Peechi, India small industries as by product of fuel wood activity Tel: +91 487 282037, FAX: +91 487 282249 (Offi) / is looked at. 282205, Email: [email protected] Keywords: Sustainable forest management; Tropical 5.06.02 Quality teak timber from hardwood; Industry; Marketing; Regional network plantations Teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) appears to have the Non-destructive techniques for wood greatest potential as a hardwood for sustainable quality assessment of plantation-grown forest management (SFM) in the tropics to meet teak market demands for quality products in the new Henri Bailleres, Patrick Y. Durand millennium. With an estimated area exceeding 3 CIRAD-Forêt, Maison de la Technologie, 73 rue J.F. million ha extending over almost all the tropical Breton BP5035, 34032 Montpellier Cedex 1, France countries, teak - the world's most versatile and Tel: +33 4 67 61 44 51, FAX: +33 4 67 61 57 25, Email: outstanding timber- accounts for 75% of high [email protected] quality tropical hardwood plantations. Undoubtedly, it stands to gain as a product from new technologies Keywords: Tectona grandis: Plantation wood; and has a proven record of being managed Quality, Technological properties successfully to the fastest growing economies. Teak (Tectona grandis L.f.), because of its However, the current situation of teak producer outstanding technological properties, is one of the countries calls for intervention of more appropriate most preferred tropical timber in the world. For this rather than the traditional technologies in the

174 Division 5 production-processing-market linkage through - Fast growing provenance's/clones of superior research/ technology transfer/ training programmes. genotypes can be selected for teak management Forecasting the future trends in demand-supply, without reducing wood specific gravity. price and marketing system of small dimensional - Wider rings of fast grown teak generally yield (SD) timber resource of teak plantations is a higher proportion of more uniform Lakewood with prerequisite for evolving suitable technology greater percentage of fibres, making the timber more packages for the 21st century. resistant to weathering/biodeterioration. - Newly emerging processing technologies allow the The challenges of plantation technology for use of smaller and younger trees. increasing export market include genetic improvement, novel biotechnology as well as high Effective Regional / international networking, input site management (shorter rotation, among the newly established institutions such as fertilisation, irrigation, wide spacing/thinning, TEAKNET, IUFRO 5.06.02 (Teak Wood Working pruning, etc.) practices that can modify tree form Party) and TEAK 2000, is suggested to pool the and wood. The newly developing technology limited available resources for sharing packages should aim at: technology/expertise that would avoid the - Improved log form (straight cylindrical bole with duplication of wasteful efforts. higher proportion of heartwood and desired dimensions) by minimising timber defects (bole Quality Tropical Hardwood Sub-Sector taper, log crookedness, fluting/buttressing, in Crisis proportion of knots, sapwood, tension wood, etc.) Raymond M. Keogh - desired wood figure (colour, grain, texture) TEAK 2000, 27 Loreto Grange, Bray County Wicklow, - more durable and stronger juvenile wood with Ireland more uniform distribution of properties. Tel: + 353-1-2864697, FAX: + 353-1-2861188, Email: [email protected] Optimising technologies to a great variety and combination of situations of producer countries will Keywords: Tropical hardwood; Sustainable Forest be another challenge for significant gains in Management; Carbon sequestration; TEAK 2000 processing (conversion, solar drying and The greatest challenge of the 21st century is to find preservation with environmentally acceptable ways to achieve sustainable development. This is methods) efficiency and utilisation of small the wider canvas against which forestry must be dimensional timbers (SD). They also include viewed in future. To achieve sustainable forestry utilisation of thinnings and SD materials for the development it is imperative that the resource we manufacture of value-added products such as finger- hand on must be able to satisfy the widest range of jointed structures (acceptable to architects and needs conceivable so that the ability of future building designers), decorative veneer, generations to meet their own needs is not panel/composite products, furniture components, compromised. handicrafts/ toys/ souvenirs as well as potential new Unfortunately, an aspect of forestry that has been products to meet societal needs. Revisions of neglected is growing, on a sustainable basis, of grading rules and evolving industrial codes of quality tropical hardwoods. The paper shows that conduct are necessary for internal quality control the sub-sector is far from sustainable - it is in deep and to assure the quality products as labelled crisis. Almost all of the supply of high grade commodities of SFM. tropical hardwoods originate from deforestation and degradation. The new promises of recent teak wood research It will be difficult to bring sufficient areas of programmes include: tropical forests under sustainable management to - The productivity of short rotation teak plantations supply present and future needs. This is partly is significantly high with mean annual increment of 3 because management systems in natural forests, 10-20 m /ha. designed to supply timber, have had variable levels - Without altering timber strength, plantation of successes. Most of these have been abandoned or managers can now aim at producing larger diameter are only applied on a minor scale. However, natural logs with greater yield (larger cylinder) of naturally tropical forests have the potential to sustain, not durable heartwood per tree by accelerating tree only the output of timber, but a wide range of goods growth with judicious fertiliser application/genetic and services. inputs. The annual allowable timber cut must, therefore, - Teak can produce the timber of optimum strength take into consideration the effects on the sustainable in relatively short rotations of 21 years. output of other goods and services and thus the allowable cut is less than the volume which could be

175 Division 5 removed if only timber had to be considered. the heartwood of mature teak trees is graded as very Defining allowable cut, therefore, is a contentious durable. As experienced in field tests, teak has high issue and a spectrum of opinions have arisen, reputation for its resistance to attack by wood- depending on viewpoints from a wide range of destroying fungi in ground contact. disciplines. Some conservationists question the Being native of South-eastern Asia (India, wisdom of logging natural tropical forests that are Myanmar, Thailand) and being planted extensively not under immediate threat. Creating conditions for in many other tropical areas, the existing plantations increased access may heighten the risk of in Brazil, the Southern part of the state of Mato destruction. Grosso near Caceres, are relatively less known. Data The level of disagreement around the subject of on the resistance to fungal decay of teak grown in natural forest management and conservation Latin-America, especially Brazil are very scarce. demonstrates that we are on the slopes of a very For different reasons it is important to gain thorough steep learning curve and it may be some time before knowledge about the natural durability of the wood we know whether or not it is possible to manage from young plantation teak trees. tropical forests in perpetuity outside traditional methods. The natural durability of Brazilian-grown relatively Therefore supplementary sources of sustainable young teak trees was investigated based on the hardwoods will have to be found or extreme methodology of the modified European pre-standard shortages are inevitable. Substitution may provide a ENV 807-Test 2 (CEN 1993). The protocol is based partial solution but is an admission that a balanced on implementation of test procedures under soil-bed output from forests as a whole is not possible. This test conditions which promote soft rot decay. Mass is totally counter to most definitions of sustainable and static bending (modulus of rupture and Young's forest development. Besides, shortages will put modulus) losses were determined at periodical increasing pressure on remaining sources and could intervals of exposure in the soil-bed. lead to further deforestation. Supplementary sources Material was investigated from three trees: two 22 may be developed by creating quality hardwood year-old- and one 14 year-old-teak tree. The tests plantations and these could assist in the shift - in were conducted on heartwood and sapwood part or whole - from natural harvesting to domestic samples. Wood sampling was carried out in such a cultivation. way that specimens of the same age were drawn However, quality hardwood plantations experience from the different logs. By doing so, material was considerable disadvantages compared to short obtained from the real juvenile period of growth of rotation, high volume softwood and fast growing the trees, viz. one age limit was at a few growth broadleaf species. rings from the pith; the other age limit is formed by A solution is to discriminate positively in favour of the last growth rings in the sapwood. in the two quality hardwoods. One simple but effective way to elder trees, two other sample locations provided achieve this is to allow advanced economies gain material: one from the growth rings situated half- carbon credits in developing countries within the way, and the other in the outer zone of the Kyoto Protocol, specifically and exclusively for heartwood. in the younger tree the half-way position planting quality tropical hardwoods. in the growth ring was omitted. A new initiative, TEAK 2000, has been designed to find ways of solving the present crisis in practical The preliminary results demonstrate that teak from ways on the ground. the middle West region of Brazil, grown in irregularly distributed trial plots of planted teak Fungal decay resistance of Brazilian- trees, shows fungal decay resistance comparable to grown teak in soil-bed assay that of naturally grown material in Asia. These Peter B. Laming, R. Sierra-Alvarez findings enable a good and reliable relevant Wageningen Agricultural University, Division of Wood prognosis on aspects of the natural durability of the Science, Sub-Dept. Forestry, Post Box # 324, 6700 Ah teak growing on the neighboring plantations. Wageningen, Netherlands The heartwood halfway its width and just bordering Tel: +31 317 478078, FAX: +31 317 483542, Email: [email protected] the sapwood in 22 year- old teak trees was ranked in the highest durability class (class 1). Heartwood Keywords: Tectona grandis; Juvenile wood, Soft rot from a younger tree (14 year- old) was also found to fungi; Natural durability; Soil exposure. display high decay resistance (class 2). Even the Teak (Tectona grandis L.f.) is one of the world's first formed heartwood around the pith showed, in best known and most valuable timber. Generally, all trees, high decay resistance (class 2). To a certain extent it is surprising to record that the sapwood

176 Division 5 material was ranked in class 3 (moderately resistant axial parenchyma cells in the outer part of sapwood to fungal attack). The high durability of Brazilian showed greater amount of starch grains as a reserve teak suggests that it can be confidently assigned the substance. To the direction of inner sapwood the practical end-uses under the conditions of exposure amount of starch grains decreased. Coupled with the involving high risk of fungal attack. decrease of starch grains, lipid droplets gradually increased towards heartwood region. in addition to Cytological characteristics of heartwood parenchyma cells, wood fibers contained both starch formation in teak (Tectona grandis L. f. ) grains and lipid droplets in the sapwood. These Todashi Nobuchi, Yuuko Higashikawa, Yusuf. S. Hadi, fibers were considered to be "living wood fibers". in Wasrin Syafii, Togar L. Tobing the heartwood, ray and axial parenchyma cells as Kyoto University, Faculty of Agriculture, 606-8502 well as fibers showed no trace of starch grains. The Kyoto, Japan amount of lipid droplets, on the other hand, was Email: [email protected] higher in the heartwood. Between the two plantation Keywords: Heartwood formation, ray parenchyma sites, there were no significant differences in cell, living wood fiber, starch grain, lipid droplet. cytological features. Teak (Tectona grandis L.) is one of the popular tree Chloroform-methanol extractives showed about 5 species planted in tropical countries. The and 8% of extractive content in sapwood and characteristics of teak heartwood are considered to heartwood respectively. Lipids were found as the be the most significant factors that influence the major components of the extractives, which high grade of wood quality. in this report, therefore, appeared to be responsible for the waxy nature of radial changes of cell contents from cambium to pith teak wood. The samples from Cepu showed more were cytologically observed. General characteristics distinct growth ring boundaries than those collected relating to heartwood formation such as sapwood from Sukabumi. The former had large sized pores as width, growth/annual ring, and wood color were characteristics of "ring porous wood". The growth also investigated. To understand the waxy nature of ring structure had the influence of rainfall in each wood, chemical experiment was carried out. site. From the measurements of a*, b*, L*, it was clarified that sample from Cepu had more yellowish Two plantation sites of different meteorological brown heartwood while that from Sukabumi had conditions especially of rainfall in Indonesia were dark brown color. selected. The plantations were located in Cepu (Central Java) which has relatively a dry season and Based on the above results, the characteristics of Sukabumi (West Java), where precipitation in dry heartwood were discussed in relation to wood season is rather abundant. The age groups of formation in teak. sampled trees included 5, 25, and 80 years in Cepu while they were 21, 26, 36 years in Sukabumi. After Growth Stresses and Some Wood felling, disks were collected from two different Quality Attributes in Planted Teak positions of the tree trunk representing tree base and Takashi Okuyama, H.Yamamoto, I. Wahyudi, Y.S. Hadi clear bole height. One part of the radial strips in a and K.M.Bhat disk was fixed with 3% glutaraldehyde for the Nagoya University, School of Agricultural Sciences, 464- cytological observations. Radial sections cut using 8601 Nagoya, Japan Tel: +81-52-789-4151, FAX: +81-52-789-4150, Email: sliding microtome were stained with Sudan IV, Nile [email protected] blue for lipid droplets and I2KI for starch grains. Part of small wood blocks was embedded in Epoxy Keywords: Teak; Growth rate; Wood quality; resin for the investigation especially of "living wood Growth stress; Girdling fiber". Transverse sections were also prepared to The tropical man-made forest has been recognized investigate growth/annual ring structure. The color to achieve the global environmental stability by way of sapwood and heartwood was measured by a of carbon sink as well as by the sustainable supply colorimeter (Nippon Denshoku Co. Ltd.). Wood of forest resources. Increase in the teak forest powder was extracted with chloroform-methanol to aiming at timber production rises the value of evaluate the total amount of lipids. tropical man-made forest and realizes the above Sapwood widths remained more or less constant in objectives. Natural old-growth teak is widely two vertical positions of the tree trunk in both the accepted as a high grade timber because of its plantation sites. Except for the young 5-year-old desired colour and luster, moderate wood density, trees, the sapwood widths remained almost same at high dimensional stability and good processing the lower part of the trunk in all selected age groups properties. However the trade of natural teak is of the trees. in the cytological observation, ray and being prohibited with some exceptions. in order to

177 Division 5 promote timber production in fast growing teak plantations, assessment on the qualities of planted 5.07.00 Energy and chemicals from forest teak in relation to the growth conditions is important biomass to maximize the potential of the trees by genetic improvement as well as silvicultural control. Bioenergy production potential from This paper discusses some of the results of our on- Australia's forests, its contribution to going research program that aims to elucidate the greenhouse targets and developments relationship between growth rate of planted teak and in conversion the wood qualities including growth stress. in Paul Fung, M.U.F. Kirschbaum, R.J. Raison and C. addition, the effects of girdling treatment on the Stucley CSIRO Forestry and Forest Products, Private Bag 10, qualities of teak were investigated as well. Released Clayton South MDC, 3169 Vic, Australia strain caused by growth stresses was measured in Tel: +61-3-95452222, FAX: +613 9545 2448, Email: teak stands in Central Java in Indonesia while some [email protected] wood properties were compared between the plantations of Indonesia and India. Australia is highly dependent on fossil fuels for energy. Under the Kyoto Protocol, Australia was - Annual increment in diameter as taken from the one of only three industrialised nations allowed to count of growth rings showed that the diameter increase its greenhouse emissions by 2010 to 108% increased linearly up to 30 years. The diameter of 1990 emissions. This represents a major range of 30-year-old plantation grown trees was 30- reduction as estimates for "business as usual" 50 cm in India in contrast to 15-25 cm for the same suggest emissions would rise to 128% of 1990 net age stands of mountain sites in Indonesia. Teak emissions. The Australian Government has from India with a dbh range of 45-88 cm at 60 years announced various measures to reduce Australia's still continued its growth, while that in Indonesia of emissions to meet the agreed Kyoto target. One 16-34 cm dbh at 38 years did not show decline in initiative is a mandatory target for electricity growth. retailers to source an additional 2% of electricity - The relationship between the heartwood ratio from renewables by 2010. With limited (HR%) and the stem radius (R cm) is represented by opportunities to expand other renewable sources, two linear lines. For the younger stands with less namely wind and hydro-power, and with than 10 cm dbh the value is HR = 9.2R while HR = technological and cost limitations on photovoltaics, 0.31 R + 84.0 was obtained for the older stands of wood has a potential to make an important 38-65 years with a radius of greater than 10 cm. contribution to both renewable energy supply and That is, the heartwood ratio rapidly increases to greenhouse gas mitigation by sequestering carbon in 90% at the diameter of 15-20 cm during younger the wood of living trees. Energy from wood can be age. greenhouse neutral. Australia's consumption of energy was about 3,000 petajoules annually (PJ/y) - The density increased towards the bark by 5-6 cm producing carbon dioxide emissions of 275 million from pith and then stabilized at the age 10 -12 years. tonnes (Mt/y). On the other hand, the microfibril angle decreased 3 towards bark until 10-12 years. From these Of the 23 million cubic metres (Mm ) of wood observations, it is expected that the planted teak harvested from Australia's forests in 1996, the production of wood products, accounted for 15 matures around 10-12 years. The density of 5-year- 3 3 old fertilized teak in India was greater than the non- Mm . The remaining residual wood of some 8 Mm would be a potential source of bioenergy. There are fertilized ones in spite of a faster increase in 3 diameter in the former. also more than 3 Mm of harvesting residues in the form of defective stems and branches which could be recovered. Significant areas of native vegetation are still being cleared from woodlands for conversion to grazing or cropping. The amount of unutilised wood was measured at 38 Mt (dry). in addition, there is on-going clearing of regrowth as part of normal grazing, which provides further resources. There are also opportunities to expand thinning programs in commercial forests to improve the quality of the growing stock to produce bioenergy from the young wood. These

178 Division 5 opportunities have not yet been quantified. Another in this area is also commencing in Australia for major forest biomass resource, currently chemicals. unquantified, is forest litter consisting of branches, With the availability of a large biofuel resource and twigs, leaves and bark. The quantity of this material emerging technology to make efficient use of it, is large and very rough preliminary estimates put it wood as biofuel has enormous potential to as high as 90 Mt (DW) yr-1. When this material contribute to Australia's energy supply and reduce accumulates on the forest floor it can become a net Greenhouse gas emissions. forest fire hazard. Even excluding forest litter and potential thinnings, the combined available bioenergy resources have a primary energy potential The Use of Fuelwood for Energy in Rural of 870 PJ/y of which 97 PJ/y is currently being used Areas for energy purposes for domestic heating, cooking Hoi Why Kong and industrial energy applications. The uncommitted Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia wood could potentially supply 26% of Australia's Tel: +603-6342633, FAX: +603-6367753, Email: primary energy needs. [email protected] New plantations are offering opportunities for Fuelwood such as rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) is the carbon sinks and already, this has spawned a dominant source of energy for many rural industries fledgling market for carbon futures trading. There is in Malaysia. Almost 85% of the energy source for a national vision to treble the area of plantations to 3 numerous medium-scale industries such as for the Mha by the year 2020 - much of this will be private smoking of rubbersheets, curing of tobacco leaves, farm forestry for multiple benefits including firing of bricks and the drying of foodstuff comes greenhouse gas mitigation. Some of this wood could from fuelwood. This paper therefore attempts to be used for bioenergy, and such markets could highlight some of the problems faced by these facilitate forest expansion. With expected growth 3 industries such as the lack of technical and scientific rates for new plantations averaging 20 m /ha/y, this knowledge to improve existing energy conversion is equivalent to sequestration of about 20 t/ha/y of systems and the availability of fuelwood at carbon dioxide. Thus one million ha of plantation competitive prices. It also focuses on the role of R could potentially sequester 7% of the national & D institutions towards overcoming these annual carbon dioxide emission. problems through better process heat production To convert wood to energy, there are a number of such as gasification and improved heat exchanger technologies available or under development. These systems. Special attention is focused on ways to are classed into combustion, carbonisation, reduce the specific fuelwood consumption (SFC) gasification and liquid fuels. Technologies in through better drying regime, better insulation combustion are well developed using packed bed, technique and improved front furnace control. The fluidised bed and suspension combustion systems. technical and economic appropriateness of these Small to large systems are commercially available measures in terms of combined energy savings and for home heating of several kW to large-scale pay-back period for one of the system is discussed. industrial boilers up to 60 MW for process heat or power generation through a conventional steam Public Perceptions to Wood in Energy cycle. Technology for charcoal making is mainly Production - Does the Environment based on primitive, low-cost batch kilns that are Matter? labour intensive where cheap labour is available. Ritva Toivonen, Liisa Tahvanainen Large-scale mechanised systems are used where Pellervo Economic Research Institute (PTT), Eerikinkatu there is a large production of wood feedstocks. in 28, FIN-00180 Helsinki, Finland one efficient system the volatiles of carbonisation Tel: +358-(0)9-3488844, FAX: +358-(0)9-34888500, are burnt to recover energy for process heating and Email: [email protected] power generation. Gasification technologies have The Kyoto Agreement and energy related been commercially developed for heat production. atmospheric emissions have been among the main Small-scale gasification technology is under topics in international environmental discussion development that should offer efficient electricity lately. Common understanding is that emissions generation. Gas turbines are providing prospects of need to be reduced in order to preserve the high efficiency. There is some interest in ethanol environment. It can be assumed that consumers' production by cellulose hydrolysis in Australia. Fast interest towards bioenergy has increased due to the pyrolysis has been the centre of development general concern about environment. But only a attention in Europe to produce pyrolysis oil to run minor share of consumers are willing to pay a price boilers and even diesel power plants. Some activity

179 Division 5 premium for environmental product characteristics, Even though the results of this study are limited to and there is limited knowledge about other factors three regions in Finland, it can be assumed that influencing the potential demand of bioenergy, such Finnish consumers, on average, would like to see as consumers attitudes and interest toward increasing use of biofuels in energy production, and bioenergy. This information is, however, of vital a few might even pay a small premium in energy importance for promotion and thus development of price for this. But probably increase in price bioenergy markets. competitiveness is still needed before bioenergy production grows in large scale. However, This study is conducted to describe consumers environment can be expected to matter in energy opinions and expectations related with energy, in choices: Bioenergy may reach considerable market particular wood based bioenergy, in Finland. The share as soon as it becomes fairly price competitive data for the study was collected in late spring 1997 and is available for the majority of consumers. through a mail survey to 1 200 households in three Currently there may be special market segments for regions in Finland: an urban region in Southern bioenergy even with some price premium. The Finland, and a small town and a rural municipality general preference of renewable energy sources in Eastern Finland. A structured questionnaire was gives also a reason to assume that consumers might used, and 400 questionnaires were sent to each support society’s investments in bioenergy. region. Response rate was 44 % and thus the data consisted of 524 accepted answers of consumers of 5.07.01 Fundamentals of wood age between 18 to 70. The data was analysed using carbonization multivariate statistical methods: factor analysis and discriminant analysis. Effluent gas analysis as a tool for The results show that Finnish consumers emphasise studying wood carbonisation processes safety as one of the most important characteristics in M. A. Connor, D. C. Shallcross energy production. On average, consumers preferred University of Melbourne, Department of Chemical that solar energy, wind power and wood based Engineering, Vic. 3052 Parkville, Australia energy should be increased in Finland’s energy Tel: +61-3-83446631, FAX: +61 3 9344 4153, Email: supply in the future. [email protected] Consumers’ demographic background seems to be Wood carbonisation, or charcoal-making, is an linked with different energy attitudes. Persons being ancient process. Historically, its main use was in the in high decisive roles in the society emphasise low recovery of metals from their ores. This remains its priced energy as necessary for economic growth but most important use today; however, charcoal also they emphasise environment less than others. in finds widespread use as an urban fuel and in contrast, high education and living in urban area specialised applications such as silicon metal seemed to be connected with more than average production. concern on environment. Female and young Charcoal is produced by a variety of techniques. The consumers were the most willing to reduce their efficiency with which these convert wood into standard of living and compromise the general charcoal varies widely. The most efficient approach economic growth in order to reduce harmful would appear to be thermal decomposition under environmental impacts of energy production. Low pressure, a technique developed recently at the energy price and continuing use of fossil fuels or University of Hawaii. Retorts are also nuclear power were seen necessary for economic comparatively efficient. However, both these growth most often by male and relatively aged approaches require a level of technical consumers and those in high professional positions. sophistication beyond the reach of many small to Consumers in rural areas regarded domesticity and medium scale charcoal producers. For these low price somewhat more important in energy producers, kilns are likely to remain the choices than consumers in urban areas. predominant means of charcoal production. Overall, price seems to be a very important criteria Whilst some of the smaller kilns are decidedly in consumers’ energy choices. But most consumers inefficient, some of the more established designs assume that they would change to use "green" perform quite well. Undoubtedly the present designs electricity if this would be available without extra of such kilns and current operating practices are the cost in comparison to other alternatives. About half result of much hard won practical experience and a of respondents think that they would choose "green" good deal of on-site research and development electricity also if the price is a few percents above work. However, it now appears as if further gains in other alternatives. efficiency are most likely to come from a better

180 Division 5 understanding of carbonisation process Keywords: Analysis; carbonisation; charcoal; gas; fundamentals. These fundamentals, as they relate to pyrolysis; wood. a charcoal kiln, can be divided into two groups. There are the microscale processes, or the processes Energetic valorisation of wood wastes that occur within or adjacent to individual wood and by-products by staged pyrolysis pieces. Then there are the macroscale processes, i.e. W. Quirino, A. Donnot, E. Mougel, A. Zoulalian the fluid flow, heat and mass transfer and reaction Université Henri Poincare - Nancy I, LERMAB - Equipe processes that occur in and around the stack of Genie des Procedes, BP 239 Vandoeuvre les Nancy, wood as it slowly decomposes into charcoal. 54506 Nancy, France Tel: 33.383.91.20.57, FAX: 33.383.91.21.02, Email: There has been considerable research undertaken [email protected] into the processes occurring within individual wood pieces during carbonisation. Since these normally New European regulations will forbid the disposal occur in the absence of air, methods for the study of of wood wastes (waste wood from demolition, these pyrolytic decomposition processes usually framing, packing, pallets, etc.) or wood processing involve maintaining the wood pieces under study in wastes (particleboards, wood composites, varnished an inert gas environment. Following the process of and painted woods, etc.). in these wastes wood is decomposition is usually done by thermogravimetry, associated with other, different materials (glues, which has the disadvantage that it sheds little light paints, preservatives, paper, etc.). Their recycling is on the chemical changes occurring in the wood. It is not always feasible and presently the preferred possible to study the off-gases from the pyrolytic method for their disposal is energetic valorisation. decomposition process using sophisticated This last option can be achieved in two ways, by instrumentation employing one or more mass direct combustion or by pyrolysis in the absence of spectrometers. Such instruments provide a wealth of oxygen; both approaches yield a solid and a gas information but the costs are high. phase, both fuels. An alternative and more affordable effluent gas The direct combustion route produces a large analysis approach is being tested at the University of volume of hot flue gas containing not only the main Melbourne. in this approach, a mixture of sand and products of wood combustion (CO2, H2O) but also the material under study is heated at a constant rate several undesirable pollutants such as nitrogen in a controlled flow of some oxidising gas, usually oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds, and volatile metals (mercury, lead, etc.). The most recent dry air. The O2, CO2 and CO content of the effluent gas is measured. Experience to date has shown that European Community accord on environmental the levels of these components exhibit peaks and preservation requires that the combustion gases troughs that appear closely related to the should be treated before their release to the decomposition peaks identified using atmosphere. The volume of gas to be treated is thermogravimetry. in addition, information can be significant but it can be decreased if the energetic obtained on the rate of evolution of carbon and other valorisation process is split into two or more stages. elements at different stages along the heating For several complex wood wastes, the thermal process. With the addition of instrumentation to degradation of the materials present in association measure the moisture content of the exit gases, the with the wood (urea-formaldehyde resin, above technique should yield quite detailed polyurethane varnish, etc.) takes place at information on the types of chemical changes temperatures different from the ones at which wood occurring at different points along the constituents degrade. So, by operating at decomposition pathway. temperatures between 250°C and 280°C, it was To date this technique has been used solely to obtain possible to achieve substantial degradation of the information on the processes that occur within urea-formaldehyde resin (53%), while at the same individual decomposing particles. However, the temperature level only 20% of the wood was conditions in the reactor where the wood or other degraded. As the volume of gases produced at this biomass is heated have a number of similarities to temperature level is limited (30% of the total conditions in the wood stack of a charcoal kiln possible), treatment of these gases to remove during the preliminary heating stage, when air is pollutants is economically more feasible. Moreover, being admitted. It would seem possible that the the solid residue obtained is practically free of effluent gas analysis technique can be used to obtain polluting elements. Similar approaches have been information related to this phase of charcoal kiln used for two other wood additives, polyurethane operation, and the prospects for doing this are varnish and preservatives based on chrome, copper examined. and arsenic salts.

181 Division 5 In this paper only the pyrolysis of wood wastes The wastes used for the destructive distillation and associated with UF resin is considered. The optimal the charcoal obtained from it were analysed under conditions for their treatment by pyrolysis are given, specific Argentine Institute of Material specifying the compositions of the gas phase and the Rationalisation (IRAM) standards. solid residues. After that, the pyrolysis stages are The results obtained show a charcoal yield of modelled in order to get relevant kinetic models that approximately a 48 % by weight and a fixed carbon can be used to design an industrial pyrolytic unit. yield of greater than 82 %, both calculated on a dry Keywords: Analysis; carbonisation; charcoal; gas; basis. To sum up, the charcoal yield, on a dry basis, pyrolysis; wood. produced from wastes by destructive distillation of the species Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco is Destructive distillation of wood enlarged in a 49 % as regards the typical kilns, Ernesto O. Sanabria, José Paz operating at a heating rate of 60 °C/h and with a Universidad Nacional del Nord Este, Comandante final carbonisation temperature of 450 °C. The fixed Fernandez No 755, 3700 Chaco Pcia. Roque Saenz Pena, carbon yield, on a dry basis, achieved through dry Argentina distillation of wood wastes under conditions leading FAX: +54 - 3732 - 420137, Email: to greatest weight yield, was 83,9%. This is 13 % [email protected] greater than the corresponding figure for Keywords: Distillation of wood; Aspidosperma conventional kilns. quebracho-blanco; Pyrolysis; Charcoal; Fixed carbon 5.08.00 Production and utilization of bamboo and related species. Challenges for The charcoal that is produced in the Province of the new millenium Chaco, Argentina comes mainly from wastes from sawmills and carpenter's shops. This charcoal is Increasing the Service Life of Bamboo made from different species such as: Aspidosperma Rajamoney Gnanaharan quebracho-blanco, Schinopsis balansae, Astronium Kerala Forest Research Institute, 680 653 Peechi, India balansae, Patagonula americana, Prosopis sp, etc. Tel: +91 487 78 2037, FAX: +91 487 78 2249, Email: [email protected] The species Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco is the most abundant in the region of Parque Chaqueno Bamboo is one of the fastest growing plants in the and the charcoal, which comes from it, is the best plant kingdom. Bamboo clumps can be established paid in the market. The production of charcoal from in 5-6 years from the time of planting. Culms reach this species is made in typical kilns, like the ones maturity in about three years. Once the clumps are used in the building industry, with a charcoal yield established mature culms can be harvested every of an approximately 25 % and a fixed carbon year. Bamboo, because of the fibrous root system, is content of 74 %, both percentages on a dry basis. well-known for its soil binding property. The potential of eco-friendly bamboo for various Because of the above mentioned, the purpose of this applications is now being realized throughout the paper is to propose a more efficient alternative for world. Unlike some timbers which are naturally the use Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco, namely durable because of the presence of toxic chemicals, producing charcoal by destructive distillation. any species of bamboo is naturally non-durable. in To do so, charcoal was produced from South and Southeast Asian countries, where bamboo Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco through grows naturally there is a 'bamboo culture'. Bamboo destructive distillation. This raw material, which is referred as 'poor man's timber' and for centuries came from waste from sawmills of the whole has been meeting the society's need for low value province, was processed in a Destructive Distillation products like mats, baskets, agricultural implements, Pilot Plant which has a vertical retort, with enough constructional material (scaffolding, rafters), etc. room for 50 kg of wood, with indirect heating; an Most of these products could afford to be replaced air condenser and a cross-current water one, a after a short use. However, to ensure sustainable multiple temperature meter connected to a availability of bamboo resource to meet the society's thermocouple type "K". needs, the service life of bamboo should be increased. Whether bamboo is used as 'poor man's The destructive distillations were made according to timber' or as value-added products for various a Central Composites Design for heating rate applications like furniture, building components like between 60 °C/h and 120 °C/h and final flooring, trusses, etc., treatment with preservative carbonisation temperature between 450°C and 550 chemicals becomes essential. °C.

182 Division 5

Depending on moisture condition of bamboo (in Evidently, joints are the key problem, but a green or air-dry); hazard condition of application (in considerable progress can be seen. in modern ground contact, out-of-ground contact exposed or bamboo housing, not only full bamboo culms are under cover); method of treatment (pressure or non- being used, but also sawn or split bamboo strips, pressure) and type of material (in round form, split and panels made of bamboo. Roofs mainly are form or slivers), different preservative chemicals are supported by trusses, in which field considerable suggested. This paper reviews critically the development towards good engineering applications advantages and disadvantages of the different will be reported. treatment techniques available (like sap Houses have to be resistant against disasters like displacement, steeping, hot-and-cold, pressure earthquakes and hurricanes. Applied scientific impregnation, etc.) and the different preservative research has made good progress; evaluation reports chemicals (coal tar creosote, copper-chrome- made after disasters give also guidelines for arsenate, boric acid, sodium pentachloro phenoxide, improvement. Emergency shelter, or prefabricated etc). Also, the traditional methods evolved in or by self help, is also an aspect of bamboo housing different bamboo using countries for providing related to disasters. The paper will highlight the said protection to bamboo are also critically reviewed. items.

Bamboo as a housing material China Bamboo Industry: Comparison Jules J.A. Janssen Eindhoven University of Technology, B/CO, P.O. box Study on Socio-economics, Marketing 513, NL 5600 Eindhoven, Netherlands and Policy in Some Main Production Tel: +31.40. 247 29 48, FAX: +31.40.243 85 75, Email: Areas [email protected] Fu Maoyi, Yang Xiaosheng, Zhong Maogong, R. Manuel Bamboo has been a valuable material for housing Perez, B. Belcher and Liu Can Research Institute of Subtropical Forestry, CAF, 73# for centuries. The tradition shows many good Daqiao Road, 31400 Fuyang Zhejiang, China examples how people could solve their own need for Tel: 0086-571-3310001, FAX: 0086-571-3341304, housing and other type of building. Unfortunately Email: [email protected] also many examples can be seen of short durability, lack of resistance to disasters, etc. Here results of China bamboo industry is now contributing USD applied scientific research and good engineering 1.5 billion annually to its economy development. practice can improve the use of bamboo towards a For its clear understanding and further development proper engineering material with a status equal to in the region and the world, a cooperative project recognised materials like steel, concrete, brickwork among two Chinese institutions, CIFOR and and timber. Local traditional knowledge is limited to INBAR was laid out recently. From east coast to the region of origin; this knowledge cannot be south-west marginal areas of China, totally 500 transferred to a different region or climate. A farmer families, 69 factories and 77 traders, which knowledge based system as a decision support are located in 6 main bamboo production counties during the design process can improve this with various levels of intensive management for considerably. Standardisation of test methods can bamboos, have been surveyed. Based on data improve the level of testing in local laboratories, assessment and analyses, the production-to- and can allow the comparison of test results from all consumption system has been made, the partaking over the world. Next to such an international main bodies in bamboo sector and their systems, standard, a manual with simple and clear major running departments and their explanations about how to do tests can be a great interests/conflicts with the partaking main bodies help for laboratory staff. For engineers and and the running mechanism of activities have also architects, national building codes are lacking with been identified. It is found that bamboo sector is respect to bamboo as a building material. An really important to farmer's and county's economy in international model for national building codes all main production areas, particularly to the might be helpful. The said documents will be treated potential target groups such as poverty rural people in the paper, as well as simple handbooks for field and disadvantaged group, for the income from practitioners. which can occupy more than 60% of their total family incomes. The socio-economic environment Self help will remain very important in housing, not of bamboo sector's development, such as policy, only to save costs but also to be sure about the marketing mechanism and scientific technology, is involvement of the future inhabitants. This self help described, from which both problems/constraints can be supported with a balanced aid by and potential/opportunities faced to the local farmer, prefabricated and industrialised housing systems. factory manager, trader and government officer are

183 Division 5 identified and discussed. Finally, the main measures Bamboo as raw material for wood which could overcome those problems and processing in Europe constrains for leading to sustainable bamboo sector Joris van Acker, de Vos, Joris, De Guyter, Sigrid and are put forward for discussion. Stevens, Marc SHR Timber Research, Wildekamp 1c, NL-6704 AT Bamboo Aesthetics: New Dimensions of Wageningen, Netherlands Tel: +31-317-425422, FAX: +31-317-425783, Email: Form and Function [email protected] Raja Fuziah, Bte Raja Tun Uda Crafts Council of Malaysia, c/o B-12/2 Jalan Selaman 1, Bamboos are endemic in all parts of the world 68000 Ampang, Malaysia except in Europe where they did not survive the last Tel: +6 03 4703145, FAX: +6 03 4703146, Email: glacial period. The most northern natural [email protected] distribution limit is the North of China, Bamboo Aesthetics: New Dimensions of Form and corresponding to the latitude of south of Europe. Function introduces a brief historical glimpse of the Since the first introduction of Bamboo in Europe rich tradition of bamboo craftsmanship in Malaysia (1827), about 400 different genotypes have been and in the region. It describes how bamboo, as an imported. The actual annual production of bamboo indigenous raw material, has had an immense plants in Europe is estimated in millions units nearly impact on the economic, social and cultural life of exclusively for ornamental purposes. Europe is the community, the artisans and the craft industry. It technologically more advanced in areas like micro- also highlights the influence of bamboo on the propagation and the selection of superior genotypes development of concepts and design issues related of bamboo. The bamboo plant producers envisage at to the world of interior design and its imaginative long term the industrial transformation of bamboo. and creative application and usage in the design of Co-ordinated by the industry a group of research living spaces of modern homes and institutions. To institutes and universities have been working on the illustrate this, a special collection of images (slides) evaluation of bamboo as a large-scale crop to be will be presented to illustrate the variety and used as alternative raw material for wood processing diversity of its form and function that has evolved in industry in Europe. Some 10 different bamboo the last hundred years. It would include the use of species, mainly of the genus Phyllostachys were bamboo as a traditional and contemporary product. selected and evaluated on their production and The paper will also discuss the areas of concern and adaptation parameters in plantations representative issues relating to bamboo as a material, the use of for western and southern Europe. From additional technology and tools, design development and research work on harvesting techniques and socio-cultural factors that have contributed to this corresponding crop management systems it seemed process. More importantly, the primary concern is to that bamboo has potential as an alternative crop for focus on the plan for the future use of bamboo: to the agricultural sector in Europe. explore how bamboo as a vital source of indigenous Growing bamboo, taking into account the European raw material to the craft industry could be sustained: economic structures, is however not feasible without to ascertain how efforts in research and major industrial applications. Within the framework development, product development, promotion and of the research project called 'Bamboo for Europe' marketing of bamboo products could be further financed by the European Commission both enhanced. production criteria and market potential were taken Finally, in the context of the spirit of cooperation, it into consideration. The goal of this project was to would be essential to explore and determine a consider the use of bamboo as alternative raw strategy, direction and methodology which could material to wood however without changing wood foster regional as well as international collaboration processing. It is generally accepted that at this for the development of bamboo for the future. In moment no industry in Europe will invest in this context, what programmes, initiatives and processing techniques specific for bamboo. incentives for example, should be developed to Furthermore labour costs in Europe do not allow encourage a greater effort in tapping the potential input of extra manpower in production processes. usage of bamboo within the next five years. Different industrial uses were considered, tested and Suggestions will be offered with a view to develop evaluated. The possibilities for large-scale specific proposals and recommendations at this utilisation of bamboo as additional or alternative discussion of international gathering. raw material for the wood processing industry range from low quality commodities to highly developed

184 Division 5 engineered products. The main areas for potential use in industrial wood processing techniques in Bamboo Silvicultural Theory and Europe are particleboard, medium density Practice in China - Review and Prospect fibreboard and laminated products. Although several Yiping Lou, Xiao Jianghua, Fu Maoyi, & Sheng Weitong production problems needed to be solved and some International Network for Bamboo and Rattan, Natural limitation have to be taken into account, it can be Resources and Ecological Applications, Branch Box 155, stated that the wood processing technology can use P. O. Box 9799, 100101 Beijing, China bamboo. The successful introduction of bamboo in Tel: +86-10-6495 6964/ 82 Ext. 404, FAX: +86-10-6495 Europe as alternative crop for the agricultural sector 6983, Email: [email protected] will need the additional support from European China has a long tradition of cultivating bamboo policy makers. The result of this research proves resources and using the resources as materials for however that the forest sector could well profit from housing, tools, furniture, pulping, medicines, and an alliance with the agricultural sector in producing foods. in China modern cultivation theory and additional high quality lignocellulosic raw material. technical practices started in late of 1950's. Based on the research progress in bamboo atonomy, Properties of Exterior Grade resource inventory and zoning, biology, physiology, Particleboard from Bamboo: Influence and ecology, a systematic bamboo silviculture has of Age, Particle Size and Wax Addition been developed, which includes theory and Jalaluddin Harun, Jamaludin Kasim, Abd Latif Mohmod technology of bamboo seedling propagation, & Mohd Nor Yusof afforestation and high-yielding cultivation and University PUTRA Malaysia (UPM), Faculty of Forestry, management obviously characterized by Chinese Serdang, 43400 UPM, Selangor, Malaysia features. These bamboo silvicultural theory and Tel: 603-9486101 ext 2411, FAX: 603-9483745, Email: technology have greatly promoted resource [email protected] cultivation and management, in which bamboo In the study of exterior grade particleboard from productivity has been greatly raised. The bamboo, homogenous and three-layered achievements and development of silvicultural METLAmine urea-formaldehyde particleboards theories and practices in China are unique in forest were produced. For the homogenous board, the silviculture in the world. of the bamboo silvicultural effect of age was found to affect the board theory and technology, the high-yielding cultivation properties significantly but since the differences theory and technology to improve stand productivity between actual mean values were rather small, it can is a very important component. Based on the be assumed that the particles from any age group are research findings in experimental trials in suitable for particleboard manufacture. The increase comparison between technical practices, the in resin content was observed to be accompanied by technical prescriptions on control of bamboo a significant increase in the mechanical strength, community structure and soil management have reduction in water absorption and thickness swelling been developed. From late of 1950's to 1970's, the properties. By varying the particle sizes, the theoretical research and practices were concentrated mechanical and physical properties behaved on improvement techniques for low-yielding stands significantly different. Wax used significantly aiming at raising productivity of low-yielding increased the water resistance but reduced the natural bamboo forests, in which the techniques mechanical properties. For the three-layered progressed and were implemented slowly. in 1980's, particleboard, the mechanical properties and a high-yielding cultivation technical system, to dimensional stability of the sample were found to achieve high-yielding products in edible shoots and decrease with the increment of core particle sizes. timbers, have largely progressed and been Wax addition, on the other hand, increased the implemented in extension practices. in 1990's, a board stability towards water exposure but high-yielding technical system on high-yielding, decreased the mechanical characteristics. good-quality, high-benefits with oriented cultivation Comparison between homogenous and the three- goals and techniques, in terms of principles of forest layered board were also discussed in this paper. management by categories, have been developed and implemented in a large scale, in which bamboo forests are managed in 13 types of 4 categories such as timber-producing stands, shoot-producing stands, ecological maintenance stands, as well as landscaping and reservation stands, to exploit the potential of bamboo forests in economic, ecological and social benefits.

185 Division 5 By the brief review of the bamboo silvicultural theory and technical practices in the past 40 years in Studies On Fertilizer Requirement of China, it is found that there are many limitations in Culm Cuttings, Seedlings and Cultivated existing silvicultural theory and technology and Stands of Bamboo (Dendrocalamus some important issues should be addressed to meet hamiltonii L. Munro) the increasingly demand for bamboo resources and Harsh Nayyar ecologically sustainable management in the coming COA, Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, new century. Department of Agroforestry & Environment, 176 062 Firstly, the limitations exit in theoretical foundation Palampur, India of forming present high-yielding cultivation FAX: 91-1894-30511, Email: [email protected] techniques, which are mainly characterized by lack DendroCalamus hamiltonii L.Munro is a versatile of understanding of the unique mechanism on bamboo of Hilly state of India, Himachal Pradesh. bamboo self-crowed generation and propagation and The planting material is a major limitation in its bamboo physiological integrity in culm-rhizome rapid multiplication and plantation. Organised systems in synthesis, consumption, transportation, nurseries and plantations are extremely rare hence and storage of nutrients and physiological matters, awareness in their management is lacking which which results in lack of control mechanism of restricts the potential bamboo productivity in the bamboo stand productivity. The future research State which otherwise has least area under bamboo should aim at simulating and modeling physio- plantation among other States of India. We are ecological process to control productivity process at involved in raising its planting material through a mechanic level. Secondly, the existing techniques various vegetative methods and supplying the same have a poor capacity to control productivity process- to foresters. An organised plantation has also been based at quantitative level. As a fact, existing raised in about 25 ha of wasteland, which acts as a techniques were based on the experimental trials, source of resource material for its further which lacks of modeling and controlling propagation. in separate experiments, fertilizer management techniques based on growth and yield requirements of juvenile culm cuttings, transplanted simulating models with emphasis on quantitative saplings, seedlings and cultivated stands of local relation in/between well-organized rhizome-culm bamboo "Maggar" were investigated to improve its systems. The future research should aim at productivity. Single nodal juvenile cuttings (I-year simulating and modeling dynamic growth and yield old) of uniform size (5.0 cm) and age were planted and management models reflecting the impacts of in March in the field in 3 replications in a field plot management practices. Thirdly, there is no size of 1.0m x 0.30m. Nitrogen as urea was applied quantitative site evaluation and classification and in different doses viz. 3.0(N1),6.0(N2),9.0(N3) and the evaluation of capacity and potential for bamboo 12.0g(N4) per culm cutting in combination with forests which has no secondary meristem growth in 5.0(P1) and 10.0 g (P2) of phosphorous as single diameter and height once they matured in relative super phosphate(SSP). Nitrogen was applied as half short months. The future research in this aspect dose during planting and another half at should aim at matching site with management rhizogenesis stage. SSP was applied as single dose practices for specific management-oriented goals. at the time of planting. The days to sprouting of Fourthly, future research should aim at the these cuttings was reduced by all the treatments over maintenance of long-term site productivity to the control but the reduction was most significant overcome the negative impacts of existing with N2P2, N2P1, N3P1, N3P2, N4P1 and N4P2 silvicultural practices on sustainable site treatments. These treatments were, however, productivity and to rehabilitate degraded site. insignificantly different from each other. Days to Fifthly, the existing silvicultural practices produce rooting was significantly reduced over the control some negative impacts on the function of by N1P2, N2P2, N2P1, N3P1, N3P2, N4P1 and conserving water and soil of bamboo forests. The N4P2treatments. Out of these treatments, N3P2 was future research should aim at develop a technical most observed to be most effective. The days to system to a achieve harmoniously the economic, rhizogenesis were reduced significantly over the ecological and social benefits from managed control by N3P1, N3P2, N4P1 and N4P2 treatments bamboo forests. and N3P2 was found to be most effective among these. The differences among these were, however, insignificant.The rooting % was increased significantly over the control by N2P1, N3P1, N3P2, N4P1 and N4P2 treatments. N3P2 and N4P2 caused maximum rooting among all the treatments

186 Division 5 though the differences between them were in the state of Veracruz. This stand is inside the insignificant.Though all the treatments increased the crater of a volcano with a conical shape and very sprouting % but the increase was non-significant. steep slopes. On the rim and inside the volcano, N1P1 was particularly effective but the difference Fagus is the only canopy species, while it is from the control and other treatments was codominant with Quercus spp. on the edge of the insignificant.A significant increase in survival % crater. Few saplings are present in the forest, but over the control was observed with N3P2, N4P1 and seedlings occur. The volcano is in a valley that is N4P2 treatments while other treatments resulted in almost completely deforested; even the flanks of the insignificant increase in survival %.The saplings volcano have been converted into cornfields and generated from cuttings were transplanted in the pastures. field in subsequent year in March and fertilizer We collected cores from the Fagus population at doses were applied as Farm yard manure @ 5 Acatlan. We prepared the cores using standard Kg/pit/sapling(T1), FYM+15 g N+10g P+5g (T2), dendrochronological techniques and developed FYM+30 g N+20g P+10g K(T3), FYM+45 g mean chronologies for the cores from the crater, top N+30g P+15g K(T4), FYM+60 g N+40g P+20g and rim of the volcano. We examined the individual K(T5).A significant increase in tiller height was chronologies for periods of suppression and release. observed over the control with T3, T4 and T5 We analyzed the chronology from the crater with treatments with T3 as the most effective one. T3, T4 temperature and precipitation data from nearby and T5 resulted in significant increase in internode Xalapa, Veracruz, recorded since 1920. We length over the control. T3 caused maximum and screened all possible climate models by computing significant increase among these treatments. T4 least-squares regressions of the standardized resulted in a significant increase in the no. of tillers chronology against all the climate variables, and over the control. Adult clumps of uniform age and then fitted climate models to the beech chronology. dimensions were selected for the experiment and We also collected seedlings, counted their bud scars, fertilizer doses were applied as Farm yard manure then cut several disks from the base of each one and 10 Kg/Clump (T1) FYM+100 g N+ 50 g P+25g K counted the rings. (T2), FYM+200 g N+100 g P+50 g K (T3), FYM+300 g N+150 g P+75 g K (T4). A significant The oldest core from the crater dated to 1877. The increase in the production of new culms was oldest trees were growing in the crater, and it observed with T4 over the control while other appears that the beech trees spread from the top to treatments caused a non significant increase over the the rim of the volcano. The cores were taken at control. Internode length and culm height were DBH so the trees are likely older than our samples. increased significantly by application of T4 in The seedlings we collected were 16-46 cm in height comparison to control. A significant increase in and had as many as 13 rings and bud scars. Current culm girth was observed with T2 over the control February mean temperature and February and July while the other treatments caused a non significant precipitation of the previous year were the best increase. The no. of nodes was increased predictors of growth of the Fagus population in the significantly over the control by application of T2, crater, but the variation explained in the chronology T3 and T4. Among these T4 was observed to be the was only 16% (R2=0.16, p.=0.006). Similar results most effective treatment. have been obtained by other researchers for Fagus spp. in other parts of the world. Apparently growth 5.09.00 Tree ring analysis of beech is affected more by other factors than by variation in precipitation and temperature. The Dendroecology of Fagus grandifolia var. individual chronologies showed that the trees mexicana, a beech species growing in experienced long periods of unrestrained growth an extinct volcano in Mexico with fewer periods of suppression than Fagus spp. Margaret Devall, Guadalupe Williams-Linera that have been studied in other areas. USDA Forest Service, Center for Bottomland Hardwood We will discuss the arrival, establishment and Research, P.O. Box 227, MS 38776 Stoneville, USA permanence of Fagus in the volcano. We will Tel: 601/686-3161, FAX: 601/686-3195, Email: mdevall/[email protected] consider periods of growth and suppression in the individual chronologies, and the factors that Fagus grandiflora var. mexicana has a very influence ringwidth of the trees. We will compare restricted distribution in the montane cloud forests growth of trees in this population with that of other of Mexico. It occurs in five small stands in addition Fagus populations. to the population we studied, which is the southernmost Fagus forest in the world, at Acatlan

187 Division 5 there is more periodic behaviour in the north than in Interregional comparison of long-term the south in high, medium, as well as lower growth variability, growth responses frequencies. in the north there are concentrations of and growth controlling climatic forcings variance clearly evident corresponding roughly to in Finland using millennial chronologies periods of 2.5, 3, 4, 11, and over 33 years. in the south the peaks in spectral density occur at about of Scots pine 3.3, 5, and 10 years. A most remarkable feature of Markus Lindholm, Matti Eronen, Mauri Timonen, Jouko Merilänen the two chronologies is their remarkable spectral Saima Centre for Environmental Sciences, Linnank. 11, dissimilarity. However, the two chronologies vary FIN-57130 Savonlinna, Finland similarly around several pointer years, e.g. 1050, Tel: +358-15-575 9856, Email: 1075, 1210, 1350, 1395, 1550, 1770, and 1840. [email protected] The number of tree-ring chronologies built in The periodicity of growth of tropical Finland is increasing as research interest is trees for dendrochronological studies: spreading from the open canopies of the northern the genus Cedrela forest limit to the closed and more complicated Mario Tomazello, Paulo Cesar Botosso, Claudio Sergio stand structures of the south. We have built ring- Lisi width chronologies of Scots pine for the northern Universidade de St. Paulo, Departamento de Ciencias Florestais, ESALQ, St. Paulo, Brazil and southern parts of the boreal forest belt, covering Email: [email protected] the last 7500 and 1300 years respectively. The present work focuses on long, high-resolution The genus Cedrela is constituted by 7 species climatic proxies during the Holocene. These records widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical provide e.g. an indication of natural, pre- american forests. Three of them occur in Brazil: C. anthropogenic climate variability, either singly at odorata, the amazonian forest's cedar; C. fissilis, the specific geographical locations or in combination on dry land forest's cedar and C. angustifolia, the continental and perhaps even hemispheric scales. atlantic forest's cedar. Among the tropical genera, We have applied means of measuring the strength of Cedrela is potentially one of the most important for the common 'signal' both within and between the dendrochronological studies. two millennial chronologies. in addition we have In the present paper, some aspects related to the estimated chronology reliability, as Expressed growth periodicity of these species and C. lilloi, Population Signal, and as a function of time. Overall which occurs in Argentina, are discussed with correlation between the two chronologies, over the emphasis in research done in America Latina. last millennia, is 0.32, and significant at the 0.01 Results refering to the phenological rhythm (leaf fall level, when both chronologies were standardised the and flush, flowering and fruiting), seasonality of same way, using 67 % n splines. The present work cambial activity by dendrometer measurements and shows evidence that a common climatic forcing cambial marking are shown and related to climatic influences the northern and southern pine stands. conditions, mainly rainfall. Descriptions on the Interestingly, the signals show opposite features as microscopic wood structure of these species of well, which is evidence for growth inversions, Cedrela are also presented. The appearance and caused possibly by climatic inversions. During some nature of the growth rings show distinct and well- periods, growth conditions seem to have been defined annual growth rings, which are delimited by favorable in the south, while they have been a thick band of initial parenchyma partly including unfavorable in the north. the wide earlywood vessels forming a semi-ring- Using various response function approaches, we porous probably arised in the beginning of rainy have confirmed that growing season temperatures season. The X-ray densitometry analysis of the intra govern the growth rates of northern pines. We have and inter growth ring density variations normally also demonstrated that towards south, tree-growth showed that the minimum density values were becomes less effected by temperatures, and more coincident with the initial parenchyma bands, effected by e.g. precipitation. Going from the north marking precisely the growth ring boundary. The to the south, the variability of radial growth clearly growth ring analysis on cross section of the disc decreases, and the variance of ring-width series taken from the base of the trunk allowed the dating becomes smaller. and growth rate determination of Cedrela odorata trees. The spectral densities of the northern and southern chronologies were also compared as functions of frequency, viz. cycles per year. Very generally,

188 Division 5

clearly shows the coherence of long-term Dendroclimatic network throughout temperature and tree growth changes in different Russia parts of Siberian Subarctic. That long-term change E. A. Vaganov agrees well with temperature changes in the Institute of Forest, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of northern hemisphere inferred from other indirect Sciences, 660036 Krasnoyarsk, Russia sources (as for example, from Greenland ice cores) FAX: (3912) 433686, Email: [email protected] and shows the constant appearance of cycles with There are several main purposes of establishing 180, 76-78, 22 and 11 years length. For instance, dendroclimatic network over whole Siberia: tree growth increases during the Medieval Warm 1)creating of dense net of sites to design the long Period (900-1200 A.D.) as well as in the middle of tree-ring width and density chronologies for analysis the current century. of tree growth response to climate change at local, At a regional level there is a regularity in tree regional and global scales; 2)quantitative growth response to climate along the temperature reconstruction of temperature and precipitation gradient from northern timberline to steppe zone in variation in different parts of Siberia based on tree- Middle Siberia. Limiting effect of the early summer rings and dendroclimatic zonation of territory; temperature in northern taiga is replaced by effect of 3)using statistical and simulation models which winter precipitation (negative) and June temperature describe the relations between tree growth and in middle taiga, and spring precipitation (positive) climate in evaluation of net primary productivity of and early summer temperature (negative) in the wood component of ecosystem and carbon budget forest-steppe transition zone. But the conditions at both at regional and global levels; 4)comparison of the beginning and in the first part of a season (soil supra-long temperature variations during several last moisture and temperature) play the key role for millennia of the Holocene inferred from tree-rings annual radial tree growth and wood productivity with other indirect indicators of temperature change; along the meridional transect. This conclusion was 5)to extract the tree growth response due to also tested using statistical and simulation models. anthropogenic changes from natural ones. The high relationship between limiting factors and Dendrochronological material was collected from tree growth allows to reconstruct summer more than 240 sites in Siberia. The densest network temperature, winter or spring precipitation based on covered the Subarctic (64 sites), Middle Siberia regional tree-ring chronologies. The reconstructions (Enisey meridian)(52 sites), Altai mountains (22 reveal weak positive trend in summer temperature in sites), steppe zone in Buryatia (18 sites), the region Subarctic during the last century and clear around Lake Baikal (28 sites). The oldest living decreasing summer temperature and increasing trees (Larix cajanderi) which own age reaches 850- winter precipitation in the middle taiga of Central 880 years were found in the low part of the Siberia. If such trends relate with documented Indigirka river. Most of the tree-ring chronologies warming in the northern hemisphere it means that at based on living trees has a length between 300 and the regional scale climate changes show their own 850 years. For some remarkable sites with abundant regularities and tree growth responds to regional dead and subfossil wood the chronologies with combination of temperature and moisture more than length more than 2000 years were built. These sites to the global trends. are located in subarctic region (lowland of the Taz Dendrochronological data are used to evaluate the and Indigirka rivers, Eastern Taymir) and in long-term basal area increment of trees in different timberline of the Altay mountains. in addition to parts of Siberia. Only in Subarctic the long-term tree-ring width the tracheid radial size and wood changes of basal area increment correlate well with density chronologies were measured which allows the northern hemisphere temperature, but in the to analyse the tree growth response to climate more southern areas of Siberian taiga they do not. change with high resolution in time (seasonal, So, in the first approximation the annual primary monthly). productivity of wood component of forest In Subarctic the main climatic factor affecting radial ecosystem doesn’t increase due to global warming tree growth is the early summer temperature. The trend but depends more on regional changes of synchrony of the year-to-year tree-ring variations in temperature and precipitation. The same results different parts of Subarctic was used for were obtained from the reconstructed fire history in dendroclimatic zonation of subarctic belt and 6 different taiga zones using absolutely dated fire subdivisions were revealed with common scars and tree-ring chronologies. in the northern interannual variations of summer temperature taiga the fire frequency agrees well with summer anomalies. Analysis of supra-long chronologies temperature changes (similarly both at the regional and global scale), but in the middle taiga the fire

189 Division 5 frequency is determined more by moisture changes and during the last several centuries completely 5.10.00 Forest products marketing disagree with northern hemisphere temperature changes. The ways how tree-ring data use in carbon Environmental activity and timber cycle models of forest ecosystems are discussed. certification in marketing of forest products How useful are wood anatomical Jari Kärnä and H. Juslin features in tree-ring analyses? University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Economics, Rupert Wimmer Post Box # 24, FIN-00014 Helsinki, Finland University of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Botany, Tel: +358 9 1917736, FAX: +358 9 1917729, Email: Gregor Mendelstrasse 33, A-1180 Vienna, Austria [email protected] Email: [email protected] Keywords: Environmental marketing, Timber The most frequently used variable in tree-ring certification, Marketing of forest products studies is ring width, including that of the Environmental and social concerns in the society earlywood and latewood separately, as well as the will set new challenges for companies. in this new relative proportions of the two zones. Other studies age of environmental consumerism, products are include tracheid dimensions in softwoods or vessel being evaluated not only on performance or price, size and arrangement in hardwoods. Wood density but on the social responsibility of manufacturers. profiles have been frequently measured in This may create strategic marketing opportunities softwoods and also in hardwoods. Most studies for manufacturers who can demonstrate strong consider usually a narrow selection of tree ring environmental performance. However, marketers features rather than comparative studies using a may feel unsure how environmental issues should large set of features; this research, however, be integrated into traditional marketing. One includes 16 anatomical parameters measured in specific and currently topical issue for forestry dated tree ring series from twenty spruce trees from industry is the potential of timber certification as the Eastern Ore Mountains, Germany. .The purpose tool of environmental marketing. Implementation of was to show differences in climate sensitivity timber certification could be considered as an inferred from the tree rings features, as well as example of marketing function that could be a possible effects of features upon wood properties. reflection from environmentally oriented strategic Ring width and latewood proportion did not show decisions. significance relationships to monthly climatic data, The purpose of the study is to describe and compare whereas maximum density, latewood cell wall how environmental issues are emphasised in the percentage in latewood density both were highly marketing planning of European forest related correlated to temperature and precipitation. The industry. The countries surveyed are Finland, climatic signals expressed in resin duct density, ray Germany, Sweden and the UK. Theoretically, the height, tracheid length and microfibrillar angles concept of environmental marketing was examined. were less pronounced and therefore only of limited importance. of 16 tree ring parameters, densitometry The cross-sectional data for the study was collected - as an indirect measure of xylem anatomy - seems by using standardised personal interviews with to have the greatest potential to indicate climatic sample size ca.100 in all countries. The Finnish, conditions. German and UK data was conducted in 1997 in the context of an EC-FAIR research project on potential of timber certification. Equivalent data from Sweden was collected in autumn 1998 in order to get another big European producer of forest products for comparison. The industries / marketing channels surveyed were the following: Pulp and paper industry, Sawmills and panels, Joinery and other secondary wood processing, Marketing channel intermediaries, and Paper buyers. A special measure instrument was constructed by using multivariate methods to assess environmental activity of the industries of each country. The summated scale was done by focusing how environmental issues are emphasised in three hierarchical decision levels of

190 Division 5 marketing: strategic, structural and functional level. The ability to use scientific or engineering advances The validity of the scale was tested by examining its (new technologies) to meet market needs has relationship with the importance of timber become a primary business success factor. New certification in marketing. Thus, the potential of technology is also a major factor influencing growth timber certification as a marketing tool was and productivity within a firm. However, the forces assessed. that lead to technological innovation are not always from within. Often a company receives technology Most of the European forest industries are relatively push from outside sources. However, the transfer well prepared for integrating environmental issues process is not always smooth. Public sector research in their marketing. Environmental issues are central represents an important source of technology. in the in the marketing strategies of the European forest major Western industrial countries, government and industries. On the other hand, it must be said that university research organizations account for over they are not the most central ones. Integrating 40 percent of the national research and development environmental issues in marketing planning is not a (R&D) expenditures. However, many technology genuine proactive strategic decision. The industry transfer efforts between public (federal government) has been forced to do it. The development of and private sectors have been disappointing. integrating environmental issues into marketing planning could be even deeper if genuine Like all businesses, government organizations buy, environmental responsibility is regarded important. sell, provide, and deliver ideas, services, and goods. Government organizations today face limited The companies also regard timber certification as a funding and personnel. But they must grapple with necessary tool for marketing of forest products. The growing needs for their services. Public results show that the level of environmental activity organizations often find it necessary to seek help varies between countries and industry sectors. from other organizations and individuals to achieve Finland seems to be the country where their objectives. in the case of diffusion of environmental issues are emphasised most in government-sponsored innovations, it is challenging marketing of forest products. in the UK these issues to find parties who can facilitate technology were emphasised less than in the other countries. transfer, and once the parties are identified, elicit the From the industry sectors, pulp and paper industry necessary assistance from them. Numerous research seems to be the most active in environmental issues. efforts have been conducted on the technology Generally, two thirds of the forest industries in all transfer efforts between government-sponsored countries thought that a widely used certification innovation and private sectors. However when system is needed. However, German forest industry researchers try to gain an understanding of the had most reservations towards certification. efforts, they primarily look for end-results and tend Regarding the importance of certification as to neglect the information flows and communication marketing tool, the level of greenness of the processes that lead to these results. companies seems to have significantly more explanatory power compared to the background The Wood in Transportation Program, USDA Forest factors such as country or industry sector. The more Service, has put considerable effort in transferring environmentally active the companies are the more timber bridge technology to the private sector. important marketing tool they regard certification. However, much of these efforts have focused upon permanent timber bridge structures for highways or The Development of an Effective pedestrian use. Another potential large market may Marketing Communications Network for exist for portable timber bridges for use in forestry Successful Technology Transfer: An and logging operations. and little research has been Empirical Study Based on the Diffusion conducted on how to facilitate technology transfer to the target users (loggers). of Portable Timber Bridge Technology Robert Smith, Ren-Jye Shiau The main goal of this study was to evaluate Virginia Tech, Department of Wood Science and Forest information flow through the entire communication Products, 1650 Ramble Road, 24061 Blacksburg, VA, channel to logging operations and identify key USA intermediaries who can help the USDA Forest Tel: 540-231-9759, FAX: 540-231-8868, Email: Service - WIT Program facilitate effective [email protected] technology transfer. This study utilized a unique Keywords: IUFRO; Technology transfer; backward-trace method to gain an understanding of Communication channels; Timber bridges, and how innovations (portable timber bridge Marketing technology) are diffused. The research consisted of the following steps to attain the final goal of

191 Division 5 developing strategies to successfully diffuse products of pulp and paper industries. However, in portable timber bridge technology from public the first phase we have studied products like research sectors to private sectors. First, the research windows, doors, various glued wood products, evaluated how the end-users (loggers) receive panels and different components of wood housing information, why they prefer certain channel(s) to products. The method for wood product analysis has others, and how they make decisions to use or not been created with a perspective of gaining use technology from developers (WIT). Second, the advantage of computer optimization modelling and intermediaries were identified by loggers and were economical analysis, which are closely linked with evaluated on how they receive information from this area of research. For instance a process of technology developers; how they evaluate the designing new wood products for a new customer information; how they currently promote; and group will sig-nificantly benefit of this kind of diffuse ideas or innovations. Finally, the technology method. developers were evaluated on how they currently In the second phase we have collected detailed promote and diffuse ideas or innovations. Upon source information of various wood products for the analysis of the network of information flows, a analysis. This started with a litterature analysis, strategic marketing plan for successful transfer of databases as well as material given by research portable timber bridge technology was developed. organisations and companies. Besides we collect information by interviews from product and market Method For Forecasting Demand and areas, which are essential for wood product Profitability of Wood Products On competitiveness. Market - Wood Product Analysis Jussi Virtanen In the third phase we develop a method for Helsinki University of Technology, Laboratory of Wood forecasting wood product specifications, amounts, Technology, Post Box # 5100, 02015 Helsinki, Finland qualites, and prices. The use of this method Tel: +35894514268, FAX: +358-9-4514277, Email: combines product qualities, costs, volumes, and [email protected] other factors related to product competitiveness. Likewise this method can be used in a new way to Keywords: wood, wood products, demand, demand seek new value added products or product analysis, profitability, profitablity analysis, specifications for a company. This forecasting forecasting, forecasting demand, quality, quality method for instance helps a company or other user estimation, price, price estimation of this method to define a potential position for a The research aims at developing a method for wood product on markets, which opens a new forecasting wood product specifications, amounts, information decision level for wood product qualites, and prices. development and investments. The method opens an opportunity to analyze profitability, competitiveness, and strategic position The Internet: Implications for Business on market for wood products, e.g windows, doors, Practices in the Forest Products and other wood construction products. The method Industry enables reseach scientists and companies to estimate Richard Vlosky, Rene‚ Fontenot, Lydia Blalock future's wood product volumes, product Louisiana State University, School of Forestry, Wildlife, specifications as well as to create products' price and Fisheries, Rm. 227, LA 70803 Baton Rouge, USA estimates. The method combines product's technical Tel: (225) 388-4527, FAX: (225) 388-4251, Email: [email protected] specifications and market factors related to product competitiveness. This kind of wood product analysis Keywords: Internet, forest products, eBusiness, model has never before been developed. The goal North America for this research project is closely linked with total eBusiness is the application of Internet-based goal of adding value for products of wood industry. technologies for conducting business. eBusiness In the first phase we have chosen a group of wood offers revolutionary tools for business development products and created a method of definition for all and management. Through the Internet, many needed product properties. The choice of the wood barriers that were once roadblocks to new markets, products is based on the specific needs of the wood resources and competitive positioning can be product industry as well as the computer model the reduced or even eliminated. in addition, the Internet wood product analysis is closely linked with. The levels the playing field by allowing small companies wood product analysis covers a wide range of to be as visible and accessible as the largest products of solid wood, engineered wood as well as companies. Although businesses vary greatly, along

192 Division 5 with their depth of participation on the Internet, marketplace. Firms that consistently deliver superior their goals are often the same: to find new benefits are highly valued by business partners. This customers; new sources of profit; and new ways of also helps to establish, develop and maintain strong doing business in a global marketplace. Technology, relationships. eBusiness is one means for while important, is not the limiting factor in developing such a competitive advantage. eBusiness. What is difficult is managing the changes in business strategies and internal corporate 5.11.00 Non-wood forest products processes that must take place for a company to take advantage of eBusiness. Wild sago palm and the role it plays in eBusiness was studied in the context of the forest the culture of Papua New Guinea products industry in the United States and Canada. Sudesh Aggarwal University of Technology, Department of Forestry, One thousand solid wood products and 300 pulp and Private Mail Bag Lae, Papua, New Guinea paper companies were surveyed. The sample frames Email: [email protected] included the top 100 companies (by production volume) in each sector (solid wood products, pulp Spontaneous occurrence of sago palms (Metroxylon) and paper). The remaining companies sampled were in the swamp forests of Papua New Guinea has randomly selected from the population. created vast reserves of this natural resource in the country. The world's largest contiguous swamps and Overall, respondents were asked to discuss their forests of sago palms are found in Papua New current or planned eBusiness strategies and the Guinea. These forests cover an estimated area of one impacts that have on dealings with customers and million hectares spread over different provinces. suppliers. Specifically, the study objectives were to: The people of Papua New Guinea consider sago Examine the current and future uses of eBusiness in socially important as they use it extensively on the industry and to identify how the forest products special occasions, rituals and feasts. It constitutes a industry is investing in and leveraging eBusiness. staple food and an essential building material. Sago Mail questionnaires were used to conduct the study. forms the backbone of rural economies in many A list of questions was generated for the survey provinces. There are numerous ways in which sago instrument drawing from constructs and measures palm has become a part of people's daily life. developed by the researcher in previous studies or Unfortunately, forestry literature of this country adapted from other sources. The survey was often lacks mention of sago palm as a resource. reviewed and revised by the researcher, a pre-testing There are five species under the genus Metroxylon, sample of five companies and the research client. of which two occur in PNG. M. Sagu is found on the An iterative process resulted in the final instrument. main land and M. Solomonense grows on the Results indicate that 40 percent of respondent Bougainville and Solomon Islands. Both species companies are conducting some type of eBusiness. vary considerably in general characteristics as well Implementation of eBusiness by respondents has as growth habit. Locals consider M. Solomonense a taken place in the recent past. Nearly ninety percent better yielding species that is easier to work with. of respondents developed eBusiness in the past three While the paper discusses the biological and years. Earlier implementation (before 1996) was ecological differences between the two species, it done by larger companies, typically lead adopters of also highlights some reasons why there has been no technology. The primary reason respondents effort to cultivate M. Solomonense on the mainland. implemented eBusiness was as part of an overall Sago is a tree of tropical low lands with high corporate strategy (mean of 3.5 on a 5-point Likert irradiance and humidity, and an average temperature scale of agreement). These technologies are well- of 26oC. Its natural distribution is confined to SE planned activities that are meshed into the corporate Asia and nearby Pacific Islands. Aerial and ground fabric as opposed to being independent or non- surveys conducted in Papua New Guinea show that integrated. Second, and the only other reason ranked sago palms grow here till 1200m above sea level. As above neutral (3.0 on the 5-point scale), was the sago palms grow on a range of soils that vary from goal of retaining customers. Respondents registered the land inundated with water most of the year to a number of general concerns they have about drier and less flood prone areas, vegetation types in conducting eBusiness with concern about security of which they grow vary accordingly. The paper makes information ranking highest. an effort to provide a description of these vegetation Companies seek products, processes, and types. It also discusses the effect of traditional social technologies that add value to their offerings in an forestry practices on the distribution of sago palms. effort to become or remain competitive in the

193 Division 5 Sago is a staple food in Papua New Guinea, yet its Notwithstanding the scarcity and erratic nature of cultivation is not a common practice. The ease with global NTFP data, there is evidence that NTFP which it grows in the forests of PNG enables the represent an impressive economic asset in many people to meet most of the daily needs of palms tropical countries. The overall value of NTFP from the wild. Locals have planted some palm trees extracted from tropical forests is estimated at US$ in the past but left them unattended after planting. 90 billion per year. The trade in the 150 most These so-called cultivated areas acquire a wild significant NTFP alone amounts to around US$ 11 appearance after a few years. billion per year, with the major part being exported from tropical countries to the northern hemisphere. Cultivation of this kind has been motivated by either scarcity or the need to bring palms closer to Nevertheless, some researchers question the dwelling areas. in order to benefit the large viability of NTFP economies. They conclude from populations living in other remote locations, experiences made with individual NTFP traded on cultivation of sago needs to be spread to other international markets, such as rubber or rattan: once swamplands and potential sites. To them sago can NTFP become high value goods in international provide a good supplement towards food and a trade they are believed to suffer from economic better substitute to kunai grass or coconut thatch for pressure to overexploit the resource base, or face constructional purposes. competition from plantation products or cheaper substitutes. Thus, it would only be a matter of time Finally the paper concludes that sago is a vital until NTFP from natural forests lose their market resource for people of Papua New Guinea. Sago shares and, consequently, plant extractive palm as such may not be contributing to the cash economies would disappear. economy of the country, but its significance in the subsistence economy can’t be ruled out. At present, It may be doubted that substitute-induced market sago palms are in abundance in the forests of PNG collapse is a distinctive feature of NTFP markets. and not much attention has been paid towards its That products become obsolete should rather be management. However with increasing population, viewed as a typical feature of any commodity traded demand for sago palm is steadily rising. Therefore it on whatever market. Marketing and related policies becomes necessary to develop sustainable typically aim to extend the life cycle of products and management systems for sago palms that will not to prevent substitution. If this challenge has not only rehabilitate some of the unproductive swamps been met in the past concerning important tropical but will provide a sustained supply of sago in many NTFP, this may be understood as a consequence of years to come. lacking marketing strategies and poor resource management rather than being a distinctive feature Marketing of Non-Timber Forest of NTFP markets. It should also be borne in mind Products: A Key to Conserve Natural that reported examples for substitute-induced Tropical Forests? market collapse primarily concern international Michel Becker, Antonia Engel markets while there are numerous examples of University of Freiburg, Institute of Forest Policy, Markets NTFP which long have been sold successfully on and Marketing Section, Freiburg, Germany local and national markets despite the modern FAX: 62 251 622100, Email: [email protected] substitutes available. Even on international markets declining demand for certain NTFP must not be Expanded and improved commercialisation of non- conclusive, as consumer preferences may shift back timber forest products (NTFP) will increase cash to products that had lost significant market shares in incomes of rural households in tropical countries, the past. thereby motivating local actors to conserve forests through sustainable management. This expectation There is evidence that negative examples of has recurrently been raised by environmentalists and extractive economies primarily result from the lack development professionals over the past 15 years. of even basic marketing strategies. This is partly due But does the very nature of NTFP markets and to low accessibility of adequate market information, marketing underpin this expectation? This paper in particular as regards demand for NTFP traded on reviews the main features of NTFP markets and international markets. in addition, actors on NTFP marketing based on experiences made in the past markets face uncertainty when land tenure is vague and current market trends. Particular attention is and, hence, NTFP are open access resources. The given to the role of rural households in the development of medium-term marketing strategies marketing chain and how their economic position is further hampered by the at times ephemeral nature could be strengthened. of consumer preferences, poor post-harvest treatment, lacking processing facilities to meet

194 Division 5 consumer needs, and low investments in customer cover, structure, and floristic composition of the relations. forest. However, in some case this may lead to an increase in forest cover, rather than the opposite. At the very beginning of many NTFP marketing chains are rural households. When involved in the These findings justify speculations on alternative mere collection of NTFPs, they typically receive a development options such as estate crop nominal portion of the final sales price. Their development, as currently is taking place. Oil palm, bargaining power tends to be weak and, worse, the for instance, originally an NTFP, is currently a poorest among them may be deprived of lucrative prominent plantation crop in Sumatra and NTFP resources by external forces. To change this Kalimantan, the two largest islands of Indonesia. situation, improved marketing alone is insufficient. Especially when local incomes are considered the Providing extractors with the control over NTFP most important, NTFP development may lead to resources and acknowledging the crucial role NTFP smallholder production with much less impact on play in rural economies is also indispensable when biodiversity, carbon storage, and other rural households are to be empowered. Based on environmental features. such general pre-requisites, specific steps to develop These findings suggest that the commercialisation- NTFP marketing in favour of rural communities are conservation proposition needs to be broadened to to be made , e.g. encouraging co-operative account for changes as described in this paper. processing and sale, introducing appropriate market Natural forest conservation as opposed to converting information systems, and promoting the access to for agricultural use is only one effect of NTFP promising segments of national or international commercialisation. This effect can be expected to markets through preferential chains. occur only under a limited number of circumstances. in other cases, NTFP can be commercialised in a Management and production of NTFP way that it can be produced by smallholders and and the commercialisation/conservation become an alternative for large-scale estate proposition development. Such NTFP development will also Bruce Campbell, Wil de Jong have a beneficial effect on biodiversity and other University of Zimbabwe, Institute of Environmental environmental functions of the forest landscape. Studies, Center for International Forestry Research, Harare, Zimbabwe Email: [email protected] NTFPs and rural poverty alleviation: the economics of scepticism Central in much of the discussion on NTFPs is the William Cavendish proposition that their commercialisation will lead to Imperial College-Royal School of Mines, T.H.Huxley biodiversity conservation. This proposition has School, London, United Kingdom several problems. The theory of the historical cycle Email: [email protected] of extractive economies predicts that when a NTFP Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) have been becomes demanded widely, this eventually will lead embraced by the international community as a to its cultivation or the production of substitutes. in means of simultaneously promoting the economic addition agricultural transformation theory predicts development of poor, rural households and of a diminishing role of NTFP extraction when rural conserving forests and woodlands. This paper uses economies expand. the perspective of household economic analysis and This paper is based on research on local forest data results from various sources to suggest that management among Dayak farmers, and ribere¤o much of this enthusiasm is misplaced. farmers in Peru and extensive literature review. It First, there is nothing special about NTFPs from the concludes that when NTFPs become economically perspective of rural households. They are simply more important, swidden agriculturists who rely on goods and services with particular economic the forest for an important part of their livelihood characteristics, and their use can only be explained needs, will produce NTFP through some kind of with reference to the constrained economic choices forest management. As a result, managed forests are faced by most rural households. The typical rural common in among many swidden agriculturists. household is extremely poor; faces very high These forests often maintain important levels of transactions costs of trading in formal markets and species diversity and structure, sometimes similar to therefore extensive formal market failure thanks to a the natural forest that they replace. If some NTFPs poor infrastructure; faces considerable production become the major source of income, intensified risk against which it is hard to insure; has only production may develop. This will lead to changes partially monetised economic activities; has low in local land use, with consequent impacts on the

195 Division 5 levels of education; and has low levels of financial concentration of biologically active substances and and physical capital. nutritions in the tree foliage and possibilities to utilize it as a raw material for animal feed (mainly There is much evidence that poor, rural households broadleave foliage) and for obtaining hight quality rely heavily on NTFPs for economic goods and natural substances for pharmacy, cosmetics, food services, so that these resources are a critical - industry and other branches of economy (mainly though often hidden - source of welfare for rural coniferous and some specific broadleave species households. However, this heavy reliance on NTFPs foliage). The another non-wood part of tree - bark is a function of the poverty and economic also content many usable substances. A large constraints of rural households rather than free number of such natural substances urgently needed choice. Indeed, it is the economic characteristics of for insuring of peoples and animals vitality, but we NTFPs that makes them attractive to poor can't obtine its by modern technologies of synthesis. households. NTFPs are usually derived from The many of them is founded only in the tree commons areas and are collected and consumed foliage, for example different terpenes, polyprenols rather than purchased with cash; as open access a.o., but not founded in agricultural crops and other goods they are low value and can be consumed by flora. the poor; NTFPs are collected using unskilled labour, in which rural households are abundant; The genetic older gymnospermous species contain NTFP processing requires low levels of education more specific biologically active substances to and physical capital; and NTFP use can help offset compare with angiospermous trees. The risk to production risk. So NTFP economic characteristics decrease the forest productivity by tree foliage match the economic constraints of the rural poor. removal from forest area simultaneously with final cutting is minimal for boreal forests. The harvesting In consequence, there will be many problems of tree foliage may be done on the basis of modern associated with the commercialisation of NTFPs to tree harvesting technology and technic using in drive rural socio-economic development. in forest industry, for example, "green chips particular, there is little evidence that as households technology" and other. The environmental friendly get richer they still wish to consume most NTFPs. technologies for tree foliage processing and Most NTFPs are inferior goods so that demand will obtaining more than 30 commercial products are fall as incomes rise. There are considerable elaborated and tested. The new profitable product problems overcoming the high transactions costs of lines for replacing synthetic substances in trading in NTFPs and the lack of storage facilities pharmacy, food industry, pesticide industry, fodder for perishable goods. If an NTFP is commercialised, and other branches of economy are tested, the high demand levels have led in the past to rapid market of natural substances is rapidly growing. The extinction of the resource, especially where held most popular today is different solid extracts form under open access, and can trigger the process of tree foliage on the basis of polar and nonpolar resource privatisation. Higher prices for NTFPs will solvents as well as concentrates or pure compounds also trigger investment in domestification or the obtained from extracts. The present knowledges search for technical substitutes. about tree foliage and bark chemical composition of Pinus, Abies, Pices, Betula, Ginko, Eucaliptus and Non-wood Tree Biomass - a Raw other species is a good basis for development of Material of Coming Century utilization but for many species we need additional Mauris Daugavietis investigations. The expierence of different countries Latvian Forest Research Institute "Silava", Rigas str. 111, show that utilization of non-wood tree biomass, LV-2169 Salaspils, Latvia mainly tree foliage, will become a very important FAX: +(371) 7 901359, Email: [email protected] part of forest economy, especially in the The commercial stem wood harvesting is a agroforestry, forest plantations and boreal dominant method of forest utilization today. The coniferous forests in the early of 21st century. utilization of knot wood and small sized items from thinnings for energy is developed only in countries with intensive forest management. The forest biomass studies show that 5-20 % of tree biomass is a tree foliage (succulent tissues or living part of tree biomass) - i.e., leaves, neadles, twigs, flowers, nonlignified shoots, called "loging residues" today. A lot of investigations show a great

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Institutionalism explains more broadly. Opposite A comparison of theories on institution these two theories are Political Ecology theory and relevant to non-timber forest products New Social Movements theory that focuses on the development actors and their group formation and action. in Wil de Jong between these categories is Social Capital theory Center for International Forestry Research, P.O. Box that explains why groups become successful in 6596 JKPWB, 10065 Jakarta, Indonesia building common property regimes, why they are Tel: 62-251-622622, FAX: 62-251-622100, Email: w.de- successful in building united efforts to benefit from [email protected] economic opportunities or engage struggle for rights Besides the resource base and markets the to resources. Social Capital theory may also explain institutional environment in which NTFP are why previously contesting groups may find common collected or produced is of crucial importance for ground and engage in concerted efforts to address any successful exploitation. Institutions are mutually identified conflicts of development or understood here as property rights, rules of conduct, environmental problems. more formalised regulations and laws, in short These five theories, when compared, for a large part instruments that condition behaviour in the complement each other in explaining the several economic and social sphere, but also the processes that take place when NTFP based organisational structures that govern resource use. economies develop. They therefore, are each This paper compares five important theories that important when addressing institutional issues in relate to institutional issues in the NTFP under NTFP based development efforts. situations where NTFP based development is an option to understand their scoop and compatibility, Conservation Protection and and to understand under which circumstances the Sustainable Use of Medicinal Plants framework of a particular theory is the more P. L. Gautam, S.P. Raychaudhuri, Neelam Sharma appropriate one for analysis. These theories are: new National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Pusa institutionalism; common property theory; political Campus, 110012 New Delhi, India ecology theory; new social movements theory; Tel: +91-11-5783697, FAX: +91-11-5785619, 5819459, social capital theory. Email: [email protected] New Institutionalism theory explains the historical Keywords: conservation & protection, genebanks, processes of institutions to reduce transaction costs, bioresources, threatened plants, medicinal plants and so to optimise economic gain for society at The last decade has witnessed skyrocketing interest large. Common Property theory takes a specific case in herbal medicines. At present, 95% collection of of tenure, namely common property and explains medicinal plants is from the wild using under what conditions common property will unsustainable practices of collection/harvesting. emerge and are viable. On the other hand Political Indiscriminate exploitation of natural resources to Ecology theory Social Capital theory and New fulfil escalating consumer demands besides other Social Movement theory explain contested access to anthropogenic activities have led to the decline of natural resources, for instance NTFP that have natural and wild populations. Current rate of species become economically attractive. Political ecology extinction coupled with inter alia ravages of theory describes vagaries of NTFP exploitation for diseases/insect pests has made conservation of local social groups as part of wider power networks. medicinal plants, an urgent activity. There is a Social movements theory highlights the processes of global recognition of safe conservation of formation of these groups and what defines their bioresources of medicinal plants. These resources success in claiming access or local ownership. can be conserved employing holistic approach of Social Capital theory explains why groups are amalgamating both in situ and ex situ methods using successful in organising themselves, why they are new emerging technologies to ensure sustainable successful to build social control mechanisms, or use. concerted efforts in achieving sustained NTFP based development. These theories, when compared, In situ conservation approach allows for continued appear to complement each other as they explain and dynamic adaptation of plants to environment. different aspects of the institutional dimensions of Contrastingly, ex-situ conservation requires NTFP based development processes. New maintenance of germplasm outside their original Institutionalism and Common Property theory are habitat. Plant diversity is being conserved in field closest related as they explain the rules aspects of gene bank, seed gene bank, in vitro gene bank and institutions, being Common Property a more cryobank. Among the ex situ methods, rare and specific case of tenure rules that new curious plants can be conserved as living collection

197 Division 5 in field genebanks, arboreta, botanical/herbal devastated the chief sandal growing areas of South gardens etc. Conventional conservation of seeds in India. Temporary remission of the disease seed genebanks is the most popular strategy. symptoms by tetracycline treatment and electron However, it sometimes poses problems in case of microscopy confirmed Phytoplasma to be the threatened species, as the seeds may be inadequate causative agent. The present paper will elaborate on and/or recalcitrant. in vitro genebanks are the above activities. increasingly being used as an alternative to conserve such species. Cryopreservation offers the possibility The significance of NWFP for tropical of conserving germplasm under suspended growth societies: an analysis of statistical data for indefinite period in a limited space with on NWFP utilization in East and minimum inputs. DNA storage also needs to be Southern African countries integrated in conservation programme in a planned Wulf Killmann, H. Küstel; Laura. Russo; P. Vantomme; manner. Sven Walter The comprehensive and safe conservation of FAO, Forestry Department, Wood and Non-Wood available diversity including medicinal plants is the Products Utilization Branch, Viale delle Terme di major aim of conservation efforts at National Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy FAX: +39-06-570-55618, Email: Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR). The [email protected] collection, conservation, documentation and scientific management of the precious biowealth has Accurate, reliable information on non-wood forest thus emerged as a priority area. in this endeavour, products (NWFP) utilization and trade is an considering the need to survey enormous genetic essential tool for forest management decision- resources and their distribution, priorities have been makers at all levels. in most tropical countries, the worked out, keeping in view the relative degree of current coverage and quality of existing information threat. Attention is given to adopt different at a national, sub-regional and regional level is conservation methodologies available in a inadequate for policy analysis and decision making. complementary way to conserve the collected By compiling national reports on the importance of germplasm. NWFP in tropical countries, FAO aims to improve The precious germplasm has been collected at the availability and dissemination of statistical data NBPGR through explorations from different on NWFP. in this effort, the major NWFP are phytogeographical zones of India. The germplasm is identified by country, and their utilization and collected from forests; villages and herbal gardens source, as well as production system, are described. in the form of live plants, seeds, fruits and other Key findings are presented in a summary by region. plant propagules. of these, over 100 species are For countries in East and Southern Africa, maintained in pots and under field genebanks at its preliminary results indicate the following regional regional stations. Seed samples of 579 and 220 patterns: in East Africa, gums and resins, medicinal accessions are conserved in seed genebank and plants and bee products are the main NWFP; cryobanks, respectively. in vitro techniques have whereas in Southern Africa, edible plants, medicinal been used as an aid to clonal propagation and plants and bushmeat are the NWFP of major conservation especially for threatened species. The importance. application of tissue culture techniques for multiplication and conservation of these plants The analysis of available production and trade data appears a promising option. Employing these on NWFP revealed that they are often mixed with strategies, cultures of a few medicinal plants such as statistics on agriculture crops and that, although not Kaempferia galanga, Rauvolfia always easy, a proper segregation between serpentina,Tylophora indica, Picrorhiza kurrooa, agriculture crops and NWFP is required. Rheum spp and Gentiana kurroo have been Internationally agreed-upon terminology, concepts conserved for varying periods. in vitro repository and definitions on NWFP, combined with improved maintains 60 collections comprising 20 methodologies for the regular collection of threatened/important species as shoot cultures. statistical data and for monitoring of NWFP use, are essential for a better understanding of the Many important forest medicinal plants like significance of NWFP to tropical societies. Sandalwood (Santalum indicum and Santalum album), Eucalyptus suffer from infection with Phytoplasma (earlier designated as Mycoplasma like organisms, MLOs). Raychhaudhuri and his group worked on 'Spike disease', which has

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In the present philosophy of forest management, in Peoples Dependence on Forest and the the participatory line, people's dependence on Changing Legal Profile NTFPs is being considered as a crucial determinant Neil B. Majumdar for the success. Forest Protection Committees Indian Institute of Forest Management, Post Box # 357, (FPCs) constituted by the villagers for protecting 462 003 Bhopal, India and regenerating the forests as per the standing Tel: 91-0755- 775716, FAX: 91 0755 772878, Email: order of the government, have been given the [email protected] 'usufructary rights' on the NTFPs. However, People in India are dependent on forests for the "Panchayat Extension to the Scheduled Area Act goods and services produced since time (PESA, 96) empowered 'Gram Sabha' (i.e. village immemorial. Apart from timber poles, and committee) members with the ownership right on fueldwood which were classically categorised as the NTFPs. This underlines the conflict between the "major forest produce", the dependence is also and usufructory rights and the ownership rights being even to a larger extent,on several other produce enjoyed respectively by the Forest Protection which were referred as "minor forest produce". Committee and the village committee members, in Though the nomenclature for the later has been case they are not exactly the same. Forest play an changed in the recent years, as "non timber forest immensely important role in the ecological security produce" (NTFP), dimension and magnitude of the of the country. However its contribution as a natural problems remain unchanged. Present paper opts for resource being used by the people, most of whom two such produce viz., Bamboo and Tendu leaves stand below the poverty line, cannot also be (Diospyros melanoxylon) to elaborate people's undermined. An apt forest policy therefore should dependence and the changing legal profile in the maintain a balance. country. As per the Indian Forest Act, the prime act regarding forest, bamboos are classified as timber. Strategy for Sustainable NTFP Poor forest dwellers use bamboo in the construction Management in India of their huts though the other modes of use vary Ram Prasad from eating young bamboo rhizome, fencing their Indian Institute of Forest Management, Nehru Nagar, PO field to making mats, baskets and various other Box 357, 462003 Bhopal, MP, India artifacts and selling them in the market to earn Tel: +91-755-775716, FAX: +91-755-772878, Email: [email protected] livelihood. "Nistar rules" (rules for concessional supply of forest produce to the villagers) at many Non-timber Forest Products (NTFP) play places have provisions for supplying bamboo to the increasingly greater role in the social and traditional villagers though due to shrinkage of forest resources lifestyle of millions of forest dependent population provisions can hardly be followed. particularly the tribal, landless, women and other rural poor. in view of increasing realisation for Tendu leaves on the other hand, are used in the large ecological, socio-cultural and economic dimensions scale "Bidi" manufacturing process (Bidi is country of forests, the Sustainable Forest Management has cigarette prepare by rolling tobacco within the dried come to be reckoned as most important management tendu leaves) and forest dwellers/villagers come in innovation for ensuring sustainable development. the picture in this regard, as labourers to collect the Similarly, participatory forest management, leaves from the forests and to sell it to the popularly known as Joint Forest Management in contractors. As per the Minor Forest Produce India, is an important forest management (Regulation) Act in most of the cases, trade in tendu intervention to attain the goal of sustainable forest leaves is a state monopoly. An amendment to the management. and, to ensure successful Wildlife (Protection) Act, in the early nineties has implementation of Joint Forest Management, flow created distinct hardship in the life of the people of benefits through production of Non-timber forest collecting tendu leaves from the wildlife sanctuary products (NTFP's), offers the best incentives to the areas. Though National Forest Policy and various participating communities on sustained basis. in Acts did not provide an important status to the order to sustain the interest of the participating NTFPs, various management systems partially communities in forest conservation sustainable recognised its value. in "coppice with reserve NTFP management assumes key role. However, the (CWR)" system of management, which is an Indian current NTFP management practices are modification of "coppice with standards (CWS)", ecologically and socially unsustainable. This paper the need of the local people particularly for NTFPs attempts to highlight the current management has been given due weightage. practices and presents strategy for sustainable management of NTFP in India. Although, NTFP's

199 Division 5 have been providing subsistence to the forest can motivate collector's to adopt sustainable dependent communities since time immemorial, it harvesting practices. The NTFP gatherers have came into great prominence in the last decade due to traditionally been conservationists and in normal preference for natural product based medicines, case would not resort to destroying the natural cosmetics, dyes and chemicals, pesticides, food, resource base that their forefathers protected and fibre etc. Importance of NTFPs as a source of worshipped for generations. The middlemen and revenue to forest department also increased due to contractors operating in and around forest areas restrictions on timber harvesting for environmental- have been exploiting the gatherers taking the reasons imposed by Supreme Court of India. Joint advantage of absence of local level institutions, Forest Management (JFM) arrangements, that is the credit facilities and value addition options. management of forest resources by govt forest Organising the communities through joint forest department and local communities with the explicit management (JFM) offers best option to reduce the understanding for sharing of products (timber and exploitation by middlemen and ensure better returns non-timber), responsibilities, control and from the collection and sale of NTFP. management decision making. Due to uncertainty in Community's interest in sustainable production of getting benefits from timber harvesting being a NTFP may sustain Joint Forest Management and long-term proposition, NTFPs for their capacity to ensure sustainable development of forests and the yield year round benefit starting from first year of people dependent upon them. protection is an important incentive to the participating communities. There is thus a need to strengthen this useful links between NTFP NTFPs Pivotal for Sustainable Forest management and Joint Forest Management so that Management to Solve Global Forestry the synergy of their linkage can be profitably Probelms and Society Needs channelled for the well being of the forests and the Mahabir Prasad Shiva, Alka Shiva dependent communities. Although no precise Centre of Minor Forest Products (COMFORPTS), 8, estimate of the total amount of NTFP extracted from Indirapuram, P.O. Majra, 248 171 Dehradun, India Tel: +91-135-621302, FAX: +91-135-629936, Email: the natural forests is available according to a [email protected] guestimate, it could vary between 10,000 to 50,000 tons annually providing earnings that runs into Human and cattle population explosion, billions of rupees each year. About 60 percent of urbanization, land grabbing for agriculture, grazing NTFPs go unrecorded and are consumed or bartered and industrial development have resulted in sick by about 15 million people living in and around biodiversity, disturbed ecosystem, depletion of forests. Large revenue flowing to the state natural resources, environmental pollution and exchequer from NTFPs have given the state the natural calamities. As a result, the very existence of vested interest in marketing the produce with huge life on earth has become at stake. Since, problems costs both to the poor who rely on gathering them are being addressed by different agencies for a for their subsistence needs and to the users of particular strategy in isolation, no headway could be NTFPs. Most of the products are sold in raw form achieved. To meet this global challenge, it is and therefore it is not remunerative to gatherers. suggested that holistic multi disciplinary integrated After walking long distance and spending several approach should be adopted. Forest Management hours the gatherer is able to get less than minimum which is still mainly timber dominated should be government prescribed wages. Thus, they try to transformed into Non Timber Forest Products collect as much as possible to maximise their (NTFP) oriented need based sustainable forest earning from day's collection. in the process they management as NTFP species play pivotal role in resort to destructive harvesting. As a result of this different forestry programmes, viz., Joint Forest many important NTFP species are getting depleted Management (JFM), Joint Rural Development in the natural forests. in several studies it has been (JRD), Watershed Management, Global Warming, shown that processing and value addition at primary Environmental / Biodiversity Conservation and all collector's level increase the earning from NTFP by society needs. 4-5 times. Simple value addition measures such as Understanding the global need, the author conveys cleaning, washing, air drying, grading, packing etc., how the task of global importance can be which can be carried out at household and implemented by the modern information technology community level, without any investment can also to acquire primary or site information on NTFPs, result into remunerative returns to gatherers by 2-3 which in turn may serve as a basic tool to support times. Institutional support for awareness and the forest managers, foresters, policy makers, training for value addition process and marketing scientists, entrepreneurs and other user groups for

200 Division 5 the utilization of Minor Forest Products (MFPs) or 1. Mechanism for making choice of suitable Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) or Non Wood species based on edapho-climatic conditions Forest Products (NWFPs) for socio-economic including forest types etc. development as well as for the maintenance of 2. Standardizing propagation methods for massive vegetal biodiversity and ecosystem / environmental afforestation on land husbandry programmes, on conservation because lack of information has hither forests and other vacant lands. to been the major obstacle to the NTFP oriented forest management. 3. Evolving harvesting techniques for optimum productivity and biodiversity conservation. COMFORPTS is the only institute in India and abroad, specifically and exclusively devoted to the 4. Determining marketing and trade channels for pursuits of NTFP, which has evolved a "Standard NTFP based enterprises for socio-economic NTFP Classification and Documentation Manual" in development and equitable distribution of 26 categories for universal use by Shiva & Mathur profits particularly to disadvantaged groups of (1997). The paper explains how the Manual can be both men and women dwelling in urban, rural used by India and other countries also in selecting and forest areas. the species of NTFP importance according to their Research for a) Augmenting regeneration of mixed edapho-climatic situations for various purposes. NTFP species of trees, shrubs and herbs for COMFORPTS is acting now as a Resource Centre biodiversity conservation and socio-economic for NTFPs and the author is the Contact Person and development. b) For ensuring increased productivity Dy. Coordinator of IUFRO network for NWFPs of NTFPs. c) Marketing research for equitable with the help of MFP Database evolved by the distribution of profits, upliftment of disadvantaged author. groups of people; study of marketing channels and price regime; assess and regulate demand and The Web Site address of COMFORPTS is: supply of NTFP for enterprises according to trends. http://www.angelfire.com/ma/MinorForestProducts and that of IUFRO is: http://iufro.boku.ac.at 6. Strengthening information for generating training "Inventory of Forest Resources for Sustainable material to create awareness among all user groups. Management and Biodiversity Conservation" by Dr. The overall impact will be sustainable forest M.P. Shiva, with lists of multipurpose tree species management of existing resources with yielding both Timber and Non Timber Forest replenishment of naturally regenerating forests and Products (NTFP) and shrub & herb species of NTFP extending man made forests, which would importance has been published and released in ultimately result in conservation, enrichment of second South & East Asian Countries NTFP biological diversity and socio-economic Network (SEANN) workshop on 27th October, development of village community and forest 1998 by Dr. Barry Deren of the World Bank. dwellers including tribals globally. The author has suggested in his paper how Research and Community Development Projects can be Contributions of NTFP-based executed through indigenous NTFP species by economies to development - a raising mixed crops of multipurpose tree species conceptual framework between growth yielding both wood and NWFPs/NTFPs and shrub and distribution and herb species of NTFP importance. Jochen Statz About five propagation methods have already been University of Freiburg, Institute of Forest Policy, Markets perfected by the author and his co-workers. A book and Marketing Section, Freiburg, Germany on "Plant Biodiversity for Sustainable Community Email: [email protected] Development" by Dr. M.P. Shiva & S.S. Bartwal, It is widely believed that use and trade of NTFP do has also been published and released in second contribute to economic development, being both, SEANN workshop on 27th October, 1998 by Dr. ecologically and socially sustainable at the same Ana Doris Capistrano of The Ford Foundation. time. Over the last years, many scholars and The paper conveys how COMFORPTS can offer practitioners have adopted this suggestion. But, as expertise globally on the following aspects of much as being tantalising this thesis is unspecific NTFPs to tackle forestry problems and society and lacking conceptual clarity - this explains, in needs. parts, it's widespread support. The conceptual understanding of what development is remains obscure.

201 Division 5 The concept of development can be traced through necessarily lead to development. Growth without history. in antiquity, development originally had a distribution can be seen as underdevelopment, as a clearly the character of a procedure of unfolding an narrowing of future options to a society. Any idea or an argument. in a larger sense development assessment of the contributions that the NTFP-based stood for any unfolding of potentials, generally economies make to the development of a society has following a given (but mostly hidden to the to take into account potential benefits of all five observer/audience) finality. Since the eighteenth development dimensions. They need to be valued century, this understanding was translated to human with their interdependencies and their being society: mankind as a whole, specific societies or sustained over time. So far, the support for the thesis individuals were meant to unwrap their intrinsic that „use and trade of NTFP favours economic and potentials, thus fulfilling a prescribed (but not social development“ is due in parts to it’s vague and known) agenda established by god or nature. thus indisputable conceptual founding. Advances in the natural sciences, especially evolution biology, lead to the recognition that 5.12.00 Sustainable wood industry development is not linear, not moving neither nature nor society straight towards a given destination. Sustainable production of forest Development, it became clear, does not have a goal, products in Southeast Asia: what yet it has a direction. Since its beginnings shortly products and production systems? after World War II, development assistance has Kamis Awang, Suree Bhumibhamon followed an end-vision: so called underdeveloped Universiti Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Forestry, 43400 countries were to follow the example of the UPM Serdang, Malaysia industrialised world. Economic growth would be the FAX: 943 2509, Email: [email protected] starting point for their take-off. It was believed that Keywords: Sustainable production; Forest products; once entered this road, any underdeveloped Production systems; Southeast Asia countries would follow a given sequence of steps, ultimately reaching the state of being developed. Forest lands and their associated resources have The primary sector of national economies was seen played significant roles in the socio-economic as the key to ignite development, with agriculture development of most of the Southeast Asian and forestry as key economic activities. This rather countries. Much of these forests have either been simplistic view has been questioned and converted into other land-uses such as agriculture, reconsidered in the political discussion of the last mining and settlement or disturbed due to harvesting five decades. Today, a consensus has been reached of wood and various other products in support of the over a set of components that do not serve as goals forest product industries. Apart from these to development, but rather as a direction for industries, large proportions of the rural populations international development assistance. The five key of these countries are dependent on the forest components of development comprise Work, resources for their livelihood. The forests supply the Growth, Participation, Equity, and Independence. basic needs in terms of energy, shelter, food, medicines and water of these rural dwellers. Since UNCED these elements have been complemented by a temporal dimension: only There are varying degrees of advances in activities that sustain the development potential of a technologies, utilization and market development in (natural or social) system in the longer run, can be these different countries. Sustainable management perceived as developments (otherwise contributing of these resources will therefore have to take into to the development of under-development). consideration these different stages of development, Development of society is today seen as the process and the ecological, economic and social dimensions by which endogenous potentials are being unfolded of the production and other uses. It must adopt a leading to an ever more complex system, without holistic approach and research must be strategic in narrowing future options for further changes. nature. Following the contemporary understanding of Past supplies of forest products have come mainly development, the benefits and contributions of from the harvesting of the natural forests. Today NTFP-based activities have to be valued not only in much of these forests have been exploited or terms of economic wealth and growth, but in the converted into other uses. They are fast diminishing light of the other components of development, as or degraded. However, attempts are being made to well. Interdependencies between contributions put the remaining forests under an appropriate attributed to the five elements have to be taken into management system with sustainable objectives. account. It follows that economic growth does not Other strategies are also being adopted to meet the

202 Division 5 expected shortage of supplies due to increased and spiritual qualities of the land. Various demand following population increases. silvicultural techniques may be used to alter the developmental trajectory of existing stands to The increasing reliance on other production systems provide this range of values. is emerging in many of these countries. For example interest in plantations, both on a small or industrial In some cases, management strategies include scale, has grown in recent years. However, the removing wood as a primary goal. in other cases, number of species used is limited to a few, mainly wood is removed as a secondary objective during those with fast growth rates. Likewise, increasingly treatments to improve forest health, restore wildlife more products are being produced from community habitat, create recreational opportunities, mitigate forests or on small farms of individual farmers. impacts of forest pests, or alter the vegetative mix Various models of agroforestry practices are in use. for increased biodiversity. Other nontraditional sources of cellulosic materials Forest management strategies that aim to produce such as oil palm fibers, bagasse and Hevea wood are wood on a sustainable basis take many different also fast becoming important particularly in approaches. A common model is one where the composite industries. tenets of conservation biology are implemented on Similarly, the utilization pattern has evolved from parts of the managed landscape, often as a network the selective harvesting of a few limited species of of reserves, or near reserves, on the areas considered only large dimension to a wide range of species most biologically sensitive, and management for including those of small dimension. Improvements wood occurs on adjacent, less sensitive and often in processing technologies and market development less productive lands. Another less common have produced new products and opened more approach, is to attempt to mix production of wood opportunities. Solid wood utilization is giving way and other resource values on the same piece of to composite products. More uses are finding their ground under the doctrine of management of way for each species. Besides wood, other parts of ecosystem processes. in these cases, forest managers trees are being more intensively researched for must either have the trust and confidence of complete utilization. Multipurpose species are members of the public who advocate sustainable becoming increasing popular. The products obtained forest management or they must have sufficient can be used for subsistence or cash income, hence autonomy to avoid or ignore public scrutiny. growing trees on farm is becoming more attractive. These sustainable forest management strategies are usually implemented on large landscapes and judged Sustainable Forestry and Wood using broad indicators of success. They are, Production. Common Ground and however, implemented on a project-by-project basis Conflicts. the Mission of Research often at the stand or watershed level. It is important Group S5.12. to be able to link activities at all scales and through Jamie Barbour, Andrew H. H. Wong time in order to understand the implications of USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research activities at each scale to outcomes at other scales. Station, P.O. Box 3890, 97213-3890 Portland, OR, USA Email: [email protected] The Division 5 Research Group S5.12 Sustainable Production of Forest Products was created in 1998 Keywords: sustainable forestry, forest products, to: 1) promote research on the sustainable silviculture, wood production of wood products; 2) encourage The concept of sustainability in the context of forest communication between IUFRO Division 5, other management holds a different meaning to almost IUFRO Divisions, and other organizations that are every group that espouses it. Many of these concerned with sustainable forestry. These goals are differences arise because of the varying goals and described in the context of real and hypothetical objectives of those who promote the idea of examples of production of forest products under sustainable forest management. When discussing sustainable forest management objectives. this topic, the question of "sustainability of what" must be answered prior to reaching a common understanding of goals and objectives. In general, a sustainable approach to forest management uses new strategies to conserve biodiversity, improve the balance among alternative forest values, and sustain healthy ecosystems. It is often also expected to retain the aesthetic, historic,

203 Division 5 forests in other countries. This raises the question of The Role of Wood Removals in whether U.S. federal forest policies contribute to or Sustainable Forest Management in the perhaps detract from the sustainability of forests and United States: the Contribution of forestry at the global scale. The United States Forest Federal Land. Service manages 31 million hectares of forestland in Marlin Johnson, Hal Salwasser, Barry L. Bollenbacher 42 states, and 73% of the major vegetation types in USDA Forest Service, Southwestern Region, the country. The USDA Forest Service can play a Albuquerque, New Mexico, USA major role in advancing knowledge about Tel: 505-842-3242, Email: [email protected] sustainable forest management by using this land to test new ideas. This paper describes part of that role. Keywords: Sustainable forestry, ecosystem management, fire, biomass The USDA Forest Service adopted ecosystem management as a guiding philosophy in the early Forest ecosystems are dynamic; they do not 1990's. Ecosystem management blends the resource maintain balance in a "steady state." Sustainability needs of people with the protection of wildland of dynamic ecosystems means that, over the long- environments to sustain diverse, healthy, productive term, growth and loss will be about equal (the "loss" and adaptable ecosystems. Wood utilization under can be from human use as well as natural ecosystem management is based on the integration decomposition.) For the past 500 years, the human of objectives for fiber production with desired elements of Earth's ecosystems have not been in ecosystem conditions at scales ranging from sites to steady state; growth has far exceeded loss. That watersheds to landscapes to whole regions of the growth has consumed ever-increasing amounts of nation. in one example, natural fire cycles have been land, water, energy, crops, wood, and biodiversity. disrupted for nearly a century on many national Regardless of desires for sustainable forests, we will forest lands, especially those in the Interior West. not achieve forest sustainability without Biomass harvest has also been much less than simultaneously reaching reasonable sustainability in annual growth for the past 50 years, resulting in the human component of Earth's ecosystems. Thus, increased stand density. These densities cannot be the grand experiment in sustainable forestry cannot sustained nor can intensive fire be safely returned to stop at the forest border; it must encompass the these forests without mechanical removal of some human enterprise as well. of that biomass. Developing economically feasible Conserving and restoring diverse forest ecosystem and socially acceptable silvicultural techniques to composition, structure and function while producing restore healthy forest ecosystems, through removal wood resources requires an understanding of both of smaller, under story trees, is the major challenge the biophysical and socio-economic dimensions of we face in nearly 17 million hectares of federal forest management. Among society's desires from forests. forests are diverse opportunities for recreation, clean water from productive aquatic systems, wood, Sustainable Production of Forest wildlife, fish, livestock forage, and a sense of place Products in Australia coupled with the knowledge that those forests Peter Kanowski remain healthy, productive, and pleasing to look at. Australian National University, Department of Forestry, This set of potentially conflicting desires is what ACT 0200 Canberra, Australia constitutes a sustainable forest in the eyes of many Tel: +61 (0) 2 6249 2667, FAX: +61(0)2 6249 0746, Americans. in the United States, many of these Email: [email protected] social values are reflected in legal mandates, such as Keywords: Sustainable Forestry, Australia, Federal and state laws and regulations concerning Montreal Process endangered species, water and air quality, and how citizens may participate in forest decision making. The sustainability of production from Australia's These mandates provide guidance for management forests - especially but not exclusively its native of public and, to a more limited extent, private forests - has been a strongly contested issue for the forestlands. in the past four decades, substantial past three decades. Australia's first National Forest areas of federal forestland has been "set-aside" Policy Statement in 1992 committed Australia to the through reservations for uses and values other than goal of sustainable forest management in the context wood removal. These reservations have not been of a broader commitment to ecologically sustainable matched by a commensurate reduction in domestic development. It is being translated from policy to wood consumption, thus, U.S. wood demand and practice by - for the first time in Australia's history - production has shifted to U.S. private lands and a suite of nationally-coordinated processes consistent with international initiatives. Although

204 Division 5 progress towards sustainability in forest forest management regimes in forests outside management far exceeds that in other Australian reserves; for the forest-based industries, based natural resource sectors, the sustainability of around secure access to resources outside the production from Australia's forests remains both reserve system; and for indigenous and European contested and challenging. heritage, based on explicit recognition of those values in forest allocation and management Over the perhaps 50000 years of their settlement, decisions. Concomitantly, Australia's wood the land management practices of Australia's production has been shifting progressively from aboriginal people - principally their extensive use of native to plantation forests. Most existing fire - altered the distribution of Australia's forests, plantations were established on sites converted from ecosystem structure, and the forest fauna. The forest; almost all new planting is established on European settlers' displacement of aboriginal farmland, much in partnership with farmers. This people, and their conversion and use of forests, both expansion poses both challenges and opportunities had profound impacts. The fragmentation and for enhancing the sustainability of production. conversion of forests to other uses, and European farming practices have adversely affected for the The Montreal Process is providing the framework sustainability of Australian agriculture and its rural for the development of criteria and indicators of landscapes, including their forest and woodland sustainable forest management for all Australian remnants. These impacts have generally been most forests. The formulation and testing of criteria and severe in the widespread broad-acre cropping and indicators are paralleled by the development of grazing regions; it is not yet clear whether Codes of Forest Practice and by institutional reform production from these ecologically-degraded in which State regulatory and management roles are landscapes can be sustained. separated. These measures are relatively well- developed for State forests, but are – with the The historical focus, and continuing emphasis, of exception of Tasmania – as yet poorly developed for Australian native forest management has been on the increasingly important private forest sector, the closed forests; their discontinuous continental including its extensive woodlands. Substantial distribution coincides with the distribution of the research and implementation challenges remain in majority of Australia's population near the southern improving, monitoring and communicating the and eastern coasts. With the exception of forest-rich sustainability of production from all Australia’s Tasmania, the majority of these forests are in public forests. ownership; their principal products and services are biodiversity, recreation, a diversity of wood and non-wood products, and water. Whilst the economic A conjoint analysis of New Zealand importance of wood production from these forests consumer preference for remains significant, the relative value accorded it by environmentally certified forest the majority of the Australian population has been products progressively diminishing. Continuing community Lucie K. Ozanne, Hugh Bigsby and Christopher Gan conflict over the management of these forests led, in Lincoln University, Commerce Division, Post Box # 84, 1995 the Australian governments to institute a Canterbury, New Zealand Regional Forest Agreement process, first mooted in FAX: 64 3 325-3847, Email: [email protected] the National Forest Policy Statement. Keywords: Environmental certification, conjoint Australia's Regional Forest Agreement process is analysis, cluster analysis, forest products, marketing the first nationally-coordinated attempt to assess the One of the major challenges facing the forest diversity of Australian forest values - economic, products industry over the past ten years has been environmental and social - and agree forest how to address consumer concerns about the allocation and management based on this environmental impact of forestry activities. One information. Regional Forest Agreements are being strategy suggested by the environmental community negotiated between the Commonwealth and and some industry groups is to provide certification respective State governments for each for forests and the products from those forests where commercially-important native forest region. The forest management practices meet particular goals of the process are expressed in terms of environmental standards. Many concerns have been greater certainty: for biodiversity conservation, raised by the industry about the wisdom of based around establishment of a national reserve companies pursuing certification. A particular system with a target of incorporating 15% of the question is whether consumers are really interested pre-European extent of each forest ecosystem, and in certification and in turn, whether they will be around the development of ecologically sustainable willing to bear the additional costs associated with

205 Division 5 certification activities. A number of studies have making up 12.4% of the sample, indicated that examined this issue; however these studies have forest type is the most important furniture attribute, only looked at consumers making a trade-off preferring wood harvested from plantation forests between price and environmental certification and over natural forests. in terms of profiling these have not examined all of the relevant trade-offs segments, results indicate that common consumers may have to make when purchasing demographic variables, such as age, sex, and certified wood products. education, do not provide a basis of description. This study was designed to address the question of how consumers value environmental certification Wood Products Research for the 21st when combined with a number of other wood Century in China product attributes. The particular example used to Chen Xuhe look at the relative importance of environmental Chinese Academy of Forestry, Div. of International certification was the purchasing decision for Cooperation, Wan Shou Shan, 100091 Beijing, China Tel: +86-10-62889051, FAX: +86-10-62884229, Email: wooden outdoor furniture by New Zealand [email protected] consumers. The method used in the study was conjoint analysis, a recent development in Keywords: carbon sequestration, wood supply, mathematical psychology that has been applied China, value-added processing, wood based panels extensively in the marketing field. Conjoint analysis Wood is wonderful and it is the most important and measures the joint effect of two or more widely used raw material on earth except water. It is independent variables on the ordering of a renewable and beautiful, with a high strength to dependent variable. in the area of market analysis, it weight ratio, and it is easy to process with low relates the buyer's preferences to a set of pre- energy consumption. Further more, the growth of specified brand attributes. Using a survey, wood and wood utilization reduces CO2 emissions consumers were asked to rate a label outlining the which makes wood an environmentally friendly attributes of a wooden outdoor furniture. Each label material. As the economy and population grow, the had a different set of combinations of attributes, demand for wood and wood products will also including, price, length of product warranty, the certainly continue to increase. The future of the country of origin of the wood, and forest type that wood products industry largely depends on the the wood came from (plantation-grown versus stable supply of wood resources from sustainably natural forest). For each attribute, there were two managed forests. China holds the potential develop possible values or levels. a sustainable wood supply because of its favorable For wooden outdoor furniture in New Zealand, the climate, vast land area, and the abundant workforce. conjoint results indicate that environmental Wood currently plays an increasingly important role certification ranks highly as a product attribute, but in the economic and social development in China is just one of a number of important product where the annual consumption of timber (250 3 attributes. Other important attributes include the million m) equals to the sum of that of steel, country of origin of the wood, with New Zealand aluminum and plastic. Further research is, however, wood being preferred over imported wood, and needed to support the sustainable development of forest type, with plantation grown wood preferred the wood industry in the 21st century. over wood from a natural forest. Price and length of The major objective of forestry has shifted from warranty were less important attributes. Cluster simply supplying timber products to providing analysis was used to segment the respondents based multiple functions including ecological, on the relative importance they attach to each environmental, and social benefits while still product attribute in the conjoint analysis. The cluster supplying timber and timber products. Under this analysis results indicate that there are six market sustainable development principle, the wood segments with unique furniture attribute preferences products research in China should further develop in New Zealand. Three segments, comprising 56.4% the cultivation and utilization of industrial of the sample, view environmental certification as plantations environmentally compatible the most important attribute, preferring certified technologies and products that meet the needs of the over uncertified wood. A fourth segment, markets, and to improvement in the competitive comprising 16.3% of the sample, indicated that they capabilities of the forestry and wood products were most concerned with where the wood was industry. sourced, preferring wood sourced from New Zealand. A fifth segment, comprising 14.8% of the Many timber-producing countries have restricted or sample, was price sensitive. The sixth segment, decreased their exports of logs and sawn timber to

206 Division 5 encourage developed down stream value added wood processing. Malaysia is a good example of a country where the government policy of restructuring for down stream value-added processing has reduced the export of raw logs and primary wood products. These policies will influence the availability of raw material supply for countries like China. It can be concluded that the future of wood products industry in China largely depends on a stable wood supply from sustainably managed forests. To meet the demand for wood products, the Chinese industry has made remarkable improvements in technology in recent years. This is especially evident in the in the wood based panel industry in 1997, the production of wood based panels in China reached a ranking the 2nd in the world at 16.48 million m3. As the wood resources available for industrial purposes shift from the natural forests to plantations, the industry needs technical support from research institutions in developing technologies for establishing plantations and utilizing the fast growing and high quality trees from them. Effective value added processing of environmental friendly products requires R&D conducted to address issues specific to the conditions in China. A proposed set of topic areas is as follows: wood properties, wood drying, wood and the environment, wood preservation, wood composites, pulp and paper, economics and policy.

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Division 6 Social, Economic, Information, and Policy Sciences

Coordinator Prof. Dr. Niels Elers KOCH Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute Hoersholm Kongevej 11, DK-2970 Hoersholm , Denmark fax: +45-45763233 tel: +45-45763200 e-mail: [email protected]

209

Division 6

relationship between the tourists and the local 6.01.00 Tools to integrate nature people. conservation and recreation for landscape management The domestic market for tourism in Bangladesh is very small and largely independent on small Prospect of Community-Based unorganized groups. A very low number of foreign Ecotourism in the Sundarbans tourists arrive to visit Bangladesh and the national tour operators are also very small in number. These Mangrove Forest in Bangladesh indicate that the service sector is not well A. Emran Ali, Tsuchiya Toshiyuki Iwate University, Faculty of Agriculture, Forest Policy, established in Bangladesh. At present there is little 3-18-8, Ueda, Morioka, 020-8550 Iwate, Japan involvement of local communities but there is the FAX: +81 19 621 6129, Email: [email protected] potential. Local involvement will be essential if tourism is to meet conservation objectives. Bangladesh is one of the densely populated country in the world. The economy of the country is mainly The premise of the present paper is that if properly dependent on agriculture and the country faces planned, ecotourism has the potential to generate a enormous constraints for the development of itself. reasonable return on investment and offer Sustainable development in Bangladesh needs a substantial community benefits. The successful strategy which would accelerate economic growth Community-Based Ecotourism initiatives are with equitable distribution of benefits across supported by partnerships between communities and different segments of population without harming government, non-government and private sectors. the environment. Planned and ecologically sound This objective of the paper is to find out the way to utilization of natural resources is a prerequisite for develop the relationship between the FD and local sustainable development. The government has taken communities by using primary data collected from different policies for sustainable development. face-to-face interviews with tourists, tour operators, Ecotourism, as a logical component of sustainable FD and the community people. The community development, requires a multidisciplinary approach, leaders are asked about tourism activities in their careful planning and strict guidelines and area, giving emphasis to the community role in regulations that will guarantee sustainable operation. each. It will also examine the possibilities of The focus of this paper is on achieving sustainable community-based ecotourism in the Sundarbans development objectives through the development of area and will try to find out the proper policy for the Community-Based Ecotourism in the Sundarbans, expansion of ecotourism in Bangladesh. the largest mangrove ecosystems in the world, is situated in the southwest coastline of Bangladesh. Planning for recreational forest. Is there Sundarbans forest is the natural habitat of the world an optimal distance to forest famous Royal Bengal tiger, spotted deer, crocodiles, Lisa Hornsten, Peter Fredman jungle fowl, wild boar, lizards, rhesus monkey and Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department an innumerable variety of beautiful birds. Migratory of Forest Management and Products flock of Siberian ducks flying over thousands of sail Box 7060, SE-831 25 Ostersund, Sweden boats loaded with timber, golpatta (round-leaf), fuel Tel: +46 (0)18-67 38 19, FAX: +46 (0)18 67 38 00, Email: [email protected] wood honey, shell and fish further add to the serene natural beauty of the Sundarbans. All of these are Keywords: forest recreation; visiting frequency; good potentials for ecotourism development in this distance; urban area to become a significant revenue and income This paper presents a study of the relationship generator. between the time span since a person's last According to a survey of ESCAP 500,000 to recreational visit to a forest, the size of a 600,000 people of local areas directly depend on municipality and the distance between the place of Sundarbans for their livelihood. The Forestry residence and the closest recreational forest. The Department (FD), the government agency, is in study was carried out as a mailed inquiry distributed charge in management of the forest and forest to 2500 randomly selected Swedish citizens, aged resources. The FD is established in 1989 and after between 16 and 75 years. The response rate was 52 the creation of FD there is conflict between the FD percent. and local communities. There is also very negligible The time since the last forest visit varies from 0 to 365 days with an uneven distribution largely

211 Division 6 dominated by low values. The distance to the forest attributes "forest/water", "attractive nature", and affects the time since last visit. The longer the "facility/maintenance" (R .40) and (2) between distance between a residence and the closest "escaping pressure" and the attributes "attractive recreational forest, the larger the time span since the nature" and "social" (R.386). The paper discusses respondent's last recreational forest visit. When how the findings can be used to develop recreation distance exceed 2 km a large increase in time since services and marketing strategies to respond to the last forest visit is observed. client needs and preferences. Visiting frequencies is grouped according to Keywords: benefits-based management, Sorak-san respondents' present distance and comparisons are National Park, recreation benefits made between groups. For the lower quartiles, i.e. the quartiles where respondents state the shortest Motorized Access Control as a Wildland time since last visit, visiting frequencies are similar Recreation Management Tool: Access irrespective of distance. For the upper quartiles, Changes and Visitor's Behavior at however, where respondents state the shortest time Daisetsuzan National Park since last visit, visiting frequencies increase Keiko Shiratori, Taiichi Ito significantly with the distance to the forest. Yamanashi Institute of Environmental Sciences Results show fewer forest visits for respondents 5597 Kenmarubi, Kamiyoshida, Fujiyoshida, 403-0005 living in an urban environment compared with those Yamanashi, Japan living in a rural context, here defined as Tel: +81-555-72-6211, FAX: +81-555-72-6205, Email: [email protected] municipalities larger than 90,000 and smaller than 5,000 inhabitants, respectively. Also after correction Keywords: Wildland recreation; Motorized access; for distance to the closest forest, results show fewer Access control; Daisetsuzan National Park forest visits for respondents living in an urban Environmental deterioration triggered by overuse is environment compared with those living in a rural a common issue in wildland recreation. There are context. several ways to minimize the problem such as law enforcement and regulation of visitor number. Benefit-based recreational forest However, these approaches require a certain budget management in Corea and staff, both of which are often under supply. On Won Sop Shin the other hand, controlling motorized access to Chungbuk National University, School of Forest wildlands seems more practical as well as Resources, 361-763 Cheongju, Korea R. economical, while enhancing the visitor Tel: +82 431 261 2536, FAX: +82-431-273-2241, Email: experiences. [email protected] Benefits-based management seeks to provide In order to clarify the feasibility of the motorized recreation benefits for recreation participants by access control method in wildland recreation managing the physical environments in which management, the authors studied the relationship recreation occurs. This study investigates the between access improvement and visitor increase at Daisetsuzan National Park, Hokkaido, Japan. This relationship between benefits desired by visitors and 2 the physical, social and managerial characteristics of park, with the area of 2,300 km including vast settings that facilitate realization of recreation wilderness, is the largest in Japan. Still, previous benefits. Data were collected from 370 visitors to studies indicate increasing impacts on vegetation Sorak-san National Park in the eastern part of the and soil erosion. The authors first analyzed visitor Korean peninsula. Cluster analysis was used to statistics since the 1960s when road improvement group visitors desired benefits into twelve domains: and tramway service began. Second, with GIS data relationship with nature/scenery, escaping pressure, including the information from previous research learning about nature, family togetherness, results, changes of the walking rigor were evaluated introspection, exploration, autonomy/achievement, at the major trails. Third, visitor's preferences of being with friends, leading others, skills/learning, hiking routes and opinions on access improvement risk taking, and meeting/observing new people. were analyzed from mountaineering plans submitted Multiple regression was used to link benefit in past few years and from on-site surveys to hikers. domains with the characteristics of settings. The First, historic statistics revealed that motorized social attribute of recreation settings was found to access improvement rapidly increased the number of be linked to eight of the ten benefit domains. There visitors to Daisetsuzan area, especially to trailheads were two strong multiple regression correlations:(1) at higher altitude with connection to other between "relationship with nature /scenery" and the sightseeing routes. Second, such improvement also

212 Division 6 changed walking access patterns. Areas required 2. Visual counting of visitors at all entrances (on 12 over-night stay disappeared, and day-use areas days during the year). expanded. Most of core areas of the park with 3. Survey of visitors (on 12 days during the year). fragile alpine vegetation fall under the category of When the system is fully implemented their will be day-use areas now. Third, almost 70% of visitors a network of 48 sites. All of these will be monitored come by their own cars and tend to prefer short and by using this method once in every 10 years, on easy walks. Such day-use visitors expect more average 5 sites a year. access improvement, while overnighters welcome longer walking access. Fourth, more than 20 % of ad. 1 The use of traffic counters enables one to tramway users mentioned willingness to walk gather information about the number of passing paralleling trails, but those who really walk such vehicles and bicycles all year round. The counters trails are very small. This gap between intention and automatically register the numbers and also provide behavior implies that they know more walking give other details such as date, time and speed. With this them deeper experiences and other benefits, but information it is possible to see the variation in use cannot resist the temptation of tramways. throughout the year. From these analyses, we suggest that motorized ad. 2 Counting all the site-entrances visually is access should be regulated and walking access essential for determining the exact number of enhanced. From the point of nature conservation as visitors. With traffic counters is it impossible to well as rich visitor experience, closing mountain cover the complete site, only cars and bicycles can roads and suspension of tramway service is ideal. be counted and you don't know how many people But, we should not ignore local economy. Visitors are for instance in the vehicles. in combination with will walk longer if motorized access is regulated by the figures from the traffic counters it is possible to economic incentives such as higher tramway tickets calculate the number of visitors during a certain and introducing parking fees at high seasons. Such period of time. extra revenue should be directed to improvement of ad. 3 With the visitorsurveys information is gathered public transportation service and existing trails. among other things about activities, use of facilities, Especially, interpretational activities on trails number of visits a year, place of residence, duration supported by such fund will enhance the visitor of visits and last but not least the percepted quality experience. Higher cost may divert some visitors to of the site. other areas. Even if the total visitation decreased, increased overnight visitors contribute more to local The qualityscore is generated by asking the visitors economy than passing-by day-use visitors. their opinion about 17 items concerning outdoor Eventually the impact on the natural environment recreation. First through 17 thesis about recreation will be reduced. Thus, motorized access control can in general in which the visitors are asked about the be a powerful and effective tool to wildland importance of the items (general importance), in the recreation management. next question the same thesis are asked in connection with the visited site (verdict). Then the Recreation monitoring at the Dutch questions are combined, the answers about the site Forest Service itself are weighted by the answer about the general Peter A. M. Visschedijk importance of a certain subject. The next table Institute for Forestry and Nature Research (IBN-DLO), shows the weightfactors. General importance Post Box # 20, 6700 AA Wageningen, Netherlands Very Unim- Neutral Im- Very Tel: +31 317 477713, FAX: +31 317 424988, Email: unimportant portant important [email protected] portant V Very -1 -2 -4 -6 -8 In 1996 the Institute for Forestry and Nature e- negative r- Negative 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 Research started to develop a system to monitor the d- Neutral 0 0 0 0 0 recreational use of forests and other grounds owned i- Positive 0 1 2 3 4 c- Very 1 2 4 6 8 by the Dutch forest service. The aim was to positive t determine the number of visitors, their activities and the percepted quality. This information provides a When an item is being considered as very important valuable management tool for targeting of resources. by the visitor, then his verdict about the item in the The systems uses three methods to gather the visited can raise a score between -8 and +8. information: However, when an items is qualified as unimportant 1. Monitoring vehicle and bicycle use at the sites by then score is between -2 and +2. When an items using traffic counters with induction loops installed raises a total average score of more than 1 the in the road (all year round). quality is qualified as being sufficient.

213 Division 6 Since this system of monitoring is only carried out people walking a certain route, and that these paths in 48 sites, there was a need to get information would disappear if people did not use them any about all the other grounds of the Dutch forest more. service. Since counting is too expensive to be done The following ways of perceiving forest in all sites, in the sites not covered by the management were identified; aesthetic and monitoring network visitors are going to be given a experiential perceptions (exploring), safety, questionnaire which they can fill out and send back possibilities to move, educational perceptions, by mail. Through extrapolation we try to predict the impacts on nature and economic perceptions. When unknown factor, the number of visitors. Test are visitors' perceptions on the paths were studied carried out in 1998 en 1999 and the first results look additional dimensions of perceiving and evaluating promising. were found; social relations, maintenance of the area and the activities one can perform. 6.01.00 Nature experiences and sustainable management of landscapes and recreation Visitors supported the current soft forest resources management; there are uneven-aged forest stands with many tree species and undergrowth, no clear- Visitors' perceptions on the cutting, and some of the fallen and dead trees are management of recreation forests - a left. Respondents compared this area to commercial qualitative case study in southern forests and appreciated that there are mixed forests Finland and no large openings in this area. Some visitors Eeva Karjalainen also preferred this area to forests in their natural Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, state. They agreed that there could exist small pieces 00170 Helsinki, Finland of untouched forests so that people can see how Tel: + 358 9 85705766, FAX: +358 9 85705717, Email: nature develops. Visitors suggested that some of the [email protected] forest stands should be thinned or appreciated Keywords: perceptions, experiences, forest thinned forest sites, because after thinning forests management, recreation areas, qualitative research become more spacious and light, and trees have more space to grow. However, some respondents The aim of this study was to explore how visitors did not like when they saw that trees were cut. in perceive and experience the management of general, visitors thought that logging residue should recreation forests. A recreation forest in southern be removed because it could be used for firewood Finland was chosen for a case study area. This area's and it looks ugly. Several respondents thought that primary use is to provide recreation for visitors, and dead standing trees and fallen trees belong to nature, the forests are managed to some extent. There have while others were worried that dead standing trees been conflicts concerning the management of the could fall over someone. areas; nature conservationists demand that these forests should be left untouched, while other Application of Sustainable Development visitors' needs remain unknown. Concept to Recreation Resource A qualitative study was needed to meet the aim of Management in Forests the research, although results do not represent all Joong Myung Kim visitors of the area. During the summer, 1998 a total Forestry Research Institute, 207 Chongnyangni, Seoul, of 22 visitors were interviewed. The researcher Korea R. walked together with each visitor a path one Tel: 961-2532, FAX: 961-2530, Email: kilometer long, and each visitor was allowed to [email protected] comment freely about the environment. Interviews In 1987, the World Commission on Environment were audio-recorded and tapes were transcribed. and Development broadly defined sustainable Transcripts were analyzed using a qualitative development as development that meets the needs of content analysis. the present without compromising the ability of Visitors were very knowledgeable about forest future generations to meet their own needs and the management and the biological processes going on term became widely adopted within the international in nature, as well as the processes caused by community related with economic development and humans. They mentioned that trees grow, die, fall environment conservation. Since then, many argue down and decay, and different plants and trees fight for the development of sustainable economies as the for living space. Respondents had clear new guidepost to deal with issues of growth, understanding that narrow paths are formed by economic and community development, and environmental protection. The concepts of

214 Division 6 sustainable development has been incorporated into forest management and it became known as the The Experience of Forests sustainable forest management. There have been, John Murray therefore, many initiatives towards implementing Edinburgh College of Art/Heriot Watt University, School sustainable forest management at the international of Landscape Architecture, Lauriston Place, EH3 9DF and regional level. The sets of criteria and indicators Edinburgh, Scotland have been developed through the initiatives to Tel: 0044 131 221 6094, Email: enhance the awareness and improve the [email protected] understanding of forest sustainability as well as to This project, commissioned by Simon Bell, The specify the fundamental elements of sustainable Forestry Commission's Chief Landscape Architect, forest management. in the paper, criteria and was undertaken as a pilot study on peoples' indicators for tourism and recreation in forests are experience of forests. Its objective was to contribute, discussed as developed by several initiatives for along with other parallel studies, to design theory & sustainable forest management and in this context applications which relate to the restructuring of recreational forests managed mainly for recreation production forests for recreational purposes. activities in Korea are analyzed for sustainable forest management. Due to the socio-economic The two sites selected for the study were: changes in recent years in Korea, demand for 1. The Waterfall Walk at the David Marshall Lodge recreation and tourism has been steadily increased Queen Elizabeth Forest Park near Aberfoyle and thus forest resources play an important role in 2. The Allean Walk near Queen View, Loch the provision of various outdoor recreation Tummel, Pitlochry opportunities to meet recreational needs of the society. The sustainable forest management has In investigating forest experience we wished to tap become a main goal of forest policy and relevant multisensory experiences (not solely visual) in an criteria and indicators have been developed for unconstrained way. As a consequence the study was implementation at the international, national, and in two parts. Firstly, an open ended qualitative and forest management unit level. The criteria and flexible approach was used with minimal intrusion. indicators on recreation and tourism developed by Walkers were invited to make a self-directed film of international initiatives are discussed, including the their walk (with comments) using a hand held Montreal and Helsinki Processes. The recreational digital camcorder. No guidance was offered other forests designated and developed for general than to film anything of interest or anything which recreation and tourism in Korea started in 1989 and they liked or disliked. The second part of the project since then attracted many visitors into forest was essentially a de-briefing in the form of a short environments across the country. Based on the questionnaire. Data was gathered mainly at specific indicators related to recreation and tourism, weekends between the 11th July and 8th August the management of recreational forests are discussed 1998. in this paper. The number and area of recreational The weather was mixed to fine on the walks. The forests has increased up to 60 and over 110 gender split of walkers was approximately 60:40 in thousand ha, respectively, during the past decade. favour of men and at each site there were relatively As of 1997, recreational forests accounted for about few walkers over 50 years of age. It was of interest 1.71% of total forest land and attracted more than that most people had travelled from 10-50 miles in 2.6 million persons accounting for over 5.5% of order to go on the walk with relatively few 'locals' total population. The facilities in recreational i.e. within a 10 mile radius participating. forests, as suggested by an indicator, are discussed and future directions suggested. RESULTS A total of 37 people participated at both sites. Video Data A content analysis of the video data identified 6 general categories of interest. These were: 1. Objects (e.g. sculpture, building, waterfalls) 2. Aspects of path (e.g. waymarking, surface, width) 3. Views (e.g. panoramic, scanning) 4. Human Interest (e.g. other people) 5. Flora and Fauna 6. Human Intervention (e.g. litter, pylons)

215 Division 6 The degree of attention given these categories was Sustainable Management of Natural estimated from the frequency of stopping points to Resources: Is It Possible at the Urban- film each category across both walks. Rural Interface? 1. The rank order of stopping point frequency was Joanne M. Westphal consistent over both walks Michigan State University, MI 48824 East Lansing, USA 2. Objects had the highest frequency, followed by Tel: (517)353-7880, FAX: (517) 353-0006, Email: views. Next were paths, then flora & fauna. The [email protected] lowest frequency of interest was attached to human Keywords: Sustainable Landscapes, Land Use activity and interventions. Planning, Urban-Rural Interface 3. Only 50% of views and 50% of spaces identified by the landscape architect research assistants were Despite the vast landmass of the United States, found to be of interest to the lay groups. resource managers, landscape architects, and planners are becoming increasingly aware of the Questionnaire Data difficulty in protecting natural resources at the 1) Approximately half the sample went for forest urban-rural interface. Part of the problem stems walks more than once every two months. from the fact that a comprehensive national land use 2) Approximately 40% of walkers had travelled plan has not been forthcoming from the federal over 50 miles to visit the site, with a further 40% government. Thus, state, county, and local travelling between 10 & 50 miles. government bodies have been left to determine 3) Approximately equal numbers of walkers were priorities in land use as well as preservation and/or either with or without children. protection strategies for properties under their 4) Nearly all participants reported enjoying the walk jurisdiction. Because each of these layers of experience. Approximately 50% reported the government has different agenda, oftentimes, a experience as moderately exciting (pleasant and coordinated, effective land use planning effort that aroused). The other 50% reported the experience as could protect natural resources, especially at the relaxed (pleasant and unaroused) urban-rural interface, is impossible to develop. 5) Sight was recorded as the most important of sensory information. Sounds in the forest were This paper examines historic land use management ranked second in importance. Most participants tools in the United States from a planning were neutral about the role of smells and touch. perspective, and it provides insight to the political 6) Most walkers commented that a central function and economic factors that determine the success or of the walk was to have contact with nature and not failure of these tools to create and/or enhance be reminded of people. This reinforces the low sustainable landscapes. Suggestions for alternative levels of interest in human activities shown in the land use planning strategies in the face of urban video filming. sprawl are provided. A case study using a rapidly 7) Likes: growing area in Michigan (USA) will be used to a) spatial change clearings & views illustrate the need to integrate some of the old b) narrow paths, enclosed by the forest planning strategies with the new alternatives to be c) waterfalls/water flora & fauna effective deterrents to uncontrolled growth and lost Dislikes: sustainability of our natural and agricultural a) crowded places landscapes. A brief discussion on how this new b) uphill sections & clear felling approach may be used to overcome some of the c) signs of human intervention governmental barriers of the past will conclude the paper. DESIGN IMPLICATIONS The context data and the stated preferences of the Assessment on Recreational Impacts in walkers provide some useful information for the Malaysian Recreation Forests design process. One special challenge for designers Noor Azlin Yahya emerges from this study. The walkers clearly want FRIM, Urban Forestry Section, Forest Plantation wayfinding information and facilities (e.g. seating, Division, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia shelters, WC's) to be marked. These are seen as FAX: 03- 630-2105, Email: [email protected] necessities. At the same time the walkers want this Keywords: Recreation, impacts, eco-tourism information in a way which minimises indications of human intervention. A major function of forest A study was conducted at three Recreation Forests walks appears to enable visitors to get closer to their near Kuala Lumpur to assess impacts of recreational idea of nature. activities on the natural resources of the area. This

216 Division 6 paper mainly reports the results of the study and suggests a management action to be taken. 6.03.00 Forest information services for foresters and society Recreation Forests in Malaysia are usually scenic forests with rivers where the most popular activities Using Information Technology to Meet conducted are picnicking, swimming and relaxing under the forest shade. Camping, trekking and Changing Knowledge Needs in Forestry Philip Edge, Patricia Neenan, Gillian Petrokofsky and photography are also carried out but to a lesser Peter Scott extent. As owner of the Recreation Forests the CAB International, OX10 8DE Wallingford, United Forestry Department usually manages the areas. Kingdom However, some areas are fully or partly privatised Email: [email protected] where the management of certain facilities or the whole area is given to private concessionaires. Keywords: information network; electronic publishing; bibliographic database; community of Visitors to Recreation Forests have been shown to in users be great numbers especially during weekends and school holidays. Studies showed that visitation to At a time when there are fundamental changes in the each Recreation Forest often exceeds 100,000 a status of forests, in their perception by the public, year. The majority of visitors to the Recreation and in forest-related environmental issues, there is Forests are the Malays who are also the major ethnic an unprecedented need for sound decision making in group in Malaysia, from the middle and the lower forestry. This has led to a new requirement for income group, and with highest education knowledge, organized in a way that provides attainment of secondary education. convenient decision support. Information Technology (IT) can greatly facilitate this process. Impacts of recreational activities on the natural Partnerships of people and organizations with resources of the three Recreation Forests, namely common information needs and a mutually- Sungai Chongkak, Lentang and Sungai Tua were dependent interest in facilitating information sharing assessed for soil and vegetation parameters. From and knowledge management can take advantage of this study it was found that soil compaction is the power of IT to realise their aspirations rapidly always higher at recreation sites compared to control and effectively. sites for all three Recreation Forests. For vegetation parameters, it was found that vegetation cover is Bibliographic databases exemplify the power of IT greater and there are more mother tree species at the to render huge volumes of facts accessible as useful control sites. It was also found that, there is a information. This can be illustrated by a database, domination of forest species at the control sites, conceived and maintained by cooperative whereas vandalism signs were found to be more partnerships, containing over half a million abstracts common at the recreation sites. The results on soil and spanning more than fifty years of the world and vegetation parameters show that areas used for literature of forest science. It allows access through recreational activities are losing their natural multiple routes, including CD-ROM and the conditions whereas similar control areas along the Internet, and can be built into knowledge bases as river that was not used by visitors shows better required. regeneration and in more natural conditions. IT allows information to be presented to the user in Visitor's opinion on problems of the Recreation a convenient and friendly way, so that knowledge Forests was also evaluated to assess perceptions on results. Examples in the forestry context include the conditions of the natural resources. Out of taxonomic information systems, geographic several parameters tested, it was found that many information systems, and multimedia knowledge visitors to the recreation forests are aware of the tools such as Electronic Compendia. The Forestry litter problem and many perceived it as a big Compendium illustrates how varied information problem. The conditions of tree vandalism and soil sources can be brought together to make a single erosion are also considered as big problems to coherent knowledge base. visitors. The Internet, Intranets, the World Wide Web, CD- ROMs, and email provide unprecedented new opportunities for innovative approaches to meeting the need to conserve knowledge and pass it on. The implementation of electronic publishing and information dissemination presents new challenges in the achievement of efficiency, economy, convenience, and standardization. CABI believes

217 Division 6 that the Internet provides the medium for the fold, including the International Centre for Research provision of large bodies of related information to in Agroforestry (ICRAF), and decided to establish 'communities' of users with common needs. The the Centre for International Forestry Research creation of these bodies of information requires (CIFOR). Since this change, a number of networks CABI to form alliances with and develop and system-wide programmes dealing with natural collaborations with organizations which can provide resources management, including forestry, have information and/or communities of users which been launched. These networks and system-wide complement its own; and create novel information programmes provide not only a useful mechanism products by combining primary, secondary and for international research collaboration, but as a tertiary information in innovative ways. Central to major vehicle for information exchange and Internet resource development is CABI's further dissemination. Specialized information systems and belief that the future of information access on the services, developed at centres such as ICRAF and Internet lies in developed networks of interlinked CIFOR, provide a useful source of information for information. Internet sites of bibliographic data, network members and other users. Such services with other information where possible, form include specialized forestry databases, publications, platforms which provide the forum for combining CD-ROMs, modeling and decision support tools, with the information of other organizations through web sites, and library/documentation services. The linkage. CABI's concept of linkage is that abstracts, paper reviews some of these services and highlights structured within a database, provide the navigation their relevance to the forestry research community to and from full text and other material, thus and explores avenues for enhancing their fulfilling the dual function of a searchable accessibility. information resource and a powerful mechanism for The paper also explores capacity building in locating information. information and its impact on the work of scientists, While the Internet is an extremely powerful including foresters. Using the case study of the enabling mechanism, there are still large areas of the AfricaLink Project-aimed at providing electronic developing world where connectivity is limited and connectivity to several research networks in Africa- access to the Internet is not available. CABI has the paper explores problems national scientists proposed the establishment of "Knowledge encounter due to poor communication facilities and Networks" that comprise moderated exchanges of lack of access to relevant and timely information. It knowledge using email between established groups demonstrates how a modest effort in providing basic of scientists working in a related field. Selected email connectivity-especially in remote research extracts from many of the above resources used for stations-can make a significant difference in a virtual "community" can also be provided by enhancing information exchange and research email to these groups, and discussion papers collaboration among network members. The paper summarizing the exchanges can be added to the concludes by highlighting how the Internet and the Internet resource for access by a wider audience. World Wide Web can be used to facilitate collaboration and information access for regional Capacity building through information: and global research networks. the role of international forestry research centres The Rainforest Interpretation Centre - A Michael Hailu, Rita Mustikasari Contribution to Forest Conservation and Center for International Forestry Research, (CIFOR), Environmental Education in Sabah Jalan CIFOR, Situ Gede, Sindangbarang, 16680 Bogor Bernadette Joeman, Hilary Macleod & Michael Barat, Indonesia Trockenbrodt Tel: +62(251) 622 622, FAX: +62(251) 622 100, Email: Forest Research Centre, Forestry Department, Post Box # [email protected] 1407, 90715 Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia Keywords: natural resources management; forestry Tel: +60-89-531522, FAX: +60-89-531068, Email: [email protected] information; agroforestry information; capacity building; networking; international collaboration Keywords: information centre; extension service; teacher training; rainforest information The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) has largely The Rainforest Interpretation Centre (RIC) is an neglected research on natural resources management Environmental Education facility located within the until the system recognized the need to address this Sepilok Arboretum, Sandakan, Sabah, Malaysia. important area and expanded its membership. in The Centre was constructed in 1995 with funds from 1991, the CGIAR admitted three centres into its the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische

218 Division 6

Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). However, this facility is was produced. The manual contains information on now run by the Environmental Education Unit of the environmental education, the Rainforest Forest Research Centre, Sabah Forestry Department. Interpretation Centre, and sample activities as well as programmes that can be run with students. The The RIC houses an exhibition that covers a wide main target group is school students for whom half variety of aspects of the rainforest (e.g. importance, day and full day programmes for both primary and characteristics, distribution, effects of their secondary groups are conducted. So far about 50 destruction) and a collection of artefact displays, schools visited the RIC. in many cases the ranging from dipterocarp seeds to traditional programmes incorporate a visit to the nearby handicrafts made from forest products. Adjacent to Sepilok Orang Utan Rehabilitation Centre. the RIC is a 'Rainforest Walk'. The trail is guided by interpretative boards. The RIC is becoming increasingly popular with schools, tour operators and other visitors. The There are two main aims behind the establishment majority of the visitors is interested and eager to of the Rainforest Interpretation Centre: learn. Young students have expressed an increasing - to increase public awareness of the rainforest, its degree of awareness and concern about the state of importance and the consequences of its destruction the environment especially the forest. Thus, the RIC - to change attitudes and behaviour towards the and the Environmental Education Programme of the rainforest and the environment as a whole. Forestry Department is considered a small, but The Environmental Education Programme at the nevertheless important contribution to forest RIC has been divided into three main components: conservation in Sabah. 1. an environmental education component for visiting primary and secondary school groups. The Developing an Integrated Protected Area aim of this component is to plan and conduct Network (IPAN) System for Biodiversity environmental education programmes for primary Conservation: Lessons Learned and secondary students using the RIC facilities. Vinod B. Mathur, Pradeep K. Mathur, Vineet Sood Wildlife Institute of India, Post Box # 18, 248 00248 001 2. an environmental education component for in- Chandrabani, Dehradun, India service and pre-service teachers and teacher Tel: +91-135-640112 to 115, FAX: +91-135-640117, educators. The aim of this component is to train Email: [email protected] teachers to implement environmental education and Keywords: information system; information enable them to plan and conduct their own technology; resource management; modelling; GIS environmental education programmes at the Rainforest Interpretation Centre. With the rapid advancement in the field of Information Technology (IT), natural resource 3. a public awareness component which caters for managers have become conscious of the need and the general public and tourists. The aim of this utility of developing and managing databases in component is to produce quality interpretive order to facilitate informed decision making. materials and programmes for the public. Likewise, advances in the field of Remote Sensing In addition to the target components, there are two and Geographical Information System (GIS) supporting components: technology provide natural resource managers synoptic, repetitive spatio-temporal coverage's for - an Environmental Education Resource Collection management and monitoring of complex and to establish a resource base for the sustainability of dynamic landscapes. Realizing the global as well as the environmental education programme. the national need for developing a rapid, transparent, - an Administration and Training component to participatory and informed decision making process establish procedures for the running of the in the field of biodiversity conservation, we programme. developed an Integrated Protected Area Network Since the RIC opened for visitors in July 1996, over (IPAN) System for the Maharashtra State Forest 3400 tourists have visited the centre. About 20 Department (MFD) India. workshops for teachers and teacher trainers have A generic approach, capable of evolving solutions in been conducted. The workshop programmes contain a participatory and transparent manner was adopted a general introductory lecture on environmental in the development of the IPAN system. The IPAN education including the principles and a system is 'modular' and 'hierarchical' in nature. demonstration of some selected activities that There are nine modules viz. (i) Biogeographic teachers can do with their students. To support the Zonation; (ii) Protected Area Resources; (iii) workshops, a training manual for the participants Human Resource Development; (iv) Research and

219 Division 6 Monitoring; (v) Tourism and Nature Education; (vi) Finance and Budget; (vii) Supporting Institutions; Resource Sharing and Networking (viii) Legislative Assembly questions; and (ix) amongst Forestry Libraries in India Bibliography. Each module is further divided into M. S Pathania several 'sub-modules'. Each sub-module contains Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Social information on various 'attributes'. The organization Sciences, Library, 173 230 Solan (HP), India of information follows a 'nested architecture'. The FAX: 91-01792-52242, Email: [email protected] system has a flexibility to increase the number of Keywords: library networks; forestry databases, modules/sub-modules/attributes as per specific information infrastructure needs arising in future. For undertaking forestry research, carrying out The IPAN system has been designed to operate at literature searches and information consolidation, four functional/operational levels of management the resource sharing and networking is the most decision making. The IPAN system software has appropriate. in a country like India where the been developed using Visual Basic 4.0 resources of most forestry libraries are inadequate programming language and is designed to handle and unbalanced, it is extremely important to pool both the spatial and aspatial data. The IPAN system the resources of various libraries together. As such provides outputs in a variety of formats viz. (i) the libraries of various institutes in the country set tabular statements (ii) graphics, and (iii) maps. Most up by Indian Council of Forestry Research and of these outputs conform to the existing procedures Education (ICFRE) / Ministry of Environment and of providing information within the departmental Forests and Agricultural Universities imparting hierarchy and wherever necessary modification have forestry education were surveyed. been made to optimize the reporting requirements. With the expansion of knowledge, a lot of literature The IPAN system facilitates: (i) storage, retrieval is published and it is not possible for any of the and query of large data sets; (ii) compilation of aforesaid libraries to cater to the need of all its users. tabular, periodic statements/returns on staff position, Several Commissions in India had recommended offences, management activities routinely required 6.25 to 10% of the educational budget alloted for for regional planning and management; (iii) expenditure on libraries. But it is disappointing to providing of updated information on Protected Area note that only 1.5% or less is spent on most of the (PA) resources required for preparation/revision of libraries. To-day the effective library co-operation is PA management plans; (iv) monitoring of trends still on idea plane in India. Only few libraries are pertaining meteorological variables, vegetation, developing ways and means to make efforts towards animal populations, tourism, animal damage library co-operation. The areas where resource compensation, etc; and (v) resource map generation sharing has achieved partial success in India are: for better visualization, planning and decision - Inter Library Loan Services making. - Co-operative Training The integration of various modules in the IPAN - Book exchange system allows the users to query and generate - Co-operative Library Services (SDI, CAS) information e.g. determining the visitor carrying Whereas in areas like Co-operative Acquisition, Co- capacity and ecotourism potential of a national park; operative Cataloguing, Co-operative Storage and calculation of biotic pressure indices; monitoring of Technical Processing the initiative is yet to be taken trends in socio-economic dependence of rural as far as forestry libraries are concerned. communities living adjacent to the protected areas; identification of information gaps by searching the The effectiveness of the system can be had only bibliographic database. The paper also summarizes with the enactment of Library Legislation. It should the lessons learned in addressing complex data also provide for finances and the way for conducting management issues viz. data custodianship, data library services. in India there is still no agreement validity, value addition and data updation, which on Acquisition Policies, Bibliographical and would be very useful for handling similar tasks in a Standardization procedures of various forestry. in developing country situation. the fact of the problems facing the forestry libraries, resource sharing seems to be the only solution. It is hoped that the use of computers, the modern networking systems, union catalogue and cooperative library services will provide effective resource sharing facilities in the near future. For a successful implementation of resource sharing

220 Division 6 activities, there is a need of creation of databases by information has been made easier with the advent in means of computers at various levels. This in turn, computer software and CD-ROMs. may be combined into bigger data-bases of all Between 1989 and February 1999, twelve materials available in participating libraries. commodity groups have been finished and published This paper discusses as to how the modern forestry in 14 volumes; Pulses, Edible fruits and nut, Dye researcher in India is confronted with the literature and tannin-producing plants, Forages, Timber trees, explosion and the importance of resource sharing Major, Minor and Lesser known timbers, Rattans, and the need for developing an effective network of Bamboos, Vegetables, non-seed carbohydrate- forestry libraries in India. producing plants, cereals, Auxiliary plants and Essential-oil plants. in total 4602 species have been Plant resources of South-East Asia described, 3592 as major and 1023 as minor. The (PROSEA) remaining volumes; medicinal and poisonous plants, Elisabeth Philip, M.K.M. Rizal, M.S. Khadijah and spices, vegetable oils and fats, cryptogams, M.A.A. Razak stimulants, fibre plants, plants yielding exudates and Forest Research Institute Malaysia, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, ornamental plants will be published between 1999 Malaysia and 2001. Email: [email protected] Keywords: plant species; tropical plants, 6.03.02 Forest Terminology: How to get society understand forest terminology publications, PROSEA databank; handbook South-East Asia houses one of the biggest Forest Terminology in relation to remaining complexes of tropical plant diversity. Societal Change and Decision Making Between 5000 and 10,000 plant species have been John A. Helms described in the course of time as being used by University of California Berkeley, Dept. Environmental mankind. The information on these plants both old Science, Policy, and Management, 145 Mulford Hall, CA and new is scattered world wide that only scientists 94720-3114 Berkeley, USA could consult a handful. Similarly, the vast amount FAX: (510) 643-5438, Email: of vernacular reports by emerging class of local [email protected] scientists within the region hardly reaches an Keywords: Forest terminology, societal change, international audience and often - even colleagues in definitions, on-line dictionary neighbouring countries. The last decade has seen dramatic, world-wide Hence, an international programme was initiated changes in the diversity of societal perceptions of with the objectives to document and make available the uses, needs, and values of forests. Many societal the existing wealth of information on plant groups, particularly in the conservation area, are resources of South-East Asia; to make operational a strongly influencing the management and computerised data bank on plant resources of South- conservation of forests on both publicly- and East Asia and to publish the results in an illustrated privately-owned forests. multi-volume handbook. It is an interdisciplinary project covering the fields of agriculture, Forest management is also becoming increasingly horticulture and forestry. A network of offices in six diverse. in the United States it encompasses a South-East Asian countries has been established to variety of objectives represented by owners that achieve these objectives. see also: include private (industrial and non-industrial), http://www.bib.wau.nl/prosea/ public (federal and state), native tribes, and organizations interested in forests as long-term The information gathered has been grouped into 20 financial investments. One could argue that this commodity groups based on their primary uses. The diverse set of ownerships represents a broader cross- data bank on plant resources has a total of 52,967 section of societal needs and values than do the records as of 1998. Bibliographies of less accessible conservation groups. (often gray) form the records of this data bank. of these records, edible fruits and nuts and timber trees Given this diversity in needs, uses, and ownership of are the commodity groups with the highest records forests, it is not surprising to find that forest of more than 8000. More than 8000 species of plants terminology is used inconsistently. Sometimes, as in both lower and higher have been covered in the data the case of such terms as sustainability, forest bank. Plants are also classified based on their health, and clearcutting, this is probably deliberate conservation status and distribution. Retrieval of to further the objectives of the user. Until recently, existing terminologies were commonly dominated by traditional focus on timber management. To fill

221 Division 6 the need generated by more diverse objectives and on one of the solutions proposed by the author at the values, current documents are typically IUFRO international workshop "Multilingualism accompanied by independently-developed and Expert Cooperation in Forest Terminology" glossaries. Consequently, in the development of (MEXFT'98). It consists of three functions. The first public policy and regulation it is common to find function is a World Wide Web server, the second a that terms are defined differently. database server, and the third one is a function to convert Japanese characters' fonts to raster images A standard, accepted, on-line dictionary is needed automatically. that is used as a basis for all documents, debate, general communication, and policy development. The system works as follows. First, a user queries Such a dictionary should probably be developed and about a term to the Web server from a client maintained by a group of forest terminology computer. Then, the Web server requests to search specialists representing diverse elements of the the term to the database server via Common broad field of forestry. These experts whould Gateway Interface (CGI). The database server manage the peer review of definitions before carries out the search and sends the result to the incorporation. IUFRO should expand its leadership Web server via CGI. If the result term contains role in developing a standardized terminology, Japanese two-byte characters, it is converted to a probably with regional variation of definitions, both raster image on the way to the Web server from the nationally and internationally. The great advantage database server. Finally, the Japanese term is of an electronic dictionary is that it would be readily displayed as an image in a Web browser on the available and could be constantly updated and client computer. revised as terms are introduced or modified. Current The system does not require Japanese font data and issues needing to be resolved include the use of special browsers on client computers. in other copyrighted definitions that are currently limited to words, Japanese characters can be displayed in use in the print medium, defining the extent of the popular Web browsers such as Netscape Navigator field of forestry, and determining the extent of and Microsoft Internet Explorer on any countries' coverage of terms in each of the forest science computers. Furthermore, the method is available not disciplines. only for Japanese characters, but also for characters of other non-Western languages. Proposal of A Multilingual Forest Terminology Database Designed for Therefore, the system also makes it possible to add Western and Non-Western Languages. other non-western languages to the multilingual Mitsuo Matsumoto forest terminology database. Forest management division, Forestry and Forest The experimental system of a multilingual forest Products Research Institute, Post Box # 16 Tsukuba- terminology database will be demonstrated in the Norin, 305-8687 Ibaraki, Japan presentation. Tel: +81-298-73-3211, FAX: +81-298-73-3799, Email: [email protected] Terminology as a way to communicate Keywords: Forest terminology, multilingual values. Sustainable forest development: terminology database, non-western languages, two- vision of the world in the 21st century byte code, SilvaVoc-J Nerida Puentes Alvarez SilvaVoc, IUFRO's clearing house for multilingual Universidad de Pinar del Rio, Pinar del Rio, Cuba forest terminology, is working to establish a forest Tel: +082-5032, Email: [email protected] terminology database to be published on the Keywords: Forest terminology, Spanish language, Internet. Non-Western languages such as Japanese, English language, teaching programmes, however, have some problems in multilingual terminology work, sustainable forest development databases, and current web browsers have a limited capacity to manage multilingual functions. For Language is a working instrument common to all example, western computers cannot display subject specialists, a working tool and a means for Japanese characters correctly on the monitors, communicating scientific findings. because they cannot manage two-byte code and The objective of the Programme of Foreign have no Japanese font data. Language of the Technical Center of Higher SilvaVoc-J, which is a partner of SilvaVoc in Japan, Education is to elaborate versions and summaries of developed an experimental system of a multilingual expert materials in Spanish with an adequate usage forest terminology database. This system was based of the Spanish mother tongue. The educative project as main working document in the three dimensions,

222 Division 6 the instructive, sociopolitical and extension aspects, serves as a basis for integrating English as a foreign Coming to Terms with Politicians and language programme with the other expert Definitions programmes. H. Gyde Lund Facing the challenge of the globalization, the correct Forest Information Services, 8221 Thornwood Ct., VA usage of the language as a distinctive feature of the 20110-4617 Manassas, USA Tel: +1-703-368-7219, FAX: +1-703-257-1419, Email: national identity and the valorization of linguistic [email protected] variants are of major concern to the project leaders. The strategy was set to use Terminology as a way to Keywords: Forest terminology, international integrate English into other teaching programmes in processes, definitions the University of Pinar del Rio. This strategy Recently there has been a large number of consists of several phases, resulting in the international agreements, conventions and protocols integration of the students in research work, dealing with forest and forestry - especially since sistematic terminology work and in the organization the United Nations Conference on Environment and and elaboration of concept systems of the contents Development (UNCED) in 1992. Politicians and of the several subjects. With this strategy the high-level government officials, eager to do the transdisciplinary approach of the English technical right thing regarding the environment endorsed language course leads, via sistematic terminology documents such as the Forestry Principles, the work, to the formation and strenghening of general United Nations Framework Convention on Climate and professional values which the students need to Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biodiversity have as members of a society that has to face the (COB), and the recent Kyoto Protocol. Successful challenges of a new century. accomplishment of these agreements on a global Sustainable forest development as a paradigm to basis requires common understanding and reach sustainability is the perfect conceptual world. implementation at the national level. However, these Terminology work takes into account the scientific agreements often contain terms that are not clearly perception of the world through knowledge- defined or accepted on a national level. It could be generating processes in the construction and that the endorsers either believed that they were permanent reconstruction of the student's "vision of commonly understood or they purposefully left the the world". It aims at providing an education which definitions and interpretations up to the allows to perceive semantic and conceptual features implementing bodies. of sustainable forest development. These combined To understand the magnitude of definitions in use at language and subject field teaching programmes are the national and international levels, IUFRO intended to prepare the students to the challenges 6.03.02, in 1998, undertook studies of some terms that they will have to face as future subject associated with the Forestry Principles, Climate specialists. Change and Biodiversity Conventions, and the Sustainable forest development as a paradigm to Kyoto Protocol. The studies included a world-wide reach sustainability is the perfect conceptual world. literature review and internet survey for definitions The scientific conception of the world through of such terms as tree, forest, land cover land use, knowledge generating processes in the construction deforestation, afforestation, reforestation, old and permanent reconstruction of the students' growth and ancient forest, protected areas, and low "vision of the world" is taken into account in the forest cover, that appeared to be ambiguous in many terminology work to obtain an education which of the agreements. For example, the term "forest", allows to perceive semantic and conceptual features key for the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol, of sustainable forest development and therefore may be defined as an administrative unit by one provides a way of action in view of the challenges country, a type of land cover by another or a type of that the students have to face as future subject land use by yet another. With such diversity in specialists. definitions at the national level, it would be very difficult to develop any meaningful statistics at the global level.

223 Division 6 than prescriptive principles, e.g. instead of aiming How to do Terminology Work in primarily at recommending definitions, it is our Forestry. Services Offered by IUFRO concern to point out differences in the use of the Renate Prüller, Michèle Kaennel Dobbertin terms. Guidelines for quality forestry terminology IUFRO, Secretariat, Seckendorff-Gudent-Weg 8, 1131 projects will be distributed at the IUFRO World Vienna, Austria Congress. Tel: +43-1-877 0151 ext. 21, FAX: -43-1-877 9355, Email: [email protected] As globally co-ordinated forest research becomes a priority in the context of sustainable management Keywords: Forest terminology, co-operation, and global change, the need for concerted action in terminology services terminology will increase. Partners from various Efficient communication among scientists and with geographical and institutional backgrounds will decision makers needs a precise and clear technical have to base their collaboration on common language. The network of IUFRO experts in forest definitions. They will also need to avoid duplicating science is an immense pool of living expert terminological efforts. Together, WP 6.03.02 and knowledge. Experts create the terms we use to SilvaVoc can significantly contribute to this communicate and thus constitute an ideal partner for collective effort by consolidating the network, IUFRO's services in their attempt to define and resources and expertise they have built since 1995. make accessible the forest technical language to a wider public. 6.06.00 Research driven by scientists' wish or society's demand? At a time when English has become the lingua franca of science, it is crucial that other languages - Scientists and Forest Policy: Roles, and IUFRO has four official languages - keep Opportunities and Responsibilities playing an active role. This broadens the horizon of Denver Burns scientific thinking and knowledge, but also makes USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, unequivocal communication more difficult to 97303 Ft Collins, CO, USA achieve. Within the United States Forest Service, the role and Vocabularies, glossaries and terminological responsibilities of research scientists is widely databases present the technical vocabularies and, if discussed in terms of decision making for policy and relevant, interpret them for the interested public. management. The issue is widespread within the The role of forestry experts is to help and assist in national scientific community as scientists come this process of explication and definition of their face-to-face with the conflicting demands of own specialised language, in order to guarantee the unbiased research and moral and ethical high quality and liability of these communication considerations to make public their views and value tools. judgments about trends and issues that their work has uncovered. The Forest Service has attempted to IUFRO offers services with regard to terminological draw a clear line between science and value problems through its Working Party 6.03.02 "Trends judgments in the policy and management of the in Forest Terminology" and its terminology project Nation's public forested lands. SilvaVoc based in the IUFRO Secretariat, which are interrelated and pro-active. Additionally we will show how 6.03.02 and SilvaVoc incorporate IUFRO A successful example of an interaction officeholders in terminology work and illustrate the between universities and forest most important services that are provided by companies to promote research and 6.03.02: development in Brazil: SIF - electronic discussion groups - terminological hotline for telematic-based Laercio Couto, Amaury P de Souza, Antonio J de terminological assistance; Oliveira, Antonio S Alipio, Antonio B do Vale, Jos‚ C and by SilvaVoc: Dias Casali - on-line Bibliography of terminological Federal University of Vicosa, Dept of Forestry, Society publications in forestry for Forest Research, 36571-000 Minas Gerais, Brazil - terminological database SilvaTerm. FAX: 55 31 891-2166, Email: [email protected] Traditionally IUFRO's role in terminology has been In 1974, the Department of Forestry - DEF of the to make people aware of terminological differences. Federal University of Vicosa - UFV in Minas Our approach is therefore based more on descriptive Gerais, Brazil, along with five private forest

224 Division 6 companies founded the Society for Forest Research The process uses sophisticated information - SIF a non-profit organization with the objective of management and technology to involve senior promoting research and development in the management at key decision points, optimize the use Brazilian forestry sector. At the same year, the of human and financial resources, minimize Department of Forestry of that University was also subjectivity and bias in decision-making, and starting its graduate program in Forestry. This reward scientists and for delivery of quality fortunate coincidence led to one of the best products and services. examples in Brazil of an interaction between the scientific and private sector in the country. Most of Forestry and Forest Research in Brazil the research thesis at Master and Doctorate level in Vitor Afonso Hoeflich, Arnaldo José de Conto, Erich the graduate program of Forestry of UFV were Schaitza funded and developed at those associated Universidade Federal do Paran, Embrapa Florestas, companies. Since its foundation in 1974 SIF has Brazil promoted a series of short courses, workshops and Tel: 041-3425332, FAX: 041-244-1545, Email: international meetings and publishes today Revista [email protected] µrvore which is considered the best scientific Brazil has an area of 8.5 million km2 and a journal in the forestry area in the country. The population of over 160 million inhabitants. Brazilian objective of this paper is to show how an agreement GNP was about 750 billion dollars in 1997. Natural between private forest companies and a federal forests still cover a large area of Brazil. Although university can lead to one of the best examples of one may list several different forest ecosystems, six interaction for forestry research and 6.06.00 of them deserve special mention: the Amazon Research driven by scientists' wish or society's forest; the Atlantic forest; the "Cerrados"; the demand? "Pantanal"; the "Caatinga"; the "Paran Pine" forest. Brazil has about 6 million hectares of man-made Optimizing Societal and Corporate forests, mainly with Eucalypts (many different Needs While Delivering Quality Science species, the most common one being E. grandis) to Support Forest Policy and Practices and pines (slash and loblolly pine). These forests David De Yoe were planted mainly from 1966 to 1987 by large Ministry of Natural Resources, Ontario Forest Research companies with tax incentives from Brazilian Institute, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada Government. Today, nearly all wood used for pulp and paper, particleboard and fiberboard comes from Aligning science activities to best address ecological these man-made forests. Besides, more than one sustainability, private sector business objectives, third of all veneer and plywood comes from pines. and/or societal demands is a major challenge in research and development (R&D). Forest resource In the last decade, Brazilian government has policy makers must account for all three when changed legislation to diminish deforestation and developing legislation, standards and guidelines to created a large number of conservation units. None reflect the wide array of multi-sector values. Policy of these measures was fully effective as there are no is being increasingly scrutinized to ensure its effective law enforcement structures and integrity and relevance. Delivery of quality science conservation units need further investments on to meet sector needs requires 4 major steps: a) financial and human resources to work properly. identify sector needs (including the scientific Forest research had an important role in forestry community), b) translate those needs into research development in the last century, but research proposals, c) select of priority R&D projects, and d) institutes are facing problems due to a rather long ensure the service or product fits the need and is economic crisis. The early and current story of delivered on target. forestry research in Brazil is presented, and current trends in organizational and tematic aspects are Ontario is exploring the use of a process to discussed. The weakness of information systems effectively, efficiently and equitably address each of and the need for the strenghtening of networks are these steps. The procedure includes the use of a key factors to the success of forest research in the values and objectives driven survey of key country, which is hindered by a steady diminution stakeholders, a protocol for aligning science of funding and to the current process of privatization activities with stakeholder values and objectives, a of public research institutes. delivery tracking system to help ensure a good product - need fit, and a performance-based system The perspectives of development of forest sector in that guides and supports scientists and specialists to Brazil are good provided some structural changes help them meet corporate priorities. occur in the country, increasing competitivity of forest products.

225 Division 6 Current Research at the Institute for UN/ECE and EU, a data bank is established. Data World Forestry on site parameters, soil chemistry, elementary Jochen Heuveldop compounds in needles and leaves and the Institute for World Forestry, Federal Research Centre for development of the canopy are included. All Forestry and Forest Products information is recorded in a time range of 15 to 20 Leuschnerstr. 91, 21027 Hamburg, Germany years and is based on several thousands of Tel: +49-40-739 62 100, FAX: +49-40-739 62 480, monitoring points in Europe. The assessment Email: [email protected] methods of the different monitoring programmes of The mandate of the Institute for World all participating countries need to be harmonised for Forestry/Chair of World Forestry is to conduct interdisciplinary and synoptical analysis. research on the structure and composition of forests, Silviculture as a Tool for Sustainable on their conservation, management, and potential Management of Forests and Non-Timber for utilisation. The research is concentrated on the Forest Products development of strategies to preserve forests and improve their multiple functions, on recultivation of Emphasis is put on research of structure and degraded forest lands and on integration of forestry dynamics of tropical and boreal forest ecosystems as into overall regional development. a fundamental prerequisite for the development of silvicultural systems. Concepts for silvicultural According to the research agenda, scientific operations need to be elaborated and verified. They activities and research projects focus on five key have to be oriented towards an economic feasibility, aspects covering tropical and boreal forest types: to ecological stability and socio-cultural Forest Ecosystem Dynamics compatibility. Regeneration and growth of trees essentially depend Non-timber forest products play an important role in on their genetically programmed capability to adapt the sustainable management of tropical forests. to changing site conditions. The knowledge of Corresponding research concentrates on the adaptability, of autecology and site preferences of production and utilisation of non-wood forest important tree species is a significant precondition products. for the planning of environmentally compatible Sustainable Forest Development development of forests, and for the rehabilitation of degraded forests. Various projects investigate the At the Conference on Environment and autecology of tree species to gain knowledge about Development in Rio, the Federal Republic of their suitability for integration in rehabilitation Germany has agreed to implementing the Agenda programmes. Furthermore, plant species diversity is 21, the environmental action programme for the 21st studied to assess the effects of forest management in century. Chapter 11 of this Agenda ('Combating stands with different harvesting intensities and Deforestation') specifies research priorities of compared with pristine forest conditions. forestry research in the tropics. Moreover, Germany signed the Framework Convention on Climate Influence of Land Use on Biodiversity Change in Rio. It obliges Germany to implementing Forests have a key function in determining the the targets of the convention and to report to the distribution and the abundance of many other plant Secretariat of the Conference of the Parties. This and animal species. Biological diversity is becoming convention has meanwhile become national law. a central criterion for forest management and Considering Germanys international commitments, interdependencies are to be fully understood. the Institute for World Forestry elaborates proposals Fundamental research topics deal with dispersal of in the context of harmonisation of diverging views plant diaspores, with browsing and predation and for political decisions to be taken by the Federal their consequences, with floral ecology and Government. pollination success, as well as with competition. Sustainable management of forests mainly in an international framework also includes the careful utilisation of biological resources, other than timber, for the proper use and treatment of forests as a resource. Forest Development and Monitoring As part of the co-ordination and evaluation of the European Assessment on Forest Condition by

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important conclusion that cultural, natural, 6.06.02 How are innovations applied in economic, and social conditions should be sustainable forestry considered and different nations and regions should find their own way in promoting participatory The practice and prospect of forestry. Recommendations for forestry policy participatory forestry in China reform and strategies for project implementation Jinlong Liu were put forward. Chinese Academy of Forestry, The Sustainable Forestry Research Centre, 100091 Beijing, China Survey, Assessment, and Analysis of Tel: 86-10-62889632, FAX: 86-010-62872015, Email: liujl @ rif.forestry.ac.cn Existing Extension Strategies and Transferred Technologies in the Keywords: Participatory forestry, community Cordillera Region of the Philippines forestry, implementation, impacts Helen A. Maddumba, Jocelyn S. Mapanao In historical review of the philosophy of human Ecosystems Research and Development Service, development regarding interaction between forests Department of Environment and Natural Resources, and humans, a transition is occurring from the Cordillera Administration Region, Loakan Road, 2600 Baguio City, Philippines perception of forests as a resource to recognition of FAX: 0063-442-4531, Email: erds-car@mozcom. Com forests as an associate. Humans have stepped into this new stage with difficulty, and participatory Keywords: extension; technology transfer; forestry can be a brick for paving the way into this information dissemination; technology adoption new stage of human development. Participatory The study identified technologies and information forestry was introduced to China in the mid-1980s that were disseminated through a loan project by the and then fostered by international aid projects. in the Ecosystems Research and Development Service. past decade, issues raised for study have included Dissemination methods and extension strategies policy, indigenous knowledge, gender analysis, were also identified as basis for formulating an conflict resolution, technical improvement and appropriate and effective extension strategy for end- innovation, and training with international technical users and the government. Respondents identified aid. But studies were limited in the area that has one to four types of information and technologies been tested with focus on southwest China. Since with soil and water conservation measures most the mid-1990s, community forestry projects have widely known in three provinces and tree planting been implemented in areas of poverty in the middle technologies better known in two provinces. and west part of China with international financial Methods used for disseminating information aid. The impacts of these projects were analyzed for include: lecture, lecture with brochure, training, behavior and attitude changes of various training and actual demonstration, cross-farm visits, stakeholders related to forests, institutional support film showing, broadcast, brochure distribution, for developing participatory forestry, the orientation house-to-house interviews, and meetings. Cross- of objectives, technical improvement and farm visits occur when a group of farmers in the innovation, and extension. The constraints in the same area will visit a group of farmers with model development of participatory forestry were analyzed farms in another area to learn technologies being with regard to behaviors and attitudes of outside adopted in that farm and in turn share their individuals and institutions, policy and regulation, experiences and technologies to this group of role of existing institutions, promotion costs, farmers. financial agencies, participatory process, and techniques.The decision-making processes, The most common and preferred method was processes for implementation, and impact of the training with actual demonstration followed by participatory forestry projects were analyzed in cross-farm visits. These strategies showed high comparison to those of the prevailing top-down impact and are recommended for introducing forestry projects. in regards to the participatory technologies and information to this type of client forestry as an emerging philosophy and strategy, (upland farmers, a majority of which belong to 30- many issues related to forestry management were 39 age group and have either reached or graduated analyzed including land tenure reform, policy and high school education). Farmer factors that regulation, and decentralization of decision-making. influenced adoption in several provinces included Because of the great variation in natural, economic, age, sex, civil/marital status, education, household social, and cultural conditions and the imbalance of size, experience, farm size, tenure, and membership policy reform in different regions, many cases with in organizations. Technology features (profitability, great variation were provided. This resulted in the simplicity, practicality, compatibility with tradition,

227 Division 6 and low cost inputs), characteristics of extensionists Rehabilitating Cold Deserts through (interest, positive attitude toward their work, and Apropriate Transfer of a Technology communication skills) and credit facilities were Package perceived by respondents to have influenced the Om. Prakas Sharma, K K Raina adoption of the technology and information. Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Social Sciences, 173 230 (HP) Nauni (Solan), India Influencing the Adoption of Forestry Tel: +91-1792-52288, FAX: +91-1792-52242, Email: Innovations: A Case Example from the [email protected] United States Keywords: technology transfer; extension; Cynthia L. Miner, George H. Stankey participatory processes; cold deserts, sustainable USDA, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research development Station, P.O. Box 3890, Portland, OR, USA Tel: 503-808-2135, FAX: 503-808-2130, Email: The "cold deserts" in India, covering and area of 2 Stankey_George/r6pnw_seattle@sv2 74,809 km , pose a challenge to development because of rugged terrains, isolation, inhospitable Keywords: Forestry innovations; information climate, and a lack of communication facilities. The dissemination; technology adoption; research development in the region has witnessed a sequence organizations of changes of edaphic, abiotic, and social-economic People come to adopt innovations (new information, environment over time and is unfortunately concepts, or technologies) through a process of contributing to environmental degradation. becoming aware of the innovations, deciding to try The traditional farming practices are being over it, and evaluating as to whether they will continue to shadowed by modern culture without a fresh look at use it. Forestry research organizations are in the these technological interferences and capital business of producing innovations, but are appraisal of their influences on economic prosperity increasingly challenged as how to best organize to and sustainable development of these hostile regions promote the cycle of innovation adoption, in perpetuity and commensurate with the cultural implementation, and evaluation. This paper heritage. The cold deserts need to be conserved by examines three ways that the Pacific Northwest adopting environment friendly and appropriate Research Station, United States Department of development packages. The suggested technology Agriculture, Forest Service, promotes adoption of should depend least on internal inputs and aim at innovations that it has produced: (a) information and intensive farm research to maximize land technology retrieval, (b) in-person interaction with productivity, resource conservation, and scientists, and (c) organizational arrangements that environmental protection, and catalysis of natural emphasize learning. Traditional reliance on ecological development processes. hardcopy scientific and technical publications is giving way to an increasing use of electronic The transfer of technology package suggested in this information retrieval, including publication, paper caters to the needs of the poor and marginal software, and databases. Electronic access has farmers with recognition of innovation for and broadened both the types and number of people accountability to these users. It is based on aware of the station's research. Experiences with participatory principles which are socially pro- scientists include field trips, workshops, training, people, that is, economically viable and culturally and some direct participation in research. Although acceptable. This transfer of technology module will such experiences can be effective in influencing help solve complex problems by blending modern people to try innovations, they are also time- scientific innovation and the traditional expertise consuming for scientists and involve an opportunity developed by the inhabitants for centuries. The cost in time and resources that could be otherwise suggested appropriate transfer of technology directed at research. Finally, the research station has package intervenes into the physical, socio-cultural, experimented with several organizational agroclimatic, geographic, environmental and arrangements that bring scientists, forest managers, different components of soil, water, crops, livestock and often citizens together. Such arrangements are and resource endowments of the community. innovative and complex, often requiring Appropriate technology needs to be considered for commitment from two or more organizations. vegetables, fruits, peas, potato, kuth, saffron, hops, Results have been mixed. Two examples of these and traditional crops like minor millets, seed arrangements are learning centers and adaptive production of flowers, grasses, forest plantations, management areas. medicinal and aromatic plants, sheep and goat husbandry, fisheries, and management of nomadic

228 Division 6 grazing. These technologies need to be transferred resources, creation of public awareness, and training through the participatory processes and extension of professionals. education techniques for sustainable development of One of the significant steps in implementing the socio-economic conditions and ecological strategy was launching the National Watershed sustenance of cold deserts. Development Project for restoration of the ecological balance in rain-fed areas and sustainable Adaptation and evaluation of innovative biomass production. It focuses on conserving technologies by society: a step towards rainwater and topsoil by (1) conservation, optimum utilization of forest resources upgradation and optimum use of natural for sustainability and socio-economic endowments in an integrated manner with low cost development innovative technology and (2) generating Diwakar Sinha employment for the poor rural communities, directly Watershed Management Directorate, Indranagar Forest with farmers and watershed beneficiaries in Colony, 248006 Dehradun, Uttar Pradesh, India planning and implementing all projects in the Tel: +91-135-724229, FAX: +91-135-620334(attn: watershed by developing self-help groups. Diwakar Sinha), Email: [email protected] The Doon Valley Integrated Watershed Keywords: watershed management, technology, Management Project has implemented the National adaptation; evaluation; sustainable forest Watershed Development Project in Uttar Pradesh, management India, with the help of the European Economic Sustainability in forest management is accepted as Commission since 1993. It includes agriculture, essential. Optimum utilization of available resources minor irrigation, horticulture, animal husbandry, and adaptation of the latest management and community participation, soil conservation and innovative technologies are key factors in planning forestry. The project now is being implemented in programs for forest management. India is striving to 255 villages covering an area of about 1,854 square adjust and reorient teaching, training, and project kilometers. This paper discusses, reviews, and implementation to address the changing focus of highlights issues of adaptation and evaluation of forest management. A technology policy statement technologies, old and new, of the multidisciplinary was formulated to develop indigenous technology project, with emphasis on environmental restoration, and ensure efficient diffusion and adaptation of socio-economic development, and sustainable forest imported technologies appropriate to national management. priorities and indigenous resources. The policy statement aims at attaining technical competence 6.06.03 Targeting the real forest managers and self-reliance with maximum use of indigenous resources. It also aims at using traditional skills and Impact of Societal Change On Extension capabilities toward commercial competitiveness. Work in Bavaria Roland L. Beck, Stefan Schaffner Several other measures are envisaged to optimize University of Munich, Faculty of Forest Science, Am demand on energy and ensure harmony within the Hochanger 13, D-85354 Freising, Germany environment. in view of the progressive pressure on Tel: +49-8161-71-4621, FAX: +49-8161-71-4623, Email: the environment and natural resources, it was agreed [email protected] on to give a new thrust toward conservation and sustainable development. To weave environmental Keywords: Societal change; Extension; Bavaria considerations into the fabric of national life and the So far the focus of state support and forestry development process, the Government of India extension activities for small scale forest owners in adopted the National Conservation Strategy in June Bavaria has been put on farm forests. The whole 1992. This identified population control and system of education, further education and conservation of natural resources including land, extension for private forestry was and still is water, atmosphere, biodiversity, and biomass as the adjusted to that type of forest owner. The structural priority areas needing specific concerted action. changes in the agricultural sector causes an ongoing These actions would integrate environmental abandonment of farm enterprises which lowered the consideration into policies and programs of number of managed farms from 472.805 in 1960 to development in various sectors. 252.972 in 1997 and extended the number of pure The strategy also highlighted the role of forest enterprises from 46.148 in 1980 to 73.275 in International Cooperation and Systems for 1997. Therewith the number of forest owners no strengthening institutional mechanisms, research, longer covered by the traditional forest education and development, mobilization of financial and further education system increased and will

229 Division 6 increase further on. Coincidentally the management Forestry Extension in Environment of objectives of these "new" non farm forest owner Political Transition - example of type changes, at least partially no longer focusing on Slovenia wood production. Jurij Begus, Zivan Veselic The traditional forestry extension approach in Slovenia Forest Service, Vecna pot 2, p.p.71, 1001 Ljubljana, Slovenia Bavaria to link extension with the financial support Tel: +386-61-123-54-32, FAX: +386-61-123-53-61, of private forestry within the framework of financial Email: [email protected] funding programs does not seem to be appropriate in the future: The catalog of supported activities Keywords: transition, forestry, Slovenia generally aims at traditional forest management The article deals with the conditions raised from the measures. in addition, due to budget restrictions, the political changes in Central and Eastern Europe. We available amount of funds for management activities focused on forestry which in many places went decreased remarkably since 1990. Therewith the through radical transformation. We are dealing with attractiveness to seek extension services will shorten Slovenia as an example. too. The political changes which occurred in Eastern and The classic extension clientele (farmers, wood Central Europe in the last years, seized strongly into production oriented forest owners) is also every pore of social life. One of the essential matters confronted with changes on the customers side: The that went through a radical change, is property. in ongoing concentration process in the wood industry nature, as well as in social relations, the system of sector in Germany creates new challenges to small pendulum is present. If in a system we hold one scale private forest owners in terms of delivery thing on one, extreme side for a long time, the conditions (just in time production, sufficient reaction, in the moment of release, will be adverse volume per harvest etc.) and grading of timber. and more impetuous than it is good for a system. If Simultaneously forest owners available time for the rights, arising from private ownership were individual forest management is decreasing due to oppressed for decades, it is logical that the demands the growing size of the agricultural part of the of the new, or better "renewed" owners would not enterprise in the case of farm forests. Therefore always be profitable for the forest. Therefore it is private forest owner organizations or service urgent that the interests of singular components of enterprises will increasingly take over forest the system (owners, profession, politics, public) are management competencies in small scale forests. coordinated, because only such coordinated system These "new" forest managers are therewith of will work successfully. growing interest for extension professionals. Even though the conditions in Slovenia were, and The described processes demand the modification of still are, different from the rest of the countries in the existing extension praxis in Bavaria in terms of transition, the basic relation and problems in a approaches and contents, from a reactive general society are in its nature similar, if not the same, outline to an extended active extension. A everywhere. That's why the description of the precondition is knowledge on the motivations and condition in Slovenia is enough to make an observer attitudes, as well as objectives of the "new" forest get a rough picture of the circumstances, governing owners and managers. Most recent research shows, in other countries in Central and Eastern Europe. that the new clientele not necessarily spends less The main changes, performed in the field of forestry time in their forest but less time with forest work. in Slovenia are: Absentee owners dedicate up to 70%, farmers at - with the denationalisation process the share of least 90% of their time in the forest to active work. private-owned forests has increased Lack of equipment and less skills also characterizes - the rights and duties of forest owners towards their these new absentee forest owners. 2/3rd hire forests have been strengthened entrepreneurs for specific forest management - a united public forestry service has been set up for activities, 1/5th exclusively. Income generation all the forests, regardless of ownership plays only a minor role, main management strategy - financing of forestry has been completely changed; becomes to "keep the forest", using concepts from because of public meaning of forests, the state "traditional" to more "close to nature" but also "do finances the public forestry service and the major nothing". part of protection works in private forests and it also participates in financing of tending works and maintenance of forest communications.

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The united public forestry service assures a more a stream of income to keep the Bank funded at a efficient professional guidance of forest level high enough to pay the annuities. This development. presentation focuses on a series of related research projects now being conducted by Virginia Tech in The system of forest-management planning has been cooperation with The Nature Conservancy. Studies completely renovated and supported by modern are underway to evaluate the willingness of forest technology of space treating (ortophoto plans, geo- landowners to participate in the program, to coding of all data about forest and forest space). We determine the impact on individual and community are paying a special attention to incorporation of economics, and develop spatial data analysis forestry planning into general regional planning in techniques to relate demographic and economic data the country, even bigger stress than so far is given to with land use patterns and critical habitats on the protection of nature and to the highest possible ground. extent the wishes of forest owners, who also participate in forestry planning, are being considered. The public forestry service makes wild- Household Livelihood and Labour-Time life management plans, too. One of the most Use Patterns as Frameworks for important tasks is education of forest owners and the Devising Community-based public. Agroforestry Extension Strategies Alice A. Kaudia The Forest Bank: An Innovative Kenya Forestry Research Institute, Post Box # 20412, Nairobi, Kenya Program To Manage Forests and Protect Tel: +254-154-32891-3, FAX: +252-154:32844, Email: Biological Resources On Private Lands [email protected] or [email protected] James E. Johnson Virginia Tech, College of Natural Resources, 324 Since the introduction of the concept of agroforestry Cheatham Hall, Mail Code 0324, VA 24061 Blacksburg, and associated practices in the early 1980s, USA agroforestry projects have adopted conventional Tel: 540-231-7676, FAX: 540-231-7664, Email: extension methods and approaches such as farm [email protected] visits, group training, and the modified Training and Conflicts between the need to harvest and extract Visit method. Typically, the planning of timber products and to protect rare, threatened, and agroforestry extension activities by extension endangered biological resources are common agencies has not taken into account the local throughout the world. in the US such issues have conditions. Consequently, it has been observed that centered around a small number of high profile some categories of potential beneficiaries of species such as the spotted owl in the Pacific agroforestry extension services have been sidelined. Northwest and the Louisiana black bear in the in addition, adoption of agroforestry technologies, South. Often, the critical habitat and species in especially in marginal subsistence agricultural areas, question reside on large tracts of public land, and has been limited. the controversy becomes one of public policy. Participatory approaches have also been tried since However, across the US, about three fourths of the the early 1990's. However, often these approaches forest land is owned by private, nonindustrial land continue to be based on operational frameworks of owners, and conflicts often become more personal the intervening agencies. between environmental organizations and private citizens. Recently an environmental organization, Against the background of the need to devise The Nature Conservancy, developed a program extension methods that fit into the livelihood known as the Forest Bank, and is implementing it in strategies of a target community, research was Southwest Virginia as the first test site. The Forest conducted for a period of 7 months in a semi-arid Bank allows for a forest landowner to voluntarily district of Lake Victoria basin in Western Kenya place the value associated with his/her timber rights during 1996-97. into the Bank, then withdraw an annuity equal to 3 One of the objectives of the research was to to 5% of the value of the timber into perpetuity. For determine patterns of labor-time use by peasant example, if a landowner has $100,000 worth of farmers in this semi-arid area in the context of timber, he/she would receive from $3,000 to $5,000 livelihood strategies. The research identified the each year. The Nature Conservancy would then take types of agroforestry practices that have been most over management of the forest land, and harvest the popular with farmers and hence have diffused timber in an environmentally responsible manner. in extensively. fact, the harvest of timber by The Nature Conservancy would be essential in order to provide

231 Division 6 A formal sample survey was conducted in five watershed of Garhwal Himalaya. Statistical tests divisions of the Homa Bay District in Kenya. Three revealed that farm size, household size and total hundred households were interviewed during the number of animals in the household were months of August to October 1996. Through the significantly related to agroforestry participation at interviews, data on the socio-economic background the 5% level. Distance travelled for fuelwood and agroforestry practicing households, and the collection was negatively significant. Number of types of practices that have been adopted were days used for fodder collection were not statistically collected. Labor-time use data was collected using significant. The study recommends that the well the personal recording method. Data sheets were being of the poor and powerless can be improved by provided to members of the households who reside ecosystem rehabilitation through economically in the farms for more than six months in a year. viable and ecologically sound methods, using a ?do Respondents were requested to record all activities it yourself? approach. It has been postulated that done in a day from the time of waking up to the time application of technologies based on isolated of retiring to bed. One hundred and ninety-seven biological, physical and social science research members of the sampled households participated in cannot resolve this issue and that a proper the labor-time - activity component of the research. understanding of the socio-economic conditions Records were kept for a 3-5 month time equivalent affecting the population is essential. in the model spread across 7 months. Over 100 different activities developed using this approach, the village were recorded, then grouped into nine broad activity organisations assume responsibility to meet the categories. The period of the day when the activities needs of the community. in addition to policies of were undertaken and the duration were also consolidating the land use, land tenure and related summarized. Data was statistically analyzed to issues are also addressed to ensure sustainability of determine the proportioning of time between both the technology and people's participation The different non-farm and farming activities by use of conventional methods of policy and members of the surveyed households. The analysis management practices, which result in the alienation was done to identify differences according to gender of local populations from the forest and and age, as well as the season. consequential forest degradation, is abandoned in this approach. The study also recommends that The research has identified the complexity of detailed analysis of clientele should be the livelihood strategies of rural peasants and how these prerequisite in any agroforestry activity to be complexities have defined households’ decisions on undertaken. allocation of the one scarce resource that is common to households: Labor-time. The diversity of activities and rural households’ time constraints The Forestry and Agroforestry require that agroforestry extension agencies devise Technology Transfer Through extension strategies that involve active participation Agricultural Technical Assistance Units of community members. Research to determine - A New Approach To Rural Extension which agroforestry extension methods, which are Fernando Ortiz Ramirez already being used, can be adapted to circumstances Forestry Research and Promotion National Corp., of rural subsistence farmers to enhance CONIF, Avda. Circunvalar Nro. 16-20 (detras del Inst. dissemination of agroforestry technologies is Roosevelt), A.A. 091676 Santaf‚ de Bogot, Colombia necessary. Tel: 57-1-3417000, FAX: 57-1-3376970, Email: [email protected] Socio-Economic Implications Affecting In the context of community forestry projects Farmers' Participation in Agroforestry participation, planning can be clearly defined as the Extension Activities in Garhwal union between activities realized by the local people and the project staff. The objective is to formulate Himalaya plans and to choose the best alternative available for M. C. Kukreti, Vinay Kumar Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, implementation. in Colombia, the Forestry Research Kaula Garh Road, 248195 Dehradun, India and Promotion National Corporation (CONIF) and FAX: 91-0135-759203, Email: the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development [email protected] (MAG) have implemented an alternative extension methodology entitled "Forestry and Agroforestry AA study was conducted during 1996 to analyse Technology Transfer Through Agricultural some of the socio-economic implications affecting Technical Assistance Units (TAU's)." With the drug farmers' participation in agroforestry extension problems in Colombia, the project has also been activities in the villages of Chopariyal Gaon macro implemented as an alternative to substitute or

232 Division 6 replace illegal crops in some Colombian regions. The aim of this project is to achieve high extension 6.07.00 Tropical Forest History agent performance influence in rural households. The main function of the TAU is to give assistance Searching for a New Paradigm in to small farmers. TAU's have the widest cover of the Sustainable Forest Management: country, because they are associated with the Participatory Forest Management as a national extension service. This is the first Strategy for Forest Conservation and continuous and systematic effort in Colombia to use Development in the Tropics such units. Through this training proposal, CONIF Miyan Rukunuddin Ahmed seeks to provide conceptual information and University of Chittagong, Institute of Forestry and practical experience on forestry and agroforestry, Environmental Sciences, 4331 Chittagong, Bangladesh methodologies to identify and to validate Tel: 880-31-714914, FAX: 880-31-714914, Email: agroforestry practices, and information for the [email protected] (Attention: Dr. Rukun) extension agents to design, advise, and support Participatory forest management (PFM) is a new farmers to adopt technology. To ensure that the field in the arena of forest resources management. It process is successful and practical, the training evolves as an innovative approach for forest proposal has the following characteristics management and conservation with active continuous with three phases: 1) theoretical/practical involvement of the people for the development of training; 2) learning application; and 3) advising, forest and raising socio-economic condition of the monitoring, and evaluation systematic with respect community. PFM can be considered as a to the contents of the training materials, the development program for the poor in the tropical lecturers, and field trips. developing countries with mitigating forest resource - Responsive to local needs. The project aims to conservation problems. It has been realized that resolve the ecological, economic and social forest protection is difficult without active problems related to watersheds, deforestation, involvement and cooperation of local community. erosion, and environmental education. PFM can replenish the degraded forests in the tropics and protect existing forest resources from - Based on human development, the project requires further deterioration through partnership with public that extension agents be qualified to make decisions, agency and community groups. Promotion of respond to the rural development issues, and to people's participation in tropical forest management provide alternatives for resolving issues. needs much stimulation and encouragement among - Community participation: Extension agents and the public, trust on forestry administration, and a farmers work together to identify and prioritize rigorous overhauling of forestry policy and problems, and devise solutions. This allows legislation. It needs community resources maximum use of farmer indigenous knowledge. mobilization and organization into a successful PFM. PFM can enhance the involvement of local - Based on research and established technology: The community in forestry activities through which local project is supported by the latest research results people change their attitude from destructors to from ICRAF, CATIE, as well as CONIF in keepers of the forests. Colombia. Additionally, extension agents can draw information from the Monitoring and Evaluation This article will deal with a development of a model System and the Forestry and Agroforestry Technical for PFM of the tropical forests. Modeling of PFM Information System, which operates nationwide. will include reformulating the policy and legislation; strategy for effective community participation (resources mobilization, community organizing, care and share (stewardship), partnership among public forestry agency, community people/ neighborhood groups, and PVOs/NGOs; incentives and rewards; appropriate technology development and adoption (ATDA); multiple-product forestry practices (honey, wax, deer farming, woodlot, orchard, silvipasture, cash cropping, protected area development, ecotourism, etc.); implementation and evaluation, and research and extension. This article is about how to mobilize resources, organize and involve community people into a body of strong support and action for PFM. Upland people and

233 Division 6 people around the forests realize the importance of forest in their lives from subsistence to life saving Conflict Cultures: A Comparative View drugs, and they are careful about not to destroying of Environmental Forest Conflicts in the forest resources base. Selected European Countries and Government forest policy should welcome and Regions of the USA make provisions for popular participation in forestry Eeva Hellström planning and management. Reformulating of Finnish Forest Association, Salomonkatu 17 B, FIN- policies and laws that are necessary for people's 00100 Helsinki, Finland active participation, support and recognition of Tel: +358-9-685 088 12, FAX: +358-9-68508820, Email: community-based tenurial systems, and [email protected] strengthening local institutions. The tenurial rights Keywords: Environmental conflict, culture, conflict over the land and usufructory rights over the management, Europe, USA. produce should be clearly spelled out in the form of Cultural clash is often perceived as an important an agreement. This is important to gain confidence background to environmental forestry conflicts. of the participants by the government forestry Indeed, conflicts usually involve a struggle between agency in the PFM. Administrative restructuring, sub-cultures of society (e.g. those related to rural foresters' orientation toward community interaction, communities, industrialism, environmentalism). democratic participation of local community in However, cultural aspects of conflicts are in this decision making and implementation in forest paper viewed from a significantly broader angle. management, are some of the important steps that should be taken into consideration. Some of the Environmental forest conflicts can be viewed as strategies for PFM in tropical forest management cultural products of the societies in which they can be (i) establishment of community forest/forest occur. Owing to its unique social, political, village development, and agroforestry model, (ii) economic and resource structure, each society has development of protected area, nature reserve, etc. its own cultural way of producing certain types of through active participation of the community conflicts and managing them in a certain way. Each negotiated on limited access/uses by the community, country has its own "conflict culture". Only by (iii) ensure use rights of non-timber forest products understanding the conflict culture of a society, may (NTFP), and marketing development, (iv) we consciously aim at realising the positive tribal/shifting cultivators' rehabilitation/settlement, potential of conflicts for social development. (v) formation of forest farmers groups/Forest user This paper presents the findings of a comparative group, and (vi) encourage equal gender study of environmental forest conflicts during 1984- participation, (vii) conflict management, and (viii) 95 in seven cases: Finland, France, Germany, community empowerment and control. in this Minnesota, Norway, the Pacific Northwest region of connection, we can cite the examples from India USA, and Sweden. The data comprises a total of where joint forest management (JFM) was practiced 210 focused interviews, which are analysed by using that benefited both the community and the forests; Qualitative Comparative Analysis. The analysis and Nepal where forest user groups (FUG) were provides an understanding of conflict patterns in organized and involved in participatory forest each of the seven cases, focusing particularly on management and rehabilitation/reforestation of patterns related to the types of conflict and conflict degraded lands. management, and to the value, policy, market and resource aspects of the conflicts. in comparing whole societies and in examining long time spans, this research fills in a gap in research on forestry conflicts, which has typically focused on the examination of case-specific or country-specific conflicts. As a result of the analysis, models of conflict cultures and conflict management strategies are presented, and the cases are understood in the light of these models. The model of conflict cultures is based on three dimensional setting where mild vs. intense conflicts, social stability vs. rapid change, and co-operative vs. separative relations are examined in relation to each other.

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The models help understand that conflict culture is a dynamic phenomenon. The appearance of conflicts Human impacts of South American and responses to them change in time within any forests. Historical development society. Within this frame, conflict management Rudi Arno Seitz may be regarded as a conscious effort to Universidade Federal do Parana, Rua Bom Jesus 650, constructively influence conflict culture. This view 80.035-010 Curitiba, Brazil becomes apparent when using the cases to construct Tel: +55-41-232-9084, FAX: +55-41-253-2332, Email: a model of conflict management strategies. [email protected] Before the discovery by european navigators, South Forestry and Stewardship in South-East America had a native population well integrated in Asia, with Special Reference to its environment, using the forests as a natural Peninsular Malaysia resource without depletion. The spanish and Jeyanacar Kathirithamby-Wells portuguese colonization during the 300 years after Clare Hall Cambridge, Herschel Road, CB3 9AL discovery changed little in this situation, as the main Cambridge, Malaysia human impact was concentrated on the coastal FAX: 1953-498121, Email: wells.serendip.@ regions, were of course the forests were cleared to easynet.co.uk provide space for some agricultural activities. Key-words: deforestation, biodiversity, tropical After 1800, as consequence of political changes in forest history Europe, more attention was given to South America. Climate and geography have rendered the task of The establishment of local governments brought forestry difficult and complex in the tropics. Early more economical activities. Also the improvement realization of the impact of deforestation on climate of colonization of new lands by european settlers and environment made colonial foresters aware that caused in the first moment heavy forest destruction. forests afforded services other than the provision of The forest was the enemy, plenty of dangers, wild wood and fuel. The rapid expansion of population in animals and diseases. and the region had no open Southeast Asia as of the nineteenth century obliged grasslands for agriculture. But yet at this time the foresters to put in place appropriate legislation to role of forests as watershed protection was curb indigenous practices of shifting cultivation. recognized. in the surroundings of the city of Rio de The forestry service was much less successful in Janeiro the first reforestation action started on coffee arresting the loss of forests to plantation agriculture. plantations, nowadays called "Floresta da Tijuca". Later in this century, the development of steam After World War II, the challenge to forestry was engines increased the use of wood for energy as well intensified by Southeast Asia's emergence as a as material for the construction of railroads. But still major timber export region. Where previously in most of South America, the forest was a source natural regeneration, long cutting cycles and manual for special products, like rubber or some special extraction allowed the return of biodiversity, post- woods. Fortunatelly this extractivism didn't caused War extensification and intensification of logging much damage to the ecosystem. has threatened the fundamentals of forest stewardship in the tropics. Ironically, it is where the At the beginning of the XXth century it was clear environmental and biological value of forests are for many people that forests should be replanted. highest, such as in the moist tropics of Southeast The first attempts to plant Eucalypts and pines were Asia, that the forester's role has been most made in Argentina, Brazil, Chile and other challenged by politics and economics. The paper countries. Later, even plantations for rubber will argue that it is within the context of these tappering (by Henry Ford) were tryed, without processes that global discourse on the ethics of success. forest conservation and stewardship has evolved. Real impact on forests started after World War II. Due to the development of international markets, evolution of better equipment for logging operations and industrial investments (paper mills, iron industry), the pressure on natural forests raised, as well as reforestation for industrial purposes increased. in the 60ties, land clearing for agricultural activities, like soybean plantations or cattle raising promoted a new wave of deforestation, after extraction of the best logs of the forest.

235 Division 6 Actually, plantation forestry has high technical and purposes. Millions of dollars were allocated for this scientific standards in South America. But the purpose. Such immense effort has transformed Kual management of natural forests remains more or less Lumpur into a city of a balanced and healthy extractivistic. and after all valuable woods or other environmet for its population. A lot of the city products are depleted, land occupation for population has benefited from the presence of these agricultural purposes is the consequence. trees in so many ways. The economic, social, International pressure and local interest achieve political, and environmental benefits are discussed. some results in preserving special tree species (like However, such transformation is not without Araucaria araucana in Chile) or even landscapes, problems but nevertheless Kuala Lumpur has like the forests in the coastal mountain range in managed to provide a pleasant image to visitors and southeastern Brazil. citizens alike. These problems and solutions are in so many ways similar to other cities throughout the 6.07.00 Social changes and forests world. The lessons learnt in Kuala Lumpur may be applied to other cities throughout the world. A Historical Chronology and Impact of Urban Forestry: A Case Study of Kuala Learning from Self-Initiated Community Lumpur, Malaysia Forest Management in Orissa, India Nik Ismail Azlan Czech Conroy, Abha Mishra and Ajay Rai MARA Institute of Technology, Department of University of Greenwich, Natural Resources Institute, Landscape Architecture, Malaysia Chatham Maritime, ME4 4TB Chatham Kent, United Email: [email protected] Kingdom FAX: 00 44 1634 880066/77, Email: Beginning with its founding at the confluence of [email protected] two rivers, the city of Kuala Lumpur has seen the introduction of several exotic and local forest There is growing recognition in tropical countries species planted within the built up areas. Initially that safeguarding forests requires the active some of the existing forest species were left intact as involvement of local communities, but knowledge development was very minimal during the early of how best to do this is limited. Orissa's extensive years. When Kuala Lumpur was placed under the experience of community forest management British administration several exotic forest species (CFM) provides some valuable lessons and insights were introduced for their shade and beauty amidst regarding: (a) how and why communities manage the humidity of the tropical climate. These trees their forests; and (b) the sustainability of CFM were often planted side by side with the local initiatives. The paper discusses the following species especially within the town centre, residential aspects of CFM in Orissa: (a) the conditions that areas, government buildings, club house, parks and give rise to the initiation of CFM; (b) the size and greenbelts. Combined with the introduction of nature of the benefits, and how they are distributed flowering shrubs Kuala Lumpur was slowly among the various sub-groups of a community; (c) developed into a conceptual garden city. The wet the factors affecting its sustainability, including and humid tropical climate quickened the growth of conflicts and their management; and (d) these urban trees. As Kuala Lumpur developed into communities' support needs. The principal research a modern city the policy of tree plantings of the activity was a survey, primarily socio-economic, of colonial era was slowly revised. Unlike architectural 43 forest-dependent communities. CFM was buildings of old, these trees could not and did not examined in the context of people's livelihood last long due to neglect and changes in the land use. systems as a whole, since these can affect the size As more buildings were built some of these trees and nature of any benefits they derive from forest were cut down, pruned or replaced with tree species protection, and also their main reasons for deciding that are occupy less growing spaces. This is more to protect. The authors conclude that CFM has made apparent after Kuala Lumpur was declared a an important contribution to the regeneration and territory of the Federal Government in 1974. sustainable management of Orissa's forests, and Fortunately Kuala Lumpur City Hall or Dewan argue that the formal balance of control of forests be Bandaraya Kuala Lumpur (DBKL) undertook a shifted further towards communities. They highlight majestic task of transforming the city into a tropical the plurality of institutional and management garden city by preserving some of the trees and at arrangements that communities have developed, and the same time introducing new species of trees to caution against forest departments imposing a suit the needs of the urban environment. Rows and standardised, blueprint approach, as has tended to row of trees were planted alongside low and happen in government Joint Forest Management medium sized shrubs for functional and aesthetic (JFM) programmes. Several weaknesses are

236 Division 6 identified in India's JFM programmes and reforms discussions a declaration was written and declared recommended. to people. Keywords Community, management, indigenous, More detailed knowledge on the general assembly sustainability, conflict will be given and its success will be discussed in the paper. Also the paper will have discussion on The relationship between forest and thought in the declaration. community in Turkey (after the first general assembly of forest villages) Lessons learnt from international M. Kurtulus Gürses, Dr. Ali Ozkurt, Suade Arancli assistance to forestry? Eastern Mediterranean Forestry Research Institute, Post Reidar Persson Box # 18, 33401 Tarsus, Turkey CIFOR, P.O.Box 6506 JKPWB, 100 65 Jakarta, Tel: 90 (312) 417 91 60, FAX: 90 (312) 417 91 60, Indonesia Email: [email protected] FAX: 62-251-62100, Email: [email protected] The year of 1998 was the seventy-fifth anniversary 1.6 billion US$ is now reported to be used for "aid of the Republic of Turkey. in this connection, a lot (assistance) to forestry". in international fora there is of institutions evaluated their own past activities always a request for more assistance. But the with the aim of producing more successful policies assistance given to forestry development so far has and conducting more successful activities in the not always been successful (instead a lot of future. So the Ministry of Forestry held "The First failures). How can the resources available for General Assembly of Forest Villages". There were "forestry aid" be used in a more efficient way? If we those considerations behind the organisation: don't find ways of improving the use of funds we may soon see that the "aid-money" going to forestry Almost all of the forests belong to the government will decrease. Recent studies from e.g. the World in Turkey. There are 19000 villages in or near forest Bank show that there is little relation between land and they are called as "forest villages". Almost assistance and growth. The reason is that assistance nine million people live in the forest villages and has often been given on political grounds. It is also they are called as "forest villagers". Forest villagers shown that it is difficult to direct funds to a special have a hard life and they are also in the lowest area (fungibility). If an area is popular among income group of the country. As a result of this they donors the countries can reduce their own funding frequently commit a crime such as illegal cutting or of this area. If the Government is committed to e.g. clearance of forest land. Furthermore, they feel that forestry many economists argue that one can as well they are stranger in their own land because of the give budgetary support. Is it possible and forests belong to the government and for this reason meaningful to try to direct support to forestry? they do not hesitate to damage forests. It is the proof When is it meaningful? What can be done at the that there are 130000 forest lawsuit in the courts sector-level? Problems in the developing countries now. So the Ministry of Forestry is in dispute with are often discussed in connection with assistance. forest villagers because of all of these negative The report will take up some of the most important conditions. So the first general assembly of forest points. There are, however, a lot of problems within villagers was held with the aim of improving the the aid-administration itself. What can be done to dialogue between the Ministry of Forestry and forest rectify this? What can be done to change donor villagers and discussing all problems with a great behaviour? What can be done to improve delivery participation. Before the general assembly each mechanisms? One point to analyse is "prerequsites regional forestry directorate held meetings with for failure" and "prerequisites for success". Old- forest villagers. Problems were discussed on the timers know a number of things that e.g. do not regional basic and delegates that would participate work. But the lessons learnt are not used. Why do in the assembly were elected in these meetings. Two we not learn from experience? Decisions taken hundred fifty-five delegates were determined in this about "aid" is as said very political. What can be manner among forest villagers. Later elected done to better use the knowledge we after all have? delegates, members of universities, NGO's, experts Influence politicians? Other points to discuss are and high level bureaucrats of the Ministry of objectives of forestry and assistance to forestry. Is it Forestry, representatives of the political parties it conservation, alleviation of poverty, constituted the general assembly. All of the "development" or what? It is also necessary to members of the general assembly discussed the discuss where there are disagreements between problems and general forestry issues during two different donor-groups. The report will also analyse days in the capital Ankara. in the light of these situations where assistance to forestry seems too difficult to succeed.

237 Division 6 One conclusion is most likely that assistance must Public awareness rises when a latent problem go from quantity to quality. What can be done to becomes manifest and its negative effects visible improve quality? Is more support needed to build .When material and social problems become capacity? Should more resources be invested in manifest and widespread, there, usually, occurs a planning (e.g.National Forestry Programmes)? Is gradual change of societal values and norms. Ideas research one field where more assistance ought to be of what is worthwhile to aspire at, and what is given? The report aims to summarize the lessons socially good and bad behavior, are being reshaped. learnt so far and if possible identify measures to With changing conceptions, the means and ends of improve the present situation in different types of policies also change: What was, initially, stimulated countries. PS. During the last 15 years I have by incentives, at the present is discouraged by fines. written a number of articles in Swedish where I Two examples illustrate this rather radical change of have summarized the experiences I (and Sida) have ends and means: gained of assistance to forestry during the last 30 years. in 1998 Sida published an English summary ( Until recently, fiscal and legal incentives in Costa "From forestry to land husbandry"). This report has Rica stimulated the conversion of primary forests arouse a lot of interest. There is evidently a need to into pastures and crop land, as forests were seen as a discuss these issues at a greater depth than done so hindrance to development. Currently, the end and far. CIFOR has therefore initiated a research project trend are opposite: maintaining the woods and to learn more about these questions. in late 1999 reconverting part of the pastures and agriculture CIFOR will arrange a meeting to discuss land into secondary forests by abolishing former experiences of aid to forestry and ways to improve subsidies to live stock production and subsidizing it. As a background to the meeting a report will be the use of land for forestry. written discussing some of the main issues. In the Netherlands the strong promotion of The report proposed to be written for the World agricultural and livestock intensification, after the Congress 2000 will give a state of the art of the second World War, gave way to a policy of knowledge gained at the time of final writing. enhancing a more ecological way of production, as the negative ecological side effects of the former The interaction of change in policy became more manifest: pollution of soil, environment and society: analyzed groundwater, air, acid rain and so on. Now farmers through some cases in Central America are obliged to take preventive measures Kees Prins (internalizing the externalities) and are sanctioned if CATIE, Costa Rica they don't comply. On the other hand farmers Email: [email protected] receive a subsidy if they allow part of their land become fallow. The approach of this proposed presentation will be one of environmental sociology: the interaction However, this is not at all a linear process. It implies between (the changes in) society and its bio- tensions and insecurity, inherent to a situation of physical environment. The first part of the conceptual and social transition. It leads to different presentation will contain some basic ideas about the types of social reactions and the pace of societal and environmental changes which have readjustment to the new situation, is also occurred, in the last decades. Some issues are differential. presented which need to be addressed. in the second In general terms it is crucial to build a strong social part these ideas and issues will be illustrated with base for policies geared at sustainable paths of case studies in Central America. Some guidelines development, and to find ways and means to for environmental and social policy will be distilled reconcile different interests and points of view in from the social process and practices analyzed. society. This has several dimensions: General ideas and developments: One crucial aspect is how to bring the interests and Environmental issues are rather new in society and behavior of individuals or individual groups in line science. 'Environment' and 'Conservation' became with the interests of the society at large. This is global issues, when awareness grew that the natural partly, a matter of internalizing new ideas and environment puts its limits to the treadmill of values in the conscience through environmental accelerated economic development, and that the education by parents, school. and others. future of mankind depends on the proper treatment Nevertheless, the effects of this approach are limited and maintenance of the natural environment and its if they are not accompanied by measures directed at resources. economic interests such as internalizing externalities

238 Division 6 by sanctioning bad environmental behavior and The heart of the question is: how to put into practice remunerating good one by paying for environmental a policy of conservation in a context characterized services. by the pressure for land, the illegal exploitation of wood, an individualistic, short term economic Another central dimension is how to combine the behavior and weak social and public institutions; struggle against poverty with the struggle for how to build a social basis for the new policy to conservation and gain the poor as allies for purposes make it effective; and how to bring about a new of conservation. The poor will be indifferent, if not relationship between people and environment, in hostile, to conservation, if their actual and vital this particular context. needs are not attended. On the contrary, when their welfare needs are met and they get a stake in CONAP, the agency in charge of the administration conservation for their subsistence and progress, their of the Biosfera Maya, initially applied a attitudes and conduct change, and they may become conservationist biased and control based policy. strong supporters of environmental policy, as can be Families and communities of colonists, inhabiting inferred from different concrete cases. the same area. try to get a living out of a socio- fisical environment. new to them. Coming from the This all has to do with a third basic question: highland or coastal lowlands, theyïve got an Equity. For measures to be widely accepted, their agricultural background and outlook, although costs and benefits must be equitatively shared: adopting some gathering practices of the original between groups in society, countries, and inhabitants, as to forest products like chicle, generations. It is not equitative and ethical to burden pimiento, xate. Their vision of future.is usually the next generations with the costs of irresponsible, rather short and their knowledge of their new unsustainable economic behavior. But it is not just environment limited. The new environmental policy either to neglect actual social needs of poor groups was seen as repressive in state of supporting. The for the sake of conservation and needs of future goals of two central actors were divergent. There generations. It is not effective either. On the other was originally no common ground to (inter)act upon hand, groups and countries which contribute most to in a fruitful way. CONAP had a long term national and global environmental problems, should perspective, but lacked a social basis and a clear contribute more to their solution and prevention, strategy to realize its objectives, while the especially if they are in a better economic position population had no stake in measures of to do so. This is a very weak spot in environmental conservation. So the policy was not effective and policy. Their is a general awareness, that even counterproductive. environmental problems are global issues which require measures of a global coverage, but their is Nevertheless situations are not static nor are social much less unity about how to share the bill, as process linear. New actors and views enter into the illustrated by the problems to put into practice social scene. Through its projects in I&D: OLAFO Agenda 21. Some cases to work out and validate and CATIE-CONAP CATIE started to promote aforementioned ideas: security of tenancy and usufruct of forestry resources as a necessary means to get communities A first case will be the analysis of environmental interested in their proper use and management. The and social process in the Biosfera Maya in Peten, legal and institutional framework was readjusted. A Guatemala. The original situation can be typified as new legal institution was created: Concession follows: Forestal Comunitaria. It was adopted and promoted Peten has a reputation of a land of nobody. Forests by CONAP, as the most effective way to protect used to be converted into pasture and agricultural forests, giving the people who live in them, a direct land by large and small colonists. (Although Peten stake in its conservation. The growing interest by was the heart of the Maya civilization, at the present the local population reflects itself in the growing native communities hardly exist in the region any quantity of concessions recognized and requested more). Through the so-called agarradas colonists (over 10 in 1998). On the other hand development grasp parcels of forests and convert them into agencies give orientation and assistance in legal, agricultural land and pasture. To stop this ongoing technical, organizational and economic aspects. It is process of deforestation, ten years ago the northern an incipient process and not yet sufficient in scope part of Peten, still abundant in forests, was declared and mass to overcome the phenomena (outlined in Biosfera Maya and Area of Conservation. Part of the foregoing) which traditionally, characterize the this was for absolute protection, another part was region. Nevertheless some first promising effects designated for multiple and sustainable use. can already be noticed:

239 Division 6 Poverty alleviation provides to be an excellent incentive to get poor people to become conservation Knowing forest, knowing people, minded. People can become excellent guardians of knowing change the forests, when they protect their own present and Lye Tuck-Po future well being with the maintenance of the Kyoto University, Center for Southeast Asian Studies, 46 forests. Their livelihood becomes more varied and Shimoadachi-cho, Yoshida, Kyoto 606-8501 Sakyo-ku, secure. Outlook and behavior change, when given a Japan stake in the conservation of the forests, by FAX: 81-75-7537350, Email: [email protected] entitlement of their use. Their vision broadens and u.ac.jp enlarges. People start exploiting their resources Historically, one of the challenges in forestry is to having in mind present and future needs. Protecting holistically integrate the disciplinary expectations, the forests against fire, illegal cutting and 'agarradas' methodologies, and conclusions of the social and becomes an intrinsic part of the value orientation natural sciences. Where forestry sciences are and social organization of the communities. New directed towards policy-making, there is the added human and social capital is built as well as local problem of satisfying the needs of the "consumers": institutions for regulating the use and management governing bodies, conservation authorities, of resources, with incentives and sanctions, socially multilateral institutions, and the like. While we can accepted, internalized and controlled. A critical say that genuine progress has been made, especially mass and social basis is being formed, slowly but since UNCED '92, it is also true that the divide has surely, essential for implementing policy goals. been growing. This is evident in studies of local In a second case the attention will be focussed on knowledge. in the drive to meet the demands of both the changes which have occurred in a community of academia and policy, research directions have colonists in a land reform program, and within a become increasingly fragmented. On one end of the buffer zone of the Tortuguero National Park in the spectrum is a vast array of highly technical reports north east of Costa Rica. in order to earn a (many not even released for public scrutiny) that are reasonable living from their new land, the peasants grounded in empirical findings of locally specific had to adjust themselves to the limitations and conditions and problems, but impossible to draw opportunities of their new biophysical environment. comparative conclusions from. On the other are in the process a serie of cognitive and organizational abstract critiques and analyses that may be changes have occurred as to the way people valorize illuminating and programmatic but lack practical and manage their resources. Through recommendations for on-the-ground action. in my experimentation and with assistance of Neotropico, own research among Malaysian hunter-gatherers, a local NGO, peasant families encountered an the Batek, another problem comes up: the optimal way of combining their resources and ideological divide between people who have to live agronomic practices. Forest resources have been with environmental destruction and those who integrated in the peasant economy. The people have control it. in the Malaysian popular imagination, become environmental minded because it suits their there is a great deal of mystification about the economic and social interests. The case illustrates "environmental wisdom" and mystical and analyses how a social group may start interact understanding that forest peoples supposedly have: in a new and fruitful way with its environment and, the sort of environmental perception that in the process, changes its vision of space and time. anthropologists would classify as knowledge of a highly practical and scientific cast. For the broader Some guidelines for policy and action will be world, however, this knowledge is merely primitive abstracted from those process of change and the exotica that apparently can cure everything from cases of good practice. Those are highlighted, as marital discord and impotence to cancer and muscle there is a need to show ways and means to reach a fatigue. Given the power of such mystifications, renewed, fruitful and sustainable relation between policy recommendations that might seem logical society and environment. People being the cause of and natural from the point of view of the forest most environmental problems, must find also ways peoples might be viewed as utopian and idealistic by and means to tackle them in an effective way. those in charge. Further, local knowledge, in this Conscience of the scope and complexity of the instance, is not the objective, isolable body of problems and process of natural degradation, must technical practices that we can "learn from" and be accompanied by efforts to find proper answers. transport easily elsewhere. This last is, I suggest, premised strongly on the equally entrenched belief that local peoples and local knowledges do not change without outside intervention; after all, only

240 Division 6 static ideas can be placed in storage liquid and position and the effects causing health problems. implanted into other static situations. If we take the The result of questionnaire evaluated by statistical contrasting view, that local ideas and local methods. For this the simple statistical methods are environments have been changing more rapidly than used. For evaluated at least 30 worker are research and policy directions, then the question is: referenced. When the findings evaluated generally at what level do we find a basis for comparison and the production and fire workers are consisted of developing a multidisciplinary science of resource males. When this two kind of group compared the management? Drawing from the Malaysian context, blood pressure of fire workers are more normal then this paper will review and examine some of these the production workers. The diseases having ache- ideological and practical problems and suggest pain can be seen at production workers more then research directions. fire workers but these diseases changes according to climate properties. Generally the production 6.11.01 Forest Resources and Human workers have more backaches according to fire Welfare in Developing Countries workers but fire workers have more arm and leg aches than the production workers. When the An investigation on the forest worker's worker's habits observed, it is seen that two group health in Turkey have a high percent of habit of smoke and alcohol. Halis Hulusi Acar, Habip Eroglu According to evaluation, the forestry workmanship Blacksea Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, that is done in Turkey is doing as a obligation of Department of Forest Engineering, 61080 Trabzon, economic results, it is not an optimal branches. The Turkey work conditions have very negative conditions Tel: +90-462-325-3223, FAX: 00 90 462 3257499, according to be uneconomic and sociologic way. Email: [email protected] From the standpoint of health evaluation results, in Forest areas in Turkey are generally located on the the forestry workmanship, the diseases having ache- mountainously region. Therefore, forest labour is pain diseases such as nervousness, fatigue and affected by the shape and conditions of the field. insomnia, the other diseases; bronchitis-flue, Forest workers in Turkey generally work during the eczema, itching can be counted. in this point, heavy spring, summer and autumn. Most of the forest work, lack of feedings and clothing and other workers are tentative and seasonal forest workers negative work conditions performs. According to and rest of them are permanent workers. this, the rules below must be applicated to improve Approximately, there are 30 thousand forest the forest workmanship in Turkey; to organize workers in Turkey. These workers have task on periodically health services for workers and mobile logging, cutting, skidding and transport the logs. health crew, work organization, work place discipline, worker psychology, and education of The demand to the forest labour has been getting workers, these topics must be improved. decrease because of forest workers' health problem, unsatisfied payment, high risks of getting injured Keywords: Forest Workers, Health, Steep Terrain, and their hard working conditions. These unwanted Eastern Blacksea Region, Turkey conditions are affected negatively forest workers productivity. The % 99 of the forest areas in Turkey Land allocation programs in Vietnam: are managed by government and the most of the from a view point of the H'mong peoples workers are male. in this study, the general forest in northwestern mountainous region workmanship in Turkey, especially the production Makoto Inoue, Miho Omatsu and fire workmen's positions are exhibited. The University of Tokyo, Graduate School of Furthermore the health problems investigated that Agricultural and Life Sciences, 1-1-1, Yayoi, Bunkyou- are seen in these works. This study have done over ku, 113-8657 Tokyo, Japan workers who work at Directorate of Yusufeli, Serik FAX: +81-3-5689-7252, Email: [email protected] and Iskenderun Forest Enterprise. 1. Background The workers are chose randomly and the Under the "DoiMoi" policy or economical questionnaire forms which are prepared before filled renovation policy, the Vietnamese government has by the conversation one to one with workers. First been driving forward the land allocation programs of all, the workers are classified into groups since 1993. The rights to use the national land are according to their ages; 15-30, 30-45 and older than granted to individuals, cooperatives, armies, 45. So that to obtain the integrity of questionnaire national enterprises and private companies, etc. The and asking the questions belong to same topic, the forestland is further divided into three categories: general topics are determined. This general topics "special use forests" such as national parks, are worker's social economic position, health

241 Division 6 "conservation forests" where watershed It is obvious that the area of the arable land for the management, etc. are applied, and "production people is reduced, fallow period is shortened, food forests" for the purpose of produce timber and non- production decreases, and the welfare of the people timber forest products (NTFPs). is lowered. Even though the program will have an effect on increasing the forest coverage area, it 2. Objectives seems to be necessary to revise it in terms of the 1) to clarify the gaps and conflicts between the land livelihood of the local people. category of the governmental program and traditional land category perceived by the people. Forest resources and human welfare in 2) to consider the impact of the program to the Himalaya: the contribution of livelihood of the people commercial medicinal plants Carsten Smith Olsen and Nirmal K. Bhattarai 3. Method of field survey Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Four hamlets were selected as research sites in Department of Economics and Natural Resources, SonLa province where the ratio of forest coverage is Rolighedsvej 23, 1958 Frederiksberg C, Denmark the lowest (9%) in Vietnam. Main ethnic Group in Tel: +45 35282292, Fax: +45 35282671, Email: [email protected] the hamlets is the H'mong. We interviewed some leaders of each hamlet and thirteen households. Keywords: Rural livelihoods; income generation; Furthermore we listed NTFPs which were utilized non-timber forest products; trade; Nepal by the people. Recent studies indicate that the annual trade in 4. Customary land and forest utilization by the medicinal plants from the Himalaya amounts to H'mong thousands of tonnes of roots, rhizomes, tubers, fruits, leaves, etc. The annual value of the trade is The people have been making their livelihood by worth millions of USD. The medicinal plants are practicing swidden agriculture with ox plows of collected by rural households in forests and other which main crops were upland rice and maize. They vegetation types throughout the Himalaya; hundreds classify the fallow land into three based on a of species are harvested and sold to traders in order succession stage: "Pa Lau" or the grass land 1-2 to increase household incomes. The paper briefly years after harvest, "Pa HayCau" or Bush 3-4 years introduces forest resources in Nepal Himalaya and after harvest, and "Pa Dong" or secondary forest how they contribute to improved human welfare in more than 5years after harvest. rural communities. The main aim of the paper is to The forests were prohibited from cutting tree document the economic importance of commercial customary. The forests were categorized into three: medicinal plants to rural households in Nepal. In "Rung Ma" or cemetery forest, "Rung Tuoi" or old each of Nepal’s five development regions, three forest, "Rung SuoiNuoc" or water catchment forest. districts were chosen for data collection; in each region one district was chosen in each of the three Our survey showed that they collected around 60 main physiographic zones (Terai, Middle Hills, and species of NFTPs not only on the natural forest but High Mountains). Thus, field work was conducted also on the fallow, etc. in 15 districts; a total of 636 collectors were 5. Gaps between the governmental programs interviewed in 92 groups. Results detail the number and actual condition of land/forest utilization of households involved in commercial collection; Under the governmental programs, the land for estimate contribution of collection to household swidden agriculture is divided into agricultural land economies; and analyses collector net margins and unused land that is prohibited from cultivating. compared to wholesale prices in the main markets in The problem is that most of the fallow lands are India. Discussion focuses on identification of classified as unused land and the people are realistic interventions that may increase rural forbidden to cultivate the fallow land. The gap is collectors’ income from medicinal plant collection. generated from the difference in the perception of agricultural land between the government and the H'mong The H'mong regard the fallow land covered with grass, bush, and forest as swidden land or farm land: the government does not regard them as farmland. 6. Conclusion

242 Division 6

regulations are as well lag behind the economic Russian and Chinese Forest Economies growth. That became evident in 1998 during the in Transition: A Comparative Analysis disastrous floods of Changjiang river caused Matti Palo, Dr. Maxim Lobovikov, M.Sc.Yaoqi Zhang suffering to 200 million population. Finnish Forest Research Institute (METLA), Unioninkatu The experience of China and Russia cannot be 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland entirely compatible due to the discrepancies in the Tel: +358 9 857051, FAX: +358 9 85705 717, Email: [email protected] socioeconomic and resource conditions of the two countries. One third of the Chinese forest area is Keywords: economic reforms, privatization, represented by plantations, whereas natural forest forestry, economic development, China, Russia absolutely dominate in Russian landscape. Transition of a great number of countries from Nevertheless the comparison of the two countries central planning of economic development to a more clusters transformation yields few major reasonable combination of planning and market conclusions. economy is no doubt the most prominent 1) It is argued that there is no sustainable forestry phenomena in the world economy at the edge of the without adequate privatization. Fair competition third millennium. The success or fault of this between contractors is the crucial condition of fair movement will likely be crucial factor for the future pricing the forest resources. When private parcels performance and development of the world are intermixed with public forest tracts as in economy society and environment. Scandinavia the price references could be easily Russia and China are the most prominent instances taken from the private sector. of the countries in transition. They count altogether 2) Analysis of Russia and Chinese experiences may for 21% of the total land area, 24% of the be not sufficient to tell whether the gradual population, 26% of the forest land and 25% of the transformation in more preferable than shock forest inventory. Meanwhile the share of both therapy. Straight parallels are barely reliable due to countries in the world gross product does not exceed the difference in historic development and 4%. contemporary situation. But the experience learned Forest sector issues are not to be treated separately is very deductive for the other countries in from the rest of the economy. During the 1950s with transition. the technical help from the former Soviet Union 3) Political stabilization seems to be a crucial factor took on the Soviet model of economic organization for the economic growth. in the forest sector, which is proved to be inefficient since the 1970s. China started economic reforms in Russia and China are both facing similar problems forest sector earlier and advanced further than of poor economic performance especially in the Russia. Several reasons cause China chose gradual public sector, unfair revenue distribution, transition rather than a radical changes. Russia used environmental pollution, poverty and widespread the "shock therapy" despite the desperate attempts corruption. Impartial analysis of the reforms in the of the former authorities to take smother economic Russian and Chinese forest clusters is to help to curse. cope with the problems which are still far behind the final resolution. The average annual production growth of 10% in China during the recent decade made up a steady The Contribution of Cassiavera growth of roundwood output and forestation. (Cinnamomum burmanii) in Improving Forestry development also has greatly helped the the Environment Quality and Society economic growth, particularly the rural areas where the economy greatly depends in forests. Non-timber Welfare in Indonesia production and ecotourism have become important Eulis Retnowati Forest and Nature Conservation Research and parts of forestry sector. For the same time Russia Development Center, FORDA lost 2/3 of the pre-reform level of roundwood yield. Jl. Gunung Batu, PO BOX 165, Bogor, Indonesia China started successful decentralization and Tel: +62-251-325111, FAX: +62-251-325111, Email: privatization of the collective-owned and state- [email protected] owned forests. Russia by so far has no experience in Indonesia is the greatest country in contributing this respect. in general economic reforms in China Cassiavera (Cinnamomum burmanii) in the world. were more successful, advanced and less painful than that in Russia. But major political change in The export of this commodity is about 40,000 ton/year. China seem still to be ahead. Environmental

243 Division 6 In a district in West Sumatera, Cassiavera place au niveau international de façon à constituer contributing 41.66 % of the total income, and un moyen efficace d’éradiquer la pauvreté rurale decreasing the soil erosion from 26.46 ton/has/year dans les pays en développement? La même question in an open area to be 14.25 ton/ha/year under se pose à propos des droits d’émission et de Cassiavera stands. Cultivation is mostly as stockage du carbone définis après la conférence de community forest. Kyoto. Alternated Rows Harvesting can improve the role of La transformation des modes de gestion des Cassiavera as a conservation plant in a critical land. ressources naturelles et en particulier des forêts peut-elle être un moyen efficace d’aider les pauvres 6.11.01 Poverty and management of forest des pays en développement à sortir de leur misère ? resources Par le passé les politiques forestières d’exclusion des populations rurales de la gestion locale de leurs Pauvreté et gestion des ressources ressources forestières a constitué indéniablement un renouvelables dans les pays en facteur d’extension de la pauvreté. Divers exemples developpement: les liaisons montrent que la gestion locale contractuelle des dangereuses? ressources renouvelables constitue à la fois : Alain Bertrand, Didier Babin, Jacques Weber • une porte d’entrée efficace vers le développement CIRAD-Forêt, Campus international de Baillarguet, BP local, 5035 Montpellier, France • un moyen de limiter, voire d’inverser, les FAX: 334 67 59 37 33, Email: [email protected] dégradations des ressources renouvelables résultant La pauvreté est un phénomène social total, à la fois de la pauvreté, économique social et culturel. Pour un individu, ou • un moyen de sécurisation et de sortie de un groupe social il se traduit par la dépossession de l’exclusion pour les pauvres des pays en son présent, de son futur, de son identité, voire de développement. soi-même, c’est à dire par une exclusion. La pauvreté frappe sous des formes diverses le plus Fuelwood dependency grand nombre des pays en développement et est Ananda Bhandari, Robert C. Albricht considérée comme la cause majeure de dégradation ITC, Forest Science Division, c/o Min Raj Panday 15/252 de l’ensemble des ressources renouvelables de la Pakanajol, Kathmandu, Nepal Tel: 00977 - (0)1 - 429235, Email: [email protected] planète au premier rang desquelles figurent les website ressources forestières. In rural areas of Nepal most of the rural population La pauvreté qui se combine généralement à diverses have traditionally depended on forest resources to formes d’insécurité, conduit à une mobilité des fulfil their basic energy needs for domestic hommes et à l’accès libre de fait aux ressources purposes. As a case study the Shivapuri Watershed renouvelables. Dans les pays en développement les and Wildlife Reserve (SWWR) was selected to ressources renouvelables et en particulier les forêts examine the nature of dependence on protected sont un des principaux moyens de survie des forest resources. People living in and around the pauvres. Ceux-ci sont contraints à une pluriactivité SWWR were legally excluded from their traditional continue: tout ce qui peut se vendre se collecte. Le access to the forest after the area was declared a lien entre pauvreté, insécurité alimentaire et reserve in 1984. in spite of a two meter high stone exploitation des ressources renouvelables apparaît boundary wall and active forest guards patrolling tellement fort que les organisations internationales the reserve boundary the people living in the buffer considèrent la commercialisation des produits de zone surrounding SWWR continue to risk fines and cueillette comme un indicateur fiable des situations imprisonment to enter the reserve to collect forest de disette alimentaire voire de famine. products to meet their basic needs. L’exploitation des ressources renouvelables échoit le plus souvent aux femmes et aux enfants et This study was undertaken to determine the degree constituent pour ces catégories de la population une of dependency on forest resources inside the tâche harassante et très mal rémunérée. SWWR for fuelwood collection and consumption by the surrounding villagers and assess the factors La mondialisation de l’économie et le affecting the dependency. The research was développement rapide des droits de propriété sur la confined to two sample villages of the Baluwa and diversité biologique, seront-ils des facteurs Nayapati Village Development Committees of the supplémentaires d’extension et d’approfondissement Kathmandu district in the southern buffer zone area de la pauvreté, ou au contraire, seront-ils mis en of the SWWR (Fig. 1&2).

244 Division 6

Systematic sampling was applied to select the sample households within the villages. Topographic The socio-economic values of maps, aerial photographs and knowledge of local sustainable mangrove forest people were used to pinpoint the selected management: the Matang Mangroves in households. An open questionnaire method followed Malaysia by informal discussion was used to determine the Lim Hin Fui, Mohd. Parid Mamat number of energy consuming activities for domestic FRIM, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia purposes. The amount of fuelwood consumed for FAX: 603-6365687, Email: [email protected] each cooking activity was determined by user estimation and validated by direct measurement. The socio-economic value generated from a forest is Pieces of fuelwood from each household's woodpile an important factor deciding its sustainable were randomly selected to determine the origin of management. This is precisely the case of the the fuelwood which was subsequently validated Matang Mangrove Forest Reserve (MMFR), during field visits with local people and forestry covering 40,151 ha in Malaysia. For about a staff. hundred years, the commercial socio-economic activities (i.e. forestry and fishery) taking place The results show that about 40% of the fuelwood within the MMFR ecosystem have sustained the collected in the study area for domestic energy utilisation of mangroves in its natural environment. requirements comes from the SWWR with the rest The utilisation of the MMFR resources includes coming from private woodlots (58%) and development of human settlements, timber government forests (2%) (Fig. 3). There was no harvesting, fishery activities, development of significant relationship between daily per capita aquaculture and eco-tourism. fuelwood consumption and distance of households from the forest (Fig. 4). The socio-economic The sustainable management of Mangrove resources condition of the people and their ethnicity however, has resulted in the development of about 27 were found to be important factors determining the permanent coastal settlements. The MMFR level of dependency on the reserve forest. ecosystem provides the resources, which meet the needs of local communities within the mangrove In the study area two main social classes were area as well as settlements on the landward side of identified: the elite and the poor, divided along caste the mainland. Mangrove ecosystem sustains two lines. The Brahmin and Chhetri castes comprise the types of settlements, varying in size from a few elite group while the latter is comprised of Magar, hundred to a few thousand residents near MMFR. Tamang and Newar castes. The more well off group The sustainable management of the MMFR since has in general a higher social and economic status, 1902 has brought about local development, which more private land holdings, higher education and supports local livelihood. Villagers in its vicinity are smaller family size. These socio-economic factors involved in fishing, forestry and other related are reflected in the dependency level on the reserve activities. Local communities depend on the forest with the elite collecting less than 30% of their mangrove resources in meeting their daily fuelwood from the SWWR and the poor collecting subsistence needs. The mangrove resources also over 70% of their fuelwood from the SWWR (Fig. meet subsistence needs (food and medicine) and 5). A further analysis of the proportion of fuelwood generate cash income for local population. It has collected from the reserve forest for each social been estimated that the MMFR meets the group revealed a distinct difference in the nature of subsistence needs of 8,000 individuals comprising the dependence between the two groups with the mangrove workers, their spouses and children. poor having a markedly higher level of dependence on the reserve forest than the elite group (Fig. 6). The mangrove forest produces timber sustainably Although Figure 5 shows a decreasing trend in and is recognised as important spawning, nursery dependence for both groups as distance to the and habitat areas for many economically important reserve increases neither trend was statistically species of finfish and prawns. The mangrove water significant. The most important factor determining ways and mud banks are suitable for aquaculture dependency of households on reserve forest in the development. in monetary terms, the timber SWWR buffer zone is the socio-economic condition products (charcoal, poles, firewood) are expected to of the people, not horizontal distance to the forest. generate an annual income of about RM22 million for the 1990-1999 period. The values of non-timber products were RM84 million (marine fish, prawn and shellfish in 1994), RM17 million (cockle culture in 1995) and RM1.3 million (finfish cage culture in 1992). in terms of employment, the timber

245 Division 6 harvesting/processing industry creates employment 34 million ha degraded forest lands. At present, for between 1,008 and 1,680 local people. There there are 35,000 Forest Protection Committees were about 2,039 fishermen living near mangrove (FPCs) in India who are protecting and managing areas in 1994. Mangrove harvesting/processing seven million ha. forests under JFM. If we assume generated an average monthly income of between that only one million ha land is protected under JFM RM776 and RM964 per worker in 1997. On the the annual fund requirement would be Rs.15,000 other hand, a fisherman earned between RM934 and million based on a cost estimate of Rs.15,000/- per RM2,700 a month in 1997. ha (1 US $ = Rs.43/- - February, 1999). Budgetary allocation for Forestry Sector is less than 1% and The role of research and development (R & D) has there is no likelihood of increase in future. It is, contributed much to the successful sustainable therefore, necessary to involve institutional credit to management of the MMFR. The R & D activities sustain JFM movement for sustainable management began in Matang since its preservation as early as of India's forests. It may be mentioned that 1906 and it plays an important role in the drawing NABARD/Banks are funding forestry projects up of working plans, which are revised until the implemented by Forest Development Corporations. present day. These working plans lay the strong However, so far, no JFM project has been funded by foundation in outlining the various management any financial institution in India. aspects of sustainable management: management objectives, classification of forest type by function, A study undertaken by NABARD in andhra Pradesh best management option, the rotation, allocation of indicated that it might not be difficult to channelise coupes, silviculture system, silviculture operations, bank credit to FPCs. Certain institutional silviculture improvement, reforestation efforts, arrangements are necessary including Government control of operations, monitoring and supervision. guarantee and legislation. Studies further indicated To further enhance R & D activities, research and that there are three types of JFM activities that may sample plots were set up to test and develop best be bankable, viz. Sal (Shorea robusta), Teak practices in the management and silviculture of the (Tectona grandis) and Bamboo species. It has been MMFR. estimated that with an investment of Rs.15,000/- per ha, a return of Rs. 1,20,000/- is possible by sale of The implication from the successful sustainable poles and other Non Timber Forest Products utilisation of the MMFR is that it is essential to (NTFPs) in 8-10 years. The major expenditure for highlight the socio-economic benefits of a mangrove protection and management of forests under JFM is ecosystem. Enhancing R & D efforts in these for payment of wages to the watchers. Bank loan aspects would contribute much to the sustainable with interest can be repaid within 8-10 years leaving development of the mangroves. It is seeing beyond a surplus that can be reinvested and or shared by the timber value that the overall mangrove FPCs. The intermediate yield of grass within 6 ecosystem could be sustainably utilised and months of protection will also be available for managed. sharing among FPC members. Sustainable Management of Community JFM is a complex system involving ecological, Based Forests through Credit in India economic, social institutional and political aspects. M. S. Haque Hence, financial package for JFM projects is NABARD A-5/24, NABARD Nagar, Thakur Complex, different than traditional Forestry projects. Thus, the 400101 Mumbai, India working out of modalities of financing JFM projects Tel: +91-22-8879838, FAX: +91-22-4938699, Email: is essential. For this, research on the incentives, cost [email protected] and benefits for local communities, collecting data Collaboration between villagers and Government in from several sites under a variety of ecological and community based resource management specially social conditions and the biological relationships forests, started in India in the beginning of twentieth and production function of timber, NTFPs and other century, but the present type of Joint Forest products are necessary. The economic sustainability Management (JFM) grew out of experiences at and institutional implication of JFM approach need Arabari in West Bengal and Sukhomajri in Haryana also to be studied. The effort by NABARD might be in the 1970s. The National Forest Policy of 1988, able to formulate few models for financing JFM the Government of India guidelines of June 1990 projects in near future. The aspirations of the rural and the State Government's orders on JFM are all people have been raised too high by adopting JFM positive steps to benefit the forest communities in in all the states. Failure to channelise fund to the particular and rural people in general. It has been system would not only degrade the forests further estimated by Forest Survey of India, that there are but would also create social unrest, hence, require

246 Division 6 serious attention both from Government and the and/or whether there are substitute products which financing institutions. We are sure that in near are accessible to and affordable by the villagers. future, banks would be in a position to fund JFM Local people respond to the current restrictive projects for their Sustainable Management through management approach by opting for secretive access Credit. and NTFP collection measures, and one result is an over-utilised 'ring' on the periphery of the protected Dependence of Local People on forests. Protected Forests M. I. L. Katigula, Michael K. McCall, Robert Albricht The attitudes of local people towards the protected Catchment Forestry Office Tanga Region, P.O. Box forests as sources of NTFPs are generally positive, 1449, Tanga, Tanzania indicating the importance of the forests to them. Email: [email protected] However, their attitudes towards the forest guards as managers of the protected forests are generally The Government of Tanzania is intensifying efforts strongly negative, and accompanied by conflict to conserve the biodiversity-rich and ecologically- indicators, such as 24 court cases (1993-1997) sensitive East Usambara forests in Muheza District concerning NTFP use. in Tanga Region. The government's current strategy is to apply regulatory forest policy instruments that The findings lead this study to recommend to the do not recognise the dependence of the adjacent government to revise the Forest Ordinance, local communities on the protected forests as their especially Part V Section 15, that gives directives on major source of non-timber forest products the protection of forests and forest produce. For the (NTFPs). government's forest management approach to be effective at an operational level, a collaborative This research assessed the use of NTFPs by local management approach is recommended that would people living in four villages - Bamba, Churwa, involve local people in planning implementation, Mhinduro and Segoma - that surround a block of control and monitoring activities in forests adjacent three protected forests in the East Usambaras - the to them, which would bring benefits to both local Bamba, Segoma and Kwamgumi Forest Reserves. stakeholders and the government. It is the A participatory data collection approach using dependence by forest-adjacent communities on mainly rapid rural appraisal techniques, such as protected forests as sources of NTFPs which gives semi-structured interviews, was applied to elicit the opportunities for collaborative management information on NTFP utilisation and other socio- strategies that should lead towards more successful economic factors. A global positioning system was conservation. used to locate NTFP collection sites in the protected Further studies are recommended on the assessment forests. Subsequently these spatial data were of forest capacity to supply various NTFPs at a processed using a GIS to produce maps showing the sustained level and on the need to determine and set NTFP collection sites. NTFP extraction levels. Future studies should The results of this study indicate that, despite monitor the sustainability of any utilisation levels government efforts to protect and conserve natural set for the villages and forests. forests in East Usambara through regulatory instruments, local people still enter the forest The Impact of Industrial Plantation illegally and extract forest products; the primary Forest Establishment on Socio- reason being to extract NTFPs for their livelihood Economic Condition of Local People needs and for cultural services. Evidence of local Sri Suharti people's use of NTFPs and their dependence on the Forest and Natural Conservation Research and protected forests as sources, is clear from the fact Development Centre, Jl.Gunung Batu 5, Po.Box 165, that they can identify a total of 378 species or types Bogor, Indonesia of NTFPs classifiable into seven purposes -: as FAX: 62-251-325111; 62-251-315222, Email: medicines, foods, construction materials, fuelwood, [email protected] water, seasonal agricultural indicators, and The demand for industrial wood in Indonesia in the worshipping sites. More than 54% of the identified year 2000 is projected to be 80 million m3 per year. species are obtained only from the protected forests, As the current annual increment of production forest which implies a high level of people's dependence is estimated to be only 30 million m3, Government on them. The relationships between villagers and the of Indonesia is trying to develop a major expansion protected forests are found to be dependent on of industrial plantation forest. The target is to whether there are alternative sources of NTFPs, establish 6.2 million Ha of plantation forest.

247 Division 6 The establishment of plantation forest in a particular area would directly or indirectly involve and Extraction of Non-timber Forest influence local people living in and around it. It is Products and the Tribal Economy - A expected that positive impacts would be accepted by study in south India those people, hence some benefits from the S. Suryaprakash, M.R. Girish establishment of the plantations would be gainned University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of by the people. The reality however is not always so, Agricultural Economics, 560 065 Bangalore, India since benefits received by the people depend on how Email: [email protected] far they are allowed to involve in plantations forest Man and forest have been having a close establishment. Whereas the degree of involvement relationship from time immemorial. With the of those people in the plantation depends on the growth of civilization and with the develop0ment of awareness of the company of the importance of agriculture and industry, man's dependence on forest involving local people in the activities and how has decreased. Yet, there are certain societies who much the company is willing to devote some of their have been living in forests for ages and who benefits and transfer it to local people surrounding invariably continue to depend on forests. The non- it. timber forest products (NTFP) have been the main In Indonesia, there are two different forms of stay of forest tribals, sustaining their livelihood. in industrial plantation forest which is expected would the recent past, medicinal and industrial demand for possibly increase the opportunity of the people to NTFP have created the value-in-exchange for participate in forest plantation forest activities i.e NTFP, which were hitherto had only value-in use to inter cropping-Industrial Plantation Forest model the tribals. With increasing restrictions on timber and Transmigration-Industrial Plantation Forest harvest, NTFP constitute a large share of the value model. By participating in the plantation, local of forest products extracted. Lately, the NTFP have people get a chance not only working as labour but been contributing a great deal to the productive also an opportunity to grow food crops in between employment and household income of tribals. This trees. A study in two forest concession (HPH PT. is more so the case in respect of tribals residing in Yayang and HPH PT. Hutan Kintap) in South the interior forests. The special feature of NTFP Kalimantan province found that the establishment of collection by the tribals is that it facilitates the plantation forest increased people's income by 17,5 participation of all the members of the household % and 19 % respectively. Those activities also give irrespective of sex and age unlike other economic a chance to the people to get some other incentives avocations available to them. in fact, NTFP such as extension, provision of infrastructure and collection is the only source of employment to the social facilities in their village. Subsequently in PT. aged and children. This paper is based on a study Inhutani V (State Forest Enterprise) allowing conducted in the bio-diversity rich western ghat farmers to grow rice, corn and other food coops forest area of southern India. Apart from being a under rubber plantation for three years could major contributor to the non-cash income of tribal increase their income by almost double. The households, the NTFP collection accounts for nearly production of rice in the area is even relatively high, half the cash income of the household. While some on the average could reach 3.5 tones of unhulled dry non-timber forest products are collected exclusively rice. for home consumption, some other products as for the market only. The rest of the products are, The objective of this paper is to give an overview however, collected both domestic use and for the about the impacts of plantation forest establishment market. This gives a clear indication that inspite of on socio-economic condition of local people commercialisation of NTFP, they continue to surrounding it in some areas of Indonesia. The dominate the household consumption basket of the information presented here has been gathered from tribal households. The men members of the tribal several research studies and literature. household collect a large share of a majority of NTFP than women. However, the employment contribution of women to the NTFP collection and processing is more than that of the men in a household. Being the forest dwellers for ages, the tribals are supposed to have property rights (though not explicit) over the NTFP. However, the State assigns the monopoly rights of NTFP extraction for major NTFP to registered forest contractors on tender basis. Thus, in reality, the tribals extract

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NTFP for which the contractor offers a price, in lieu The purpose of this research is to describe an of wage. The NTFP collectors are to `sell' the approach which incorporates the economic impact notified NTFP to the authorized contractor alone. on the NIPF owner caused by these requirements of The monopoly rights assigned to the forest the FMP system, and to create a method and a contractor thus come ion the way of the tribals program supported by a geographical information getting a reasonable price for the NTFP extracted by system (GIS) to implement this. The method is them. Many a times, the daily earnings from NTFP based on the combination of a GIS and an FMP extraction would be far lower than the wages the system that generates several treatment schedules tribal receives from hiring out his labour to the for compartments and selects optimal schedule Forest department. combinations using linear programming.

6.11.04 Bridging the gap between monetary The GIS is used to impose silvicultural treatment and non-monetary valuation of restrictions on the compartments and to create environmental amenities management zones (MZ) (= a group of compartments). The MZ is based on the production Spatial analysis in economic evaluation potential of the area, the preferences of the forest of landscape management owner, the preferences of the local people and the Esa Arola, Penttinen, Markku requirements set by society. The GIS is also used to Forest Development Center Tapio, Soidinkuja 4, FIN- collect and formulate preferences so that the 00700 Helsinki, Finland planning problem can be solved in the FMP system. Tel: +358 9 156 21, FAX: +358 9 156 2232, Email: Finally, the GIS program is used in the analysis of [email protected] the alternative forest management plans. Keywords: GIS; forest management planning; spatial analysis; economic evaluation; multiple use Trade-Offs between Recreation Benefits in the Preferences for Managing The roundwood sales decisions of non-industrial Recreation Areas private forest (NIPF) owners produce more than Paula Horne 80% of the roundwood supply, as well as creating Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, SF- potential landscape and biodiversity losses in 00170 Helsinki, Finland Finland. Sustainable forestry has been essential, and Tel: 358-9-857-05-717, FAX: +358-9-857 05 717, Email: regeneration has been required by the forest law for [email protected] nearly 100 years. However, the new legislation Keywords: recreation, biodiversity, public protecting biodiversity, and the quality and preferences, choice experiment method certification requirements have restricted the owner's freedom to manage his/her property. This Preferences of a group of visitors for recreation has raised concerns among forest owners that their environment may be incompatible. Some visitors income will suffer through greater regulatory favor natural state of forests with low level of intervention under the new laws, silvicultural management intensity, while some prefer easily recommendations, and other restrictions. passable forest environment for recreation. Also a single visitor may have contradictory preferences, Traditionally, Finnish forest management planning on one hand wishing for easily passable even-aged (FMP) and practices have sought to attain (i) stands, on the other hand asking for conservation of sustainable wood production that would assure the biodiversity. The heterogeneity of the public's availability of raw wood for industry. Where preferences for forest environment, and their possible, (ii) increasing the volume of growing stock confusion about the concepts and relations of was a secondary goal. Nowadays, the emphasis in different benefits complicate management planning. FMP is being placed not only on timber production in order to evaluate public preferences for forest but also on landscape, recreation, and biodiversity. management of recreation areas, the benefits of The institutional framework includes the new forest recreation experience can be divided into attributes and nature conservation laws, silvicultural that reflect the public notion of what constitutes the recommendations, quality requirements and recreation environment. The study area of Nuuksio certification according to PEFC (Pan-European lake plain with five municipal recreation areas and a Forest Certification) or the FSC (Forest Stewardship national park can be viewed as a system of spatial Council). However, from the individual forest units whose manager faces an option of choosing owner's point of view, maintaining biological varying levels of intensity in their management. diversity poses a dilemma. While it may add recreational value to the area, it may also mean a This study examines the preferences of the general loss of income to the owner. public for management of recreation areas. It

249 Division 6 approaches the problem by focusing on the around the world. Research on the value of forest interrelations and trade-offs between forest benefits, environmental resources is both necessary and namely biodiversity, the cost of management and important for forest environmental management in scenery, as stated by the preferences of visitors in China. Forest ecology projects have important municipal recreation forests. in this method, implications for public welfare, especially to the monetary values are given by the trade-offs between extent that such projects insure the sustainability of the cost of management and other attributes. For forest benefits. example, changes in scenery are being valued by the There are evident theoretic defects or limitations in elasticity of foregone biodiversity richness. the existing methods of environmental economics, The study applied the choice experiment method which are based on traditional economics. We that is consistent with random utility theory as well applied these approaches in valuing forest resources as offers a wide range of information on benefit in China. The paper describes the main methods of trade-offs. The multinomial logit model is used to forest environmental resource valuation, including analyse multi-attribute choices. A Hicksian welfare forest value classification and the main assessment measure is estimated from discrete choice data methods. It then analyzes three conceptual and following a theory developed for discrete choice theoretic defects of those methods and two mis-uses models. Observing the choices made and connecting in the application of those methods, including the the different attribute levels to monetary changes mis-use of static and dynamic measures, and the enables derivation of welfare measures. mis-use of substitution of benefit measures for function measures. Finally, the paper discusses three The survey is administered in a questionnaire format questions: (1) what kind of research and and policy on-site at the study areas. The questionnaire development would be useful in integrating forest contains the choice experiment, attitude and environmental resources, which are never background questions. A special focus is on considered as scarce resources, into modern social revealing the respondent's attitudes towards and economic systems? (2) Should environmental biodiversity conservation and forest management. resources accounting be complementary to SNA and Respondents are grouped according to their attitudes MPS, or a principal part? (3) Have the the using factor analysis and those groups will be used limitations of environmental economics research as explanatory variables. Respondents are instructed method retarded the development of environmental to choose the best management regime from each economics itself, as well as limited the application choice set of three alternatives. Each alternative is and extension of research achievements in social presented using a map of the five recreation areas and economic development? and the Nuuksio National Park. The alternatives present different combinations of management Based on the discussion of the questions mentioned options in the five areas. The different sceneries are above, the paper points out that research on the illustrated using pictures of forest featuring two age methods and defects of forest environmental groups. Each alternative regime is also given a economy will be helpful for developing an biodiversity level and the associated cost of improved theoretical framework for valuation of management. forest environmental resources in China, and also provide useful information for developing policies Methods and Defects of Value to insure the sustainable management of these Assessment of Forest Environmental resources The purpose of research in this field is is Resources in China to provide theory and methods that can be used to Zhiyong Li develop a modern Chinese forestry for the 21st Chinese Academy of Forestry, Forestry Policy Research century. Division, 100091 Beijing, China Tel: 86-10-62889019, FAX: 86-10-62884229, Email: [email protected] Keywords: sustainable forestry, forest valuation The common goal of society is to implement sustainable development so that both a sustainable economy and environment is achieved. Sustainable forestry is an important part of achieving this goal. This research points out that sustainable forestry will be the dominant theme in forestry development

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Non-Monetary Valuation of Non-Market Measurement of attitudes and beliefs in Environmental Goods and Services contingent valuation as a preference George Peterson construction tool in the case of forest USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, quality 3825 East Mulberry, 80524 Fort Collins, Colorado, USA Eija Pouta, Mika Rekola Tel: 970-295-5963, FAX: 970-295-5959, Email: University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Economics, gpeterson/[email protected] Post Box # 2400014, Helsinki, Finland Keywords: non-monetary valuation, environmental Tel: +358 (9)0 191 7728, FAX: +358 (9)0 191 7729, psychology, market research Email: [email protected] The nature of many environmental goods and Keywords: contingent valuation, forest regeneration services is such that market prices fail to measure cuttings, beliefs their value. The results of economic analyses of In a contingent valuation (CV) study a sample of policy decisions that involve such goods will people is asked about their willingness-to-pay therefore be incomplete and biased without (WTP) for non-market goods or services in order to monetary valuation of the non-market components. measure environmental benefits or costs in The state-of-the-art of monetary valuation is monetary terms. in a CV study respondents are imperfect and controversial, however, and effective expected to state their preferences concerning the application of available methods is often too good to be valued. The assumptions concerning the expensive or infeasible. and, even if valid and completeness of preferences and the rationality of complete, monetary economic analysis does not decision makers have been criticized in the represent the full spectrum of human values valuation literature. Several reasons for associated with environmental goods and services. inconsistency and incompleteness of preferences Complementary non-monetary valuation methods have been discussed, such as respondents having can contribute important and useful information to conflicting values, uncertainty about his or her own policy decision analyses, both to correct biases in values, or the complexity of the choice situation. For economic analysis caused by incomplete monetary example, it has been suggested that protest valuation and to represent those values that lie responses and "don't know"-responses reflect outside the domain of monetary economics. in this respondents' frustration with a situation where a paper we identify the alternative methods available, demanding choice must be made, but no tools are discuss and compare their relative merits and provided to help make the choice. in this study, applications, and explore the research frontiers of attitude and belief measurement is offered to the non-monetary valuation. The alternative approaches survey respondent as a tool to form preferences include (1) environmental psychology and about forest quality. psychometric measurement, (2) social survey research, (3) market research methods, (4) The attitude-behavior framework can be seen as a structured small-group decision procedures, (5) series of hypotheses, linking behavior to behavioral derived valuation based on scientific analysis of intentions, and secondly, linking behavioral human dependence on things removed from direct intention to attitude, which is a function of salient human consumption, and (6) techniques for direct beliefs about the attitude-object. Each salient belief public involvement in the policy decision process. links the object to an attribute or to an outcome of The paper integrates these various approaches into a the behavior in question. The attitude is determined comprehensive framework for non-monetary non- by the strength of these beliefs and evaluations market valuation. associated with the attributes concerning behavior. in a WTP question, the behavior under consideration is whether to support a proposed policy that provides an environmental good, given a specified expense. in contingent valuation studies, the attitude-behavior framework has been used as a model that explains behavior. However, the multi- attribute structure of the model is very close to multi-attribute utility theoretical aids of decision making. By expressing their beliefs and attitudes concerning the attitude object, respondents also construct their preferences about the choice setting.

251 Division 6 The valuation of non-market benefits of forests provides an excellent case to test the effect of Evaluating the Impact of Farm attitude and belief measurement. The data come Woodlands on the Landscape: a Case of from a contingent valuation survey in a case of Blending Perspectives forest regeneration cuttings in Finland. A mail Colin Price survey sample of about one thousand respondents School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of chose between two forest regeneration practice Wales, Bangor, Gwynedd LL57 2UW, United Kingdom alternatives: a) status quo management or b) Tel.: 44-1248-382454 / 382281 / 351098 Fax: 44-1248- environmentally oriented forest regeneration. 354997 Alternative (b) included an expense for the Email: [email protected] respondent's household. Half of the respondents Several disciplines bring their own perspectives on went through belief and attitude questions regarding valuation to aesthetics. Landscape architects both alternatives, while the other half did not enunciate descriptive principles for design and participate in the belief or attitude measurement. in arrangement of landscape elements. Planners this paper we test the effect of this preference quantify the relative merit of landscapes seen construction tool on the item response rate of the holistically. Perceptual psychologists analyse WTP question and on the WTP itself. The WTP was individuals’ responses to landscapes. Economists do estimated using a logit model of dichotomous not consider landscape as fundamentally different choice. in addition, two different treatments of from other public goods, so incline to value it by decision complexity were formed by varying the their willingness to pay criterion. Using this, they number of attributes in the alternatives. The may seek to displace the contributions of other perceived decision confidence of respondents was disciplines: hedonic pricing attempts directly to also measured and compared between the place a cash value on landscape elements; treatments. contingent valuation of a given landscape change Preference construction treatment decreased the condenses citizen preferences with consumer number of responses. This was the case especially purchasing decisions; but both methods suffer when the alternatives in choice setting had only disabling weaknesses. It is more constructive to some attributes. The treatment had some effect on integrate the insights of other disciplines than to dichotomous choice. When the choice setting was compete with them. By such a combined process a simple, the treatment increased the number of farm woodlands programme in Wales has been supporters of the environmentally oriented cutting. evaluated. Hypothetical planting schemes were Also, in the logit model of dichotomous choice, designed for representative landscapes, using belief questions increased the probability of received design principles. A single assessor choosing an environmental alternative. Including evaluated, subjectively, impact on landscape quality, preference construction treatment in the model judgements being calibrated by reference to a larger improved the performance of the model somewhat assessor group. Landscape change was given a significantly. Belief and attitude questions decreased monetary scale via recorded differential willingness the perceived decision confidence, especially when to pay for travel to Welsh landscapes of different the education level of the respondent was low. It quality. The resulting value of aesthetic gain was seems evident that responding to belief questions similar to the expected cost of the programme. about the good reminds respondents of the dimensions of the choice which they otherwise 6.11.07 Social Dimensions of Forest would not have considered. in this way the choice Protection (Africa, Europe, North America) becomes more complicated and the respondent perceives uncertainty. On the other hand, this raises Collaborative Forest Fire Management the question of the response quality in dichotomus Strategies in Ghana choice in general. Should the CV-questionnaire Viktor Agyeman, Asare, A.B., Orgle, T.K. and Gronow, guarantee that respondents deliberate all dimensions J. of the choice equally? Furthermore, how should we Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, University Box 63, Kumasi, Ghana deal with the group of respondents who are more FAX: 233-51-60121, Email: [email protected] confused after screening dimensions? Fire is currently the most important cause of deforestation and forest degradation in Ghana. The severe drought and fires which occurred in 1983 and 1987 exacerbated by indiscriminate logging in some of the affected reserves have resulted in the

252 Division 6 conversion of forests from generally aggrading individual's annual expenditures of nonconsumptive ecosystems to systems of progressive degradation. wildlife recreation in the United States. Residential During the past 15 years, wildfires in Ghana have nonconsumptive wildlife recreation is defined as a resulted in an annual loss of approximately 3% of person who participates in a recreation activity less Gross Domestic Product (GDP) during the past 15 than one mile from home with the specific intent of years through destruction of forests, agricultural observing, photographing, and feeding wildlife. lands and property. in 1993, the total area of forest In the process of selecting an appropriate model reserves in the high forest zone affected by fire was most consistent with consumer behavior associated estimated at 0.917 million hectares, more than half with nonconsumptive wildlife recreation, the tobit the total area of reserved forest. model and the double hurdle model for the Wildfires in Ghana are mainly anthropogenic in residential expenditure model were evaluated. Based origin. The major human activities that can lead to on the likelihood ratio test result, the double hurdle uncontrolled fires include, charcoal burning, palm- model fit the data much better than the tobit model. wine tapping, slash and burn system of farmland The empirical results from the residential preparation and hunting. in order to prevent further expenditure model indicated that income, age, environmental degradation resulting from wildfires, gender, education, wildlife category (such as birds, the Government of Ghana initiated a collaborative mammals, and insects), visiting public parks or forest fire management (CFFM) programme aimed natural areas, maintaining natural areas for fish or at mobilising local community support for wildfire wildlife, and planting around home for fish or prevention, detection communication and control. wildlife had a significant effect on residential The CFFM approach recognises that successful nonconsumptive wildlife recreation expenditures. wildlife prevention and control programmes need to An individual's annual expenditures were predicted be developed and implemented in partnership with to increase $0.00006938 for every $1.00 of income local communities. The CFFM system aims to growth, increase $0.3029 when participants are improve management of natural resources and middle-age individuals, increase $2.6054 when increase the flow of benefits from forest lands to the participants are male, increase $2.6649 with local land-owning community as an incentive for increases in educational status, increase $11.3563 increased participation in forest and wildfire when observing birds, increase $4.6485 when management. observing mammals, increase $4.0757 when The paper describes the key elements of the observing insects, increase $7.8431 when evolving CFFM strategy including the use of a participants visit public parks or natural areas, learning process approach to guide the overall increase $5.8571 when participants maintain natural development of the programme and various field areas for fish or wildlife, and increase $6.6430 when activities including consultation, needs assessment, participants plant around home for fish or wildlife. investigation and consensus building. The progress The results in this study provide insight into made up to date in the implementation of CFFM determinants of residential nonconsumptive wildlife strategies including the establishment of green fire recreation expenditures which can be used for breaks are outlined. The paper concludes with a planning and decision making purposes for comparative assessment of the classical wildfire nonconsumptive wildlife management. This study management approach, involving the Forest and also provides guidance in the choice of empirical Fire Service Organisations, and the collaborative model for use in this type of expenditure analysis. approach involving forest users including local Together, these results provide a rigorous analysis communities. Improving Forest Management Practices An Economic Analysis of Residential in Quebec (Canada) Through a Social Nonconsumptive Wildlife Recreation Learning Process Expenditures in the United States Marc André Cote, Luc Bouthillier Yeong-Nain Chi, Ferdinand F. Wirth, Jack Coburn University‚ Laval, G1K 7P4 Quebec City, Quebec, Isaacs, E. Jane Luzar Canada National I-Lan Institute of Technology, Department of FAX: +1 418 656 3177, Email: [email protected] Forestry, I-Lan, China-Taipeh Email: [email protected] To develop a truly sustainable approach to decision making in forest management, a model is needed to This study utilized cross-sectional data obtained from the 1991 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, facilitate collaborative decision-making between different parties with widely varying objectives. The and Wildlife-Associated Recreation to analyze

253 Division 6 task is to transform the dialogue between The imputability of interested parties involved in the stakeholders into a collective learning process that process, the proliferation of public participation will permit the forest manager to find new solutions initiatives in a same region, and property rights were to current problems; solutions to which forest users issues raised during the process that still have to be hold the key. The goal of this research project was addressed. Nevertheless, this approach of public to create a social learning process 1) between participation could be used by forest managers stakeholders and forest managers in which the wishing to initiate a certification process for a given stakeholders informed the forest decision makers territory. about ways to improve forest management and 2) between stakeholders and researchers in which the Institutional Impediments to stakeholders expressed their needs to the Conservation and Management of researchers. Forested Dispersal Zones Adjoining A mechanism of social learning was developed for Protected Areas: Some East Africa the management of 400 000 hectares area held by Examples the corporation Cartons Saint-Laurent, in Quebec, James Legilisho-Kiyiapi Canada. An initial round table involved The Centre for Wildlife Management Studies, Post Box # representatives of the following organizations: 47272, Nairobi, Kenya Native people, regional counties, town council, Tel: 254-150-22278, FAX: 254-150-22106, Email: wildlife management associations, hunting and [email protected] fishing associations, Ministries of Natural Resources The multiple uses of forests means that forest Wildlife, and Environment ministries, forest management is often constrained by a variety of contractors, local business associations, country factors. The traditional timber-oriented forest cottage owners, and snowmobile association. A management was relatively simple in that the goal second round table involved researchers from three was to maximize timber production by manipulating universities conducting research projects in forestry, the forest system in favour of selected commercially sociology, economics, geography, and biology. Two important species. Recent shifts in forest resource project managers serves as the link between these conservation and management paradigms embracing two round tables. The stakeholders and their areas participatory and whole-system approaches present of expertise were identified and these are being used rather complex and difficult forest management to determine the issues for the Cartons Saint- scenarios. Nowhere is this complexity more real Laurent forest management area. All stakeholders than in Sub-Saharan Africa where a broad spectrum shared their knowledge in order to develop new of colonial and post-colonial land and resource alternatives that may improve forest management. tenure regimes exist and where rapid social change To date, this social learning experience has showed threatens to destroy communal forest resource that new interactions between the stakeholders ownership systems. resulted in the development of new information Participatory natural resource management present networks. Moreover, the identification of areas of challenges within the scientific and social domain: expertise and skills of stakeholders helped to scientific in that technical solutions are needed to develop a practical partnership where everyone had deal with the forest ecosystem based management, something to contribute to improve forest and social in that we need to define relevant management practices. For example, involving the management entities and formulate supporting researchers helped to direct their projects towards policy and legislation. in East Africa as in other stakeholders' needs and concerns, and involving the parts of the world, forest management problems wildlife stakeholders helped to increase the forest seem to revolve around the increasing human- manager's knowledge on this issue. resource interactions in or close to protected area However, the success of our experience depended systems. Whilst the delimiting of protected areas primarily on a preliminary stage in which the (e.g., National Forest Reserves and Parks) in most process was carefully planned and designed with the African countries in 1940-50s, following European involvement of all stakeholders. This preliminary and North American models achieved some stage helped us to develop several mechanisms of reasonable natural resource conservation goals, social learning to suit the different parties involved. continual conservation of these resources is no For example, Native people and snowmobilers did longer possible without the support of surrounding not have the same concerns and thus did not wish to local populations. This derives from an historical be involved the same way. alienation of local populations from resources and perpetual inequitable distribution of benefits from

254 Division 6 these areas. Equally central, are weak institutional biodiversity, production and marketing not clearly mechanisms in place to address management issues. established, no direct link to rural income. A The sectoral nature of regulatory government community based research carried out by Kenya agencies (e.g., one agency responsible for forest and forestry research institute to alleviate poverty and another for wildlife resources) means that different conserve the environment through bioprospe3cting policies and laws often apply even when ecological of a locally valued plant species Mondia whytei has requirements would demand otherwise. been a success. (4). The communities are domesticating this species through agro-forestry Given the socio-economic conditions of systems and their income base has broadened. communities adjacent to forest-protected areas, Bioprospecting of this plant species is a good conservation solutions must seek to maximize the example of how benefit can be return to mix of economic benefits derived these sites. This communities, custodians of biodiversity and how it will involve a landscape-level ecological can be an incentive to environment conservation. characterization and site specific analyses of rural livelihoods towards land/resource-use zoning. 6.11.07 Social Dimensions of Forest Effective involvement of local communities entails Protection (Asia) a clear understanding of what constitutes 'a community' and existing local structures within the Indigenous Technologies for broader context of resource conservation and rural development partners. A pragmatic approach to Sustainable Resource Management in creation of local community institutions is Indian Cold Deserts demonstrated using examples drawn from the Prem Kumar Khosla, K.K. Raina Himachal Pradesh Agricultural University, 176 062 Maasai Mara National Game Reserves and the Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India Tsavo-Amboseli ecosystems in southwestern Tel: 91-1894-30522, FAX: 0091-1894-30511, Email: Kenya. [email protected]; [email protected] Keywords: Protected areas, dispersal zones, The Indian Cold Deserts located in North Western resource continuum, adjoining communities Himalayan Region, covering 74,809 m2 area, pose a greater development challenge due to rugged Community based bioprospecting of terrains, isolation, inhospitable climate and lack of Mondia whytei indigenous plant as communication facilities. These areas are income generating activity in Western ecologically varied and biologically diverse, unique region of Kenya systems. These are further characterised by subzero Kefri Muguga and Mukonyi Watai winter temperature (-40°C to 20 °C) annual Kenya Forestry Research Institute, Post Box # 20412, precipitation less than 30 cm. Shrubs and perennial Nairobi, Kenya herbs form the dominant vegetation. A variety of Tel: 0154 - 32891/2/3, FAX: 0154 32844, Email: biotic, abiotic, ecophysiologic and socio-poltical [email protected] factors restrict the economic growth of the region. Bioprospecting for non-timber-forest-products There are inadequate sources of livelihood with (NTFP) by involving the rural communities has agro-pastoralisum forming the main source of the been seen as alternative in salvaging deteriorating income. Farming is traditionally practised without environment, alleviating poverty and enhancing any marketing facilities. economies of most countries (1) NTFPs are a source Institutions related to economic development are of phytomedicines, social and spiritual fulfilment to either missing ore are too weak. Nomadic grazing is most rural communities and urban dwellers in the practised for meeting the requirement of wool and world (2) A study carried on ethnobotanical survey milk. Poor communication network is further of medicinal plants and trade potentials of NTFPs leading to isolation. Collection of medicinal herbs is established that they play an important role in also practised for meeting the cash requirements. Kenya's economy generating about US$ 40 million There is over exploitation of certain herbaceous annually (3) About 70% NTFPs in Kenya's are from flora by the pharmaceutical agencies. Natural natural ecosystems and not on farms. Most of them vegetation is mostly herbaceous Thymus, Medicago, are of plant origin, few derived from animals. These Trifolium, Anemone, Potentila, Epilobium, Verbena, NTFPs are used as constituent of main products. Alluim, Aconitum, Delphenium, Aquilegia, Primula, The constrains of NTFPs bioprospecting in Kenya Geranium, Polygonum and Cannabis are the are: no date on status of NTFPs scarcity of scientific dominant herbal species. Common shrub species are information like bioactive ingredients, forest Hippophae, Myricaria, Ephedra, Artemesia, Rosa, clearing and unsuitable exploitation has reduced Astragalus, Caraga and Salix. in addition manmade

255 Division 6 forests are found along the river banks rivulets, and Cooperation of forest farmer groups for wood nallahas comprising mostly of poplars, willows, marketing, and partnership between farmers and the Hippolhae spp. and Myricaria spp. Excessive owner of the wood industry. harvesting of natural and plantation trees for energy requirements during freezing winters is a common Sociocultural and political aspects of scenario. Inspite of harsh living conditions, biodiversity conservation: Implications inhabitants of Cold Deserts have sustained them for Sustainable Forest Management in a over a period of time. They have rich knowledge Tropical Timber Production Forests in concerning their environment and natural resources, the Philippines including crops and livestock. This traditional Lucrecio L. Rebugio knowledge is acquired through generational UPLB College of Forestry and Natural Resources experience and is flexible to the needs of the College, P.O. Box # 132, Laguna, Philippines natives. The sustainability of village ecosystems is Tel: 63-49-536-3996, FAX: 63-49-536-3206, Email: ensured through indigenous resource management. [email protected] The identification of these traditional technologies are packaged through intervention into physical, The study was conducted to provide relevant social socio-cultural, environmental and different data for the formulation of a socially relevant, components of soil, water, crop, livestock and other equitable and acceptable Sustainable Forest resource endowments of the community. The Management and Biodiversity Conservation Plan of documentation of indigenous techologies will help the Surigao Development Corporation (SUDECOR) in conservation of rich traditional knowledge, area in Surigao del Sur, Philippines and to address hitherto practised, but now the most threatened due the concerns with respect to the rights of indigenous to cultural mixing and opening up of peoples and tenured migrants in the area. The communication systems. It will also give an insight sociocultural part was specifically aimed at to know more critically the scientific bases for identifying the actors/stakeholders in forest superstitions which are being followed by people for resources management, and at determining how sustainable management of resources and improving people and communities regarded and used forest crop and animal productivity. It also opens the resources, how they viewed forest biodiversity and scope for scientific explanations are not available till biodiversity conservation and how they perceived date. The paper includes the detailed account of SUDECOR. The political analysis on the other hand indigenous technologies with particular reference to sought to assess the political environment of forest the age old knowledge on the use of herbs for the production and biodiversity conservation in the treatment of human and cattle ailments. The judicial Project area. Specifically it was aimed at analyzing use of local flora for pharmaceutical purposes can the effectiveness, influence and importance of also form the basis for commercial enterprenurship. various organizations from the communities viewpoint; gender division of labor and decision- making; the ethnic and class relations and the The Development of Community Forest relation between SUDECOR and indigenous in Improving the Environmental Qualitay communities in the concession area. Data were and Society Welfare in Indonesia gathered mainly through focus group discussions Eulis Retnowati (FGD) and interviews with selected groups and key Forest and Nature Conservation Research and individual informants (KI) conducted in the Development Center, FORDA SUDECOR timber concession area and surrounding Jl. Gunung Batu, PO BOX 165, Bogor, Indonesia Tel: +62-251-325111, FAX: +62-251-325111, Email: communities. Based on the results of the study nine [email protected] (9) socio-economic and political strategies for sustaininable forest management were proposed, In Indonesia, Community Forest Policy is described namely: 1) mutual respect for their rights and in the Basic Forestry Act No.5 of l967. in order to recognition of corresponding responsibilities by develop Community Forest, the government has both the SUDECOR and the affected indigenous carried out various ways. cultural communities; 2) creation and establishment In the Year 1995, the Community Forest in a district of a field level consultative body as a mechanism in Central Jawa contributed 29,76 % of the total for participation among affected stakeholders; 3) income, and decreased soil erosion. provision of stable livelihood communities; 4) protection and conservation of floral and faunal Some important aspects needed to encourage more species which are endangered and useful for the farmers to involve in Community Forest activity are communities depending on the resource; 5) the establishment of forest farmer groups,

256 Division 6 assessment of indigenous resource conservation management activities in some area of Indonesia. practices and integration of relevant ones in the Some case studies presented in the paper focus on sustainable management plan; 6) institutionalization what the local people receive and how they react of benefit sharing scheme for community offer establishment of those programs. The participation in sustainable forest management; 7) information presented here has been gathered from formulation and implementation of an information, several research studies and literature. education and communication (IEC) program The results showed that from time to time there are supportive of the project; 8) provision of other dynamics in Social Forestry program development. extension services; and 9) creation of an IEC and/or Begin from the first time when the program was community relations office within SUDECOR. introduced, it showed there is a change of intention where professional foresters who mostly in the past The Increase of Community think they know more and have the right more over Participation in Forest Management forest resources start to change their mind. Now through Development of Social Forestry they realize that local people have also the right to Program in Indonesia be involved in forest management activities. Sri Suharti Furthermore, active participation of the people in Forest and Natural Conservation Research and forest management activities has also an important Development Centre, Jl.Gunung Batu 5, Po.Box 165, role in determining the success of sustainable forest Bogor, Indonesia management. Top-down approach as the only FAX: 62-251-325111; 62-251-315222, Email: method applied in program establishment now is [email protected] gradually left. The new introduced method, PRA In the last few years there is a tendency of a change (Participatory Rural Appraisal) start to be used towards new forest management system in which widely in designing alternative activities in Social people's participation becomes the focus of Forestry program. The degree of community attention. This concept has several different names participation depend on the concessionaires (as such as community forest based management, executor); the GOI c.q MOFE (as supervisor and collaborative forest management, joint Forest evaluator) and the local community themselves. Management and Social Forestry. Three main principles are applied in this new forest 6.12.03 Sustainable land use as precondition management system i.e 1) Local people need to be for sustainable forestry involved in forest management activities; 2) Local people have legal rights and obligations to Sustainable Land Use and Sustainable participate in forest management activities; 3) There Forestry is a need to actively involve local people in deciding Hans Essmann, Stefanie Linser activities developed to guarantee forest management University of Freiburg, Institute of Forest Policy, system which is economically feasible, socially Bertoldstr. 17, D-79085 Freiburg, Germany adaptable and ecologically sound. Tel: +49-761-203-3724, FAX: +49-761-203-3705, Email: [email protected] To anticipate those tendency, Government of Indonesia (GOI) c.q Ministry of Forestry and Estate The Rio Conference 1992 declared "sustainable (MOFE) has developed several programs with the development" as one of its central concepts and main purpose to rationalize and empower the life of deemed it as a guideline for all future activities. The local people living near and around the forest area model of sustainable development represents a and to increase active participation of the people in concept which seeks to reconcile people's social and forest management activities. There are various economic needs with the long-term conservation of forms of Social Forestry program in Indonesia i.e. natural living conditions. This does not mean that PMDH forest (Village Development Program), protection of the environment should be subordinate Community Forestry, Mixed Farming Timber to economic and social factors; instead, it should be Estate, Transmigration Timber Estate, Small scale an integral component of development. in fact, in Private Forest, etc. chapter 9 of AGENDA 21, the signatory states pledged to manage natural and environmental The research on community participation in forest commodities in a sustainable manner so that they management through social forestry program could be utilized now and in the future. A establishment was conducted to learn how could the comprehensive form of sustainable trade should also program increase and facilitate community mean that, among other things, any types of participation and describe how far and in what ecologically damaging and resource-wasting land activities local people could participate in forest use are to be avoided. in order to reach the objective

257 Division 6 of sustainable land use, the "implementation of The main challenge for the forest sector in policies and programs that will discourage supporting rural development is to find counter- inappropriate and polluting land-use practices and measures to break the vicious circle. Rural areas of promote sustainable utilization of terrestrial and Europe are becoming more and more just sources of marine resources" (AGENDA 21, section 9.21 b) timber with no processing industries. Higher and should be initiated. From our point of view there especially more innovative utilisation of existing seemed to be no doubt that at a long run sustainable wood and non-wood forest resources would forestry is feasable only in the frame of the contribute to rural development by increasing sustainability of the overall land use. From the employment opportunities, and raise the economic authors point of view there seemed to be no doubt benefits obtained from the forests. that in the long run sustainable foresty is only The challenges of the forest sector in contributing to feasable in the frame of sustainability of the overall the vitality of rural areas in Europe have been land use. Orientated on the Driving Forces-State- extensively examined by the authors. This paper Response Model of the OECD (Organization of presents the major findings of the potentials and Economic Co-Operation and Development) criteria practices in utilising local forest resources for high and indicators for the assessment of sustainability of value added production, and discusses how forestland use have been developed and are presented in based income and employment could be increased. the paper. Additionally, orientating on some of the criteria discussed and agreed to at the Third Among the main findings regarding the prevailing Ministerial Conference on the Protection of Forests situation is that the correlation between forest in Europe in Lisbon (1998) indicators for the resources and employment is very weak. assessment of sustainablity of land use in forestry as Employment per unit of processed wood is highest a small step of the realisation of sustainable forest in those countries, which feature a higher management has been developed. For verification of concentration of population and closeness to the selected criteria and indicators, the "Naturpark markets, which attracts more refined stages of Südlicher Schwarzwald" (Nature Park Southern processing industries. The main consumers of forest Black Forest), established in February 1999, has products are situated in the large urban been chosen. The parc area of around 300.000 agglomerations, whereas the main producers and hectares represents all existing conflicts between the exporters are in regions and countries with an different land users as there are agriculture, forestry, overall rural structure. It is therefore obvious, that tourism & recreation, trade, industrial & private strategies aimed at increasing the potential for the housing settlements as well as nature conservation. forest sector cannot concentrate on regional C&I are supposed to enable and rationalise political consumption alone, but that the main task lies in decisions concerning land use in general and connecting rural producers and urban consumers. forestry in particular with regard to sustainability. Today's development of communication infrastructure and transportation logistics provide New Challenges for the Forest Sector to useful tools also for the forest sector for linking up Contribute to Rural Development in rural and urban areas. One such example is the on- Europe line marketing of forest products and services. Pentti Hyttinen, Anssi Niskanen and Andreas Ottitsch Ownership fragmentation and absentee ownership European Forest Institute (EFI), Torikatu 34, FIN - 80100 are an increasing problem in mobilising forest Joensuu, Finland resource for income and employment, since in many Tel: +358-13-2520235, FAX: +358-13-124393, Email: rural areas average forest plot areas are well below [email protected] any economic significance for the owner. To tackle Rural areas across Europe are facing more rapid this problem, various forms of co-operative forest emigration than ever before. Due to the diminishing management activities have been developed, which prospects for financially feasible agriculture, and the provide labour for those who remain in the regions, lack of supplementing sources of income, rural areas as well as income for the forest owners who do not are characterised by high unemployment, narrow live at or near their land anymore. occupational base and poor job creation. The vicious At the processing side, much of the hope is put circle of rural underdevelopment is feeding itself - especially on small and medium-scale (SM) low work opportunities result in increasing mechanical wood industries. The reasons for the emigration, decreased tax revenues, which in turn, optimism are obvious. The required investments are decrease investments to infrastructure. The result is often rather modest, and the restrictions of economy a loss of attractiveness of rural regions for human of scale are not that substantial than in mass-scale resources.

258 Division 6 pulp and paper industries. Businesses in SM database of landform information containing industries may start up on mainly local and regional inclination, slope azimuth, and altitude value was markets, which makes their business easy to constructed. Next, the average and dispersion manage. Exploration of export-opportunities has statistics, the maximum, and the minimum altitudes also been a successful factor for the development of and inclinations and the average and dispersion many SM industries. in this respect, investments in statistic of the slope azimuth of the 2-km meshes staff qualifications have proven essential. were calculated using the landform information of the 50 m meshes. The development of services is also seen among the opportunities to create forest related income and Forest area comprises 2/3 of all land in Japan in employment. Tourism is usually named among the 1990, 1950, and 1985. The next largest category of chief potentials, but other options exist as well. land use is agriculture at about 17% of total land Examples are visible, where employment also has area. The key points of land use change between been created through conservation activities such as 1900 and 1985 are as follows. The total amount of the carrying out of traditional management methods forest area did not change. Land devoted to in the interest of landscape aesthetic. One of the agricultural use hardly increased. Land devoted to chief problems here is the development of urban use increased rapidly after World War II, appropriate transactions mechanisms to direct whereas land devoted to other uses declined rapidly. income from these activities to rural regions rather Land use in 75% of the total area saw no change, than extra-regional actors. whereas 13% was changed by 1950 and 16% by 1985. Most land use changes consist of 1) changes Today, the forest sector employs 3.2 million people from forest use to other use, 2) changes from forest in Europe, and undoubtedly has increasing use to agricultural use, 3) changes from agricultural importance in rural development issues in the 3rd use to urban use, and 4) changes from agricultural millennium. use to forest use. Change of forest region seen from the As altitude increases and inclination becomes land use steeper, land use tends not to change. For altitudes Tetsuro Sakai, XiaoMeng Sun less than 200 m, much area is diverted from forest Kyoto University, Graduate School of Infomatics, 606- area, whereas from 200-400 m, much land is 8501 Kyoto, Japan diverted to forest area. For inclinations less than Tel: +86-753-3134, FAX: +86-753-3138, Email: 10%, much area is diverted from forest area, [email protected] whereas for inclinations of 20-50%, much area is In the last century, the total amount of forest area in diverted to forest areas. The forest area has Japan has remained fixed at a ratio of about 70%. increased on land of higher altitudes and However, there have been large changes in land. It inclinations. The largest such increase is at altitudes is important to understand the characteristics of the of 300-699 m and inclinations of 30-49%. Land forest area to have sustainable use of forest. It is devoted to other use has diminished. The largest also important to understand whether changes in such drop is at altitudes of 100-499 m and forest areas have been caused by societal and inclinations of 20-49%. We conclude that changes economic developments. We attempt to explain of land use depend on characteristics of geography. geographical features of the forest area and changes In forest areas, the broadleaf tree woods have in land use in Japan. decreased whereas the mixed woods have increased. We obtained the data for land use and geographical in area devoted to broadleaf tree and conifer woods, information from the 2km mesh land use data the average altitude increased and the average provided by UNEP/GRID-Tsukuba and the 50m inclination became steeper. However, for mixed mesh altitude data provided by GSI (Geographical woods, the average altitude decreased and the Survey Institute). The former are made from the average inclination became gentler. The cause is topographical maps of three periods: circa 1900, artificial wood development since 1950. The circa 1950 and circa 1985. Land use types are artificial woods area became 10 millions ha. classified into 31 categories, including urban agricultural, and forest uses. The 50m mesh altitude data consists of the altitude in spots of equal length and width based on 1/25000 topographical maps of GSI. First, inclination and slope azimuth were calculated at each grid location using the altitude data of the four neighboring grid locations. Thus, a

259 Division 6 shifting cultivator household in terms of better Some Notes About Shifting Cultivation, socio-economic condition and the increase of self Problem and its Alternative Solution in reliance of the people. The results show that there Indonesia. A case study in HPH PT. are several factors underlying the people to practise Hutan Kintap, South Kalimantan. shifting cultivation, some of them are need of land Sri Suharti for crop cultivation, limited job opportunities, lack Forest and Natural Conservation Research and of skill and knowledge, low wage, tradition, etc. The Development Centre, Jl.Gunung Batu 5, Po.Box 165, two programs established in the area have not Bogor, Indonesia satisfied its participants. As a result many FAX: 62-251-325111; 62-251-315222, Email: participants still practise shifting cultivation and [email protected] even leave the program. in order to overcome the Shifting cultivation is an example of a traditional problem some adaptation and modifications of the land-use system, which is often in conflict with the program should be done or otherwise a new management of the forest. in Indonesia, shifting program should be established to replace the less cultivation has been practised in almost all of the appropriate program developed before. island. in the areas where the native fertility of the soil has been high, or man/land ratio has become Crossing traditional boundaries: The high due to population growth, this system has role of social and psychological changed to more intensive land use ones. parameters in interdisciplinary Numerous interrelated factors like the increase of landscape analysis projects Christine H. Jakobsen population growth, rising demand for land for University of Idaho, Department of Resource Recreation commercial exploitation and immigration of and Tourism, ID 83844 Moscow, USA landless poor and refuges from other regions are FAX: 208 885 6226, Email: generating the deteriorated and migratory shifting [email protected] cultivation spread in many regions. This often causes the degradation of natural vegetation and soil The issues we face in contemporary natural resource resources and other environmental problems. planning and management are complex. The continued development and use of the resources These processes induce an extension of shifting stresses biological and social systems and raises cultivation to new areas and a gradual problems that transcend traditional boundaries impoverishment of resources. This spiral process of between disciplines. No single institution or land degradation and rural poverty does not only discipline is equipped to manage or indeed is create much human suffering, but also results in the expected to have the full competence to solve the loss of natural resource, which otherwise would be complex problems. Collaboration through used for generating development activities. integration of perspectives between the different In the early 1970's, there were various attempts had disciplines may be the only way to successfully been tried in Indonesia to diminish the expansion of complete this task. It is crucial to our ability to cope shifting cultivation through the development of with this challenge that we improve our several resettlement and not resettlement programs. understanding of the elements and processes Two example of resettlement programs are HPH involved in integration of perspectives across those Bina Desa, now called PMDH program (Forest boundaries. The results presented here come from Village Community Development Program) and two research project with similar objectives, to Tumpangsari program (inter cropping program). develop ways to integrate findings across The target was 500,000 shifting cultivation disciplinary and organizational boundaries: The hourseholds should be rationalized in every five assessment phase of the North American Interior years. in fact however, at the end of 1988, there Columbia River Basin Ecosystem Management were only 123,470 families that could be resettled, Project (primary data) and the Danish Boundaries in disregarding that a substantial amount of them has the Landscape (secondary data). Researchers have left. theorized about interdisciplinary collaboration processes but few studies look at concrete projects, The research on shifting cultivation and its control such as the ones compared in this paper. Three in South Kalimantan with a case study in HPH PT. levels of boundaries emerged from the data: Hutan Kintap was carried out to investigate what Individual-based boundaries that precipitate barriers factors motivate the people to practise shifting and appear to be bridged by facilitators between cultivation and how far the programs developed in individuals; Group-based boundaries with related the area could improve the living condition of barriers and facilitators of collaboration between

260 Division 6 groups in the projects; and Organization-based - Accountability and law compliance. New boundaries that induce barriers and facilitators to legislative approaches have emerged to attempt to collaboration between participating organizations. deal with several factors which have traditionally Comparison of the two research projects revealed a undermined the enforceability of forest laws, set of similar barriers to collaboration across including corruption. Increasingly laws include a different boundaries in the two western cultures. greater emphasis on transparency in government forest policy and management, better public access 6.13.00 The response of law to changing to information and public input into decision- social demands on forests and the making and improved penalty provisions. environment - Institutional restructuring. There have been new Forest Legislation in Developing experiments with the redesign of government Countries: Emerging Trends and forestry institutions, with the splitting of regulatory and management functions into separate bodies, and Persisting Dilemmas new approaches to the financing of operations. Lawrence C. Christy, Ali Mekouar and Jon Lindsay FAO, FAO Legal Office, via delle Terme di Caracalla, In each of these areas, there have been important 00100 Rome, Italy conceptual advances, and a variety of interesting Tel: 39-06-5705-3216, FAX: 39-06-5705-4408, Email: legislative techniques have been crafted. At the [email protected] same time, many of the recent laws show evidence Recent years have witnessed a significant of a profound ambivalence within governments acceleration in the revision of forest-related laws in about the appropriate direction and velocity of developing countries. Not surprisingly, the results of reform in the forestry sector. and indeed, efforts to these law reform efforts have been extremely varied. create legal frameworks that reflect a balanced They have taken place within the context of vastly appreciation of the multiple dimensions of forestry different legal and political traditions, reflecting a have brought to the forefront legal and policy wide range of economic, ecological and social dilemmas that have vastly complicated the jobs of variables. It is possible, nevertheless, to identify lawmakers. several trends that have achieved prominence in forestry laws over the last decade. Drawing upon the Impacts of Environmental Legislation on experience of FAO's Development Law Service, this Forest Management Practices in Chile paper will report on several inter-related clusters of E. Gallardo Gallardo issues in which a reorientation of national forest Corporacion Nacional Forestal, Avd Bulnes No 285 of laws is evident: 601, Santiago, Chile Tel: +56 2 6966677, FAX: +56 2 6954788, Email: - Local forest management. Increasing attention has [email protected] been devoted to enhancing the legal capacity of local people to manage forests on which they Este país ubicado en el extremo sur de américa, depend, through the introduction of community- reconoce durante el siglo XX que recién termina dos based management arrangements, decentralisation esfuerzos legislativos tendientes a conservar y a of forestry institutions and innovative tenurial desarrollar nuestros recursos forestales: en 1925 con instruments. - Private sector involvement. Efforts to la ley de bosques, aún vigente y en 1974 con la ley stimulate private sector investment in sustainable de Fomento Forestal, ambas con diversas forestry has resulted in a variety of legislative modificaciones. efforts to reduce the most common constraints, such La primera con un marcado carácter proteccionista y as overly restrictive or cumbersome regulatory de preservación, entre otras medidas, reguló la corta regimes and unsuitable land tenure arrangements. de bosques nativos en áreas de protección y el uso New approaches to contracting services and del fuego en terrenos de aptitud preferentemente monitoring performance are finding their way into forestal y la segunda impulsó fuertemente el proceso legislation. de forestación y reguló la corta o aprovechamiento - Environment and sustainable management. Laws obligando a reforestar una superficie igual, a lo increasingly focus explicitly on the environmental menos, a la cortada o explotada conforme a un plan functions of forests, imposing new planning and de manejo previamente aprobado por la inventory provisions closely tied to biodiversity and administración forestal. other environmental considerations, EIA and A estos dos textos de jerarquía legal debe sumarse management planning. algunos instrumentos internacionales ratificados como "ley de la República" referidos a la protección

261 Division 6 y comercio de la flora y la fauna y sobre fragmentation and conversion of forest ecosystems. conservación de la diversidad biológica y una The Mississippi State University, College of Forest profusa regulación reglamentaria de protección de Resources, and the USDA Forest Service, Southern especies y áreas silvestres protegidas, legislación Research Station, are cooperating in a study to toda fuertemente patrimonialista, sectorial y sin una measure the magnitude of the effect of the federal visión ecosistémica o ambiental propiamente tal. estate tax on non industrial forestlands and other rural land holdings. Data for the study were Sólo en 1994, después de más de 20 años de la collected using mailed questionnaires. Members of Conferencia de las Naciones Unidas sobre el Medio the American Tree Farm System, the National Ambiente Humano de 1972 y la Conferencia sobre Woodland Owners Association, and a nationwide Ambiente y Desarrollo de 1992, y la fuerte presión sample of rural landowners were surveyed. Study del comercio internacional, en Chile con el carácter findings include: 1) Over one-half of nonindustrial de "ley marco", se aprobó la Ley sobre Bases forestland owners (53%) held assets valued above Generales del Medio Ambiente que vino a legislar the threshold amount for the federal estate tax; 2) con sentido global y sistémico, incorporando la Over one-third of forestland estates (36%) incurred dimensión ambiental en todas las actividades del the federal estate tax (this is roughly 20 times the quehacer nacional, entre ellas, la actividad forestal. rate for the U.S. population in general); 3) Esta ley recoge y desarrolla los principios de Forestland and timber typically accounted for nearly prevención, realismo y gradualidad con que el one-half (45%) of the owner's estate; 4) Only about gobierno impulsó su política ambiental a partir de one in three forestland estates (32%) qualified for 1990, destinada a proteger el medio ambiente, the "special use" valuation provisions, and only one preservar la naturaleza y a conservar el patrimonio in four (25%) elected to use them; and 5) About ambiental. two-thirds of forestland owners (65%) sought the La creación legal de diversos instrumentos de help of a financial or forestry professional to plan gestión ambiental, entre ellos, la obligación, para los their estate. of the estates that owed a federal estate proyectos de desarrollo o explotación forestales de tax, about one-third (35%) needed to sell timber or gran magnitud, de someterse, antes de su ejecución, land to pay part or all of the tax. in nearly every case al Sistema de Evaluación de Impacto Ambiental, ya where timber was sold, the sale was without regard ha producido y producirá en el futuro como for local market conditions or the forest consecuencia la posibilidad de prever, predecir, management plan. in a large fraction of the cases identificar e interpretar anticipadamente el o los where land was sold, the land was converted to impactos ambientales que dichos proyectos o another, more developed use. These last findings are actividades forestales provocarán a los recursos based on small sample sizes and need to be ambientales asociados como comunidades humanas, confirmed by additional research. Nonetheless, their suelos, aguas, aire, fauna y paisaje, permitiendo que implications for forested ecosystems and for tax en su etapa de diseño se identifique y se describa la policy are clear. o las acciones que el titular ejecutará para impedir o minimizar sus efectos significativamente adversos. Forest and Environmental Law En consecuencia, el país entra al siglo XXI con la Developments in European Countries esperanza que aún es tiempo para revertir la etapa de with Economies in Transition destrucción y deterioro de nuestros recursos Peter Herbst forestales, y ,a través de su manejo sostenible y Wulfenstrasse 15, A-9500 Villach, Austria sustentable, poder satisfacer las necesidades actuales Tel: +43 4242 52471, FAX: +43 4242 264048, Email: pero asegurando al mismo tiempo la satisafacción [email protected] de las necesidades de las generaciones del porvenir. Keywords: Forest Law, Environmental Law, Central Europe, Eastern Europe, European Countries with The Effect of the Federal Estate Tax on Economies in Transition Non-industrial Forest Ecosystems in the In 1998 and 1999, two International Meetings on United States. "Experiences with new forest and environmental J. Greene, Bullard, St; Cushing, T.; Beauvais, T laws in European countries with economies in USDA Forest Service, Southern Research Station, transition" were held in Ossiach, Austria, both Lousiana New Orleans, USA organised by IUFRO 6.13.00, the forest law and Anecdotal evidence indicates that the federal estate environmental legislation subject group, and tax has a disproportionately large, adverse effect on supported by the Austrian Ministry of Agriculture transfers of forest land estates and contributes to the

262 Division 6 and Forestry. Eighteen different nations were Forstpolitik und Forstökonomie der ETH Zürich, represented in at least one of both meetings. Vol. 23, 2000. 111 pp. The most extensive part of both meetings comprised of sessions on the legal situation in European Certification and nature conservation countries with economies in transition; the whole regulation range of possible stages of development of forest Ullrich Klins law and environmental legislation as well as Universität München, Faculty of Forest Science, Am problems concerning implementation and Hochanger 13, D-85354 Freising, Germany Tel: +49 8161 -71-4627, FAX: +49 8161 -71-4623, administration were covered by oral presentations Email: [email protected] and discussions. Pluralism, neocorporalism, participation and By means of the moderation method, impending integration are terms, which have significantly problems and topics were collected, selected gained in popularity since the early Seventies. The according to their relevance to the participants, and forest industry is increasingly faced with societies discussed. demands for protection and recreation areas, Highest priority was given by the participants to demands which conflict with forest owners - Harmonisation of Forest and Environmental (commercial) interests respectivly forest owners Legislation; ranging from basic conflicts between property rights, their competence and legitimacy. forestry and environment to necessary Thus the question arises, in what way is influence harmonisation processes and needs due to exerted on forestry. This will be presented using the international commitments. situation in Germany as an example. When - Private Forests; rights and obligations of private considering the legal situation, it can be observed owners, training and participatory management, the that the legal framework regarding forestry can be owners/authority relationship were discussed, in considered to be quite well established. in the order to find suitable legal arrangements. (immediate) future there will be no changes or no - Financing; comprising sources, problems and significant changes in this respect. This is also true incentives. for other parliamentary decisions in the field of - Protected Areas; national parks, management and forestry, since a sufficiently strong lobby of financing. agriculture and forest interest groups is active in Other topics of relevance were Governance and parliament itself as well as in parliamentary Participation (Forest Policy), Public Forest specialized committees. Thus, influence is exerted Administration and Management, Forests Functions on forestry by structures outside parliament. as well as Privatization of Forests. Therefore, the following dynamic structures are being studied: Papers presented during both meetings have been - developments regarding forests on an international published as follows: level (e.g. conferences in Rio, Helsinki, regulations Schmithüsen, Franz; Herbst, Peter; Le Master, within the framework of the European Union, etc.) Dennis, Eds., 1999: Experiences with New Forest - changes in the field of nature conservation law, and Environmental Laws in European Countries particularly in the area of regulations with Economies in Transition. Proceedings of the - processes on the private economic level e.g. with International Symposium Jointly Organized by the regard to certification IUFRO Research Group 61300 and the Austrian While most of the developments on an international Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, level - at least in the forestry sector - do not involve Ossiach, June 1998. Forstwissenschaftliche Beiträge any important changes for German forestry, der Professur Forstpolitik und Forstökonomie der interesting trends can be observed in the field of ETH Zürich, Vol. 21, 1999. 142 pp. nature conservation regulations and on the private Schmithüsen, Franz; Iselin, Georg; Herbst, Peter, economic level. Nature Conservation Regulations Eds, 2000: Challenges in Implementing Forest and The example of protected areas shows that there are Environmental Legislation in European Countries slow but significant shifts in competence, which with Economies in Transition. Proceedings of the effect forestry. The following reasons can be stated: Second International Symposium Jointly Organized by the IUFRO Research Group 61300 and the 1) Legal frames are solidified by regulations which Austrian Federal Ministry of Agriculture and are not decided on by parliaments but rather by a Forestry, Ossiach, September 1999. forum of specialists such as ministries or other state Forstwissenschaftliche Beiträge der Professur offices, in other words they get directly submitted to

263 Division 6 the state governments. For example in the case of a or only partially recognized by many representatives proposal made by a nature preservation authority, an of the forest industry. The lack of recognition is due intervention by agriculture or forest lobbies is less to foresters having been able to manage their forests possible. with relative autonomy within the framework of the political administrative system. There has also been 2) Specific regulations are required for each no recognition at which level and with which protected area. This means that only a few forest methods environmental groups are acting during a owners' rights are affected. Up to now foresters have political process. Therefore in the last part of the often failed to act against these regulations study the question as to which strategies enable the collectively, resulting in there having been no real forest industry to reach a consensus with social resistance against the individual regulations. interest groups and the support of the public will be 3) Forest management has a rather negative image discussed. among the population compared to people's associations with forest and wood. Accordingly, a Selection of Policy Tools in the Context large portion of the population is of the opinion that of Multilevel Policy Networks more forest areas should be protected. Dennis C. Le Master Environmental groups are considered more Purdue University, Department of Forestry and Natural competent in this respect than foresters. Forestry 1159 Forestry Building, Indiana 47907-1159 West In this way nature preservation authorities are able Lafayette, USA to make regulations in accordance with their Tel: +1 317 4943591, FAX: +1 317 4940409, Email: interests on the basis of laws decided by parliament. [email protected] For example a higher degree of restrictions has already been achieved in landscape protection areas, Merlo and Paveri argued in a paper given during the i.e. forest management becomes more difficult in XI World Forestry Congress that a "substantial lack these areas. of attention to, or ignorance of, forest policy tools, not to mention the policy tools mix.. ." is apparent. "External determination" - a case study of For example, many policy analysts seem unaware certification that constitutional, democratic, mixed-capitalist Environmental groups, trade unions and distributors states are actually quite limited in what policy tools demand a certification of forests according to the or mechanisms they can apply, even when principles and criteria of Forest Stewardship government intervention in markets for forest goods Council (FSC). The impact of these groups on and services is viewed as desirable. Forest policy forestry as seen in Germany seems to be stronger tools can be divided into two general kinds: market than foresters have expected. The forestry, facilitation tools, those that facilitate the functioning especially private forest owners fear "external of markets, and market intervention tools, those that determination", which would result in a public modify the functioning of markets. Market interference in their autonomy of forest facilitation tools include (1) information gathering management. Consequently the debate about and dissemination, (2) public education, (3) certification was dominated by emotionally and technical information, and (4) research. Market ideologically plagued arguments and "false" intervention tools are (1) insurance programs, (2) information. Dated perceptions and pictures of resource protection programs (from disease antagonism, known from the discussion epidemics, insect infestations, and fire), (3) land "environmental conservation versus forest management planning, (4) regulation and management", re-emerged. in this study the prohibition, (5) taxation or subsidization programs, interests, ideologies and opinions of key players, the (6) land trusts for amenity, recreation, conservation, differing contribution of their power, given or other values, and (7) public ownership or regulations and in addition to this communication production of goods and services. They differ strategies of the players and their strategic behaviour substantially in their relative effectiveness, cost, within networks will be presented. social and ideological acceptance, and difficulty in administration. No single tool or combination of Strategies tools is uniquely effective in addressing public Thus it poses the question, what possibilities exist, policy problems in forestry. Schmithuesen observes with which the forestry can steer or exert an that "A substantial expansion of international law on influence on the momentary discussion processes - the environment and (economic) development has and to what extent. The interests and demands of taken place during the last twenty years," and today social groups and the resulting consequences are not forest and environmental policy must "be seen

264 Division 6 within the context of multilevel policy networks." have enacted statutes giving certified firms special International treaties, conventions, and agreements treatment, and some judges have mandated are comparable to domestic laws regulating human certification as a remedy for regulatory behavior and activities. The agent for noncompliance. implementation-the nation state-is the same and will 4. A number of state and local government agencies continue to be in the foreseeable future, for no have subjected the forested lands they manage to supranational organization has any corresponding non-governmental certification. power. Similarly, forest policy tools are the same for implementation of international policies as for 5. If certification programs continue to grow in domestic policies. Hence, international treaties, importance they are likely to be subjected to conventions, and agreements will be as effective as regulation by national and international legal the policy tool (or policy tools mix) selected by the systems. Such regulation may include the substance signatory nation states, including its subsequent and procedures of certification, as well the administration. qualifications of certifiers. 6. International trade law will also have Legal Implications of Forest considerable influence on the development and Certification Programs: An Overview effectiveness of certification systems. E. Meidinger State University of New York at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY, 7. Over time, certification systems may bring United States significant changes to the institutional mechanisms Email: [email protected] through which societies deliberate about and adopt governing policies. The debate about the legitimacy Forest certification programs typically define the of such developments is only beginning. environmental standards that forest enterprises must meet and also establish organizational mechanisms for achieving and certifying compliance. They thus Forest Related International Legal bear a striking resemblance to government Instruments regulatory programs. Yet, because of their Franz Schmithüsen apparently voluntary and autonomous nature, ETH, Department of Forest and Wood Sciences, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland certification programs are often conceptualized as Tel: +41 1 6323217, FAX: +41 1 6321110, Email: separate and distinct from law. in fact, however, that [email protected] certification systems are deeply intertwined with law. First, they use legal mechanisms to organize Keywords: International Legal Instruments; themselves, and often cite the possibility of Environmental Protection; Sustainable Forest intensified legal regulation to attract participants. Management; Rural Development; Nature and Second, they can have a significant influence on Landscape Conservation. governmental policies, and on the content and The commitments of international forest-related implementation of legal rules. legal instruments are initiated by national This paper reviews the primary ways in which governments, which negotiate the framework of co- certification systems are likely to influence legal operation. An increasing range of world-wide, systems and vice versa, using North American legal continental and regional processes involving systems as the primary basis of analysis. It finds, multilateral and supranational entities form at among other things, that: present the international system. in part, they develop their own political and institutional 1. Certification standards and implementation dynamic; in part, they emanate from the work of UN mechanisms have not been formally adopted by agencies. International and supra-national treaties, most North American legal systems. conventions and agreements reflect primarily global 2. Legal systems seem likely to incorporate or continental concerns. They have, however, certification standards in many informal ways, such immediate consequences for the development of as adoption of best management practices rural areas, from which the problems originate and definitions in environmental regulatory law, tort where the solutions and developments chances are law, and even information regulation and financial to be looked for. regulation. Empirical research on the evaluation of the impacts 3. Regulatory officials are likely to treat certification of existing multi-level legislative networks and on as an indicator of good practice in many cases, and the successes and failures, which result from them, may reduce scrutiny on certified firms. A few states are of considerable interest. Major issues are the

265 Division 6 relevance, the implementation possibilities and the encouraging sustainable forestry on private effective contributions of their various regulations to timberlands. sustainable resource utilisation in a given area. Since international and supranational legal instruments rely to a large extent on implementation by national and sub-national public services, non- governmental organisations and a large number of land-users, the distribution of competencies, financial and administrative arrangements, and decision making procedures need particular attention. Acceptance and commitment of land owners, local entities, and public opinion are important research issues. The same refers to shifts of responsibilities to the private sector, to bargaining processes and to contractual arrangements.

Implications of the Federal Income Tax for Private Forest Ecosystems in the United States William C. Siegel USDA Forest Service, Forest Resource Law and Economics 9110 Hermitage Place, Lousiana 70113 River Ridge, USA Tel: +1 504 737 0583, FAX: +1 504 737 1074, Email: [email protected] Keywords: Income Tax, Sustainable Forestry, Ecosystem Management. Changing social demands in the United States in recent years have resulted in greater emphasis being placed on ecosystem management, environmental protection and enhanced stewardship with respect to private forest lands. These concerns are implicitly included in the move to sustainable forest management on private ownerships. The federal income tax is an important component of this changing scene. Set out in the Internal Revenue Code, this tax has been in place in the United States since 1913. Forest landowners are subject to the federal income tax as are all other citizens. Numerous sections of the Code apply specifically to forests and timber; other provisions apply in general terms. The major components of the federal income tax applicable to private forests were examined in terms of their potential and actual contributions to enhancement of sustainable management on private forest ecosystems. It was concluded that some provisions lend little to and actually discourage enhanced stewardship, but that others are making significant contributions. Recent failed attempts at legislative change are discussed. The paper concludes with further recommendations for change which would enable the federal income tax to become a more forceful policy instrument for

266 Division 6

utilization of forests have increased as well. This The Role of Forest Land Tax development almost inevitably leads to conflicts Programmes in Promoting Ecosystem with forestry interests, making financial Management in the United States compensation measures a bare necessity. Jeffrey C. Stier, Clendenning, J. G. Within the framework of a research project, the University of Wisconsin-Madison, Department of Forest questions and issues related to recent environment Ecology & Management protection legislation and its impact on forestry in 1630 Linden Drive, 53706 Madison, USA Germany will be subject to legal scrutiny and a Tel: 608-262-3976, FAX: 608-262-9922, Email: [email protected] comparative analysis of the legal situations in France, Poland and the U.S. Both, Germany and In the paper we examine if and how existing U.S. France, are subject to the jurisdiction and legislation preferential property tax programs for forestland are of the European Union, yet the conditions for the used as policy instruments to promote ecosystem conversion of European to national law differ management on private lands. A comprehensive greatly for instance with regard to the form of summary of the objectives, structure, and effects of government and the stuctures of forest ownership. existing tax programs has been compiled with an Environmental laws in the U.S. have been passed on examination of the manner in which these programs the grounds of the Common Law System, finding impede or facilitate ecosystem management. No trailblazing solutions for conflicts with agricultural existing program incorporates objectives of and forest management, such as the purchase of ecosystem management explicitly into their program land, the separation of priority cultivation concepts, statement, but numerous programs have and the strict territorial jurisdiction of state and incorporated, either explicitly and implicitly, federal authorities. Poland, as most East-European program goals and management objectives that have countries, is currently in a state of political, commonly been identified as characteristics of econonmic, and social transition on its way to ecosystem management. We conclude that integration into the EU. in the early 1990ies, these preferential property tax programs can play a limited countries mostly adopted environmental laws but important role in incorporating principles of modeled after the West-European fashion. ecosystem management on private forestlands. Meanwhile, these laws are being revised and However, because of the inherent complexities of amended on the bases of the previous experiences. forestland ownerships, forest management and ecosystem management, no one policy instrument The empirical part of the project will cover an can be expected to address all of the relevant issues, examination of the range and performance of the objectives and conflicts. Rather, the solution is more laws by an analysis of precedences, literature and by likely to lie in an array of policy instruments that expert interviews. of particular interest will be the complement and interact with each other. question, whether the legal provisions on financial compensation measures serve their purpose as control mechanisms in the conflict between Research Issues Related to environment protection and forestry. For the main Environmental Restrictions and objective of the laws is to regulate conflicts and Financial Compensation Measures in balance diverging social interests. Keeping this in Forestry mind, the following issues shall be discussed: Stefan Wagner Beethovenstr. 3, D-86150 Augsburg, Germany - Do the legal facts deviate from the framework of Tel: +49 821 155679, FAX: +49 821 159570, Email: environment protection laws and why- [email protected] - Are deficits the consequence of indistinct Keywords: Environmental Legislation; Financial legislation or of the wrong (or non-existent) Compensation Measures; Comparative Laws application of the laws? Forestry worldwide is confronted with a constantly - in how far have solutions been found in general rising number of laws and regulations, especially in practice to reconcile environment protection and the field or nature, land and water protection. As forestry that have not been provided by the law; opposed to former times, these provisions no longer especially financial compensation measures, such as aim just for the preservation of a few particular financial incentives, compensation payments, areas, but also for comprehensive and large-scale contractual agreements? environment protection as well as for the The results of these two research phases will then compensation of impacts. Consequently the lead to suggestions for the future execution of those possibilities to restrict the management and environment protection laws which are of particular

267 Division 6 importance for forestry. They will constitute the the criteria-and-indicators-list elaborated by the basis of the discussion about the necessity and Amazon Co-operation Treaty. This bias of criteria- adequacy of the utilization of forests for national and-indicators-lists towards interests of established and international legal environment protection administrations and powerful lobbies of industries measures. can be explained by the fact that the generating process takes place in established policy-making The International Discourses on systems favouring already powerful groups. The Sustainable Development and instrument of criteria and indicators in itself is a Sustainable Forest Management - Their technocratic tool. Besides of the production of Relevance for Modernising Forest Laws criteria and indicators no efforts are made to change Gerhard Weiss procedures or to address underlying causes of forest University of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Forest loss. Sector Policy and Economics Traditional forest policy-making systems are usually Gregor Mendel-Strasse 33, A-1180 Vienna, Austria dominated by industry-related interest groups. The Tel: +43-1-47654-4405, FAX: +43-1-47654-4407, Email: challenge of ecological modernisation – which is [email protected] valid for forest management just like for our society Since the 1980's, forest management is discussed as a whole – is a restructuring of procedures and politically on a world-wide level and under the institutions. Within the discourse of sustainable premises of "sustainability". This discourse on forest management, for instance, participatory sustainable forest management is related to the processes in policy-making are demanded. The international discourse on "sustainable modernisation of forest laws can only be called development". Sustainable development is the successful, if an institutional change is achieved, dominating discourse on environmental politics which balances the power of interest groups. Social since the report of the World Commission on and ecological goals will only be considered besides Environment and Development, Our Common of economic goals if respective interest groups are Future, was published in 1987. It incorporates the included in the policy-making process. goals of ecological protection, economic growth, social justice, and intergenerational equity - locally Endangered Species Regulations and and globally, immediately and in perpetuity. Timber Harvesting: The Case of Red One declared - but failed - aim of the UN Cockaded Woodpeckers Conference for Environment and Development in Daowei Zhang Rio de Janeiro in the year 1992 (UNCED) was to Auburn University, School of Forestry, Alabama 36849- agree on a World Forest Convention. The 5418 Auburn, USA negotiations resulted only in a vaguely formulated Tel: 334-844-1067, FAX: 334-844-1084, Email: [email protected] and non-binding Statement of Forest Principles. The principles of sustainable management, conservation This paper presents a theoretical framework and and sustainable development of all types of forests empirical evidence on the relationship between was furthermore included in Chapter 11 "Combating regulatory uncertainty induced by the possible Deforestation" of Agenda 21. Any interpretations of invasion of an endangered species-the Red- the overall goals and principles of sustainable Cockaded Woodpecker (RCW)-and timber development inevitably incorporates value harvesting. Timber harvesting probability and decisions. The results of ongoing political processes methods in a large number of mature private forests are driven by the values, interests, knowledge and are assessed using a forest production model based relative negotiation power of political actors. As no on the conventional theory of capital. The empirical objective definition of "sustainability" can exist the results indicate that landowners whose forests are task is rather to define the procedures how close to a known RCW habitat have a high sustainable development is to be interpreted. propensity to cut timber and use a clear-cut method. All these behaviors may be to achieve one apparent Various initiatives for elaborating criteria and objective: destruction or foreclosure of potential indicators for sustainable forest management have RCW habitat quickly and before the Endangered been started after Rio, among others the Pan- Species Act (ESA) comes into force. This means European Process for the Protection of Forests in that ESA and other regulations have given Europe. These criteria and indicators are biased landowners perverse economic incentives and towards quantitative economic and ecological induced actions that they would otherwise not have aspects. Social and cultural aspects are mostly and that are detrimental to the full recovery of neglected. The same bias even can be observed in

268 Division 6 endangered species. The results have implications intense and persistent, the most wear-sensitive for future reforms in environmental regulations. species will die leading to the disappearance of the humus layer and risk of soil erosion. 6.14.00 Urban forestry Preliminary results about the effects of fragmentation and trampling on the understorey State of the art of research and vegetation of urban forests are presented. knowledge on urban forestry in the USA John Dwyer, Gary Watson, David Nowak Urban forest stands of varying size (1-1600 ha) were USDA Forest Service, 845 Chicago Avenue, Suite 225, chosen for the study in the greater Helsinki area. IL 600202-2357 Evanston, USA Within these areas, mesic spruce (Picea abies) Tel: 847-866-9311, FAX: 847-866-9506, Email: dominated forest stands of the Vaccinium myrtillus jdwyer/[email protected] type, and drier pine (Pinus sylvestris) dominated Urban forestry research promises to continue to be Vaccinium vitis-idaea type stands over 80-years-old an integral part of the growth and development of were examined, and biotope mapped was forestry in urban and urbanizing areas of the United undertaken regardless of the size or level of wear in States. The future is expected to bring increased 1999. The total number of inventoried biotopes was emphasis on research in support of the care of trees 52. Biotope mapping was based on the understorey and other plants, ecological restoration, and vegetation. For measuring environmental variables comprehensive and adaptive management across the and monitoring the effects of fragmentation and landscape. Particular emphasis will be needed on trampling, one or two circular sample plots (radius research to guide new developments in the 5.64 m), were located in the biotopes, depending on comprehensive health of urban vegetation; the size of the biotope (0.01-3.14 ha). Sample plots ecological restoration techniques; resource were located so that the minimum distance to the inventory and monitoring; dialogue among forest edge of forest was 30 meters. Dominant height, stem resource owners, managers, and uses; collaboration volume and basal area of trees and number of stems among agencies and groups; understanding of how per hectare were calculated. The percentage cover of forest configurations influence forest use and field and ground layer vegetation was inventoried in 2 benefits; knowledge about urban forest health; and four 1 m sub-plots located in each sample plot. in dissemination of information about urban forests addition path area per biotope area was measured and their management. It is the integration of the and the number of residents within a 1 km and 2 km landscape, ecological, and tree/plant-care research radius of each biotope were used as measures of that will provide for the comprehensive and recreation pressure. adaptive management needed to sustain urban forest Both site types were affected by trampling in a structure, health, and benefits over the long term. similar manner. With an increasing number of Keywords: urban, forest, arboriculture, landscape, residents, the cover of ground vegetation decreased collaboration. and the amount of unofficial paths increased. The cover of ground vegetation and dwarf shrubs was Effects of fragmentation and trampling the highest when recreation pressure was the lowest. on the vegetation of Forests in Finland The mean total cover of ground vegetation in the areas studied was 65%. When the number of Irja Löfström, Minna Malmivaara and Ilkka Vanha- Majamaa residents within 2 km radius is > 20 000, ground Finnish Forest Research Institute, Post Box # 18, FIN- vegetation cover falls below the mean of 65% 2 01301 Vantaa, Finland (R =0.25). Cover decreases about one percentage FAX: +358 9 8570 5569, Email: [email protected] per 1000 persons. The size of the forest patch in relation to the number of recreationists is one of the In Finland, about 80% of urban green areas are main factors affecting species cover and forests with natural forest vegetation. Participation composition. in outdoor recreation is active and urban forests are the main environment for these activities. According to the Finnish law, citizens can use forests freely for recreation. The growth of the urban population has resulted in the fragmentation and increased recreational pressure, e.g. trampling in these urban forests. The small size and isolation of remaining forest patches result in decreased biodiversity. When trampling is

269 Division 6 maintenance. The sand, however, could maintain a Soil moisture variations and availability relatively high proportion of air capacity (AC) pores in tree-pits in urban Hong Kong over 60 µm diameter which serve adequately C.Y. Jim infiltration, drainage and aeration. There is The University of Hong Kong, Department of Geography nevertheless a shortage of medium available water and Geology, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong, China (AW) pore in the 0.2-60 µm diameter range. Tel: +852-2859-7020, FAX: +852-2559-8994, Email: [email protected] Moisture content follows closely the rainfall regime with marked seasonal variations between the dry Urban areas of Hong Kong are characterized by and the wet periods. Moisture content increases with pervasively high-density and high-rise development depth in most planters. The occurrence of layering with meagre niches left for amenity vegetation. (lithologic discontinuity) in some planters retards Suitable sites for ground planting is particularly the downward movement of moisture, resulting in limited at roadsides where the narrow pavement and water perched in the topsoil and hence less available proliferation of underground utilities often preclude in the subsoil. The less compacted subsoil of some trees. The use of tree planters or containers provides planters manages to store more moisture, and this possibilities to insert greenery in locations where phenomenon is conspicuous in deep planters. above-ground space is adequate but soil volume is Waterlogging sometimes occurs in the subsoil when restricted. They can also be installed on building rainfall supply is abundant in the wet season. Drain podiums, rooftops and indoor habitats such as holes where present are often blocked and are building foyers and shopping malls. Hitherto few ineffective in shedding excess water. The lower studies have been conducted on planter soils, and portion of the planters is beset by excessive water none has been attempted in the humid tropical cities. accumulation in the wet season. Shaded planters This research attempts to evaluate systematically the have more water and subdue temporal fluctuations, quality of planter soils in Hong Kong with special indicating the importance of moisture extraction reference to their moisture status in relation to tree through evapotranspiration. The implications on soil growth. A stratified random sampling procedure water management and planter design for urban tree was adopted to select 12 planters in a dense built-up planting are explored. district, three each from four categories defined by planter geometry, for detailed assessment. With 300 State-of-the-art of Research and cm width and 60 cm depth as division lines, they are Knowledge on Urban Forests and Trees classified as narrow shallow (NS), narrow deep in Europe (ND), wide shallow (WS) and wide deep (WD). Kjell Nilsson, Cecil C. Konijnendijk and Thomas B. Vertical holes were opened in each sampled planter Randrup with an auger and lined with a PVC pipe of 5.18 cm Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute, internal diameter with sealed bottom and an Hoersholm Kongevej 11, DK-2970 Hoersholm, Denmark openable top lid. A Time Domain Reflectometry Tel: +45-45 76 32 00, FAX: +45-45 76 32 33, Email: (TDR) miniature moisture probe was lowered into [email protected] the access tube to monitor gravimetric soil moisture More than two thirds of the total European at depth intervals of 5 cm once every two weeks for population live in urban areas, and the number and one year (June 1998 to May 1999). Soil samples share of urban dwellers is still growing. Thus the were collected in topsoil and subsoil layers to quality of the urban environment is becoming of analyze selected physical and chemical properties. increasing importance for larger groups of people. The soil mix is mainly composed of local Trees and woodlands as main elements of the urban decomposed granite amended with organic matter landscape play a major role in providing good urban which is usually peat moss. Most soils have high living, working and leisure environments. As a stone contents of 30-40 per cent, high proportion of result, the planning, design, establishment and sand from 77-87 per cent, with all samples falling management of urban trees and woodlands has into the extremely coarse loamy sand textural class. asked for more attention. However, sustainable Bulk density, which is closely related to porosity, management and development of urban tree and has an average value of 1.72 Mg/m3 which indicates forest resources have to be supported by specific poor structure and compaction down to an average research, sound expertise and education. Until now, of 33 per cent total porosity. Topsoil, despite the European research and education related to urban presence of more organic matter, tends to be more trees and forests have been limited and fragmented, compacted and less porous than subsoil. The lack of and a wide range of researchers and professionals organic matter and high sand content are from various disciplines have been involved, unfavourable to soil structure formation and

270 Division 6 including forestry, landscape architecture, horticulture, biology, sociology, urban planning and An Analysis of Green Space other. This means that a better overview and more Management Strategies in Metro Manila coordination of research and education at the Armando Manito Palijon European level may prove to be highly beneficial. College of Forestry and Natural Resources This paper is based upon a review of research and UPLB College, Institute of Renewable Natural Resources, 403 Laguna, Philippines knowledge on urban forests and trees in Europe. Tel:. (063) 049-536-5305, FAX: 63-049-536-3206, The review has been carried out during 1999 and Email: [email protected] 2000 at the Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute with the support of the European Management strategies focused on the street and Cooperation in the field of Scientific and Technical park green spaces in cities and municipalities of Research (COST). The aim of the comparative study Metro Manila, namely: Manila, Makati, has been to make a general review of ongoing Mandaluyong, Pasig and Quezon City were research and higher education on urban forests and analysed. trees in Europe. The concept of urban forestry, Information on the biophysical, social and political defined as the planning, design, establishment and conditions, management capabilities and practices management of trees and forest stands with amenity for street and park green spaces on each site were values, situated in or near urban areas, has served as gathered through survey and interview. The a theoretical basis for the study. influence of these variables on the performance or For the purpose of the review, scientific and higher success of the green space management as reflected educational institutes in Europe dealing with urban in the conditions or status of trees in either street or forests and trees were identified. By means of park green spaces was determined. country studies largely carried out by national urban Street and park green spaces of the cities and forestry experts, the state-of-the-art of European municipalities studied have varying biophysical urban forestry research has been described in a conditions that are influencing growth and comparative way. Emphasis has been on identifying development of urban plants. institutes and main research themes. in addition, insight in attention given to urban forests and trees The public is higher aware of the importance of within higher education was analysed via case-study greening, activities and of the usefulness and reports and a survey. For this purpose, focus has disadvantages of having urban trees. Only few have been on higher education within the fields of actually participated in the greening activities but forestry, horticulture and landscape architecture. majority are willing to participate if given the opportunity. By comparatively analysing both urban forestry research and education at the European level, Political atmosphere is only fairly supportive f the similarities and differences, as well as major greening activities and other environmental issue developments and needs in European urban forestry and concerns, though some municipalities have have been identified. The results of the study, which already initiated greening activities. Legislation of will be widely distributed, may provide a useful greening ordinances is not given much attention. base for the development and coordination of urban Greening offices in the cities and municipalities are forestry related research and education in Europe. already installed. Some are permanent while others This paper focuses on more strategic-level aspects are still quasi in nature. Some are well equipped in (in terms of urban forest and tree functions, policies, terms of manpower, financial and technological forms) that have emerged from the study. resources while others still need to build up their capabilities. Each of the cities and municipalities has its own greening goal and objectives and has developed its own cultural management strategies. However, their practices need some improvements.

271 Division 6 of view of the society if the losses of green space Monetary Valuation of Urban Forest benefits are taken into account. Amenities: Possibilities and Constraints Liisa Tyrväinen 6.15.00 Reconsidering study objectives and University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry, c/o Metla, teaching methods P.O. Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland Tel: +358-9-85705 830, FAX: +358-9-85705 569, Email: Information Technology in Forestry [email protected] Education and its Role in Enhancing Most of the values attached to urban forests are non- Flexible and Distance Education priced environmental benefits. Urban development Cris Brack projects often decrease the amenity values of green Australian National University, School of Resource spaces, which should be taken into consideration in Management and Environmental Studies - Dept Forestry ACT 0200 Canberra, Australia planning. Today land-use planning procedures do Tel: +61 6 2492579, FAX: +61 6 2490746, Email: not include systematic assessment of urban forest [email protected] benefits and therefore, quantitative information on residents’ valuations is needed. Computers and other Instructional or Information Technologies (IT) have been gaining importance in This paper discusses the possibilities to value urban forestry education since the 1970's. The role of this forest benefits in monetary terms and the application IT has progressed from improving the efficiency of possibilities of such information in land-use operations (eg automating common administrative planning. The paper sums up European research procedures) through to changing the way things are experience from two economic valuation methods, taught and learnt and even what is taught and learnt. hedonic pricing and contingent valuation in the field of urban forestry. Furthermore, recent research Early examples of IT include word processor results of empirical studies conducted in Finland in packages and databases that make it easier to update are presented. teaching materials and student records. IT that supports the reliable transfer of digital documents The hedonic pricing method examines external and other files - including file-servers and early benefits and costs associated with housing. Research examples of the Internet - allowed increased and results show that people pay for urban forest more flexible access to traditional teaching benefits through house prices. However, measuring resources during the 1980's. The 1990's saw the and selecting proper variables to describe amenity increasing use of presentation technology that benefits in house price models is problematic. in allows academics and teachers to explore new ways recent empirical applications a view to and of recording and showing information. This proximity of urban forest are shown to increase presentation IT includes digital slide shows, apartment prices in hedonic models. animations, digitised sound and movies, etc. In the in contingent valuation method people are asked 1990's another major emphasis was IT designed to directly what they are willing to pay for provision of enhance communication between individuals and green spaces. Although the economic estimates are within groups. This technology includes e-mail, based on hypothetical valuations, the method bulletin boards and chat rooms and is being enables valuation of larger range of urban forest incorporated into many examples of flexible benefits than the hedonic method. Recent survey teaching to enhance the communication between results show that majority of the residents’ are students, teachers and other stakeholders. The willing to pay for the use of urban recreation areas, world-wide-web (www) networks now allows the but also for other amenity benefits of green areas. integration of many of these technologies by imposing a consistent protocol and standard of The main use of valuation methods is economic communication and digital information transfer. evaluation of the impact of urban land-use plans and Currently there is an increasing interest in the evaluation of profitability of urban greening organisations who are integrating the administrative projects. The value of an urban forest capitalized in and teaching functions of these ITs into holistic property prices can for example be calculated by packages. using hedonic price models. The results of case studies show that management of urban forests for The IT is being used to support teaching in different amenity benefits is profitable in economic terms. ways. These different ways may allow students to Furthermore, the results suggest that a limit can be learn more effectively and in more flexible styles. found where condensing town structure, i.e. This flexibility may also allow forest education and building on green areas, is not worth from the point further learning to be available to stakeholders who

272 Division 6 are not able to attend traditional teaching campuses, development and gender studies - and management - ie distance education and open learning students. including conflict resolution, communication and The IT is also used to increase the efficiency in group dynamics and education. teaching, where efficiency may be measured as The challenges of the course are the effective increased output (more graduates) for less input introduction and integration of a social science type (less time spent by academics, etc.) approach into a biophysical science curriculum, as This State of Knowledge Report will review some well as to promote and foster an attitudinal change of the reasons that IT has been introduced into and a paradigm shift within the professional forestry education. The review will include practice. examples of IT that have been introduced and how In this paper, based on personal experience in 2 the curriculum and student learning changed as a academic institutions, student's feed back and the consequence. Some examples of quantitative appropriate body of literature, I propose to relate feedback from students to IT and its role in teaching and reflect on this experience. and learning is included from case studies at the Australian National University. The Report will also cover examples and the reported strengths and Forests in Geographic Information weaknesses of flexible teaching and learning, Systems at the Graduate School, including distance education, that utilises this IT. University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Resource Management Groping along in designing a new Markus Holopainen, Jouko Laasasenaho University of Helsinki, Department of Forest Resource subject: participatory resource Management, Post Box # 24, FIN-00014 Helsinki, management Finland Marlene Buchy Tel: 358-9-191 7675, Email: ANU, Forestry Department, ACT 0200 Canberra, [email protected] Australia Tel: 62 49 35 34., FAX: 62 49 07 46, Email: Keywords: Educational program, Modular [email protected] curriculum, GIS, Forest mapping Keywords: Participatory resource management, Geographic information systems (GIS) and remote Forestry curriculum, Rural sociology, Conflict sensing technology have revolutionized forest resolution mapping in 1990's. Mapping has been changed from individual measurements to the combination of The introduction of this new subject, Participatory multisource GIS information. These new resource management (PRM), in the forestry technologies, however, bring along several curriculum is due to a greater emphasis on drawbacks and problems which should be solved or management in the forestry profession as well as improved in the near future, e.g. effective increasing recognition of the value of combination of multiscale and multisource interdisciplinarity. The recognition of PRM as a numerical data, effective acquisition of accurate GIS worthwhile academic subject also stems from its data, co-operation between various organizations, growing popularity amongst overseas Aid funding and a lack of GIS specialists in both forest research bodies as well as students and hence its capacity to and practice. attract viable student numbers at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. In order to develop the use of GIS in Finnish forestry, the Forests in Geographic Information Although there is a considerable body of literature Systems Graduate School was established in the concerned with theory and application of University of Helsinki, Department of Forest participatory concepts and principles in natural Resource Management in May 1998. in the first resource management (especially within the context year, 15 researchers were chosen for admission to of development and sustainable agriculture), the the school, which is financed by the Finnish subject has only recently been taught as an academic Foresters Foundation, the Finnish Ministry of subject as part of an university degree. The design Agriculture and Forestry, and the Academy of of the course draws heavily on the practice and Finland. Postgraduate studies can be pursued in the implementation of participatory processes within the University of Helsinki, University of Joensuu, or in professional practice rather than on a theory from the Helsinki University of Technology. which a professional practice is derived. The Graduate School will improve facilities for The subject itself borrows heavily from other fields: managing forests with the aid of rapidly developing social sciences - including rural sociology, history, computer technology and geographic information

273 Division 6 systems (GIS), developing methods for and training specialists in research, education and practice. The Reconsidering objectives and methods main objectives of the school are: for education in forestry: the case of - To initiate an educational program in the fields of Kenya forestry, photogrammetry, remote sensing, and Jane Kiragu geoinformatics. Moi University, Chepkoilel Campus, P.O. Box 1125, Eldoret, Kenya - To increase cooperation among those interested in Tel: +254 321-63101, Email: [email protected] GIS research and the use of GIS both in Finland and Keywords: Forestry curriculum, Forest policy, abroad. Communication, Teaching methods, Field - To develop GIS applications for use in forestry orientation and the environmental sciences. People in the developing countries wholly depend The Graduate School is linked with other GIS and on the forests for almost all their daily needs. This remote-sensing research in Finland. in addition to mainly includes shelter, food, medicine, fuelwood, the universities, numerous other organizations are fodder for livestock among other uses. participating in the program, e.g. the Finnish Forest As the populations increase, the natural forests Research Institute, the National Land Survey of decrease, thus making it impossible for the people to Finland, Kehitt„miskeskus Tapio, the Finnish Forest meet their daily needs from the forests. Therefore and Park Service, VTT Automation, and Metsäteho new survival mechanisms have to be found in order Oy. to minimize the human pressure on existing forests. Professor Jeremy Fried from the University of To halt the present demise of the forests and Michigan was employed in 1998 for a year by the improve the society's well-being, a lot is required. University of Helsinki as a GIS specialist and This should mainly be through change of forest teacher. The establishment of a Graduate School and policy objectives and forestry curricula in their professor Fried's appointment provided an higher institutions of learning Sustainable opportunity to create a new GIS curriculum within a conservation of forest has for a long time been the department of Forest Resource Management. A major objective of Kenyan forest policy. However, defining objective of this curriculum was a flexible persistent outcry from the citizens, has forced the structure whereby students with different GIS government to adopt new forest policies objectives backgrounds, disciplinary interests both related and published in 1994 in the Kenya Forestry Master plan unrelated to forestry, and varying amounts of (KFMP), 1995-2020, where not only the natural available study time and learning objectives could forests but also the individual farms are included in all be accommodated. Towards this end, a highly the aim of increasing the forest and tree cover of the modular curriculum was developed consisting of country. Also arid and semi-arid afforestation is seven courses. Courses were presented using a taken into consideration. This will ensure an variety of instructional approaches. Theoretical increasing supply of forest products and services for content was presented primarily via lectures and meeting the basic needs of present and future readings, with questions and discussion encouraged. generations and for enhancing the role of forestry in Software expertise was developed through more socio-economic development. than 80 hours of intensive, hands-on, instructor With the recent change in policy objectives, it also guided and self-guided laboratory exercises using entails changes in the forest curriculum both at the various ESRI and other GIS related products. All technical and professional institutions, so as to have courses shared a common web site for distribution well trained staff to implement the said objectives. of assignments and data, posting of links to GIS The forestry curriculum should change from resources, and posting of lecture notes and seminar production forestry to participatory forestry at all schedules. Although there have been previous levels. Courses which are more land-user oriented efforts to provide GIS training in Finland before, should be given more weight, for example, this curriculum appears to have been one of the agroforestry, social forestry, soil & water most comprehensive undertaking to date, and should conservation, arid land afforestation. Other courses form an excellent starting point for future efforts of such as communication techniques should be this kind. continued into the 2nd, 3rd and 4th years at BSc. level. The teaching methods used should change from class-room oriented to field oriented. The teaching

274 Division 6 institutions should set up demonstration plots in all transverse cutting technique, use of measuring band, ecological zones so as to convince the farmers that bucking accuracy whatever they know is practical and can be done in c) in handling tools: adjustment of chain saw the areas in question. engine, chain sharpening, use of other tools This paper will try to look into the present forest d) time-table and duration of breaks, usage of policy objective and the changes required in the personal protection kit. forestry curriculum and the methods used in teaching forestry in the Kenyan institutions. It will In accordance with the results of the assessment, the also try to propose changes required in the teaching workers would get the adequate QG (Quality methods. Group) index and they would consequently be classified in the appropriate payment classes, which Scenario for Higher Forest Work would apply until the next assessment. The Efficiency and Safety in Countries With difference between payment classes would range Economies in Transition from 10 to 15 %. Ivan Martinic For each quality group adequate training programs University of Zagreb, Faculty of Forestry, Svetosimunska would continually be going on aimed at correcting 25, HR -10 000 Zagreb, Croatia and developing their work techniques starting with Tel: +385 1 230 22 88, FAX: +385 1 218 616, Email: the analyses of most common irregularities and [email protected] improprieties, including written and video Forest work in countries with economies in information, field demonstrations and several-day transition is characterised by severe economic training with a mentor. After passing their exam and conditions, increasing gap between such countries being granted the certificate, training mentors are and developed ones, low work efficiency and supposed to go through licence certification at two- continuous fluctuation of workers. Low forest work year intervals. efficiency is also affected by low training level of Such approach would by all means improve the forest workers and numerous accidents at work. The quality of work and lower the number of injuries as analyses of the quality of work as well as a survey well as the frequency of professional diseases. It of causes of injuries showed serious deficiency of would also increase the efficiency and proficiency the traditional system of training. More then half of of forest work. On the other hand, the possibility of all injuries proved to have been caused by higher payment for better work quality would make insufficient mastering of work techniques and due to workers more satisfied and this would bring to a not observing work safety regulations. At the same more positive selection among forest workers. time it was also noticed that the mentors of practical training had been negligent. It is expected that during the period of 2 to 3 years, more then 80% of workers could be classified into This paper shows the scenario for the possible two high-quality groups. development of work techniques of forest workers in Croatia, one of middle-European countries with economies in transition. The new concept schedules Looking for Articulation in periodical assessment (at six-month intervals) of Professionals' Training: The case of the forest workers by a FWT (Forest Work Techniques) forestry occupational family questionnaire. The assessment would be carried out Jaime Millan, Barbara Hinton, Marilú Rioseco G. during regular work and it would consist of 20 Universidad de Concepcion, Facultad de Ciencias elements including work preparation, performing Forestales, Casilla 154-C, Correo 3, Concepcion, Chile Tel: 41-204936, FAX: +56-41-26004, Email: work operations, handling and maintenance of [email protected] equipment and tools and working dynamics. Keywords: Occupational hierarchy, Educational In felling and wood working operations, the development, Forestry curriculum, Competency, following elements would be assessed: Chile a) during felling: preparation for felling, Economic development in many countries has been establishment and checking of felling direction, quite accelerated in recent decades. However, supporting felling direction, preparing undercuts, educational development sometimes does not run determination of final cut height, the look of felling parallel to economic development, as has been the crest case in Chile. This presents a problem because the b) during limbing and transverse cutting: body production sector does not have a readily available posture, chain saw movement, limbing quality, labor force required to support the economic

275 Division 6 growth, mainly because the skills, competencies and to his position. Once this characterization is done, behaviors required by our advanced, technological, tasks are grouped so as to conduct a preliminary information-based society have outpaced our ability tasks inventory, that is complemented through on to provide training within our existing structures and site interviews Through content analysis of actions systems. There are many production sectors, like the inherent to each position or job and of tasks fulfilled forestry one, whose development requires by the professionals, and through consideration of professionals from different levels working in different types of companies together with the teams. Because of their work characteristics, they diversity level of their activities, it was possible to can be thought of as an occupational family. in these structure different groups of professionals, which cases, it is necessary that articulated training be later on could give rise to hierarchical levels of the planned, to allow these teams to work in an efficient occupation. and structured manner. in this paper, we propose a model that describes how to arrive to an Ethnoforestry re-examined: Global occupational hierarchy based upon articulation of status of indigenous knowledge on different professional levels in the forestry forestry management occupational family, which includes engineers, Deep Narayan Pandey technologists and qualified forestry workers. Indian Institute of Forest Management, Indian Forest The model is a competency-based model, which is Service, Post Box # 357, 462 003 Nehru Nagar, Bhopal, based upon the determination of the skills, India Tel: 91-755-775716, FAX: +91 755 772878, Email: knowledge, and attitudes that students should be [email protected] able to demonstrate after completion of a program of study. Training of each individual group of Keywords: Equity of Knowledge, Ethnoforestry, professionals, who are located at different levels of Indigenous knowledge on Forests, Tropical an occupational hierarchy, should facilitate the Forestry. development of required competencies, so that they Ethnoforestry is defined as a continued practice of can act with efficiency and effectiveness in their creation, conservation, management and use of own field. Seen in such a perspective, the training forest resources, through customary ways, by local process of a professional cannot be planned without communities. This paper examines the world-wide considering globally all other professionals who status of ethnoforestry research based on a literature belong to a same occupational family. Besides this, review. It also discusses examples from the field the process as a whole cannot overlook the work carried out in India. relationships with other related occupational families. This means that articulation, both Ethnoforestry is classified into Protection vertically and horizontally, is essential to Ethnoforestry, Plantation Ethnoforestry and professional training in an occupational family. Ethnoagroforestry. Protection provided by local communities to habitats are classified as protection The model seeks to find an occupational hierarchy ethnoforestry. Traditional methods of regeneration based on competencies required in the work place. of livelihood species by people are classified as A first phase of the model is the characterization of plantation ethnoforestry. These include direct employers and the characterization of professionals. sowing, bamboo rhizome planting, cutting, nursing in our case, employers are forestry industries and of wildlings and closures. Traditional methods of forestry companies or organizations; professionals growing trees and crops in farmlands are described are forestry engineers and forestry technicians who here as Ethnoagroforestry. have been trained at different educational levels. After this, an occupational inventory is developed. Availability of vast research on ethnobotany The model includes also a phase where forestry notwithstanding, unfortunately, ethnoforestry has occupational positions are clustered according to been, mostly, a missing knowledge in global responsibilities and tasks identified through a forestry research, documentation and planning. preliminary on site survey and a questionnaire. Non-availability of written material in the subject is definitely the result of monumental neglect of local Characterization of professionals considers the knowledge on forests by foresters in general and so- professional position or job and the tasks they fulfil. called scientific forestry scholarship in particular. Through this it is possible to assign each Drawing on the primary research material from professional to a certain level given by the India, the related global research reviewed in this responsibilities that are inherent to the position or paper throws some light on the operational part of job, and to a certain responsibility level, given by local knowledge on forests. Studies from India, the complexity of the tasks he has to carry out due

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Brazil, Nepal, Ecuador, China, Vietnam and African Opportunities for distant students to participate continent are examined. individually and asynchronously are rapidly increasing. Many courses can now be taken entirely Indigenous knowledge on forest management is over the Internet, while others can be viewed at crucial because of various reasons. Erosion and home on videotape. extinction of cultural diversity and indigenous knowledge is threatening the society. Inadequacy The College of Forestry at Oregon State University and unsuitability of classical forest management (OSU) has a reputation for high-quality forestry strategies require the help of indigenous knowledge education. Notable characteristics include small to overcome the crisis of deforestation. class size, hands-on learning, extensive use of convenient field laboratories, and close personal Philosophy of sustainability is ingrained in the interaction with instructors and peers. The College traditional ecological knowledge. International is actively exploring several initiatives in distance ethics and legal obligations of the nations, and education (DE). voices of the indigenous peoples themselves requires that foresters must take help of indigenous Administrators and instructors are presented with knowledge. The discipline is bound to deliver vital several challenges in developing DE. Technological and incomparably significant results for the future hurdles must be overcome. Standards for of World Forestry. Ethnoforestry alone can ensure communication networks are quickly evolving. the equity of knowledge between village Computer software for designing and implementing communities and the scientific forestry community. DE is still in its infancy, and most successful It will stop exploitation supported by the scientific applications are purpose-built. in addition to content community. Equity of knowledge alone can, mastery, DE requires specialized expertise from ultimately, make the forestry sustainable. computer programmers, network engineers, graphic Community forestry requires local low cost options artists, and audiovisual producers. Another concern to regenerate degraded forests. Sharing of costs of is the cost of designing new instruction and high input regeneration could hamper people's providing new infrastructure. Some experienced initiative. Only ethnoforestry can provide location- practitioners estimate that developing a DE course specific solutions. Local knowledge is easily requires five to ten times as much labor as a transmitted, used by a large section of the society, traditional course. A DE classroom can cost does not require costly consultancy, and thus, hundreds of thousands of US dollars, and students minimises possibility of corruption. must be equipped with PCs, VCRs and other devices. Budgets are stretched, and because many Data from the plantations carried out in Rajasthan, new students are needed to justify these additional India, have demonstrated that indigenous knowledge costs, competition between universities is rapidly on forests can reduce the cost of tropical intensifying. afforestation up to 25 percent of the total expenditure. Economizing world's tropical forest Perhaps most importantly, educators are questioning plantations through Ethnoforestry is a distinct how to maintain high-quality personalized possibility. instruction. Distant students expect to be provided with convenient access to learning resources, Exploring alternatives for distance meaningful hands-on experience, peer interaction, education in forestry and timely feedback on their efforts. They also Mark Reed expect to be able to guide and shape their own Oregon State University, Forestry Media Center, 248 learning experience to a greater degree than do Peavy Hall, 97331 Corvallis, OR, USA traditional students. Tel: +1-541-737-1345, FAX: +1-541-737-3759, Email: [email protected] One direction for DE at OSU involves adaptation of existing curricula. For example, a forestry course Keywords: Lifelong learning, Internet, Forestry which has been taught on campus for ten years was course, Continuing education, Extension recently incorporated into a new DE degree program The boundary between formal higher education, and in natural resources. in order to make it accessible to lifelong learning through a variety of alternative students enrolled at remote locations, lectures were channels, is rapidly blurring. Learners demand videotaped and the majority of course content was instruction in a place and at a time convenient for posted on the World Wide Web. Students them. Universities' response to this demand initially communicated with one another, turned in focused on live transmission of lectures and audio assignments to the instructor, and went on "virtual feedback from groups of students at remote sites. field trips," using the Internet. Initial responses from

277 Division 6 students using the new technologies are mostly manpower for executing various programmes in favorable. forestry and the projections clearly showed that this lack of manpower would continue well beyond the Another direction at OSU involves creation of new Eighth Five Year Plan. infrastructure and curriculum to meet the needs of nontraditional students. For decades, working To generate the desired manpower in forestry the professionals have come to campus for continuing training set-up in Indian Forest Colleges was found (further) education, but the focus is now shifting to to be inadequate and hence the state Agricultural bringing instruction to the workplace. in one Universities were requested to start Bachelor example, a professor of silviculture on campus and programme in Forestry. To improve faculty an extension agent working 300km away resources about 80 senior teachers from the collaborated on a course in uneven-age discipline of plant breeding, agronomy, horticulture management. Students on campus, all forestry etc. were trained in US Land Grant Universities for graduate students, attended lectures in a classroom one year through a USAID funded program. Their television studio, and went on local field main aim was to study a few related courses in laboratories led by the professor. Students at the forestry at BSc., MSc. and PhD. level and to see the remote site, all professional foresters, watched functioning and integration of department of lectures on videotape, questioned the professor via forestry in the College of Agriculture. This was a periodic teleconferences, and were led by the very useful programme and within a span of 2-3 extension agent on field laboratories in their own years each new department of forestry had 2 to 4 region. A majority of the distant students indicated trained teachers to teach basic courses in forestry. At that they were satisfied with the experience and this stage it would be worthwhile if the individual would be willing to take another DE class in the universities decided on building up faculty and future. research capabilities in all disciplines of forestry e.g. silviculture, management, agroforestry, tree Role of Forestry Education in India for breeding, social forestry, forest products and Sustainable Management of Tropical utilisation, forest protection. Forests In general, all the universities which started BSc. R. N. Sehgal, PK Khoala (Forestry) programmes in 1985 formulated their Dr. Y.S. Parmar University of Horticulture and Social curricula on the basis of guidelines provided by the Sciences, Dept. Tree Improvement, 173 230 Solan, HP, ICAR with only minor modifications. Some of the India courses which lacked in the training package of FAX: 91-1792-52242, Email: [email protected] State and Indian Forest Services trainees are Keywords: Forestry curriculum, Social sciences, biotechnology, microbiology, computer science, National forests management, Extension biochemistry, forest tribology and anthropology, Forestry education in India, ever since its inception meteorology and climatology, forestry extension, remained as a package deal to train forestry ergonomics, forest ecology and biodiversity, tree practitioners required for the management of improvement and seed technology, etc. The forestry national forests. The aim has been to provide forest component slightly varies from university to administrators to govern and manage the state university but social sciences find a prominent place owned forests which form 93 per cent of the total in the curriculum, mainly because social forestry forested area. Forestry education, research and and agroforestry oriented personnel are in demand. extension in India had been a preserve of the Federal It is very important that the universities specialise and State Forest Services till 1985 when the Indian their teaching and research programmes in different Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) stepped in areas related with afforestation, land use and to introduce graduation programmes in forestry in wastelands managements, social and agroforestry , six Agricultural Universities. The starting of forest based industries, forest management, non- forestry degree programmes in the universities was conventional energy resources, natural resources more or less a consequence of the general awareness and biodiversity so that we have enough suitable to environment and forestry related problems. The manpower in the coming years for achieving media played a very active role in highlighting the sustainable management of the tropical and sub- problems of deforestation, wasteland formation, tropical forest wealth of our country. development activities to the detriment of forests, environment etc. During 1985, a high level committee in the Ministry of Environment and Forests, GOI, discussed the lack of trained

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widely. PCD seems, on existing evidence, to have Improving forestry education through the potential to bring about improvements in both participatory curriculum development. A the quality and the effectiveness of university case study from Vietnam forestry education and training programmes in a Peter Taylor context of dynamic change. Social Forestry Support Programme, Helvetas, GPO Box The paper explains the PCD approach, which begins 81, Hanoi, Vietnam with a detailed stakeholder analysis, followed by the Tel: +844 8329833, FAX: +844 8329834, Email: identification of meaningful roles and [email protected] responsibilities for different stakeholders. A series Keywords: Forestry curriculum, Participation, of interlinked steps for curriculum planning, Social forestry, Extension implementation and evaluation is then outlined. The In many countries throughout the world, forestry precise organisation and operationalisation of these practices are undergoing a major reorientation. A steps is determined by the context and by the new and different type of forestry is emerging, intervention of different stakeholders. This creates a creating a requirement for a different set of skills, continuous, dynamic, flexible process, with learning knowledge and attitudes in those persons who must as the guiding principle for development. deal effectively with the demands from farmers and A case study of the Social Forestry Support rural people, as well as from other interest groups Programme with five university forestry faculties in such as environmentalists. Whereas much forestry Vietnam is then presented. The paper describes the training has until recently been strongly technology PCD approach, the focus of which is primarily the based, there is now a need to build an development of social forestry education and interdisciplinary capacity in many foresters and training programmes, but also the review and extensionists, encouraging an understanding of revision of Vietnamese forestry degree programmes social principles and processes. The focus will no in general. It explains the process by which longer be on uniformity and technology; forestry curriculum development is based upon systematic training programmes need to become more relevant learning from the experiences and views of farmers and flexible; diverse and yet well integrated. A wide at grassroots level, as well as from teachers, range of stakeholders will emerge with different students, extensionists, project staff and other interests in what forestry education can achieve. The stakeholders at local and national level, and even beliefs and values of some stakeholders may from regional networks and organisations. accelerate the change process, whilst others may Some constraints affecting the PCD process are deter innovations and new developments. The discussed, as well as a number of opportunities possibility for successful outcomes in the which have emerged during the programme in development of forestry education is enhanced, Vietnam. The current status of curriculum however, through approaches which increase development activities in the programme are participation of different stakeholders in meaningful presented, along with plans for future collaboration ways. It is recognised that there are a number of and involvement of stakeholders. in conclusion the constraints to stakeholder participation. Even so, a paper advocates the further dissemination of participatory approach to curriculum development experiences with the PCD approach in order to should lead to increased opportunities for achieve a wider support for its application in networking, negotiations and reflection by groups forestry education at local, national and regional and individuals, including those who are normally level. Ultimately, this should contribute to an marginalised, and a greater chance of successful, improvement of the quality, ownership and impact sustainable outcomes from the curriculum of forestry education and training for a wide range development process. of target groups and institutions. Participatory curriculum development (PCD) has been used in a number of contexts and regions of the world, particularly in the areas of agricultural and forestry education. This approach is not new, in that there are many instances of attempts to increase participation in the curriculum development process. During the 1990's however, greater effort has been made to articulate and advocate the basic principles and methods which can support PCD, and to share and disseminate experiences and outcomes more

279 Division 6 reductions in timber harvests on public lands for 6.16.00 Modelling forest managers additional wildlife habitat protection may result in environmental decisions having some of the largest environmental and economic impacts occur in regions outside of which Using forest sector models for the public timberlands are concentrated. However, environmental decision making in the shifts in intertemporal patterns of private forest United States investment may act to reduce the price and harvest Ralph J. Alig impacts of public harvest changes over time. Model USDA Forest Science, Pacific North West Research results for mitigation strategies to address climate Station, 3200 SW Jefferson Way, OR 97331 Corvallis, change concerns indicate the potential for leakage. USA Leakage may take place when policy-driven FAX: (541) 750-7329, Email: [email protected] afforestation by the forest sector leads to some Supplies of goods and services in the forestry and market-driven compensating conversion of agricultural sectors are affected by land use forestland elsewhere to agricultural use. Another changes, investment in land management, and manifestation would be crowding out of investment policies. We examine environmental and socio- within the forest sector. Forests created to sequester economic impacts in the United States of three carbon would enhance future timber supply and different types of policies using model results from decrease anticipated future timber prices. The the Timber Assessment Market Model (TAMM) and lower prices may crowd out some forests that would the Forest and Agriculture Sector Model (FASOM). have otherwise have been established in the absence We look at policy scenarios pertaining to: 1) land- of the policy. With an intertemporal model, lower use pressures; 2) increased protection for wildlife timber prices may also cause some owners to habitat on public lands; and 3) climate change. With harvest sooner and invest back in lower intensity respect to analyzing policy scenarios, use of the management forests or convert to alternative land TAMM and FASOM models can be uses. The ownership tenure system in the United complementary. As described in another paper at States makes private land use change a potential this Congress (Alig et al., Session 4.02.07), the important determinant of the forest carbon budget, TAMM system of models links product and and projections of forest carbon sequestration are stumpage markets and provides projections that are sensitive to assumptions about factor supply (e.g., based largely on behaviorial tendencies as reflected inelastic supply of land within a sector). Costs of by historical observations. The intertemporal the mix of and land transfers and management optimization framework of FASOM allows ready inputs can vary notably with the type of forest examination of adjustments or responses to policies carbon target, including timing and level. that may fall outside the historical range of observations. Investigating the sensitivity of A System of Short Term Forecasting for FASOM projections to a range of different the Finnish Forest Sector (MESU) assumptions, as under additional scenarios, can be a Lauri Hetemäki, Riitta Hänninen and Anne Toppinen useful form of policy analysis. This allows Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, examination of different assumptions about supply FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland conditions for land and capital, including the FAX: +358 9 8570 5717, Email: flexibility of the simulated market system to adapt [email protected] to changes over time and across scenarios. Both This paper presents a synthesis of the System of models have been used to examine a number of Short Term Forecasting for the Finnish Forest different scenarios, including private responses to Sector (MESU). As its name indicates, the purpose reduced public timber harvest, recycling of of MESU is to make forecasts for and analysis of wastepaper, tree planting for carbon sequestration, the Finnish forest sector. It has become increasingly and impacts from global climate change. important to be able to analyse changes in forest With regard to land-use pressures, model results sector business cycles. This is, for example, due to indicate that access to additional land as potential the liberalization and globalisation of forest afforestation investments provides additional private products markets. in addition, the forming of EMU investment flexibility in market simulations. This and the launching of euro-currency will affect may include non-traditional activities on agricultural Finnish forest industry's main export markets. Part land such as biomass and short rotation woody crop of the MESU-system has already been utilized in production and tree planting as part of adaptation practice for helping the Finnish Forest Research activities in response to global change. Next, Institute to make forecasts for the Finnish Forest Sector Economic Outlook (an annual publication).

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The use of the MESU-system allows to make of the models, and thus have been sceptic in using assessments in which the development of Finnish them. However, there have also been positive forest products export markets and the adjustments experiences about collaboration with decision of Finnish roundwood markets are analyzed makers, in particular in Finland where various consistently. It is a hierarchical, demand-led system stakeholders have been involved, but also in consisting of three parts (models). First, the demand Norway where the central government has been the for forest products in the major export countries is main user. forecasted using a consumption function model. in the second stage, these forecasts are inserted as 6.16.00 Example of forest sector issues exogenous information in the next stage, the export market model, which determines the Finnish forest Forest Sector Analysis for Macro products exports. in the third stage, the forecasts Economic Development of Osun and from the export market model are, in turn, inserted Ayo States, Nigeria in to the roundwood market model, which Busuyi Olasina Agbeja determines the forecasts for roundwood demand and University of Ibadan, Dept. Forestry Resources prices. This paper will demonstrate the MESU- Management, Ibadan, Nigeria system by an example. Particularly, we analyse how The study was carried out for a period of 24 months the changes in the demand for sawnwood in between July, 1996 and June, 1998. The exercise Germany affect the demand for Finnish sawnwood centred on an evaluation of critical elements of exports and, in turn, the demand and prices for growth and economic development of teak sawlogs in Finland. The theoretical framework of plantation establishments e.g. volume production the system is based on economic theory and the exploitation and regeneration ratios, optimum labour empirical model is based on quarterly time series requirements and socio-economic impacts of data from 1980-1997. As far as we are aware, activities dependent on the forests.The cumulative MESU is a first attempt to build a short-term data were analysed using various tools,such as forecasting system, which links the demand for Smalian`s formula, Gross Margin Analyses, forest products to roundwood markets using Discounted Cash Flow Analysis Net Present Value econometric models and modern time-series (NPV), Benefit -Cost Ratio (B/S) and Economic methods. However, the theoretical and Rate of Return (ERR), Sensitivity Analysis, methodological framework of the MESU-system is Production Efficiency Model, Optimum Labour general, and similar modelling approach could be Demand Model, Bar Charts and Simple percentages. applied to other countries as well. Current forestry contributions of Osun and Oyo States were evaluated and feasible development The role of forest sector models to strategies which would enhance sustained forestry support environmental and forest sector sector of the two states to the gross domestic decision making in the Nordic countries product (GDP) of the country were outlined. The Birger Solberg, Risto Seppälä results showed that the volumes per hectare of teak Agricultural University of Norway, Department of Forest stand were insignificant (P>0.05) with 782.8 m3 per Sciences, Aas, Norway hectare in a 21-year -old teak plantation in Ago- Tel: +358 9 8570 5330, FAX: +358 9 8570 5717, Email: Owu forest reserve and 215.8 m3 per hectare in an [email protected] 18-year-old teak plantation in Gambari forest Keywords: forest sector analysis, modelling, reserve. The NPV of N236,128.5, B/C of 12.9 and experiences, Finland, Norway ERR of 33 percent (where NPV = 0) were The paper gives an overview of forest sector signification higher (P<0.05) per hectare of taungya modelling in Finland and Norway and how it has teak plantation in Ago-Owu forest reserve using a been used in environmental and forest sector discount factor of 10 percent than the NPV of decision making. Strong and weak points with the N233,214.0,B/C of 12.7 and Err of 31 percent application of these kind of models are discussed, (where NPV = 0) per hectare of direct teak and improvements of the present situation are plantation in Ago-Owu forest reserve.The NPV of analyzed. Till now rather few analyses have been N113,206.3, B/C of 6.2 and ERR of 30 percent performed related to environmental problems, as (where NPV = 0) were significantly higher (P<0.05) most of the modelling efforts have dealt primarily per hectare of taungua teak stand at Gambari forest with supply and demand of roundwood and forest reserve than the NPV of N110,355.5, B/C of 6.0 and industry products. One major obstacle in both ERR of 28 percent (where NPV = 0) per hectare of countries has been that decision makers have an direct teak plantation in Gambari forest reserve. The uncomplete understanding of the basic mechanisms NPV and B/C were significantly sensitive (P<0.05)

281 Division 6 to increase in discount factor of 20, 25 and 30 percent in the two reserves.The production Mandatory Biodiversity Conservation: 3 efficiency model per km from 1992 tto 1997 Competitiveness versus Green Image showed that Marginal Products (MPs) of 1.6 for Effects labour in exploitation activity were positive (P0.05) Erkki Koskela, Markku Ollikainen at Ago Owu and Shasha while MPs of -0.1 and -0.1 University of Helsinki, Department of Economics, Post were negative (P>0.05) at Ago-Owu and Shasha Box # 54, FIN-00014 Helsinki, Finland forest reserve. in Gambari forest reserve, the MPs of FAX: +358-9-191887, Email: [email protected] 0.1 and 0.02 in exploitation and regeneration were Mandatory biodiversity conservation in forestry is both positive at decreasing rate (P<0,005) while the usually thought to decrease harvesting possibilities, MPs of -0.04 and -0.1 were negative (P>0.05) in raise timber price and weaken competitiveness of exploitation and regeneration at Ijaiye forest reserve. the domestic forest industry. If however biodiversity The optimum labour demand models indicated that conservation leads consumers to view products as Ago-Owu, Shasha, Gambari and Ijaiye forest being higher quality, the resulting "green image" reserves required 25 forestry staff, 17 forestry staff,6 increases demand for domestic woods products. forestry staff and 7 forestry staff respectively from This paper studies the effects of mandatory 1992 to 1997. In Osun State, from 1992 to 1997, the biodiversity conservation by modeling the behavior forestry department generated N107,574,642.5 out of the domestic economy as a two-stage game. in of the total revenue of N271,348,554.8 realized by the first stage the forest industry and the forest the Ministry of Agriculture. The percentage owners' association bargain about timber price, contribution of forestry department in six years was while in the second stage the domestic industry 39.6 percent. On the other hand, in Oyo State, from determines output in a Cournot rivalry with the 1992 to 1997, forestry department generated foreign forest industry. in the absence of green N39,830,073,3 out of the total revenue of image a binding biodiversity conservation N112,320,149,8 realized by the Ministry of requirement will increase the reservation price of Agriculture. The forestry contribution in six years timber for forest owners' association and thereby was 35.5 percent. in all these study locations, the timber price. International competitiveness of the respondents complained bitterly about the poor domestic forest industry weakens and its market investment on rural infrastructural facilities.For share falls. If the green image is strong enough instance, 90, 87.5, 80 and 75 percent respectively of competitiveness effect may be more than the respondents in Ago-Owu, Shasha, Gambari and compensated by increased demand in which case the Ijaiye forest reserves affirmed that infrastructural profits of domestic forest industry may go up. facilities were grossly inadequate. The study Assuming the competitive timber market, where therefore revealed economic efficiency of land use timber price is determined by equality of demand practices, positive labour efficiency in exploitation and supply, does not change these conclusions. A and negative labour efficiency in regeneration, welfare analysis is carried out by assuming that the under-employment of government employees in all government maximizes the sum of producers' and forest stations, substantial and increasing annual consumers' surplus and accounts for the valuation of revenue generation by forestry services and poor biodiversity. socio-economic impacts of forest operations on rural wellbeing. Forestry development strategies were developed. in particular, commmunal participations Ways to sustainable forest management in plannning and management processes were in the Mari El Republic of Russia identified as a critical strategy for significant Eldar Kurbanov, Anna Tikina improvement of forest sectoral contributions to the Russia national economy. Much has been said on sustainable development and sustainability lately. Governments in many countries try to introduce this concept into national policies and combine the economic growth with environmental issues. However, this is not performed in all regions equally, e.g. at the level of the Mari El Republic this idea has not found its realisation. This article is aimed at analysing the possibility of introduction of sustainability concept and sustainable forest management into the policy of the republic.

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Describing the forest fund of Mari El republic in difference in the source of funding (in case of the general terms, statistic states that the total area of Mari El republic funding is influenced by federal the forest sector of the republic is equal to 1210 donations). Though biologically the countries are thousand hectare and the area covered with forests is mostly alike (the same plant species can be found in 1095 thousand hectare. The total wood stock both) and forests consistute main natural resources reaches 170 mill m3, among them 40 mill. m3 being in both regions, the difference in the economic for the stock of mature and decline forest development, as well as the former bias to military ecosystems. The vegetation composition of the and heavy industry in the Mari El republic can republic is determined by the natural conditions of explain the difference and negative sides of forestry the territory. The main resource of the republic is policy and management. forest that covers about 52% of the territory. Possible amendments to improve the situation in the In order to highlight the main sides and main Mari El republic can include the following drawbacks of the Mari El forestry it is possible to measures: fulfil a comparison of the forestry policy analysis as - Introduction of multi-functional forest use and well as the analysis of the current situation in the receiving benefits from different forest resources forest sector of Finland and the Mari El republic. It - financing of activities by taking part in the is possible to compare the two institutions because international grant projects and valuation of all of their almost similar nature conditions and possible forest products environment. However, Finland can be taken as an - further introduction of reforestation and example of a country with significant experience of afforestation sustainable forest management. This is why a non- - investigation and introduction of the methods of favourable comparison will be able to demonstrate forest sustainable use, criteria and indicators of the lack of sustainability in Mari El forestry. To find sustainable forest management the way out of the current situation in the Mari El - forestry education and professional training forest sector it is necessary to investigate how forest - regulation on control and punitive measures policy of the republic differs from the policy of the against the violation of norms countries with the positive experience of sustainable - improvement in access to information, creation of forest management (e.g. Finland). This is why a policy information systems short comparison of the main directions of forestry - raising of local community awareness and policies is presented here in the form of Table 2. stimulation of their participation in decision-making Table2. Comparison of Finnish and Mari El forestry policies. To conclude, it is possible to point out that Features Finland The Mari El republic sustainable forest management has not been 1. Aim at sustainability Y Y implemented into the forest sector of the Mari El 2. Multi-functional approach to the use Y N republic and the current situation in forestry is far of forest resources 3.Bias to economic forest function N Y from being satisfactory. However, there is a way out 4.Forest protection: of these conditions by introducing changes in the a) against fires Y Y forest policy, and the changes should meet the latest b) against pest and disease Y Y international requirements and be sufficient for c) against air pollution Y N 5. Afforestation Y Y/N-1 sustainable forest management. 6.Biodiversity conservation Y N 7.Main forest ownership pattern private State 8.Existence of a forest information Y N Geographical price systems in the system timber market 2 9.Exceeding felling (more than N N Erik Tromborg, Solberg, Birger increment) 10.Consideration of local peculiarities Y Y Statskog Ressursdata as P.O. BOX 2, 3601 Kongsberg, 11.Protection of landscape beauty Y Y/N³ Norway 12.Forest certification Y N Tel: (+47) 32 77 14 38, FAX: (+47) 32 77 14 02, Email: 13.Different types of protected areas Y Y [email protected] 14.Mono-culture plantations N4 Y 15.Public participation in forestry Y N Concentration of the forest industry and the spatial activities and policymaking distribution of forests imply that transportation costs 16.Best available methods and Y N technologies are important in the timber market. A spatial forest 17.Violations of forest legislation N Y sector model based on partial equilibrium is developed in order to analyse regional implications of a change from uniform roadside prices to uniform The differences between the policies can be non-discriminatory millgate prices for pulpwood in explained by the contrast in economic situations in Norway. Uniform millgate prices implied regional both Finland and Mari El, as well as by the

283 Division 6 differences in roadside pulpwood prices up to 25% socialism. Since 1986 the former socialist countries compared to the uniform roadside prices. Factors have undergone radical changes in their political and influencing the geographical price system in the economic systems. in the paper we propose for the timber market are outlined. It is concluded that XXI IUFRO WORLD CONGRESS these changes spatial price discrimination is likely in a pulpwood will be analysed by using the results of new research market with a limited number of buyers. in the forest sector of Ukraine Russia and Belarussia. in particular, we will analyse the results Ecological Economic Problems of of a joint project, sponsored by INTAS, on the Achieving Sustainable Forestry in strategy for achieving sustainable forestry in Transitional Countries Ukraine, Russia and Belarussia. This project was Yuriy Y. Tunytsya, Taras Y. Tunytsya implemented under the leadership of Prof.Max Krott Ukrainian State University of Forestry and Wood and the young Ukrainian researcher Taras Tunytsya Technology, 103 Gen. Chuprinki str., 290057 Lviv, was one of its participants. Ukraine Ecological-economic conception of sustainable Tel: +380-322-35-24-11, FAX: +380-322-97-17-65, Email: [email protected] forestry includes a number of problems. These problems could be solved under the following The main condition for achieving sustainable conditions: The system of ecological-economical forestry is to overcome contradictions between education in post-socialist countries needs to be ecological and economical systems. Such improved. The transition from centralised economy contradictions occur as the economical and to sustainable forestry in the conditions of a market- ecological interests seem to be not compatible at oriented economy is not possible without trained first sight. But if one studies the issue more specialists. We consider it important for IUFRO, as thoroughly, it will turn out that the co-ordination of an influential international organisation, to current economic interests with long-term ecological undertake the forestry education as an important part imperatives is quite possible. of its activity. Then, IUFRO can be renamed as The achievement of long term summary ecological- International Union of Forestry Research and economical effect should become the principal Education Organisations (IUFREO). We think that criteria for traditional economic criteria. The then the role of IUFREO can become even more achievement of sustainable forestry is not possible influential in the society. both on the regional and global scales without such -Eastern European countries need more joint a principal and methodological change. research projects with western partners. The achievement of sustainable forestry goals is IUFRO should be involving more young people in much more complicated process in transitional their activity on forming sustainable forestry. countries in comparison with development and market oriented countries. This happens because the developed countries are facing one set of changes- the transition from the market to ecologically oriented market. Transitional countries have two sets of changes to accomplish-first one is the transition from centralised socialist economy to the market economy and second one the transition to the ecological market. This process requires more time. and if we want achieve global sustainable forestry the transitional countries would need assistance in speeding up this process. One should not forget that large proportions of the planet's forests are located within the territories of former USSR countries. These forests have significant global ecological functions, as do tropical forests. In the paper on Economic Problems of Forest Management Development presented by Yuriy Tunytsya in 1986 at XVIII IUFRO WORLD CONGRESS we presented the methodological concept of transition to sustainable forestry in

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Coordinator David F. KARNOSKY Michigan Technological University School of Forestry and Wood Products 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton Michigan 49931-1295 United States of America fax: +1-906-4872897 tel: +1-906-4872898 e-mail: [email protected]

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7.01.02 Mechanisms of tree resistance to Characteristics of Douglas-fir trees phytophageous insects resistant to damage from the western spruce budworm: Patterns from three Host tree - bark beetle interactions: populations effects of restoration of secondary Karen M. Clancy Norway spruce (Picea abies [L.] Karst.) USDA Forest Service Research, Rocky Mountain Research forests on food quality for Ips Station, Southwest Forest Science Complex typographus L. (Scolytidae). 2500 S. Pine Knoll Drive, AZ 86001-6381 Flagstaff, USA Peter Baier, Erwin Führer, Jutta Mattanovich, Christa FAX: 520-556-2131, Email: Schafellner kclancy/[email protected] University of Agriculture, Institute of Forest Differences in biochemical or phenological Entomology, Forest Pathology and Forest Protection characteristics between Douglas-fir trees that have A - 1180 Vienna, Austria Email: Jutta Mattanovich [[email protected]] experienced light versus heavy defoliation by the western spruce budworm may provide clues regarding The effects of thinning of pure spruce stands and mechanisms of resistance to budworm attack. I converting pure spruce stands into mixed species previously compared levels of foliar nutrients stands (spruce, beech, fir) on the nutritional (nitrogen, sugars, minerals) and allelochemicals quality of the bark were studied. Chemical (mono- and sesquiterpenes) between "resistant" and compounds in the phloem (e.g. nitrogen, "susceptible" Douglas-fir trees from two populations carbohydrates, phenolic compounds) are sampled in 1989 and 1990. I found a third population undoubtedly relevant for nutrition and for of Douglas-fir with individual trees that are breeding success of the phloem feeder and phenotypically resistant to budworm defoliation in defence mechanisms of the tree. Changes of site 1994. Here, I present data on budbreak phenology and and growth conditions resulting from restoration radial growth rates for 16 pairs of resistant versus are expected to modify the chemistry of the host susceptible trees at this site for 1995, and data on tree. Mass outbreaks of bark beetles like the eight foliar nutrients and terpenes for 1995 and 1996. I also spined spruce bark beetle, Ips typographus, compare and contrast the patterns seen across all three frequently occur in secondary spruce stands populations sampled regarding characteristics of (usually at altitudes below 1000m) after storm individual trees associated with resistance to damage damages or snow breaks followed by warm and from the budworm. dry periods. The sites selected for this investigation repeatedly suffered from severe bark Influence of mineral and water nutrition of beetle epidemics. It is assumed that restoration of Scots pine on resistance to the bark- secondary spruce forests will reduce the risk of beetle Ips acuminatus Gill and their bark beetle attack. associated blue-stain-fungus Ophiostoma We regard the following parameters as essential brunneo-ciliatum L. tree parameters determining the food quality for N. Guerard, E. Dreyer and F. Lieutier phloem feeders: the amount of nitrogen, protein, INRA d'Orleans, Zoologie Forestiee, Avenue de la Pomme protein-bound and free amino acids, starch, de Pin B.P. 20619, 45166 Ardon, France soluble carbohydrates, organic acids, crude fat FAX: (33) 2 38 41 78 79, Email: [email protected] and fatty acids, mineral nutrients, polyphenolic Relations between modifications in C/N ratio in tree, compounds and tannins. tree resistance parameters and pest and disease The results of our investigations on three different performances are investigated. Because the C/N ratio stands on seasonal changes in spruce bark can be influenced by modifications of C assimilation chemistry during the breeding period are and N availability, 3 levels of nutrient conditions were discussed with respect to breeding success of Ips applied, combined with 2 levels of water availability typographus. on young potted Scots pine. The impacts of these treatments on trees were followed with physiological parameters (photosynthesis and water status), chemical parameters (nitrogen, carbon, minerals and chlorophyll foliar contents, monoterpenes and phenols), and dendrological parameters (height and radial growth, budburst, phenology and biomass). Tree resistance and pest performances were studied after artificial introduction of Ips acuminatus and high-density

287 Division 8 inoculation (above the threshold of inoculation Tree mortality, foliage recovery and stem- and shoot- density) with Ophiostoma brunneo-ciliatum (an attacks by Tomicus piniperda were further recorded in Ips acuminatus associated blue-stain-fungus). spring 1993, 1994, 1995 and 1997 on sample plots Effects of this artificial attacks and inoculations along 3 survey lines (10 plots per line) situated in a were appreciated through observations of totally (line 1) and severely defoliated (line 2) part of pathogen performances (length of egg galleries, the national part, and in the Dimilin-treated area percentage of attacks succes) and tree resistance outside the park. (resin soaked sapwood, reaction zone length Two years of total defoliation resulted in ca 75 and 50 monoterpene and phenol concentrations in the % mortality in small and large trees, respectively, wounded and unwounded phloem, stem water whereas only occasional Dimilin-sprayed trees conductivity). The results are presented and (suffering one year of defoliation) died. Most mortality discussed with regards to the effects of water and occurred in 1992 and 1993, and in spring 1997, the nutrients on tree physiology in association with sprayed trees had recovered full foliage, whereas trees tree resistance to bark-beetles and with on line 1 and 2 held ca 50 and 60% of full foliage, consequences for pest. respectively. Defoliated Scots pines display high Altogether, more than half of the dead trees were resistance to subsequent attack by colonized by T. piniperda, and the rate of attacked Tomicus piniperda. trees peaked in 1993. in all year, successfully attacked Bo Langström, Annila, E., Varama, M.& Niemelä, P. trees carried less than 10 % foliage, while attacks Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Dept. failed on trees having more than 20 % foliage. Entomology, Post Box # 7044, S-750 07 Uppsala, Unattacked trees had ca 50 % foliage. As the mean Sweden needle biomass for all groups of surviving trees was Email: [email protected] above 25% in 1992, we conclude that depletion of suitable hosts terminated the beetle outbreak in the In 1990-1991, Diprion pini caused extensive area. The high resistance of severely defoliated trees, defoliation in Lauhanvuori national park and indicates that carbon availability may be less surrounding areas in south-westen Finland. Most important for resistance than expected so far. trees lost all their foliage in 1990. in 1991, the (Although growth losses are no treated in this context, outbreak area was sprayed with diflubenzuron we also conclude that preventing a second year of (Dimilin), except in the national the park where defoliation was highly justified from a silvicultural the sawfly larvae consumed, most of the point of view.) remaining needles. No further defoliation occurred in 1992. This abstract is a based on the following two papers: In spring 1992, pine trees with 0, 10, 30 and 100 Annila, E., Langström, B., Varama, M., Huikka, R. & % foliage left (10 small and 10 large trees in each Niemelä, P. 1999. Susceptibility of defoliated Scots category) were baited with pine bolts in order to pine to spontaneous and induced attack by Tomicus induce stem attacks by pine shoot beetles. All piniperda and T. minor. (ms accepted for publication baited trees were attacked by Tomicus piniperda in Silva Fennica). and some also by T. minor, but the attacks failed Langström, B., Annila, E., Varama, M. & Niemelä, P. in all trees except in the totally defoliated ones 1999. Tree mortality, needle biomass recovery and (and some of the small trees with little foliage growth losses in Scots pine following defoliation by left). Most unbaited trees escaped attack entirely, Diprion pini and subsequent attack by Tomicus but a few totally defoliated were successfully piniperda. (Ms intended for submission to Scand. J. colonized. Attack densities of T. piniperda were For. Res.). optimal on the lower stem (ca 100 egg galleries x m-2), but the corresponding brood production was modest (ca 500 exit holes x m-2). None of the measures (resin flow, cambial electrical resistance, size of induced defense reaction phloem starch and sugars) used to describe tree vigour gave better information than the estimated remaining foliage. Thus, the risk for beetle- induced mortality following defoliation is a function of remaining needle biomass and beetle pressure.

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Pinus spp. Chemical Composition and 7.02.07 Impacts od diseases on the Host Selection by the Winter Pine sustainability of tropical forests Processionary Moth Maria Rosa Paiva, E. Mateus, C. Pimentel, M.H. VA mycorrhizal fungi and their role in Farrall plant disease control Universidade Nova de Lisboa, FCT / DCEA, Q. da Joseph D. Bagyaraj Torre, P - 2825-114 Monte de Caparica, Portugal University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Tel: 00 351 21 2948300, FAX: 00 351 21 2948554, Agricultural Microbiology, GKVK campus, 560 065 Email: [email protected] Bangalore, India FAX: 091 - 080 - 3330422, Email: Pine stands cover 1.3 million hectares in Portugal [email protected] and are grown over extensive areas in the Mediterranean region. Thaumetopoea pityocampa Mycorrhizal association constitutes the most striking (Den. and Schiff.) (Lepidoptera, example of symbiosis in the plant kingdom. There are Thaumetopoeidae), the winter pine processionary different types of mycorrhizae. The most common are moth is a major defoliator causing economic ectomycorrhizae and vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae damage, particularly to young plantations. Several (VAM). Increased plant growth because of VAM authors have ranked Pinus species according to colonization is well documented (Bagyaraj and their relative susceptibility to T. pityocampa Varma, 1995). The increased plant growth is attributed attack, but differences occur among geographical to enhanced uptake of diffusion limited nutrients, regions and altitudes. in the present study hormone production biological nitrogen fixation, chemical analysis were made for 8 Pinus spp., drought resistance and suppression of root pathogens. some of which are native to Portugal and some Most reports in the literature indicate that VAM fungi introduced. Variations were detected among decrease severity of diseases caused by root - species, mainly in the terpene composition, which pathogens. VAM fungi associated with different crop were related to the different levels of plants suppressing the fungal root pathogens like processionary moth attack recorded. Significant Thielaviopsis basicola, Phytopthora parasitica relationships were found between the relative Fusarium oxysporum, Gaeumannomyces graminis var. percentages of b-pinene and limonene, present in tritici, Sclerotium rolfsii, Pyrenochaeta terrestris and the bouquets of the needles, and the percentage of Pythium spp. have been reported. Similarly, VAM pines having larval nests. in a separate fungi also alleviate the severity of diseases caused by experiment, the chemical composition of the plant pathogenic bacteria like Pseudomonas syringae needles of individual trees from a stand of P. and P. solanacearum. Reports on several hosts pinaster originated by natural regeneration, were indicate that VAM fungi decrease the severity of analysed. The variations detected, particularly in pathogenic nematodes like Meloidogyne avenaria, M. the relative amounts of some monoterpenes incognita, M. hapla, M. javanica, Tylenchulus emitted by individual trees, were statistically semipenetrans, Pratylenchus brachyurus and related to the number of larval nests of T. Radophilus similis (Sampangi and Bagyaraj, 1989). pityocampa counted. in parallel, biotests were Mechanisms of suppression of root pathogens by performed in an olfactometer, using extracts of VAM fungi: Studies conducted so far suggest that the needles of different pine species, to test host mechanism of suppression may be due to selection preferences by the adults. Results morphological, physiological or biological alterations indicated a preference of the females for pine in the host. i. Morphological alterations: Thickening of species which, under field conditions consistently the cell walls through lignification and production of suffer higher levels of attack in Portugal. Host other polysaccharides in mycorrhizal plants preventing selection and colonization by T. pityocampa thus the penetration and growth of pathogens have been appear to be influenced by monoterpene demonstrated. A stronger vascular system observed in emissions of the pine trees. VAM plants increase the flow of nutrients, impart greater mechanical strength and diminish the effect of vascular pathogens. Smaller syncytia with fewer cells have been reported to impart resistance in the host against root - knot nematodes. ii. Physiological and biochemical changes: Higher phosphorus concentration found in mycorrhizal plants can offset the severity of a disease caused by pathogens. Decreased root exudation in mycorrhizal

289 Division 8 plants possibly help in reducing the infection of national boundaries and become accepted-exotics roots by pathogens. High chitinase activity of the abroad, unknown pathogens also spring up suddenly in mycorrhizal tissue also may confine the growth of host countries causing disease outbreak in epidemic the pathogen in the host. Higher levels of certain proportions. The warm humid climate prevailing in the chemicals like arginine, phenyl alanine, serine, tropics is most conducive for pathogen multiplication orthodihydroxy phenols and sulphur containing and host invasion. amino acids reported in mycorrhizal roots were Eucalypts, one of the most widely grown exotic found to be inhibitory to root pathogens. species in the tropical countries are severely affected iii. Biological alterations: Mycorrhizal plants by leaf blight and stem infection caused by harbour higher population of microorganisms in Cylindrocladium spp. in India, Vietnam, South Africa the rhizosphere thus making it difficult for the and South American countries. Wilt disease caused by pathogen to compete and gain access to the host Burkholderia solanacearum is the most damaging root. It was also reported that roots colonised by bacterial infection on Eucalypts seedlings in China and VAM fungi harbour more actinomycetes Australia, Brazil and quite recently in India. Among antagonistic to root pathogens. Recently rust fungi, Puccinia psidii is the serious problem in microorganisms producing siderophores, which Brazil, Taiwan and South Africa. Cryptosporiopsis are low molecular weight chelating agents that eucalyptii, a recently described fungal pathogen causes have high affinity for ferric iron and thus leaf spot disease on several species of Eucalypts in fungistatic to many pathogens, were observed in Australia, Brazil, India, Japan, Thailand, Vietnam and higher numbers in the rhizosphere of mycorrhizal Hawaii causing blight symptoms. Kirramyces plants. The biocontrol potential of VAM fungi epicoccoides affects growth and vigour of seedlings by can be exploited in field by further understanding causing leaf spot and subsequent defoliation in Africa, the defence mechanisms and conditions favouring Australia, Brazil, India, Japan, Thailand and Vietnam. the experience of their protective ability. There is In Acacia, though leaf spot diseases are reported from a need to strike an appropriate balance of India, serious seedling diseases are rare except pesticide - mycorrhiza - other biocontrol agent use phyllode rust caused by Atelocauda digitata in in designing integrated plant disease management. Indonesia and powdery mildew in India and Vietnam. The recent advances made in the biological Pine needle blight caused by Cercospora control of rot pathogens of tree species will be pinidensiflorae is reported from Vietnam. Diseases discussed. like damping off caused by Pythium and Verticillium References: spp., collar rot caused by Rhizoctonia solani and seedling blight caused by Sclerotium rolfsii are the Bagyaraj, D.J. and Varma, A. (1995). Interaction common seedling diseases occurring on indigenous as between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plants: well as exotic tree species in several tropical countries. Their importance in sustainable agriculture in arid in teak, bacterial wilt caused by Burkholderia and semiarid tropics. in Advances in Microbial solanacearum and leaf spot caused by the fungus Ecology (Jones J.G. Ed.), pp 119 - 142. Plenum Phomopsis and Colletotrichum spp. are economically Press, New York and London, 400 pp. important diseases. Sampangi, R.K. and Bagyaraj, D.J. (1989). Root International movement of pathogens occur especially diseases and mycorrhizae. J. Phytol. Res.2:1 - 6 through exchange of infected seeds, and chaff and debris carried along with the seeds. Hence, effective Nursery Diseases of Tropical Forest disiffection and strict quarantine laws only can prevent Plantations international spread of diseases. Suitable silvicultural M. Balasundaran methods are adopted to prevent the occurrence of Kerala Forest Research Institute Peechi, Division of nursery diseases in all the countries. Judicious use of Pathology, Thrissur-680653 Kerala, India FAX: 91 487 782249, Email: [email protected] fungicides and bactericides are often recommended to control the economically serious diseases. Serious damage to forest nursery caused by seedling diseases often upsets planting programmes. Though seedlings of both exotics and indigenous tree species are affected by disease outbreak, exotics are more vulnerable to pathogen attack, especially after one or two rotations of growth in the host country. in the tropics, as more and more native species cross

290 Division 7 roxburghii, P. wallichiana, P. girardiana and P. Ectomycorrhizas as a deterrent to kesiya. of these P. roxburghii and P. wallichiana are seedling diseases of trees in the distributed widely extending over a long strip of 3200 nursery km from the west to east occupying an area of 6728 K. Natarajan sq. km. and 2270 sq.km. respectively. The occurrence University of Madras, Cas in Botany Guindy Campus, of P. gerardiana and P. kesiya is restricted, the former 600 025 Chennai, India distributed in the dry zone of inner western Himalaya Tel: 91-44-235 0401, FAX: 91-44-235 2494, Email: and the later to eastern Himalayas and Khasi hills [email protected] occupying an area over 400 sq.km. and 2000 sq.km Numerous investigators in the last several years respectively. The conifers help in restoring the fragile have shown that ectomycorrhizas are essential to ecosystem of Himalayas. Apart from this they provide the establishment and growth of many tree valuable natural resources like resin which contributes species. Their beneficial effects are physiological significantly to the local employment and national in nature such as increased root absorption economy. Deodar (Cedrus deodara) fir (Abies surface, selective in absorption and accumulation, pindrow) and spruce (Picea smithiana) occur at ability to render unavailable substances in soil different altitudes in Himalayaa and provide timber for available to the plant host etc. A possible buildings and packing boxes. in P. roxburghii or Chir beneficial role of ectomycorrhizae in the tree pine, stem rust caused by Cronartium himalayense is a growth and development is that the mycorrhizal major problem in the younger plantations, causing fungus protects unsuberized roots from attack by mortality to the tune of 5-40% in different localities. parasitic fungi. It has been postulated that The rust completes its life history on a local weed mycorrhizal fungi may conceivably afford Swertia spp. of all the eight districts surveyed the protection to the root by i) utilizing root incidence was found in six districts in Garhwal and carbohydrates and other chemicals which would Kumaun regions. The pathogen produces pycnia and be attractive to pathogens, ii) providing a physical aecia on Chir pine, causes girdling and kills the barrier to pathogens in the form of fungus mantle, affected portions. P. wallichiana or Kail is reported to iii) secreting antibiotics which inhibit or kill the be attacked by Cronartium ribicola a macrocyclic and pathogens and iv) supporting a protective heterocious rust. The incidence is observed in Bushahr rhizosphere population of the other micro- and Kullu in Himachal Pradesh and Hazara, Kashmir organisms. in common with many soil fungi, and Kangan in Jammu and Kashmir. From Uttar some mycorrhizal symbionts are capable of Pradesh it is reported from Chakrata. The rust attacks antibiotic action. The antibacterial and antifungal young plants on stem and branches which become compounds produced by mycorrhizal fungi swollen, blistered and girdled. It develops pycnia and against root rot and damping off of nursery aecia on blue pine and urredenia and telia on Ribes seedlings of tree species have been studied by rubrum and R. orientale. Cronartium quarcuum several workers. They suggest that antibiotic attacks P. kesiya in mature trees around Shillong production by the mycorrhizal fungi may be the (Meghalaya). The branches become swollen and aecia factor in the survival of seedlings in nature by develop profusely. The damage is not very significant. warding off attack by root pathogens. The The needles of Chir and Kail pines are attacked by production of antibacterial compounds by Coleosporium campanulae and C. barclayense mycorrhizal fungi in pure culture has also been respectively. Small orange to yellow sacs of aecia are investigated. produced on the needles numbering 2-15. It gives an ugly appearance to the plantations. Mostly the younger Keywords: Mycorrhiza, Biocontrol, Root plants are affected. No apparent damage is caused as pathogens, Diseases of nursery seedlings. the affected needles are shed at about the same time as healthy needles. in Cedrus deodara (deodar) needle Rust diseases of Indian Conifers rust is caused by Peridermium cedri. It is an autoceous A. N. Shukla rust and attacks the young needles of current year's Forest Research Institute, Forest Pathology Division, shoot. The infected needles bearing pycnia and aecia 248006 Dehra Dun, India remain shorter and curve backwords. Infected needles FAX: 91 0135 756865, Email: icfre- are shed earlier and therefore, the folaige becomes [email protected] sparse. Witches broom is produced on the affected Indian conifers include pines, deodar, fir and branches and in extreme cases it may cause mortality spruce. Pines constitute one of the most divergent to the branch and young trees. and economically important group of species Other needle rusts reported are Ploioderma cedri on found in the Himalayas. The pine species deodar, Caeoma himalayensis on fir and Peridermium occurring in India number four and are Pinus

291 Division 8 thomsoni on spruce. But all of them are endemic plantations to an extent alternative species like Acacia to small areas in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal auriculiformis was sought for in Eucalypts failed Pradesh and hills of Uttar Pradesh. areas. Teak, the hardy species with more than 150 years in plantation forestry in India, has also become Epidemic Diseases - potenial threat to severely damaged by the pink disease, recently, plantation forestry in India mainly due to the altered high input silvicultural Choran Mohanan practices. Casuarina equisetifolia plantations raised in Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, 680 653 inland and coastal areas in Peninsular states are found Kerala, India severely affected by stem wilt disease, caused by FAX: 0487 782249, Email: [email protected] Trichosporum vesiculosum. Though the disease was In India, plantation forestry commenced with the noticed in 1905 in coastal plantations in Orissa State, small-scale planting of teak, Tectona grandis in epidemic outbreak of disease occurred recently, Nilambur valley, Kerala, the southernmost state in especially in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and andhra 1840s. Since then, teak has been growing on a Pradesh. The pathogen is indigenous and cause disease large-scale in plantations as monoculture or only in casuarinas. Whereas, Corticium salmonicolor mixed with broad-leaved softwood species has a wide host range of more than 420 tree species through out the countries. Casuarinas were also belonging to 104 genera both indigenous and exotic. introduced in the coastal belt of Peninsular India Though biology of the fungus and etiology are well during the British colonial period for meeting the understood, disease management strategy heavily requirement of fuel wood for steam engines. At depends mostly on cultural measures due to economic present casuarinas, especially Casuarina constraints. At present, plantation forestry in the Equisetifolia have been growing on a large-scale country is at the cross road and set backs from the under different afforestation programmes epidemic outbreak of diseases have adversely affected including agro-forestry in inland as well as coastal the pulp, paper and rayon industries as well as the areas in Peninsular states of India. During 1960s farmers. The paper highlights the possible influencing large-scale planting of Eucalypts initiated in factors for the disease outbreak, and short-term as well Kerala State by clear-felling the degraded semi- as long-term disease management strategies to be evergreen and moist deciduous forests in low and adopted. medium altitude areas and in grass lands in high altitude areas to meet the requirement of Status of forest Diseases in India and pulpwood industries. During the past 150 years of Future Research Needs plantation history different timber and Jyoti K. Sharma multipurpose tree species have been growing in Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653 Kerala, different parts of the country. Though, the India Tel: +91-487-782062, FAX: +91-487-782249, Email: plantation forestry has experienced set-backs due [email protected] to biotic factors like human interference and cattle grazing and abiotic factors like fire and erratic With the increasing demand for wood in India, rainfall, epidemic outbreak of diseases posed forestry has gained importance in recent years. To threat recently. During 1970s epidemic outbreak meet this challenge the productivity of forest of diseases occurred in Eucalyptus tereticornis plantations is being increased by intensive plantations raised in humid areas in Kerala and management. However, as the management intensifies Karnataka State devastating the crops entirely. with high inputs more and more disease problems are Pink disease caused by Corticium salmonicolor surfacing. Since, India's climate ranges from temperate affected the plants of >6 year-old and foliage in the northern region to tropical in the southern blight caused by different species of peninsula, types of diseases and incidence and severity Cylindrocladium affected the plants of <3 year- show considerable variation chiefly due to the old severely. A second outbreak of pink disease in prevailing climatic conditions, edaphic factors and E. tereticornis plantations occurred in 1980s host species. This makes the management of forest devastating the plantations in low and medium diseases quite complex. The most widely planted elevated areas through out the state. Recently, E. species in India are Acacia auriculifornis, Albizia grandis raised in high altitude areas (950-1000 m falcataria, (Paraserianthes falcata), Azadiracta above msl) which showed remarkable resistance indica, Bambusa arundinacea, Bombax cieba, to pink disease earlier, also become succumbed to Cosuarina equisetifolia, Dalbergia, sissoo, Eucalyptus severe attack by the disease. Pink disease and tereticornis, E. camaldulensis, Gmelina, arborea, Cylindrocladium blight epidemics occurred in Pinus, spp., Populus sp., Grevellia robusta, Tectona 1995 and 1996 and wiped out hectares of grandis, etc.

292 Division 7 Seedlings for raising plantations are grown either rather recent origin is that appearing in high in-put in conventional way in bareroot nurseries or more plantations. The best example is that of pink disease of recently in root trainers with little management to teak (Corticium salmonicolor) which came in high in-put management. This variation in nursery prominence by causing more than 50 per cent practices is reflected in the type and severity of incidence in high in-put plantations being grown by diseases encountered. Generally, damping-off private companies as compared to 1-2 per cent in which occurs throughout India, is the most serious plantations raised by the State Forest Department. in disease of young seedlings in forest nurseries. in the light of the above the paper evaluates the current temperate and drier regions, Pythium, Fusarium status of some of the significant forest diseases in and Macrophomina are the dominant pathogens, India and identifies priority areas of research for whereas in tropical humid regions ubiquitous bridging the gaps in information for better facultative parasites, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium and management of diseases and increasing the much Cylindrocladium are the major pathogens causing needed forest productivity. a wide variety of serious diseases. With the advent of root trainer nurseries problem of Strategies linked to reduce the impact of nematodes, otherwise unnoticed in conventional Cryphonectria canker in South Africa nurseries, has caused serious loss of teak Schalk W. van Heerden, Michael J. Wingfield seedlings in root trainers. University of Pretoria, Faculty of Biological and In plantations, various diseases affect the Agricultural Sciences, Forestry and Agricultural Biotechnology Institute (FABI, 0002 Pretoria, South Africa outplanted seedlings right from the beginning, till FAX: +27124203938, Email: the time the crop is ready for harvest, the rotation [email protected] period being from seven years in Eucalyptus to 60 years in teak. Since, some of the tree species are Keywords: Cryphonectria canker; Population planted throughout the country under different diversity; Double-stranded RNA agro climatic conditions in contrast to others Cryphonectria canker caused by Cryphonectria limited to a particular climatic zone, two cubensis is responsible for considerable damage to categories of diseases are identifiable: diseases of Eucalyptus plantations in tropical and sub-tropical wide occurrence and diseases of restricted areas of the world. It is, therefore, essential to have occurrence. effective management strategies to limit the impact of Among the serious diseases of wider occurrence, this pathogen. Planting of disease tolerant clones is the prominent once are Cylindrocladium leaf one approach, but the potential to reduce the virulence blight (CLB) of Eucalypts, blister blight (BB) of of the pathogen through double stranded (ds) RNA Casuarina (Trichosporium vesiculosum) and mediated-hypovirulence is also an attractive option. It phanerogamic parasite (mistletoe) of teak is, however, necessary to possess knowledge regarding (Dendroephthoe falcata) which have been given the population diversity of the fungus before some attention during the past two decades. biological control can be applied. in this study, a However, bilster blight and teak mistletoe need survey of diseased trees was undertaken to evaluate more attention to work out strategies to control the occurrence of sexual reproductive structures, and them. Since, CLB and BB are of international thus to consider whether sexual reproduction is importance concerted efforts and networking of occurring in C. cubensis in South Africa. An organizations in tackling them are warranted. experimental approach was undertaken to confirm these findings. The diversity of the South African C. On the other hand there are certain diseases of cubensis population was assessed based on vegetative restricted occurrence in a particular geographical compatibility tests, and various measures of diversity area causing serious loss. Among them the were used to assess the data. A field inoculation was important diseases are spike disease of Santalum conducted to consider whether there was any album caused by phytoplasma, shoot blight of correlation between VC groups and their virulence. bamboos, heart rot of Dalbergia sissoo, Further the South African C. cubensis population was Cryphonectria canker of Eucalypts, Hendersonula screened for the presence of dsRNA. Slow growing die-back of Acacia mangium, Phomopsis and isolates were identified using growth studies and these Macrophomina die-back and Melampsora rust of were screened for dsRNA using column Populus, and rust of native pines in Himalayas. chromatography. Two dsRNA-containing isolates Some of these diseases of restricted occurrence were obtained from a sample of 100 isolates. A for example Hendersonula die-back are possibly greenhouse inoculation trial was conducted to manifested due to stress conditions under which determine whether the isolates containing dsRNA the host is grown. Another category of diseases of display hypovirulence. Results of this study showed

293 Division 8 that only asexual reproduction occurs in C. planted. The PWN is believed to have been introduced cubensis in South Africa. Twenty-three VC to Japan in logs from North America about 100 years groups were detected from a sample of 100 ago, and today it is considered the most serious pest of isolates each collected from single diseased trees pines by the Japanese. It is now also considered a very in plantations in KwaZulu-Natal. Analysis serious pathogen of pines in The People's Republic of showed that this represents a low degree of China. The impact of this nematode and its vectors has genetic diversity. Inoculation studies revealed that resulted in enormous ecological, cultural, aesthetic, isolates belonging to different VC groups differ and economic impacts that will continue to create significantly in their ability to cause disease. problems for generations to come. The PWN has a Results of the inoculation to test for history of being transported in raw wood and wood hypovirulence indicated that only one of the two products, and infested wood is believed responsible isolates had a reduced capacity to cause disease. for spreading this nematode and its vectors both within Studies are now being undertaken that will further and between Asian countries. Because of the perceived promote the use of dsRNA for biological control threat of PWD, some countries have established of C. cubensis in the future. restrictions on importation or movement of coniferous wood from countries or regions of countries known to 7.02.10 Global spreading of pine wilt have the PWN. in Europe, a recent pest risk assessment concluded the PWN posed a potential Pine Wilt Disease: A Potential Threat threat to the continent's forests, so the nematode is to Coniferous Forests Around the now an A1 quarantine pest as described by the World European Plant Protection Organization. As an exotic Dale R. Bergdahl, S. Halik pest, the PWN should be considered a high-risk, University of Vermont, Department of Forestry, disease-inciting agent for pine-growing regions School of Natural Resources worldwide. The threat of the PWN to coniferous Forest Pathology Laboratory, 05405 Burlington, USA forests is real and the only known way to reduce this Email: [email protected] threat is to be most restrictive in the importation and Throughout time, the distribution of the world's movement of potentially PWN-infested wood of all biota has not been static but has been gradually kinds. changing. This rate of change is much more rapid Keywords: Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, pinewood today because of biological invasions resulting nematode, Pinus, exotic pest, threat. from increased human activity, including international trade and travel and the disturbance Unsuccessful experience in controlling of ecosystems. These invasions by exotic species the Pine Wilt in Japan include many unwanted forest pests, such as the Kazuyoshi Futai pinewood nematode (PWN), Bursaphelenchus University of Kyoto, Japan xylophilus, which has recently created havoc and Email: [email protected] concern around the world. This nematode is native to North America and is the causal agent of After the discovery of the pinewood nematode, pine wilt disease (PWD) of Pinus spp., but other Bursaphelechus xylophilus as a causal agent of the conifers may also serve as hosts. The PWN is dreadful wilting disease of pine trees in 1970, vectored by cerambycid beetles (Monochamus enormous efforts have been made to control this forest spp.) which are normal inhabitants of coniferous epidemic disease. forests worldwide. Different abiotic and biotic Aerial application of insecticide has been carried out stress factors are reported to predispose trees to to obstruct maturation feeding of vector beetles on the infection, however, variation in host specificity healthy pine trees, thereby to prevent the transmission and pathogenicity has been noted for different of nematodes into pine tissues. This measure seemed PWN isolates. This nematode can also persist in to be effective to reduce the pine wilt death, but has to living trees without inciting PWD. been performed with many limitations because of As an exotic pest, the PWN is responsible for environmental concerns. The procedure of felling causing significant PWD in both native and exotic down dead pine trees, and de-barking and then burning pines in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and The them should be effective, if carried out thoroughly, but People's Republic of China. However, in North this control measure has become impossible because America, the PWN is not considered an important of the shortage of forest workers. Trunk-injection of pathogen of native pines although it has caused nematicides was developed to protect such precious PWD in some areas where exotic pines have been pine trees as planted in gardens, golf courses, parks, shrines and temples. But this effective method has

294 Division 7 been able to apply neither to pine forests nor to 1996, with each of three B.mucronatus isolates: BmCh mountain pine stands due to its high cost. (from China), BmKOMY (from Komy Republic, Russia) and BmRFE (from the Russian Far East, Without any limitations such as financial cost, Primorski Krai). Control seedlings were inoculated labor shortage, environmental problems, could we with a solution of the fungi Botrytis cinerea and be successful to control pine wilt disease? Fusarium gramminearum in distilled water. Initial Perhaps, not. Because humankind itself has made inoculation was 1500 nematodes per seedling. The an important role in long-distance transportation nematodes were extracted 2 months after seedling of pine wilt. The transportation of the pine logs inoculation and again 1 year post-inoculation in infested with pine wood nematodes and/or with September, 1997. Seedling stems, roots and soil were vector beetles has been legally regulated, but such assayed for presence of B. mucronatus nematodes. No dead pine trees have been transported from place nematodes were found in seedling roots or soil. No to place, and thus pine wilt has spread over wide seedlings had died 14 months after inoculation and area. Further factors such as air pollutants, acid only BmRFE isolate nematodes were extracted from precipitation, difference in host resistance seedling stem samples (1 inividual./g of stem tissue ). between local varieties of pines, difference in All other nematode isolates failed to survival in nematode virulence between isolates, and so on seedlings. According to the recent studies of had to be taken into consideration to facilitate the Eroshenko and Kruglik (1996), B.mucronatus isolates control measures. from Russian Far East were strongly pathogenic to Another important point is that there may remain different pine species under field conditions in some potential carriers of pathogenic nematodes Primorski Krai. Kulinich, O.A. and Kolossova, N.V. even after thorough sanitation of pine stands. (1995) The potential of the pinewood nematode When the carrier trees become stressed due to Bursaphelenchus xylophilus to become established in high temperature and/or drought, the host countries of the former USSR. Russian Journal of resistance could be impaired and nematodes build Nematology 3, 35-48. up their population to kill host trees. Thus, a few Eroshenko, A.S. and Kruglik, I.A. (1996) [Korean years after thorough control procedures, however, pine pathogenic nematodes in the Russia Far East pine wilt epidemic could revive in the same pine South.]. in "The cedar and deciduous forest of the Far stands. East", Khabarovsk, 196-197 (In Russian). Possible adaptation and pathogenicity Keywords: pinewood nematode, Bursaphelenchus of pinewood nematode, mucronatus, pathogenicity, Russia Bursaphelenchus mucronatus, in central European Russia Strategy of protection of European forests Oleg A. Kulinich, Vasyutin, A.S, Tjurin A.A. from pinewood nematodes All-Russian Research Institute of Plant Quarantine, Christer Magnussen Pogranichnaj 32, 140150 Moscow region, Russia The Norwegian Crop Research Institute, Plant Protection FAX: +7 096 46 22628, Email: [email protected] Centre, Department of Entomology and Nematology, Fellesbygget NO- 1432 Aas, Norway. The pinewood nematode, Bursaphelecnhus [email protected] xylophilus, causes a serious wilt disease of native pines in Japan and China and is a quarantine pest The widespread damage caused by the pinewood for Russia. Based on a pest risk analysis for nematode (PWN) Bursaphelenchus xylophilus in B.xylophilus it was concluded that this nematode Japan was well recognised by European scientists. poses a threat to conifer forests in several areas There has been much controversy regarding the and territories of Russia (Kulinich, & Kolossova transmission biology of PWN, the danger of pine wilt 1995). A closely related nematode, disease and the risk management strategies. A pest risk Bursaphelenchus mucronatus is widespread in assessment for the European Union (EU) has Asia and Europe and may mate with B.xylophilus. confirmed the quarantine status of PWN, justifying the Various experiments have shown that B. phytosanitary measures taken to exclude this nematode mucronatus is weakly pathogenic or non- from Europe. Furthermore, recent results from pathogenic to pines. A field experiment to inoculation experiments indicate that PWN could pose determine the pathogenicity of the different a threat to pine forests of continental Europe. The total isolates of Bursaphelenchus mucronatus was forested area of EU and Norway amounts to 146 conducted in the Moscow region (Russia) in million ha. The Nordic forests occupy almost 63 1996-1997. Two-year old, Scots pine, Pinus million ha, corresponding to 43% of this area. in the sylvestris, seedlings were inoculated in July, Nordic countries pine forests alone cover about 30 million ha. The annual softwood felling is in the order

295 Division 8 of 40 million m3, which could represent a Bursaphelenchus xylophilus belongs to the family monetary value of about 3 000 million US$. The Aphelenchoididae, which includes many other Nordic forests are of fundamental importance not nematode species that feed on fungi for some or all of only to the Nordic economies, but also as a major their life cycle and which are closely associated with source of wood products for the entire EU. insects. Many bark beetles pests of forest trees carry European coniferous forest ecosystems, regardless aphelenchids in their intestine and vector them from of locality, offer good opportunities for the one fungal-feeding site to the next in the cryptic establishment and spread of the PWN. The galleries of the forest trees. There are about fifty introduction of PWN into Europe could reduce Bursaphelenchus species many of which are forest productivity and enforce the erection of associated with forest trees and insects but none of internal regulations of trade. There is also a risk these are lethal like B. xylophilus. Bursaphelenchus of transfer of patogenicity from PWN to resident xylophilus is most commonly vectored by B.mucronatus by interbreeding. The most Monochamus alternatus in east and southeast Asia, efficient strategy of protection is to prevent the but many other Monochamus species worldwide, some introduction of the PWN. Preventive measures with overlapping distributions, vector this nematode. like forest selection and quality checks in Aphelenchiodes ritzemabosi interacts with processing would fail to detect latent PWN Rhodococcus fasciens to cause cauliflower disease of infections in asymptomatic trees. Thus, harvesting strawberries, but no other aphelenchid species except healthy-appearing trees for processing may not be B. cocophilus, the cause of red ring disease of coconut, adequate to prevent nematode infestation of wood causes host death. Both B. xylophilus and B. products imported from areas infested by PWN. cocophilus cause death of the host tree within a few Heat treatments still remain the safest means of months of infection and both these nematodes require eradicating the PWN in wood. Methods should be a mobile, plant-feeding coleopteran as the vector. developed to eradicate PWN also from forest Many other tree species are parasitized by nematodes products not suitable for kiln drying and but none of them die so fast and the disease does not pasteurisation. Treatments to eradicate PWN need spread so rapidly. Orchard trees, are significantly also to apply for packaging and dunnage. in affected by plant parasitic nematodes such as the citrus Europe efforts should be made to survey domestic nematode, Tylenchulus semipenetrans (causing wood products, and the forest areas for the spreading decline of citrus) and the lesion nematode, presence of PWN and B. mucronatus, and to Pratylenchus spp. (several species of which attack a develop protocols suitable for monitoring range of fruit and nut tree species). However, the nematode patogenicity on European conifers. pathological impact of these nematodes tends to be modest and relatively gradual through wilting during Nematode: characteristics and drought and through nutrient depletion. These hazards of its global impact nematodes often do not significantly affect the host John M. Webster tree except during periods of severe plant stress. By Simon Fraser University, Department of Biological contrast, B. xylophilus infected pine trees Sciences, V5A 1S6 Burnaby, Vancouver, Canada characteristically die within a few months of infection, FAX: 604 291 3496, Email: [email protected] though the physiological processes leading to tree Pine forests, one of the great natural resources of death also can be exacerbated by stress factors such as our planet, are threatened worldwide by the pine fire and mistletoe. A few nematode species, e.g. wilt disease caused by the pinewood nematode, Aphelenchus avenae and Aphelenchoides composticola Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, and its Monochamus debilitate forest trees by feeding on the mycorrhiza but spp. vector. The direct negative impact of the this limits tree growth rather than causing death. biological interaction between the B. xylophilus It is not only the susceptible pine species of our and susceptible pine trees has been exacerbated indigenous forests that are vulnerable to pine wilt indirectly by wood product trading practices and disease but also the extensive monoculture plantings by some misunderstanding of the biological of susceptible, exotic, pine species especially in the relationship. Consequently, the potential southern hemisphere. These large areas of pine seriousness of pine wilt disease to the world's pine plantations are vulnerable if the temperature is high forests is not always fully recognized, and enough (about 25?C) for long enough (continuously appropriate action is not taken in the geographic for 8 weeks) and providing that an insect vector is areas where it is necessary in order to prevent present. Concurrently, there is extensive international and/or slow spread of the disease. trade of pine wood chips and bark-covered pine logs that potentially carry Monochamus spp. and B.

296 Division 7 xylophilus from countries that have natural is above 7 miles from the diseased area and no body populations of B. xylophilus and its vector to can go aboard the small island. countries that have susceptible pine species and appropriate climates for the disease. The high 7.02.10 Epidemic factors of pine wilt temperatures not only increase the rate of nematode reproduction but increase also the Ectomycorrhiza in pine forests infested number of generations per year of the insect with pine wilt disease vector thereby quickly raising their population Kenji Fukuda, Shin Ugawa, Yu Ichihara, Kazuo Suzuki threshold for the disease to epidemic proportions. The University of Tokyo, Department of Environmental As well, the higher temperature stresses the trees Studies, 113-8657 Tokyo, Japan physiologically in that within a few hours of FAX: +81-3-5802-2958, Email: [email protected] nematode infection they lose water faster from the In order to clarify the relationships between the pine leaves and the tracheids became blocked. wilt incidence and ectomycorrhizas which may affect Control of this nematode disease is difficult or be affected by vigor of host pine trees, fruit body because it affects very large area of trees, often in occurrence and species composition of mycorrhizal less accessible areas, and the nematode population fungi were surveyed in Japanese red pine stands maintains itself on fungus infected dead trees as exhibiting varying degrees of disease incidence around well as on living trees. As well, the vector is a Mt. Tsukuba, Ibaraki Prefecture, Eastern Japan. in vigorous flyer and survives on dead or dying healthy stands many species of mycorrhizal fungi trees. The development and propagation of occurred, in contrast to the infested stands where genetically resistant trees is a viable though very mycorrhizal fungi were rare. From two healthy and long term option. Modification of trading one infested stands, soil cores were taken around practices could provide faster results. living pine trees and mycorrhizal root tips were classified into morphological "types". Composition of Distribution of pine wilt disease and mycorrhizal types among the stands were different from each other. However, in every stand mycorrhizas its spreading manner in China were formed on more than 95% of the observed root Baojun Yang The Chinese Academy of Forestry, Post Box # 12, tips. From this fact, decline in fruit body number in 100091 Beijing, China infested stands was not caused by decrease of FAX: 0086-010-62884972, Email: mycorrhiza on pine roots, but the decline of fruiting [email protected]>ac.cn activity of the mycorrhizal fungi. Mycorrhizal growth in 5-year-old pine seedlings inoculated with pinewood Since the first discovery of PWN in Nanjing city, nematodes were markedly inhibited in both killed and Jiangsu province in 1982,the nematode has survived seedlings. This indicates that infection of distributed in 6 provinces Jiangsu, Anhui, nematode reduce the allocation of carbohydrates to the Zhejiang, Shandong, Guangdong and Taiwan, as mycorrhiza. From these results, fruiting activity of well as Hong Kong. There are 14 counties in ectomycorrhizal fungi seemed to be greatly influenced Jiangsu, 16 counties in Anhui, 10 counties in by the pine wilt damage not only by the death of the Zhejiang, 3 counties in Guangdong, 1 county in host tree, but also by the latent infection. Shandong. The total diseased area is about 70000 ha. The diseased pine species are Pinus thunbergii Keywords: Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, and P. massoniana mainly, as well as ectomycorrhiza, forest floor, fungal flora, pine wilt P.densiflora, P.luchensis, P.elliottii and P. pinaster. The vector of PWN is Monochamus Wilt diseases- induced xylem embolism in alternatus. The phenomenon of the disease trees occurrence showes that the invasion of PWN into Takefumi Ikeda virgin areas is mainly caused by artificial Kansai Research Center, Forestry and Forest Products transport of diseased lumber and packing box. Research Institute, 621-0855 Kyoto, Fushimi, Japan The new diseased points are usually around new FAX: +81-75-611-1207, Email: [email protected] hotels,television transmission stations, factories, Recently in the research field of tree water relations, military units,public places and so on. Besides, it the mechanisms and ecological meanings of the is supposed that wind, especially hurticane and cavitation and the embolism in the tree xylem occurred typhoon, can bring the beetles (Monochamus during water stress and by freeze-thaw event have alternatus), carrying PWN to virgin area far form fairly been made clear. Three major wilt diseases are the diseased area. Because the pines in small the Dutch elm diseases, oak wilt and pine wilt disease. island can be attacked by PWN, the small island Although it has been known that wilt disease induced water stress in their host by reducing the hydraulic

297 Division 8 conductivity of the cylem, embolism as a cause nematode load makes beetle longevity shorter. As the for this has received very little attention. in the nematode load increases, such effect is much larger for case of Dutch Elm disease, embolism precedes virulent nematode than for avirulent nematode. This any occlusion of vessel by other means. The exact seems to have influence on the frequency distribution causes of cavitation and embolism remain of initial nematode load. Actually, its peak is biased unclear. Pine wilt disease is characterized by toward lower load for virulent nematode while toward rapid wilting during a short period of summer. higher load for avirulent nematodes. Longevity- The occurrence of cavitation and embolism shortening effect of nematode load causes beetle's during the disease development has been reproductive capacity to decrease. Such deleterious confirmed. This paper shows the general effect on beetle's reproductive capacity is estimated to mechanism of cavitation and embolism occurred be highest for the American B. xylophilus-M. in trees suffered from three major wilt diseases. carolinensis system and lowest for the Japanese B. mucronatus-M. saltuarius system. Short life of beetles Insect vector-nematode relationship is also related with the probability of nematode's and virulence of nematode against surviving till successful invasion of pine trees. The host plants. deleterious effect on survival rate of nematodes is Katsumi Togashi estimated to be much larger for virulent nematode. Faculty of Integrated Arts and Sciences The study of the pinewood nematode showed that a Hiroshima University, Kagamiyama 1, Higashi- negative relation between virulence and transmission Hiroshima, 739-8521 Hiroshima, Japan rate. Some components of nematode transmission Tel: +81-824-24-6513, FAX: +81-824-24-0758, Email: [email protected] ability is considered to be associated closely with nematode virulence and other with a short length of Infestation level of parasite and disease-causing time during which species interactions have been organisms is associated closely with a relationship continuing in Japan. I will compare the virulence- between their virulence and transmission ability. transmission relation among biological systems Rapid change in virulence sometimes occurs by including nematode, insect vector and host plants. the introduction of the parasite into new ecosystems. How much does the enhanced Recent advances in studies on chemical virulence change transmission ability and its ecology and behavior of the Japanese components? Pine wilt caused by the pinewood pine sawyer adult nematode gives an interesting case to study the Akiomi Yamane, Ryutaru Iwata virulence-transmission relationship. The Nihon University Kameino, College of Bioresource pinewood nematodes (Bursaphelenchus Sciences, 252-8510 Fujisawa, Kanagawa, Japan xylophilus and B. mucronatus) are transmitted to Tel: 81-466-84-3663/3664, FAX: 0466 80 11 35, Email: healthy trees by pine sawyer beetles (the genus [email protected] Monochamus) and the beetles oviposit on trees killed recently by virulent nematodes. Keywords: pine sawyer, chemical ecology, attractant, Interestingly, the nematodes are also transmitted oviposition, feeding to dying trees via the oviposition wounds made by Factors affecting oviposition, feeding, etc. of the beetles. So, different nematode virulence Monochamus alternatus (JPS) were reviewed. Mature against host trees must affect the vector-nematode adults of both sexes are attracted to the suitable relationship. I used 3 systems for analysis; the oviposition site, freshly felled pine bold, diseased pine Japanese B. xylophilus-M. alternatus system tree caused by Bursaphelenchus xylophilus (PWN), including virulent nematode against host trees, the etc. Female shows a series of actions; oviposition Japanese B. mucronatus-M. saltuarius system behavior sensu lato and sensu stricto. The orientation including avirulent nematode, and the American to the site is mediated by odor, of which the major B. xylophilus-M. carolinensis system including components are monoterpenes and ethanol. Besides avirulent nematode. the attractant, some new substances were found to Field study shows that avirulent nematode has stimulate or mask attractiveness of oviposition site. much higher transmission rate per tree per year Differences in attraction behavior between sexes were (0.13-0.17) than virulent nematode (0.0050- also reported. 0.0064) in Japan. Thus, a negative relation is For control and monitor the pine bark and wood- found between virulence and transmission ability. boring beetles which had been considered to be causal A wide variation is observed in the initial agents being responsible to deteriorate and kill pines nematode load on insect vector. Extremely heavy "Hodoron", an attractant formulation for those beetles

298 Division 7 including JPS, of which the main components are February 2000, revealed several interesting features of eugenol (9.0%), benzoic acid (23.0%), iso- the rise and fall of infestations, which are reported propanol and other organic solvents, had been here. There was a definite preference of the pest for developed. Since the findings of PWN and JPS, trees of higher girth class, throughout the epidemic. another attractant "Madara-call" had been Some of the infested trees recovered in course of time. developed for JPS attraction, of which main Removal of sparsely infested trees may also mean components are pinene and ethanol. removal of potential new infestation sites, thereby increasing the risk of infestation of un-infested trees. Both volatile and contact sex pheromones Tests showed that beetles were attracted to light traps. concerning mating were reported, but most of Incidence of the elaterid predator, Alaus sp. was their nature remains unknown. Presence of jelly- recorded. like oviposition marker on oviposition acar and inhibition of another additional oviposition nearby The findings of this study suggest rethinking and the laid egg were reported. refinement of the existing recommendation for sal borer outbreak management, particularly, limiting the For oviposition adequate moisture on the host removal of trees to the more severely infested surface was essential. Some sugars, sterols, etc. categories. Future research should focus on (1) stimulated feeding and/or biting. Some new isolation of the chemical attractant present in the tree chemicals stimulating oviposition were reported sap and developing suitable mechanical trapping recently. devices using the attractant chemical(s) to replace the So many behaviors of JPS are known to be traditional tree-trap, (2) standardizing the use of light closely associated with certain chemicals. Some trap for trapping beetles, and (3) exploring the scope of their stimulus-response relation have been of using the elaterid predator for biological control. described and elucidated, but most of them International cooperation will be useful for isolation remains unknown yet. Toward the integrated pest and synthesis of the attractant sap chemical(s). management of pine wilt disease, especially that of JPS, behavior-controlling method could Teak Beehole Borer, Xyleutes ceramica: contribute greatly to the system, and we anticipate Ecology and Management development of researches in the science and Chaweewan Hutacharern technology along this line in the near future. Forest Research Office, Royal Forest Department, 61 Paholyotin Road, 10900 Bangkok, Thailand 7.03.00 Review of recent developments in Tel: +66-2-5798775, FAX: +66 2 5789775, Email: the management of major tropical forest [email protected] insect pests. Theory and practice Keywords: Teak beehole borer, Xyleutes ceramica, control Management of the Sal Heartwood Borer, Hoplocerambyx spinicornis in The teak beehole borer, Xyleutes ceramica Walker India (Lepidoptera, Cossidae) is the most important pest of R. K. Dey teak in Thailand, in terms of its effect on reducing State Forest Research Institute, Polipathar, Jabalpur, wood quality. It is also a serious pest in Myanmar, (482 008) Madhya Pradesh, India Thailand and Malaysia. This moth caterpillar bores in Tel: 91-761-25540(off), FAX: 0097-761-411304, the wood of standing teak trees, making a big tunnel in Email: [email protected] the sapwood and heartwood, thereby causing serious Keywords: Hoplocerambyx, sal, borer outbreak, depreciation of wood quality. Infestation takes place Shorea robusta, trap-tree operation) throughout the life of the tree and a 40-year old tree may have up to 165 tunnels. Infestation is localized; in The sal heartwood borer, Hoplocerambyx some plantations, particularly in northern Thailand, up spinicornis Newman (Coleoptera, Cerambycidae) to 100 per cent of the trees may be infested. is considered the most destructive forest pest in India and is well known for its periodic outbreaks Current control practices include removal of young in high risk sites. An epidemic which began in larvae by scraping the infested bark using a knife, 1994 in Madhya Pradesh provided an opportunity injection of insecticide into larval holes and trapping to study the behaviour of the pest and the of newly eclosed moths. There is also indication of response of the host, on the face of the existing presence of beehole borer resistant provenances. outbreak management system, which relies on (1) In Thailand, research has concentrated on life history removal of infested trees and (2) trapping beetles and study of the sex pheromone. in collaboration with using trap trees and killing them. Observations Japan International Cooperation Agency, the sex over a two-year period from March 1998 to pheromone has been identified, purified and

299 Division 8 bioassayed and its use for monitoring and experimental scale in India, the microbial insecticide, management of the beehole borer is being Bacillus thuringiensis is applied aerially. (3) in standardised. plantations raised by individuals and private commercial companies in several countries, including Management of the Teak Defoliator, India, Thailand, Malaysia, and Costa Rica, chemical Hyblaea Puera - Current Status insecticides are applied aerially, in some situations. K. S. S. Nair This practice is now on the increase due to the rapid Kerala Forest Research Institute, T.C. 9/1171 (3), expansion of commercial teak cultivation across the Mangalam Lane, Sasthamangalam, 695 010 tropics and poses a threat to environmental quality. Trivandrum, Kerala, India Tel: 91-471-310 470, FAX: 91-471-325 674 (attn: KSS Current research on teak defoliator management, Nair), Email: [email protected] particularly in India, focuses on the one hand, on the potential of total population management by Keywords: teak defoliator, Hyblaea puera, preventing large-scale outbreaks by controlling the baculovirus, population dynamics) population build-up in the early outbreak epicentres Currently, there is an unprecedented expansion of and, on the other hand, use of a baculovirus isolated teak plantations across the tropics. They are from H. puera. Scientific understanding of the managed intensively to get maximum yield in a causation of the sudden outbreak of this pest that short rotation period. in this context, this paper follows the early monsoon rains and spreads examines the current status and prospects for subsequently over extensive areas, is essential for management of the major teak pest, Hyblaea developing appropriate management strategies. Recent puera Cramer (Lepidoptera, Hyblaeidae). research in India has suggested two hypotheses for Commonly known as the teak defoliator, H. puera outbreak initiation- (1) wind-aided concentration of has been recognized as a serious pest of teak dispersed local populations, (2) Long-distance plantations for over a century. Originally displacement of pre-existing high-density populations distributed in the natural teak belt of the Asian between countries. tropics, it has now spread, along with teak plantations, to other tropical countries, Status and Management of Small particularly in the Asia pacific and some central Coleopterous Borers in Living Timbers in American and African regions. Severe outbreak Tropical Africa has recently been reported from Costa Rica. in Hans G. Schabel, Seif Madoffe most teak growing countries in the Asia Pacific, University of Wisconsin, College of Natural Resources, WI extensive and repeated outbreak of this defoliator 54481 Stevens Point, USA is a spectacular, annual feature during the early FAX: (715) 346-3624, Email: [email protected] part of the growth season. It was estimated to 3 Keywords: Africa, Natural forests, Plantations, cause an annual loss of up to 3 cm of potential Bostrychidae, Platypodidae, Scolytidae volume increment per hectare of plantation. As natural forests in the tropics continue to shrink and Past recommendations for management, which plantation area increases, there is growing concern for relied on augmentation of native insect parasitoids the health of both. Managed forests and plantations in through promotion of the alternative hosts of the Africa often face difficult physical environments in parasitoids by manipulation of the vegetation combination with serious interference from pests, cover, proved inadequate because of the unique including insects. Among these, several borers are population dynamics of the pest. Aerial notorious for diminishing the quality of precious application of chemical insecticides, although woods, either while a tree is still living or after its tried in the past, cannot be practiced widely harvest. This paper synthesizes existing knowledge because of environmental considerations. Search concerning three families of small, coleopterous borers for genetic resistance to the pest did not yield (Bostrychidae, Platypodidae, Scolytidae), which are or useful results. The present situation on teak may become, pests in living timbers in tropical Africa. defoliator management is as follows. (1) in the extensive teak plantations maintained by With a few exceptions, small coleopterous borers in Government Forest Departments or Government Africa are polyphagous. They rarely attack healthy sponsored agencies in India, Myanmar, Thailand trees or seedlings, and direct mortality of hosts, other and Indonesia, generally no control measures are than heavily attacked seedlings, is exceptional. Their practiced and the plantations continue to suffer activity seems largely restricted to nurseries and loss of increment. (2) in high-value plantations plantations and their impact is mostly felt in over small areas in Thailand, as well as on an conjunction with dry seasons, fire or other injuries.

300 Division 7 Given global warming trends, increasing resistant trees. These sites are primarily low elevation, international commerce and future expansion of low latitude sites, especially on Moist-Warm habitats plantation culture, this group of insects could of the Sub-Boreal-Spruce (SBS) biogeoclimatic zone. become a more serious factor in timber On Vancouver Island Sitka spruce, screening has been production and trade. Potential methods of conducted in seven test sites. Recent results obtained dealing with them are discussed. It is suggested from measurements of weevil attack in new trials that in addition to cooperative quarantine efforts established by the BC Ministry of Forests, confirm the and innovative pest control methods, wherever Big Qualicum area of Vancouver Island as a good feasible, the emphasis should be cultural i.e., a source of resistant genotypes. To accelerate the shift from plantations to more natural forest screening process, and create a uniform weevil management, emphasizing more complex stand pressure, insect populations have been augmented at composition and structure. several trials. Spruce families with resistance have 7.03.03 Insect Pest Problems in Replanted been able to withstand very high weevil populations. Forests At Port Renfrew, BC, weevil attack was increased from less than 1%/year to 51% in one year, yielding Screening spruce for genetic new selections. resistance to white pine weevil in We hope that these new selections, along with earlier British Columbia, Canada results, will form the basis for successful Rene Alfaro, John N. King, Cheng Ying, George establishment of Sitka spruce plantations in B.C. Brown, Kornelia G. Lewis These trials are also yielding important information on Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, the population dynamics of the white pine weevil, the Pacific Forestry Centre, 506 West Burnside Road, V8Z importance of its parasitoids in population control, the 1M5 Victoria B.C., Canada role of fungi in the weevil/host system as well as Tel: 1-250-363-0660, FAX: 1-250-363-0775, Email: information on possible resistance mechanisms. We [email protected] expect to integrate resistance as a component of an The white pine weevil, Pissodes strobi Peck Integrated Pest Management System. An important (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is the most serious consideration when utilizing resistant genotypes in native pest of spruce regeneration in British reforestation programs is its deployment in mixtures Columbia, attacking primarily Sitka (Picea with susceptible stock. Deployment of these genotypes sitchensis (Bong.) Carr), white (P. glauca should, at all times, take into consideration the need (Moench) Voss), and Engelmann spruce (P. for avoiding the risk of insect selection engelmanni Parry). The weevil has one generation a year. The eggs are laid from late April to June in Insect pest problems in plantations in the punctures made by the female in the bark below high forests of Africa the buds of the terminal (year-old) shoot. The Joe R. Cobbinah larvae burrow downward in the bark, feeding on Forestry Research Institute of Kumasi, Kumasi Ghana the phloem, which eventually kills the terminal. Tel: +233 51 60122, FAX: +233 51 60121, Email: Destruction of the apical shoot reduces growth [email protected] and causes deformities. Plantation forestry is a relatively recent phenomenon With respect to white spruce, a large family trial in the humid Tropical Africa probably because of the near Clearwater, British Columbia, has been rich natural forests. However the high rate of surveyed annually for weevil resistance between deforestation (1.2%) coupled with the ever increasing 1993 and 1998. The latest results confirm a population have necessitated the establishment of preliminary resistance raking of each family forest plantations to meet growing demand and variety developed in 1994 using an index which of needs. Whilst pest problems are largely unknown in measured intensity of attack (number of attacks the natural forests serious problems have been per tree), severity of each attack (how many reported in the replanted forests. Pests such as internodes were destroyed) and tree tolerance to Phytolyma lata Hypsipyla robusta, Lamprosima attack ( i.e., if tree develops good form after an lateritialis, Apate monachus, Angophe venuta, Godasa attack). The study demonstrated significant sidae and many others have hampered the genetic variation in the attack resistance. establishment of native species plantations. The Variation in resistance was related to ecoclimatic Cypress aphid Cinara cupress and Leucenia psyllid. conditions of the parental tree source. Analysis Heteropsylla cubana have also had devastating effect showed that those parents from locations with on introduced plantation species. high weevil hazard yielded higher proportion of

301 Division 8 The ecological implications to the broader issues ascertain which forest conditions most clearly favour of why pests are more devastating in planted high levels of parasitism, and what relationship forests and not natural forests and why exotic parasitism has to other biological controls such as the species are more prone to attack than native tree use of entomopathogenic nematodes. species are discussed. Reference: Leather, S.R., Day, K.R. and Salisbury, A.N. (1999) The biology and ecology of the large pine The effect of biocontrol agents on weevil, Hylobius abietis L.: a problem of dispersal? populations of the large pine weevil Bulletin of Entomological Research, 89: 3-16. (Hylobius abietis) in Ireland. Keith Day, Cliff Henry Approach for an efficient control of Environmental Research, University of Ulster, BT52 1RW Coleraine, United Kingdom defoliating insect damage: case of FAX: +44 1265 32 49 11, Email: [email protected] Godasa sidae (Lep. Noctuidae) attacks on Mansonia altissima The large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis) Bernard Foahom continues to be a significant economic pest in IRAD/Tropenbos Cameroon Programme, Post Box # 219, Irish plantation forests where it inhibits re- Kribi, Cameroon establishment of transplanted conifers on clear- FAX: (237) 46 14 19, Email: felled sites. Two broad approaches are considered [email protected] when attempting to reduce the level of the It is a well-known fact, the impact of insect defoliation damage caused by weevils. The first is to prevent of forest tree species. Godasa sidae is a major pest of or at least reduce the access of adult weevils to Mansonia altissima, one of the most important timber transplants while they are still small enough to tree species in West and Central Africa regions. It has sustain lethal damage. This is currently achieved a high reproductive potential and a short life cycle, using topical pesticides applied prior to leading to many overlapping generations per year. transplantation, but in future this practice may be However 2 outbreaks occur in the course of the year replaced by reliance on a combination of greater leading to a complete defoliation (100%) of the trees plant resistance and other silvicultural measures. in plantations. Fourth and fifth instar larvae are those The second approach is to reduce the productivity involved in the high intensity defoliation of the trees of weevils on the mosaic of clear-felled patches (more than 50% of defoliation is observed at these within forests where the problem is most acute. stages). Weevils breed in stumps of conifers left in the It was observed that the outbreaks are closely linked to ground after felling. Stumps can be made less the tree phenology for they occur when the leaves are productive for larval development, or the adults, suitable for eggs lying and young larvae pupae and larvae could become more likely to feeding/survival. suffer disease, predation or parasitism. A well- orchestrated and forest-wide strategy to suppress The present paper addresses the what and how of the the weevil challenge to transplants, could add application of any control measure, with special significantly to the first approach and lead to attention to potential biological control. sustainable pest management (Leather et al. Possible ways for an effective control of pest damage 1999). Ideally this would involve zero pesticide are discussed here. It is concluded that any efforts to use, be at minimal cost and not affect forest undertake the control damage on trees as a result of biodiversity. defoliation must take place before the outbreak occurs, The parasitoid Bracon hylobii Ratz. selectively that is at an early stage of the pest life cycle. attacks the larvae of Hylobius abietis while they are below bark in the subterranean parts of tree stumps. The parasitoid is widespread on forest sites in the UK and in Ireland. On plantation clearfell sites studied over several years, it was found that a mean of 47% of larvae were killed by parasitism and a maximum rate of parasitism of 67% was observed. Only a small proportion of weevil larvae seem to occupy habitats inaccessible to parasitoids, and the hosts are available for parasitism for a long period during development. Research is being carried out to

302 Division 7

Impact studies for a non-lethal pest 7.03.07 Biological Invasion of Forest Insect (aphids, Elatobium abietinum) on Pests - Agents of global change spruce seedlings and mature Butternut Canker: An Exotic Threat to plantations Nigel A. Straw, NJ Fielding and G Green Juglans cinerea Forest Research, Alice Holt Lodge, Wrecclesham, Dale R. Bergdahl, S. Halik Farnham, GU10 4LH Surrey, United Kingdom University of Vermont, Department of Forestry, School of Tel: 01420 22255, FAX: 01420 23 653, Email: Natural Resources, Forest Pathology Laboratory, 05405 [email protected] Burlington, USA Email: [email protected] Sitka spruce is the most important commercial tree species in the west and north of Britain. Over Butternut (Juglans cinerea L.) is considered a minor 530 000 ha of Sitka spruce have been planted component of the hardwood forests of eastern North since the 1920s and about 5000-6000 ha of new America, yet it is highly valued as a commercial wood plantings and restocking of Sitka spruce currently with a diversity of uses. This species also provides takes place annually. However, spruce plantations mast for wildlife and adds significantly to the throughout the UK are susceptible to attack by biodiversity of our forests. However, the butternut green spruce aphid, Elatobium abietinum canker fungus (Sirococcus clavigignenti- (Walker) (Aphidadae), which can cause severe juglandacearum Nair Kostichka, and Kuntz) has defoliation of older needles. Young spruce trees decimated butternut throughout its range in eastern in plantations are also often infested with root North America during the past 30 years. This fungus aphids (Pachypappa and Pachypappella spp., kills trees of all ages and also has been found to infest Pemphigidae), especially up to and during the nuts. The fungus kills trees by causing multiple branch thicket stage. The impact of these aphids on the and stem cankers that will eventually girdle the tree, growth of young Sitka spruce has been but multiple infections may also predispose the tree to investigated by means of a long-term, attack by other opportunistic organisms which tend to manipulative field experiment in Hafren Forest, hasten tree mortality. However, small branches and Wales, involving insecticide exclusion of aphids young trees are usually killed by a single canker. and artificial infestation of trees, and a series of Recent forest inventory data indicate that butternut nursery trials on pot-grown plants carried out at canker has had a major impact on butternut survival Forestry Commission research stations. Results during the last several decades. For example, in North from these studies indicate that whereas root Carolina and Virginia, 77% of the butternut trees were aphids at typical field densities have no detectable lost between 1966 and 1986, and Michigan has effect on the increment of established plants, E. reported an 84% reduction in the species during the abietinum has an immediate and lasting effect on same period of time. A 1993 survey in Wisconsin tree height growth and a delayed effect on stem found that 91% of live butternut trees were diseased diameter and volume. and 27% of the total population surveyed were dead. Height increment is typically reduced by 20-30% in 1995-96, butternut canker was found on 94% of by the end of the season following moderate- trees in the Lake Champlain Basin of Vermont and severe infestation in the spring, and is further approximately 25% of the trees surveyed at that time reduced in the following two years, although by a were dead. Due to crown dieback, nut production smaller amount. Stem diameter and volume appears limited and regeneration in the Vermont increments are not reduced in the year of surveyed stands is lacking. Because of concern for infestation, but show typical reductions of 10- butternut, several states have placed a moratorium on 15% and 20-25% respectively, in the second year. cutting healthy trees growing on state lands, and the Diameter and volume increments generally return USDA Forest Service has introduced butternut to normal in the third year. The almost harvesting guidelines for National Forest lands. Also, exponential growth of young spruce trees after the Forest Service, in cooperation with several state establishment and rapid replacement of lost and academic institutions, has initiated a tree selection foliage means that effects on increment from program based on phenotypic disease resistance. Some single defoliation events are short-lived, but the selections have been made and they are now being corresponding losses in total height and total stem propagated by grafting. volume persist and are still evident up to 5 years The origin of S. clavigignenti-juglandacearum later. remains unknown, but it is believed to be a recently introduced exotic pathogen because of the rapid way the fungus has spread throughout the range of

303 Division 8 butternut, the aggressive nature of the fungus, the spreading by way of timber trade in East Asia and scarcity of disease resistance in the host, and the causes huge damage to pine forests in Japan, China apparent lack of genetic diversity in the fungus and Korea. in 1999, the pinewood nematode was population. Because of the serious impact of this introduced into Europe and is now established in a canker disease, butternut is currently listed as a restricted area in Portugal. Its introduction pathway is category 2 species and it soon may be placed on unknown. Some other Bursaphelenchus species, the federal government's threatened and chiefly B. mucronatus and B. sexdentati have been endangered species list. Butternut already has found to exhibit a phytopathogenic potential in been eliminated from the standpoint of inoculation experiments. B. mucronatus is the most sustainable wood production, and the future of abundant species in timber imports from Russia. butternut as a viable species now remains in The distribution of Bursaphelenchus species depends serious question throughout the hardwood forest on geographic regions as well as on the availability of of eastern North America. breeding places and vectors. Bursaphelenchus fauna differs from region to region and is basically divided Occurrence of Bursaphelenchus into American and Eurasian species. Within Europe, species (Nematoda, preferences of species can be seen for southern and Aphelenchoididae) worldwide and northern Europe. Some species and their vectors occur their international spread by in Europe, Siberia and East Asia, others seem to be coniferous timber trade restricted to Asian far eastern regions. Several new Helen Braasch records are presented. Temperature is important for the Federal Biological Research Centre for Agriculture and incidence of damage caused by relevant species on Forestry, Department for National and International suitable hosts. Increasing international timber trade Plant Health, D-14532 Kleinmachnow, Germany offers the possibility of their world-wide spread. Risks Email: [email protected] and limits of this process are discussed. Keywords: Bursaphelenchus spp., distribution, conifers, wood, timber trade, spread Studies on insect invasions in California's About 50 Bursaphelenchus species are known to urban forests occure worldwide. Due to new descriptions D.L. Dahlsten, N. Brownfield, K. Stidt, D.L. Rowney, W.A. Cooper during recent years, their known number is University of California, 201 Wellman Hall,ESPM, Center increasing. These nematodes are, preferably, for Biological Control, 94720-3112 Berkeley, California, inhabitants of wood. Approximately two thirds of USA them live in conifer trees. They are distributed Tel: 510-643-5325, FAX: 510-642-7428, Email: throughout the forests of the northern hemisphere [email protected] and spread by insect vectors. Most of them are California has a long history of invasions of exotic associated with Scolytidae, several species with insects dating back to cottony cushion scale on Cerambycidae, Curculionidae or even Nitidulidae. oranges in the late 1800's. Since then there have been a Human activity is known to be the pricipal route number of successful invaders facilitated by major for dispersal of Bursaphelenchus species over ports of entry and international airports. Urban forest greater distances. Bursaphelenchus species have invaders such as the elm leaf beetle have become been intercepted on a number of occasions during major pests not only in California but in the United international trade in wood and wood products. States. There are two major tactics that are used in They easily survive adverse conditions. The dealing with these pests - eradication and biological likelihood of Bursaphelenchus species to be control. Eradication programs have been very transferred to susceptible trees in new regions controversial due to their reliance on chemical increases with the simultaneous presence of pesticides. More recently biological control programs vector insects in the commodities. have come under scrutiny due to potential threats to South Africa is the only place in the southern native species and biodiversity. We have chosen to hemisphere, where a determined Bursaphelenchus pursue what we believe to be the least disruptive species (B. leoni) is known to occur. It has most approach - biological control. probably been imported from the Mediterranean We have studied three invading urban forest species in region. The most important species of the genera our laboratory - the elm leaf beetle, Xanthogaleruca is B. xylophilus, the pinewood nematode, which luteola, the blue gum psyllid, Ctenarytaina eucalypti, has been imported with wood from North and the eugenia psyllid, Trioza eugeniae. Our studies America to Japan. This nematode has been have resulted in an IPM program for one insect,

304 Division 7 complete biological control for another, and a many examples of pest establishment in exotic partially successful biological control program for locations. This is certainly the case for forest pests the other. where wood as a product in its own right and, especially, as packaging material for other products, is More recently an extensively planted exotic tree, being moved around the world in very large volumes. Eucalyptus camaldulensis, river red gum, has been colonized by the red gum lerp psyllid, The risks associated with wood as a pathway for pests Glycaspis brimblecombei. Populations of this leaf are recognised by national plant health services and sucking, honeydew producing insect have reached Regional Plant Protection Organisations (RPPOs) and such high densities that trees have been defoliated there is an increasing need for relevant and robust risk in many parts of California. To date the insect has assessment methods that can be used consistently been found in 30 counties. It was found initially worldwide. in this paper we show how a pest risk in Los Angeles in June of 1998 and spread rapidly assessment (PRA) scheme developed by the European throughout the state shortly after. in addition, the and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organisation red gum lerp psyllid has been collected from 20 (EPPO) has been employed in the UK to carry out other Eucalyptus species planted throughout the assessments of a number of potentially serious forest state. We have confined our studies initially to pests. We highlight the strengths and weaknesses of river red gum, as this is the tree that is most the scheme. The determination of environmental seriously affected by the feeding of the psyllid. suitability in PRA is of key importance and we show how assessments can be improved by the use of With each of the invading species that we have predictive models, such as CLIMEX. Thus, based on studied we have used a similar approach. To pest status in their country of origin, some pests, such begin with we sampled to determine the as the southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis) in distribution and abundance of the life stages of the USA, appear to pose a high potential hazard but the invading insect. We followed this with the we show that local environmental conditions in the development of a monitoring program. With the UK are unlikely to support successful pest elm leaf beetle we use a presence-absence development, even if initial establishment is possible. technique with the egg stage in the lower crown By contrast, the establishment of an Asian longhorn of the elms. With the psyllids we use yellow beetle, Anoplophora glabripennis, in the USA sticky traps for adults. Interestingly, the illustrates how a pest that is relatively unimportant in parasitoids of both the blue gum psyllid and the its country of origin can cause greater problems in a eugenia psyllid are attracted to the yellow traps new location. A PRA on A. glabripennis indicates that which facilitates our evaluation of the efficacy of the major pathway in international trade is wood used the natural enemy. Once the monitoring technique for packaging and showed, using CLIMEX, that this is in place we initiate foreign exploration and the pest could establish in large areas of Europe. Such an importation of the natural enemies. We follow the example serves to emphasise that organisms with parasitoids in quarantine to be sure that they are relatively low pest status in their country of origin may primary on the insect being studied and once we pose a high potential hazard in new locations, but the feel that they are specific to the host and relatively risks these pests represent is much more difficult to safe we release and evaluate the natural enemy's assess. in addition, there may also be unexpected role in the dynamics of the pest population. establishment of pests, even though a priori evaluation Without more rigid regulations, insects will indicates that risks are low. We illustrate this by continue to be introduced into California's urban describing the discovery of an infestation of the forests, and some will become pests. We feel that subterranean termite, Reticulitermes lucifugus, in the our approach is the best long term solution to south-west of the UK. This appears to be just one of dealing with invasions of exotic forest insects. an increasing number of examples of pests expanding their ranges beyond the climatic limits previously Evaluating the risk of invasion by thought to limit their successful development. potential forest pests Hugh Evans, Richard Baker Forest Research, Alice Holt Lodge, Wrecclesham, Farnham, GU10 4LH Surrey, United Kingdom FAX: +44 1420 23653, Email: h.evans@forestry,gov.uk The rapid increase in volume, frequency and variety of global trade, together with the high speed at which it is conducted has resulted in

305 Division 8 invasive bark and wood-boring insects around the Incursion management drawing on major Canadian port of Vancouver, British Columbia, recent New Zealand examples have shown that six previously unrecognized exotic E. Ruth Frampton species of Scolytidae and Cerambycidae have Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, PO Box 2526, established in the urban forests. They include species Wellington, New Zealand originating from north temperate Europe and Asia, the Tel: +64 4 4989639, FAX: +64 4 4989888, Email: subtropics, and from eastern North America. Four of [email protected] these five Scolytidae have also been introduced into Like other trading countries New Zealand has eastern North America and/or Europe through been continually subject to incursions of exotic commerce. arthropods and diseases. For the purposes of this Within urban forest sites, this recently discovered paper, the term 'incursion' means an occurrence of fauna, along with other previously introduced species, an organism not previously known to be now comprise the major component of survey trap established in New Zealand, and does not include captures. As well, the introduced fauna now dominates interceptions. While it is not always possible to the total complement of Scolytidae (both individuals predict the impacts of such incursions, there is no and species) attacking some host tree species. One doubt that the number of these is increasing and species exhibits a highly restricted distribution within different approaches are required to their the urban landscape, and two more species have not management. yet been found outside of urban forests. However, two More often than not incursions of forest- of the recent introductions have successfully invaded inhabiting species are detected in urban situations. adjacent managed forest lands. Indeed, one of the Clearly, conservationists, local authority arborists latter species, that within its native range is only and production foresters favour the known to attack deciduous hosts, has also been implementation of eradication programmes for recovered from two species of conifers. Studies are those organisms that are potentially pests of forest currently underway to determine the extent to which tree species. However, eradication programmes these species have invaded both managed and natural are becoming more difficult to initiate in urban forest ecosystems. areas particularly with residents' concerns about Although the full impact of these recent and other pesticide use. Moreover, conflicts of interest arise historical introductions is not yet understood, existing between urban dwellers and programme information does indicate the potential for some beneficiaries - obvious programme beneficiaries increased economic costs. Limited economic losses being the rural forestry and horticultural sectors. resulting from degrade of softwood lumber shipments Recent New Zealand examples of incursions of as a consequence of attack by non-indigenous particular relevance to the forestry sector include: ambrosia beetles have occurred and attack has been two lymantriid species, Orgyia thyellina (white observed in decked timber in managed forests. spotted tussock moth) and Teia anartoides Preliminary evidence from survey and research trap (painted apple moth); Stegommata sulfuratella; captures indicates that the existing pheromone-based gum leaf skeletoniser (Uraba lugens); and management systems used to control the levels of Ophiostoma novo-ulmi, the causal organism of damage native ambrosia beetles at mill sites may not Dutch elm disease. The varying responses to the be as effective in attracting these exotic species. Thus incursion of these organisms are outlined and new management systems may be required. compared with recommendations for future programmes. The biological and ecological impacts resulting from the establishment of these ambrosia beetles, and their associated ambrosial fungi, remains to be determined. Invasive Bark and Wood-boring These introduced species are now a major component Beetles in Western Canada of the scolytid diversity in some forest systems and Leland M. Humble may impact the diversity of native plant and animal Pacific Forest Research Centre, 506 West Burnside Road, V8Z 1M5 Victoria, British Columbia, Canada species. The potential for the competitive exclusion of Tel: 250-363-0644, FAX: 250-363-0775, Email: at least one rare native ambrosia beetle exists in [email protected] British Columbia. The introduction and establishment of non- indigenous insects in forest ecosystems is a continuing consequence human activity. Ongoing studies of the introduction and establishment of

306 Division 7 Because low temperatures cause a delay in host Control methods and management symptom development and a slower rate of both PWN strategy of pine wood nematode in and JPS population increase, the spread of the PWN Japan: History and future scope and the number of infested pine trees have tended to Naoto Kamata slow down in northern Japan. This fact means that the Kanazawa University, Faculty of Science, Laboratory control efforts and the intrinsic rate of increase of of Ecology, 930-1192 Kakuma, Kanazawa, Istukawa, PWD are balanced in the regions it is speculated that Japan the PWN will expand only slowly in northern Japan by FAX: +81-76-264-5708, Email: the repeating processes of 'spread and establishment [email protected] into uninfested areas in hot dry summers' and 'keeping In pine wood nematode (PWN), Bursaphelenchus the status quo in cool summers'. To stop the new xylophilus (Nematode: Aphelenchoididae), which invasion in the hot dry summers is the key to control causes pine wilt disease (PWD), is believed to be strategy in the northern extremes of the PWN range. native North America and is thought to have been The result of a barrier zone defense project in the introduced to Japan in the early 1900's. The main expanding front of northern Japan will be presented. methods of controlling PWD in Japan has been cut & treat (e.g. cut & burn, and cut & use sprayor Biological invasion of forest insect pests - smoke insecticide). Because Japanese pine sawyer a threat to the stability of the world's (JPS), Monochamus alternatus (Coleoptera: forest ecosystems Cerambycidae), is the most important insect Andrew Liebhold vector of PWN, the purpose of these cut & treat USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station, 180 methods are to prevent PWN expansions by Canfield St, WV 26505 Morgantown, USA preventing the spread of adult JPS. Although it FAX: +01-304-285-1505, Email: [email protected] was in the early 1970s that PWN carried by JPS For millions of years the world's biota has been was confirmed to cause PWD, one of the reasons separated by geographical barriers such as oceans and that PWD spread more slowly before the early mountain ranges but humans are ever increasing their 1960s was that the cut & burn method had been rate of world movement and this has caused an quite successful because infested dead pine trees acceleration of rates of accidental introductions of were efficiently removed from forests and used species into new areas. Biological invasions represent for fuel. The spread of PWD accelerated after the a particularly major problem to Forestry because 1970s, and PWD has now invaded all of Japan invading species often disrupt efforts to manage for except for Hokkaido and Aomori, the natural ecosystem functions and/or for sustainable northernmost prefecture of Honshu. Now with our yield of wood products. understanding of PWD ecology, PWD would theoretically have been extinguished if all the The ecological and economic effects of biological dead trees were treated properly before the time of invasions in forestry probably already exceed those JPS adult emergence. According to a simulation caused by either air pollution or climate change and by Shigesada et al. (1999), <10% of untreated the problem is likely to increase in magnitude in the dead trees may allow PWD to expand its range. future. The enormity of the problem appears to be Therefore, it is natural to think that there incompletely understood by scientists and remained <10% of untreated dead trees every year inadequately appreciated by policy-makers. and that this percentage increased after the 1970s. I present here a generalized theory of the ecology of Possible reasons include: invasions consisting of three related processes: arrival, 1. Rapid industrialization of Japan made it establishment, and spread. Specific population difficult to treat dead pine trees completely, processes dominate each phase of the invasion process because the number of forest workers decreased and are affected by life history characteristics such that and wood as fuel was rapidly replaced by gas and it is possible to use these characteristics to predict the oil. risk of invasion posed by different organisms. This information can be used to develop optimal strategies 2. Many dead pine trees were treated after JPS for management of all phases of the invasion process. I adults had already emerged, which partially present a simple model that can be applied to identify depended on a lack of knowledge of the life cycle optimal management strategies during invasions. of JPS and partially on the budget system; as the fiscal year starts in April making it difficult to perform complete eradication before the start of JPS emergence (May-June).

307 Division 8 natural enemies from its native habitat. Searches in Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the United Japan and China have yielded numerous predators, States: Status of Ongoing Biological most previously undescribed. Two coccinellid beetles Control Efforts show the greatest promise. From Japan, Scott Salom, Mark McClure Pseodoscymnus Tsugae Sasaji & McClure, has been Virginia Tech, Dept. Entomology, VA 24061-0319 studied extensively in the laboratory, and is being Blacksburg, USA mass reared for limited field releases that are currently Tel: 540-231-2794, FAX: 540-231-9131, Email: taking place throughout eastern North America where [email protected] HWA occurs. This insect has survived in the field for Hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA), Adelges Tsugae up to two years and has reduced the density of HWA Annand (Homoptera: Adelgidae) was first on trees in which it was released. Another coccinellid discovered on hemlock (Tsugae spp.) trees in beetle Scymnus sinuanodulus Yu & Yao, has been western North America in the 1920's. It wasn't studied in the lab. It has shown good promise as a until the early 1950's that HWA was first reported predator and is considered ready for limited releases. in eastern North America, near Richmond, in western North America, a predator commonly found Virginia. HWA is considered native of Tsuga spp. associated with HWA Laricobius nigrinus Fender in Asia, principally, China and Japan. Asian and (Coleoptera: Derodontidae), has been imported to western North American Tsuga spp. are resistant Virginia and is currently being studied at a quarantine to HWA feeding and are able to sustain laboratory located at Virginia Tech. This insect has colonization and feeding with little damage been able to complete several generations on HWA resulting to the tree. The eastern Tsuga spp., only. This presentation will report on the latest (Tsuga canandensis (L.) Carr.and T. caroliniana research being carried out on these predators. Their Engelm.) are both susceptible to HWA and are potential role and effectiveness in regulating HWA often killed when infestation density is high. It populations will be discussed. was not until the 1980's that populations of HWA began to increase dramatically. Concurrent with Modelling the Spread of pine Wilt Disease that was the expansion of the insect's geographic in Japan range. It has spread as far north as Massachusetts Nanako Shigesada, Yamamota, N., Kawasaki, K., Takasu, and south to North Carolina. Prevailing westerly F., Togashi, K., Nunotani, H. winds have probably played a role in slowing Nara Women's University, Kita-Uoya Nishimachi, 630- 8506 Nara, Japan expansion west of the Appalachian range. FAX: +81-742-20-3438, Email: [email protected] The insect has two generations per year on An epidemic of pine wilt disease has been spreading in hemlock and can be found attached to the base of wide areas of Japan for nearly a century. The disease the needles. The insects insert their stylet into is caused by the pinewood nematode Bursaphelenchus storage parenchyna cells below the abcission xylophilus, with the pine sawyer, Monochamus layer of the needles. New shoot development is alternatus as vector. We present a mathematical model impacted, affecting growth of new needles. Trees to describe the host-parasite interaction between pines can be killed in as soon as four years, yet often and pine sawyers carrying nematodes on the basis of live longer. Trees that are able to survive may detailed data taken from the incidence of pine wilt either be more vigorous or less disposed to HWA disease at a study site located on the northwest coast of genetically. Neither explanation has been Japan. With this model we simulate the temporal rigorously tested. The insect secretes white change in the incidence of the disease and predict how woolly material that cover the insect and serve as the epidemic could be controlled by eradication of the ovisacs. The only mobile stage for movement pine sawyer. Furthermore, the model is extended to from among hemlocks is the crawler stage study the spatial spread of disease on a large scale, by immediately following eclosion of the eggs. incorporating short-range dispersal of the pine sawyer Crawlers have no wings. Therefore, dispersal is together with long-range dispersal through air passive. HWA poses a serious threat to eastern convection or transportation of logs infested with forests of North America. Both Tsuga spp. play nematodes. The leap distance distribution of sawyers important ecological roles in the forest, especially is estimated from experimental data. in riparian areas. The prospects of losing these species are real and efforts to address this The main results are: problem have been undertaken. The most 1) There is a minimum threshold of the initial pine promising research underway for helping to density for successful invasion of the disease. reduce the impact of HWA is the importation of However, even if the pine density exceeds the

308 Division 7 minimum threshold, the disease fails in invasion of Hungary. The species probably origins from area due to the Allee effect of the pine sawyer when its near Ohrid Lake (Makedonia). This pest attacks the density is very low. horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum L.), 2) The minimum threshold density increases frequently planted in parks, cemeteries and in special disproportionately with increase in the eradication hunting areas. The pest has 3-5 flight periods during rate. the year and causes heavy defoliation of tree at the 3) Once the disease is established, its range beginning of summer often leading to their death after expands at a constant speed depending on the pine 1- 3 years defoliation depending on their health and density. weather conditions. in 1996,this species reached the 4) in areas where rapid spreads of the disease are Slovak and Czech republics and during 2 subsequent observed, more than 10 percent of sawyers are years infested almost all teititory of both for the first estimated to undergo long-distance dispersal time in the southwestem Hungary (1978 - 1979). in naturally or artificially. 1986, the species reached the Slova countries. Also during this period, black locust (Robinia pseudoAcacia Recent Invasions of Forest Insects L.) stands in the region were attacked by the leaf Pests in Central Europe miner Parectopa robiniella (this species originales Marek Turcani from North America). The pest was discovered k Forest Research Institute Zvolen, Research Station republic and in 1989, the Czech republic. Banska Stiavnica, Lesnicka 11, 96923 Banska These examples illustrate the enorrnity of problems Stiavnica, Slovakia Tel: +421 859 6911144, FAX: +421 859 6911044, with invasive species to central Europe even though Email: [email protected] extensive quarantine efforts exist. These problems illustrate the importance of preparing the Global The eastern part of central Europe (Hungary, the Forest Invasive Species Information System as a part Czech Republic, the Slovak Republic and Poland) of Global Forest Information Service at this time. is an important transit corridor between Russia and Westem Europe and this causes a high risk Global Spread of Insect-Associated Fungi for introduction of non native species. This region On Exotic Plantation Pines is heavily affected by anthropogenic factors (e.g. Michael J. Wingfield, Bernard Slippers, Zhou Xu Dong, air pollution, changing climate) and these changes Wilhelm de Beer and Brenda D. Wingfield promote the expansion of species ranges to new University of Pretoria, Department of Genetics and areas as well. We describe 3 noteworthy invaders, Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology, 0001 the bark beetle Ips duplicatus C. R. Sahlberg 1836 Pretoria, South Africa and leaf miners Parectopa robiniella Clemens Tel: +27 12 4293938, FAX: +27-12 420 3960, Email: 1863 and Cameraria ohridella Deschka & Dinic [email protected] 1986. During the course of the 20th Century, plantation In 1993, an outbreak of a previously unknown forestry in the tropics and Southern Hemisphere has bark beetle species (Ips duplicatus) was grown dramatically. This growth is associated with discovered in the northeastem part of the Czech increased demand for wood and paper products and Republic in stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies also with restrictions on the felling of native forests. L.). The native range of this species includes Thus, huge industries have been established based on northern Europe to west Siberia, but occasional extensive areas planted to highly productive exotic records exist from Austria, the Czech Republic pine species. An important reason for the success of and south Poland. The outbreak has continued for exotic pine plantation forestry is that the trees have 5 years and over 0.6 mil. m3 of trees were killed. been separated from the insect pests and diseases that Beginning in 1997, pheromone traps have been feed on them in their areas of origin. Pine-infesting used to delimit the extent of this insect in central insects have gradually begun to appear on trees Europe. Data indicate, that this species now previously separated from these pests. These occupies the northwestern part of Slovakia, the accidental introductions have, in many cases, occurred southern part of Poland and almost all area of the despite outstanding quarantine. An aspect of the Czech Republic. Out of primary outbreak area the introduction (accidental or intended) of pine-infesting first groups of trees infected by this species have insects that is not commonly appreciated, is the fact recently been found in the northwestern Slovak that many of these insects live in association with Republic and it appears, that the range of this fungi that are also detrimental to forestry. These species is expanding through central Europe. associations range from relatively casual (e.g. Fusarium circinatum with cone and shoot-feeding In 1993, a leaf miner, Cameraria ohridela, was insects) to highly specific (e.g. Amylostereum discovered for the first time in the southwestern

309 Division 8 areolatum with the wood wasp Sirex noctilio). pollutants in the mixed conifer forests of the entire The identity of these fungal associates and the Sierra Nevada mountain range. Similar monitoring and structure of their populations, provide outstanding modeling efforts are also in progress in the Carpathian clues to the origin of the insects. Such knowledge Mountains in Central Europe. also has important implications for pest and Although information on ozone exposure can be used disease avoidance in the future. for predictions of foliar injury, relationships between the pollutant exposure dose to physiological and 7.04.00 Air Pollution Impacts on Forest Ecosystems growth changes in trees are difficult to establish. Influence of other factors, such as inputs of Long-term impacts of photochemical atmospheric nitrogen, water availability, temperature, relative humidity, mycorrhizae inoculation, presence smog on forests: Evaluation of effects of insects, and complexity of changes at a at stand and landscape levels physiological level, affect tree growth response to Andrzej Bytnerowicz, Michael Arbaugh ozone exposure. A much better understanding of USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station, 4955 Canyon Crest Drive, CA 92507 mechanisms of pollutant effects in complex forest Riverside, USA environment is needed before reliable models Tel: 909-680-1562, Email: [email protected] predicting growth changes and physiological responses of trees to ozone alone and photochemical Photochemical (oxidant) smog episodes have smog in general may be developed. Rapidly increasing been occurring in North America, Europe and number of motor vehicles in the developing Asian Asia for several decades. Negative effects on countries will lead to elevated emissions of vegetation have been mostly attributed to ozone, photochemical smog precursors (nitrogen oxides and although other smog components such as hydrocarbons). in conditions of high solar radiation, peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) and nitric acid (HN) high temperatures and thermal inversions the areas of vapor may also contribute to the observed potentially phytotoxic levels of ozone and other phytotoxic effects. Long-term photochemical pollutants will expand. National and international air smog-related changes in mixed conifer forests of pollution and forest health monitoring programs the San Bernardino Mountains in southern should be aided by models that are able to extrapolate California are well known. The oxidant-related results from networks of point measurements to changes in vegetation have also been described in landscape and regional levels. Such models are forests near Mexico City, the Sierra Nevada essential for evaluation of risks and proper Mountains, the Appalachian Mountains, southern, environmental planning. central and western Europe, Taiwan, and Japan. Development of injury symptoms (Ozone Injury The link between forest critical loads for Index, OII) on foliage of ponderosa pine trees is acidity & nitrogen and the sustainability of proportional to a dose of the ozone exposure forest ecosystems. measured as "SUM O". Passive ozone samplers Peter Freer-Smith, Fiona Kennedy can be used for measuring average ozone Forest Research, Alice Holt Lodge, Wrecclesham, Farnham, concentrations and calculations of "SUM O" GU10 4LH Surrey, United Kingdom indices for remote forest locations. This allows FAX: 01420 23653, Email: [email protected] for development of a monitoring network at a Enhanced sulphur and nitrogen depositions can lead to landscape level. in the 1999 summer season soil acidification thus detrimentally effecting both concentrations of ozone were monitored at 85 trees and forest ground flora by reducing nutrient sites located in the mixed conifer zone of the availability and by increasing Al in soil solution to Sierra Nevada Mountains. Based on these toxic values. Suitable targets for emission reductions monitoring efforts, models of spatial and temporal are therefore vital for the sustainability of our forest distribution of ozone concentrations will be ecosystems. developed for the Sierra Nevada range. Ozone concentrations will be correlated with foliar The calculation and mapping of critical loads crown injury at selected locations (about 10% of (threshold values of pollutant deposition above which the ozone monitoring sites). Results of these damage occurs to forest ecosystems) for sulphur, total comparisons will be extrapolated to the entire acidity and nitrogen has been a major exercise co- mixed conifer zone of the Sierra Nevada. These ordinated by the UNECE under The Convention on results will also be used for prediction of Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution. Outputs ecological risks related to ozone and other have informed the decision making behind the most recent protocol for decreasing sulphur emissions and

310 Division 7 are likely to determine future nitrogen emission classified as "type one", or the most severe on record. controls. The use of the critical loads approach is in Indonesia, the impact of 1997 El Nino was most also extending to developing countries. severe in central Sumatra and West Kalimantan, while East Kalimantan received the most severe impacts For forests different methods have been used for during the 1998 event. Information on these events setting critical loads ranging from the empirical, was obtained by monitoring hotspots, smoke Simple Mass Balance through to dynamic distribution, fire danger, drought conditions and air modelling. The choice of model, data collection quality. and model parameterisation requires careful consideration. in the UK a combination of The droughts of 1997 and 1998 resulted in producing published information and newly collected data heavy air pollution from wildland fires in large areas are used. These data are also of very major value of Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia, Brunei, Thailand in predicting the sustainability of forest and the Philippines. These fires burnt an estimated five ecosystems (Freer-Smith, 1998). million hectares during 1997 in Indonesia alone. The sources of these fires were agricultural and land This paper will present the approach, which has conversion burning. These fires generated large been adopted in the UK and will discuss the emissions of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, reasoning and implications of the decisions made. nitrogen oxides, ozone, hydrocarbons, particulate Some of the key data sets which are being used in matter (smoke) and other pollutants. These emissions the calculation of critical loads and judgement of contributed to the local and transboundary air sustainability will be presented (nutrient removal pollution issues of visibility, climate change, acidic in harvesting, calculation of average volume deposition and smog. Magnitude of the Haze Index increment, and wood nutrient content, base cation (HI) and the Air Pollution Index (API) indicated that and pollutant depositions, critical chemical the worst air po1lution occurred in Sumatra and criteria in soils i.e. Al:Ca or Al:base cations and Kalimantan regions of Indonesia. Also, air quality mineral weathering rates in forest soils). The readings in Singapore and Malaysia were at record experimental and survey work, which provides highs. The wildland fires of 2000 also resulted in these data, will be described. Forest soil critical considerable smoke and haze problems in Indonesia. loads maps will be presented for the UK and their Since natural phenomenon can not be readily implications discussed. controlled by people, prevention and early detection of Freer-Smith P H 1998 Do pollutant-related forest fires is the best way to minimize air pollution at the declines threaten the sustainability of forests. source and the resulting impacts. Ambio XXVII No 2 123-131 In 1999, Canada signed a memorandum of understanding with Indonesia to develop a fire early Wildland fires as a source of air warning system. The Fire Danger Rating System pollution: recent experience in (FDRS) Project for South East Asia is a Joint Initiative Southeast Asia of the Canadian Forest Service (CFS) and Indonesia's Bryan Lee, Michael Brady, Adi Sasitiwarih and Harby Agency for the Evaluation and Application of Sandhu Technology (BPPT). The project is regional in nature Canadian Forest Service, Natural Resources Canada, and the participation and support of other countries 5320-122 Street, P.O. Box 3910, T6H 3S5 Edmonton, Canada and organizations in the region has been incorporated. Tel: 780-435-7210, FAX: 780-435-7356, Email: The project will establish appropriate fire danger [email protected] monitoring approaches at regional, national and provincial/state levels. Smoke estimation, atmospheric Keywords: air pollution, forests, fire danger, El dispersion and management techniques are included in Nino, Southeast Asia the scope of the project. Since the use of danger rating Extreme weather conditions like droughts and systems have been successful in Canada and other floods usually result in environmental disasters in parts of the world, it is anticipated that FDRS project different parts of the world costing billions of will help to alleviate the fire and haze situation in dollars each year. Though El Nino-related Southeast Asia. droughts occur every two to seven years in Southeast Asia with varying intensity, the 1997 and 1998 El Nino events produced a prolonged drought in many parts of this region. This phenomenon also caused the monsoon to be delayed, greatly increasing the impact of the drought. Both of these El Nino events were

311 Division 8 ecosystems emanating from the 19th IUFRO Research 2000 State of science on air pollution Group 7.04.00 meeting in Houghton, Michigan, May impacts on forests: Applicability to 2000 and other sources. Applicability of science from Asian Region developed programmes to developing needs in the Kevin Percy, David Karnosky, Jesada Luangjame Asian region will be discussed. Canadian Forest Service, Atlantic Forestry Centre, Post Box # 4000, E3B 5P7 Fredericton, New Brunswick, Air pollution in China: Deposition and Canada Effects on Forests Tel: 506-452-3524, FAX: 506-452-3525, Email: Youbin Zheng, Hideyuki Shimizu [email protected] CGER, National Institute for Environmental Studies, Keywords: air pollution, forests, forest health, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan global change Email: [email protected] Global change poses one of the major threats to Over the last two decades, China, a country with a international forest health and sustainability in the population of 1.22 billion people - one fifth of the 21st Century. Maintenance of forest health is world's population, has undergone a period of rapid essential for forest resilience to climate change economic development.This fast economic and and extreme weather events. Concentrations of population growth, inevitably has been causing a rapid increase in energy consumption. As most of the other tropospheric O3 (smog) are increasing rapidly in developing regions and more gradually in Asian developing countries, China has a higher rate of developed ones. Acid deposition via rain, cloud increase in energy consumption (mainly coal), but and in dry form remain of concern despite recent short of efficient air pollution control facilities, this international success at regulation of has been causing a higher increase rate in air pollutant transboundary transport and in emissions (SO2, NOx, particulate and CO2) emission than that in abatement. Nitrogen saturation of forested developed countries. The increasing air pollutant watersheds is occurring in many regions. Cause- emission already caused an alarming air quality effect linkages may not always be made due to deterioration in many big cities and industrial areas. design of existing monitoring networks. Levels of Air pollution problem is so sever that it is responsible for more than 1 million deaths of people per year in O3 may largely offset modelled gains in forest productivity from increasing global atmospheric China, or about one in every eight deaths nation wide. China has 134 million hectares of forest, about 14 CO2 concentrations. Future predicted patterns of air pollution coupled with ongoing climate change percent of the total land area. in this talk, we present (global change) may interact to significantly alter the up-to-date air pollution (SO2, NOx, O3, particulate forest health and increase susceptibility to other and acid precipitation) situation in China and a review biotic and abiotic agents of disease. in this paper of the effects of air pollutant deposition on forests we shall provide a brief summary of state of (field evidences and research results) in this country. science on air pollution impacts on forest

312 Division 8 Forest Environment

Coordinator Dr. Kyoji SASSA Kyoto University Disaster Prevention Research Institute Gokasyo, Uji Kyoto 611-0011, Japan fax: +81-774-384300 tel: +81-774-384110, 384112 e-mail: [email protected]

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Division 8 sensitive species. Allelopathy was, therefore, 8.00.00 Forest and environment demonstrated as one of the causative factor.

Interference potential of Casuarina Forecast of Forest Ecosystem Dynamics Equisetifolia L. in natural forests of Under Different Scenarios of Forest North-Western India Management (Mathematical Modelling On Daizy R. Batish, Harminder Pal Singh, R.K. Kohli GIS-technology basis) Panjab University, Department of Botany, 160 014 Sergei I Chumachenko, Marya M. Palyonova, Dmitrii A. Chandigarh, India Starostenko and Vladimir N. Korotkov Tel: +91-172-546666, 547777, FAX: +91-172-541409, Moscow State Forest University, Institutskaya, 141005 Email: kohli%[email protected] Mytischi, Russia Keywords: Casuarina; Allelopathy; Understorey Email: [email protected] vegetation; Litter; Biodiversity; Seed germination. Keywords: Forest management; Ecosystem dynamics; Casuarina Equisetifolia L. (Family Modelling; GIS; Forest planning Casuarinaceae) commonly known as Horsetail The problem of forest ecosystem dynamics' forecast tree is a fast growing, drought hardy, nitrogen was solved within the framework of a program fixing exotic tree with wide adaptability to complex DBMS-GIS-MODEL, in which DBMS and different environmental conditions. A native of GIS accumulate and process the attribute and spatial Australia, it has been introduced in various parts information for the forest object and MODEL ensures of India primarily for fuel, land reclamation and the forest dynamics forecasting. The most important ornamental value. The monoculture plantations of feature of this model is the account of strata position C. equisetifolia can be seen various parts of the and their mutual influence. country including the Northern ones. Apparently, very little vegetation is seen under the canopy of As initial information for the forecast module of the these plantations as compared to the adjoining model, we have used the per-stratum data bank and open area. This little vegetation is also probably cartographic bank of the forest planning and inventory due to grouping of the sensitive species with works, which for particular forest management units, strong interactive ability. The ground, however, is exists in the form of information systems (DBMS or seen covered with litter composed exclusively of GIS). As a result of the model works as similar cladodes or needle like branchlets, whorled, information is obtained. To take into account reduced and scaly leaves or cone like female bioecological processes in real forest communities, a flowers and echinate fruits. The presence of litter large umber of reference databases is used within the on the ground surface may affect nutrient simulation. The presented information technology availability and their accumulation in soil and helps to forecast and explain the causes of biodiversity may contribute alleloc hemicals in the soil leading changes in forest ecosystems under impact of forestry to depletion in vegetation. Competition alone can activity. not explain the reduction in phyto-diversity under C. equisetifolia. Allelopathy which is known to Geographic Specificity of Forest Cover occur in many natural and managed ecosystems within Side-Enisey Middle Taiga Area can be one of the stress factor. It is known to play S. M. Gorozhankina, Konstantinov V.D. an important role in regulating plant diversity, Academy of Sciences, Siberian Branch, V.N.Sukachev non random distribution of vegetation, zonation Institute of Forest, Krasnoyarsk, Russia and organisation of plant communities. Keeping FAX: (3912) 433686, Email: [email protected] in view the was, therefore, planned to determine Keywords: Ecotone; Taiga; Landscape structure; the ecological status of understorey vegetation Forest types; Russia. and reasons of its depletion. The results indicate that the ecological status of the species under the Side-Enisey Siberia is an unique natural ecotone, monoculture plantations of C. equisetifolia and placed at the boarder part of the greatest land open area was strikingly different leading to clear structures - the young West Siberia platform and cur differentiation. The Importance Value Index ancient Middle Siberia plate. It resulted in complicated of the species, the indices of richness, diversity landscape structure, which combined both west- and evenness also varied. in order to find out the siberian and middle-siberian features. Side-Enisey reason the leachates from the needles of the tree ecotone middle taiga section has been investigated which were either fallen on the ground as well as within Central Siberia Biosphere Reserve territory fresh, females cones adversely affected the with terrestrial co-ordinates at 62-64° latitude North germination, growth and development of the few and 88-92° longitude East. Several landscapes are determined here. I - recent valley of Enisey river,

315 Division 8 which includes flood-plain (absolute height is 30- richest. They are specific with high phytocoenotic 60m) and loamy fluvial terraces (60-120m). II - significance of grass living forms and great loamy left-bank divides of low hypsometric level. numerosity of species, which require rich nutrition and III - piedmont mound-ridge plain. On account of heat provided ecotopes. Forest complexes of divides great disparity in height the landscape is divided floristically are comparatively arm at the expense of in two relief steps: IIIa - of low hypsometric level herbs lack. Cold-resistant dwarf-shrubs and mosses, (150-200m) and IIIb - of high hypsometric level which stand poor and nun-drained soils, have the (250-300m). IV is the higher hypsometric step - heightened phytocoenotic significance instead. 350-400, 660m. Stook-form mountains and table- Valley forests are characterised with moss-grass and form divides (with rock deposits - kurums, placed grass ground cover. Within flood-plains the gramen along the tops and slopes) alternate here with (Calamagrostis obtusata, C.langsdorffii) are very fragments of ancient glacier outflow hollows. much abundant, while at the terrace flat interfluves - Landscapes IIIb and IV are distinguished by Equisetum sylvaticum, E. pratense are. Within divide severe climate, which results in wide spreading of areas of low hypsometric level forest ground cover is frost ground forms and vertical differentiation in usually formed with dwarf shrubs (Vaccinium plant cover. myrtillus, V.vitis-idaea Ledum palustre, According to landscape structure forest Chamaedaphne calyculata) and two groups of mosses complexes are defined here: - green (Hylocomium splendens, Pleurozium - scrub tall-herbage spruce forests within flood- schreberi, Polytrichum commune) and sphagnum ones plains of low and middle ecologic level; (Sphagnum angustifolium, S.nemoreum) dependently - herb parvifoliate-spruce forests, combined with on site drainage. Within divides of high hypsometric frost-mound forest-bog microcomplexes within level forest ground cover finds north expression thanks flood-plains of high ecologic level; to heightened abundance of frost-resistant species - - valley moss-herb parvifoliate-spruce forests, arctic scrubs (Betula humilis, B.nana), dwarf shrubs placed along solar high-angle and convex slopes; (Vaccinium uliginosum, Ledum palustre, Empetrum - valley herb-moss parvifoliate-dark coniferous nigrum), Cladonia and Peltigera lichens, some forests, placed along shadow gentle slopes and Hepatica species. flat interfluves; - dwarf shrub-moss parvifoliate-cedar forests Forest Ecosystem Management and within divides of low hypsometric level; Sustainable Development of Forestry in - lichen-moss parvifoliate-dark coniferous forests, Northeast combined with yernik open forests (along ancient Dai Limin, Hao Zhanqing, Wang Qingli, Deng Hongbing outflow hollows) within divides of high Chinese Academy of Sciences, Institute of Applied hypsometric level. Ecology, Post Box # 417, 110015 Shenyang, China The whole of tree species have the ecologic FAX: +86-24-23843313, Email: [email protected] optimum within flood-plains and decrease Keywords: Forest ecosystem management; edificator capacity following land surface Sustainability; Biodiversity; Productivity; China. absolute height increasing. Cedar (Pinus sibirica) In this paper, the conceptions and developments of and spruce (Picea obovata) are the dominating ecosystem and ecosystem ecology were reviewed and primary tree species. Cedar strengthens its summarized. Then, the conception, connotation, edificator position, following the land surface objective, and development of ecosystem management absolute height increasing. Spruce ecologic were expounded. Based on these discussions, forest optimum comes to nothing more than river ecosystem management was discussed. The viewpoint valleys. Fir (Abies sibirica) as the forest-forming in this paper was that the former unreasonable forest tree-species never exceeds the boundaries of resources management should be changed, and forest flood-plains with rich and drained ecotopes. Pine ecosystem management was a suitable way to (Pinus silvestris) timber stands develop within sustainable development of forestry. The chief peaty lands mainly. Larch (Larix sibirica) spreads research contents were pointed out in this paper, and all over the territory as admixed tree species taking forestry in Northeastern China as focal, mainly and is the most competitive in rocky and strategies on sustainable development of forestry were perennially frozen sites. Parvifoliate species - also advanced Northeastern forest, which has an birch (Betula pendula) and aspen (Populus important effect on national and regional economy tremula) are the secondary forest-forming development, is the most extensive forest in China and edificators throughout the territory. Forest its area accounts 1/3 of the total forest area. But complexes within river valleys are floristically natural forest resources in Northeastern China have

316 Division 8 been decreasing rapidly and even will be (sustainable) forest management. The Tropenbos exhausted because of unreasonable development Foundation experienced that there seems to be a lot of and usage for a long time. in the eastern hilly area confusion about the concept of FMP. of this region, statistics data showed that the area In it most simple form an FMP is a plan which of forest was 36 million hectare in 1935 and most describes the management of a forested area in order of the forests were broad-leaved Korean pine to reach some (predefined) objectives. But the forest and Abies-Picea forest. However, the virgin concepts of what an FMP comprises differs among broad-leaved Korean pine forest and Abies-Picea people. Some plans are more forest management forest have been almost vanished and replaced systems in order to sustain a certain logging operation with secondary forest and artificial forest. while other complicated plans try to manage forests at Moreover, artificial larch forest has been a national level. But an FMP is not just a set of constructed energetically since 1949. Now, 70- management activities. An FMP: 80% artificial forest is pure larch forest. The large - Justifies the establishment of a management plan; area of artificial pure forests caused soil fertility - Describes the management area, including its and productivity decreasing and unstable resource base (the entire ecosystem, including woody ecosystem. It is another chief problem hindering vegetation, fauna, soil etc.), actors and their objectives sustainable development of northeastern forest. or needs; So, it is the most important task to conserve and - Provides an evaluation of forest use options; reconstruct reasonable ecosystems, manage the - Elaborates on the choices made (objectives and ecosystems scientifically, and reach the objective activities); of sustainable forest ecosystem development and - Describes practices and activities that best meet the resources utilization. Another important task of objectives; northeast forest is to construct the optimized - Includes a mechanism to respond to changing model of sustainable artificial larch forest. circumstances and insights. Ecosystem management is a serious managing activity aimed at a sustainable development and As such an FMP is not just about resource its application should be guarded by policy, management practices, but comprises also the process contracts, and factual measurements. On the basis of decision making of best awareness to necessary ecological actions A definition of FMP is: and ecological processes that maintain components, structure and functions, ecosystem 'A Forest Management Plan is the description of management focus on studying and monitoring, decisions and activities to produce anticipated ensuring the suitability of management. Forest objectives with regard to use and conservation of ecosystem management is, with a basis of forest in an area'. ecosystem management, some management Conceptual framework aiming at forest resources and all the forest ecosystem and it includes all the management and The development of an FMP takes place in different technological measure by which resources can be stages or levels of planning, e.g. strategic, tactical and used sustainably. Forest ecosystem is a complex operational planning. In the strategic plan the system, and forest ecosystem management must decisions concerning the objectives of the take maintaining dynamic equilibrium and management, the allocation of forest land and forest protecting biodiversity as basis. functions, are taken. Societal needs, economic and political forces, current land use, land qualities and A conceptual framework for forest locations of the land first determine whether the land management plans is allocated as forest land (kind of land use). An Jelle B. Maas Bijker, Hans C. Vellema inventory of the resources base and the needs form the The Tropenbos Foundation, Post Box # 232, 6700 AE actors in the management area are made (land use Wageningen, Netherlands objectives). Finally, the decisions on the management Tel: +31-317-426262, FAX: +31-317-423024, Email: objectives are matched, resulting in a future desired [email protected] forest Keywords: Forest management plans; Sustainable The tactical plan describes the management activities, forest management; Land-use planning; Land which are needed to reach the stated objectives, evaluation. derived from the strategic plan. The operational plan comprises the actual implementation of the Forest Management Plans (FMP) have gained in management activities and practices. importance as both experts and donors place more and more emphasis on FMP as a tool for

317 Division 8 Although not explicitly mentioned in figure 1 (not qualitative evaluation of the expected content and shown), monitoring and evaluation of an FMP amount of toxic substances. and its execution is essential for the management. - Single out objects of ecosystem their parameters Management is continuous process. according to which the reaction of the ecosystem to Circumstances and insights may change in the the influence will be monitored. course of the management or assumptions may 2 - Making research: monitoring all informative prove false and need to be adapted. parameters of influence on the ecosystem. - Estimation of the coefficient of pair correlation of all The conceptual framework will be enriched by informative parameters of influence on the ecosystem. operational experience gained by Tropenbos. and - Creation of a set of basic diagnostic parameters of the role of research within FMP development will influence on the ecosystem. also be indicated. - Measurement of all informative parameters of Literature cited: Bos, J. (1994). STAGES: a influence of the ecosystem. system for generating strategic alternatives for Calculation of coefficients of pair correlation of all forest management. PhD thesis, Wageningen informative parameters of influence on the ecosystem. Agricultural University, Wageningen, The - Specification of the set of basic diagnostic Netherlands parameters of the system. - Building up of "dose-effect" patterns. Optimization of Parametrics of - Evaluation of "dose-effect" correlation, their Ecological Monitoring minimization (most sensitive and less correlated). Jakov V. Malkov, Valentin S. Shalaev 3 - At the stage routine ecological monitoring: Moscow State Forest University, Oblast Mytishchy-5, - Control of minimized set of "dose-effect" patterns 141005 Moscow, Russia only. Tel: +7-095-5869156, FAX: +7-095-5869134, Email: - Criterial evaluation of ecosystem condition. [email protected] Keywords: Ecological monitoring; Minimization An Assessment of Multi-data Fusion in of parameters; Technical diagnosis; Influence on Forest Resource Management for the ecosystem Northern Part Selangor, Malaysia Making ecologically significant decisions is Muhamed K. Musa, Yousif Ali Hussin, Michael Weir The Internationa Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth possible if one has reliable information about the Sciences (ITC), 99 Hengelostraat, 7500 AA Enschede, environment and its ecological conditions. Netherlands Measurements of parameters of influence on the FAX: (31) 53-4874-444, Email: [email protected] ecosystem as well as ecosystem itself must be correlated according to accuracy. Systematic Keywords: Forest resource management; approach is preferable when one can observe and Sustainability; Satellite remote sensing; Resource control the most important correlation between inventory; Monitoring; TM image; Malaysia. parameters of influence on the ecosystem and The aim of this research was to evaluate the potential ecosystem itself. Otherwise it can so happen that use of fused multi-sensor images to supply there are a lot of monitoring data but little information to strengthening the Malaysian forest information about actual state of the ecosystem. resources management programme. The work explores Means of land and space monitoring meant for the combination of the optical and SAR data using two global transnational and regional levels of image fusion techniques namely, Brovey and ecosystems control must be connected by Intensity, Hue and Saturation (IHS), and assesses their universal methodology based on similar integral efficiency and effectiveness for forest resource and local parameters of ecosystems and their management. counterparts. Hence the use of principles of Natural resources, and forest in particular, are technical diagnosis: genesis, diagnosis and becoming increasingly scarce and exhausted. As it was prognosis of behavior of technical objects seems addressed in Agenda 21 of the Rio Convention, June useful. 1992, the concept of sustainable forest management Universal algorithm of minimization of has become critical issue that must be addressed if the parameters of ecological monitoring: impact on the environment and the quality of life is 1 - Setting tasks: inventory of all sources of not to be further threatened. To achieve sustainability, parameters of influence on the ecosystems and forest managers require information, not only about the current status of the forest availability and utilisation, but also about the future trends. The need

318 Division 8 for information requires continuous inventorying of the resources, in order to plan, manage and Forest Fuel Inventory in Plantation Forest conserve the forest resources on a sustainable Ahmad Ainuddin Nuruddin, Dalinsip Pangalin and basis. Satellite remote sensing is recognised as a Khamurudin Mohd. Noor powerful tool for forest resources inventory Universiti Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Forestry, 43400 UPM monitoring and management. Serdang Selangor, Malaysia FAX: 603-943-2514, Email: [email protected] In Malaysia, the limitations of cloud cover and the sensitivity of optical sensors to atmospheric Keywords: Fuelwood; Fuel component; Fuel loading; disturbances hamper the use of remotely sensed Forest Fire risk; Malaysia. data, such as Landsat TM, that use the optical Forest fuel inventory is a way to describe fuel range of the electromagnetic spectrum. in components, fuel quantity and estimates its volume. addition, forestry sector faces with difficulties This information can be used to detect high risk and such as broken terrain, multi-storied forest hazardous areas. However, the study of this nature has canopies, and few maps and other baseline data. not been conducted in Malaysia. This study was The fusion of optical remotely sensed data with conducted to determine the fuel components on forest images acquired from radar seems to be a floor of two different age stands and to estimate the powerful method to optimise and enhance fuel loading of the various fuel components. This information extraction. Until now, Malaysian study was carried out at Bukit Tarek Forest Reserve, experience in the fusion of data sets from Hulu Selangor, Selangor Darul Ehsan, at two stand different sensor or platform for forest resources age of Acacia mangium of 5 and 9 year-old. Fuel monitoring is still in research stage. in recent components of downed woody material and duff were years, however, more effort has made to take sampled along transect lines. Shrubs, litter, herbaceous advantage of the availability of both optical and and small trees (< 3 m height) were sampled from SAR systems. quadratic plots. The results showed that the This research concentrates on the integrated use components of forest fuel and their vegetation on both of Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) imagery fused stands were similar but not in term of their fuel with either JERS-1, ERS-1 or Radarsat Synthetic loading and density. The 5 year-old stand showed Aperture Radar (SAR) imagery in a test area in 23.31 tonne/ha of fuel components (downed woody Northern Parts of Selangor State, Malaysia. Two material, litter and herbaceous), 1.73 cm of duff depth, images fusion techniques, Brovey and Intensity, 37,030 stem/ha of shrubs density and 2,175 tree/ha of Hue and Saturation (IHS) transformation, were small trees. The 9 year-old stand showed 17.42 used to classify 11 types of forest ecosystem and tonne/ha of fuel components 3.03 cm of duff depth, five types of non-forest classes. The classification 39,151 stem/ha shrubs density and 3,515 tree/ha of of fused images shows that the best overall small trees. Downed woody material made up of 89% accuracy (91.4%) was obtained from Landsat TM and 74% of the total fuel weight for 5 year and 9 year Principle Component bands 123 fused with JERS- old stands, respectively. Comparison between two 1 through the Brovey transformation. The results different age stands, showed that 5 year old stand has indicate that the possibility of extracting more and higher quantity of downed woody materials than 9 accurate information from fused images is high year-old stand. with 20.66 tonne/ha and 12.82 and that it proves to be of great benefit to forest tonne/ha, respectively. Based on diameter class management. It helps to reduce the effect of cloud interval, the weight of downed woody material, cover and supply more information about multi- diameter class of 0-7.6 cm were higher compared to stories forest canopy and can therefore directly diameter class of > 7.6 cm. The fuel weight for 0-7.6 contribute to sustainable forest management. cm diameter class were 12.48 tonne/ha and 9.94 tonne/ha for 5 and 9 year-old stands, respectively. Statistical analysis showed that the loading of downed woody material on 5 year-old stand was significantly greater than the 9 year-old stand. However, litter loading was greater on the 9 year-old stand than the 5 year-old stand (P=0.05). The study concludes that in terms of fuel loading, 5 year old stand has higher fire risk than 9 year old stand. This is due to the silviculture activities in the 5 year old stand.

319 Division 8 paracommaric acid is in lesser quantities in roots Analysis of allelopathic substances (18843 ng) than leaves (42142 ng), this acid accounts from roots and leaves of Robinia for the majority of phenolic acids in roots. in leaves, pseudoacacia gentisic acids are the major phenolic component Young-Goo Park, K.S., Kwon followed by parahydroxybenzoic acid. Kyungpook National University, Department of Forestry, Lab. of Forest Genetics, Department of Migration Technical Pollutions in Forestry Mountain Landscapes of Ukrainian 702-701 Taegu, Korea R. Carpathians FAX: 82-53-950-6798, Email: Y. S. Shparyk [email protected] Ukrainian mountain forestry research institute (UkrMFRI) Keywords: Allelopathic substance; Leaching; Grushevskogo street, 31, 284000 Ivano - Frankivsk, Seed germination; Black locust. Ukraine Tel: 380-03422-25216, Email: [email protected] Robinia pseudoAcacia (black locust), whose origin is in America, was introduced to the Keywords: Ecological monitoring; Natural landscape; Korean Peninsula from China in about 1897. This Toxic elements; Pollution; Ukraine species was planted extensively for fuel in rural In region of Ukrainian Carpathians of work on areas during the 1970's, and plantations currently ecological monitoring of forests are conducted cover about 320,000 ha. Black locust now has UkrMFRI since 1990 under the european program many additional uses in Korea such as building "ICP-Forest". On the first level monitoring (the materials, soil conservation, shade trees, forage network of 16 x 16 kms) is incorporated 80 plots of and honey production. This tree exhibits rapid constant supervision behind a condition of forests in growth and is ecologically aggressive with Lvov, Ivano-Frankovsk, Zakarpatye and Chernovtsy allelopathic effects on other species. We analyzed areas. in 1996 the institute has begun development of the allelopathic substances in leachates from roots the second level monitoring, which purpose is the and leaves of black locust using HPLC, and profound study of biogeochemical laws of functioning determined leachate effects on seed germination. of natural landscapes. On all of plots are selected the Leachates from black locust roots inhibited seed tests of basic structural elements forestry ecosystems: germination of Alnus firma and Pinus taeda by soil, litter, herbaceous covering, mosses, lichen, bark more than 50% compared with distilled water. and also atmospheric downfalls (snow). in 1997 year Germination frequency of Lespedeza bicolor was are begun researches on biogeochemical indication: less than 54% of the control in treatments with estimated absolute contents 39 chemical elements in leachates from fallen leaves of black locust. Seed tests, analyse their deflation coefficients and migration germination of Arundinella anomala was also on system "atmosphere - soil - plant". highly inhibited by 68% with leachates from live black locust leaves obtained in October. For contents estimation technical pollutions in tests pressed into the service of method nuclear issue in Germination rate of lettuce was reduced to 10% inductively connected plasma (ICP). Set a presence in with a 30% dilution of leachate from leaves (200 all of analysed structural elements of mountain forests g/L distilled water, 24 h extraction). Complete of such toxic microelements: B, Be, Bi, Cd, Ce, Cu, suppression of germination was obtained with a La, Pb, Sn, V, Zn. Now detailed biogeochemical 50% dilution and undiluted leaf leachate estimation develops of vertical migration technical solutions. Leachates from root bark (200 g/L pollutions into mountain landscapes. distilled water, 24 h extraction) suppressed lettuce germination by 70%. A mixture of leachates from Done such previous deductions: leaves and root bark reduced seed germination of - on regions territory takes place accumulation in lettuce to 10%. forestry ecosystems cadmium and molybdenum, and Phenolic compounds in leachates were analyzed in atmospheric downfalls - barium, cobalt, to chrome, by HPLC using a Microbondapak C18 column copper, iron, to manganese, to molybdenum, to nickel (300 x 3.9 mm) with 0.5% acetic acid in distilled and to lead. On all of counted elements set anomalies water and 0.5% acetic acid in acetonitrile supplied on their concentrations in environment. at a flow rate of 1.5 mL/min. Detection was made - in territorial attitude all pollutions both in soil and in at 260, 280 and 320 nm. Robinia leaves contain snow waters characterize by maximum concentrations about seven times more phenolic acids than in more industrial parts of region. This bears witness Robinia roots per unit dry weight. Although

320 Division 8 to dominating role of local sources pollutions in induce them to increase the area in SF and delay their forming of environments contamination. re-conversion to other uses. This is expected to improve the livelihoods of the rural poor, while - checked off exceeding of admissible levels for simultaneously contributing to environmental contents in soils to lead and to chrome, and in improvement. snow waters - copper, molybdenum, vanadium and zinc. Analysis of correlation matrices gives a This paper synthesizes results from the emerging possibility to affirm, that exists a definite literature on SF to take the first steps towards the elements group, which determines contamination development of a strategy for increasing the value of of regions environment, and by them source there SF. We present future scenarios of SF by analyzing are local aerotechnical pollutions. how SF change as colonist frontier areas develop over time. We identify major problems resulting from these - calculated a geochemical background for region scenarios and the problems which research could of Ukrainian Carpathians on contents in soils of significantly ameliorate. analysed microelements. Will check essential off difference on his senses for forest and industrial We then make preliminary assessments of possible regions. strategies for ameliorating these problems. - amount of definite microelements most in The paper uses a dynamic conceptual framework for atmospheric downfalls, and diminishes in row: analyzing how secondary forests evolve with the soil, litter, herbages, mosses, lichen, bark. This development of colonist frontier areas over time. shows, that basic by dint of contamination of Results draw on interdisciplinary field studies carried mountain forests is atmospheric falls. out by the authors in areas settled by slash-and-burn migrants in the forest margins of Brazil, Peru and Important, on our thought there is also fact Nicaragua. These include farm surveys and floristic intercommunication a forests state indexes with inventories in each of the three countries, with sites environment contamination levels of Ukrainian selected to provide an international continuum in the Carpathians. Consequently, forests defoliation frontier development process. arrives at maximum senses in such regions: alpine parts north - east megaslope, regions of great Results available so far show that the area in SF entranse technical pollutions with atmospheric increases over time in areas of low population density. falls and on territory of south part country in areas settled about 100 years ago, SF is the only between river Dnister and Prut. The minimum forest cover and covers about 25% of farm area. This parametres of defoliation are marked into north - implies that deforestation in slash-and-burn farming to western part of Carpathians region. may be less than previously believed. SF is Dechromation of trees indicates on appearance regenerated primarily to recuperate the soil. damage (technical pollutions) and reaches to Multivariate analysis shows that farmers increase maximum in industrial regions too. fallow periods over time, because site productivity decreases with repeated cycles of crop production. Secondary Forests in Slash-and-Burn This gives rise to SF. in older areas, farmers change Agriculture in Latin America: their strategy and compensate for declining Opportunities for Rural Livelihoods productivity by increasing the area under cultivation, and Environmental Improvement? which is achieved by reducing fallow periods. Thus Joyotee Smith, Cesar Sabogal, Bryan Finegan, Socorro unsustainable agriculture eventually leads to a decline Ferreira, Gilberto Dominguez, Alejandro Mejia and in SF and the elimination of forest cover on farms. If Dean Current. an increase in SF value, could induce longer fallow Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), periods, this could increase farmer incomes, contribute Post Box # 6596 JKPWB, 10065 Jakarta, Indonesia to the sustainability of agriculture and maintain forest FAX: +62 251 622 100, Email: [email protected] cover on farms. Keywords: Slash-and-burn agriculture; Secondary The current potential of SF for timber production is forest; Regeneration; Productivity; Ecosystem generally limited, as the succession is only management occasionally allowed to pass beyond the stage of The regeneration of secondary forests (SF) on dominance by pioneers. Guazuma crinita, a pioneer previously cleared land in the forest margins of tree with an established market in Peru, is one of the Latin America is a promising development within few exceptions. Older stands generally have greater the generally pessimistic scenarios of tropical timber production potential, made up mainly of deforestation. This has stimulated efforts to species of the long-lived pioneer ecological group. augment the value of SF to their owners, to Families also use SF plant species for multiple

321 Division 8 purposes, with medicinal use and firewood being simultaneous with soil erosion. The amount of organic particularly important. matter loss was the largest, while the amount of available NPK was the least among the total amount of Well-documented factors such as productivity lost nutrients. declines over time may limit the forest management potential of SF. Frequent According to the observations conducted to the pests uncontrolled fires are shown to represent a major and diseases, the occurrence rate caused by both insect barrier to the development of productive stands. pests and diseases in the plantations of masson pine, These results indicate that innovative ways to loblolly pine and poplar were high, while, the disease increase the value of SF will have to be identified, occurred frequently in Eucalyptus plantations either. such as the possibility of using carbon-offsets and only 2.5% of monitoring sites were damaged (under the Kyoto Protocol) to stimulate an heavily by insect pests, 5.1% by disease, most of the increase in fallow periods. Marketing and monitoring sites were attacked slightly. The damage of processing improvements could also contribute, insect pests and diseases was slight to the main as well as policy changes, such as the removal of managerial areas of plantations in China. incentives for extensive cattle production. The study on the monitoring findings of soil fertility What is needed is not a single "magic solution", showed that the soil available nutrients changed but an "ecosystem management approach" which significantly, especially the available P. Fertilization looks for synergies among the multiple products affected the available nutrient of soil, particularly, the and environmental services that SF are capable of available P would increased significantly by the providing, identifies the need for policy changes application of P fertilizer. A multiple regression and harnesses new opportunities at the global analysis was done on the forest ecological and level. environmental quality by soil erosion, soil fertility and insect pests and disease, and a model Y=f(x1,x2,x3) A study on the Ecological and between the ecological and environmental quality (Y) Environmental Quality in the Main and soil erosion (x1), soil fertility (x2), pests and Managerial Areas of Plantations in diseases(x3) was made. China Xianfeng Su, Wang Bing Al stress on the photosynthesis of Chinese Academy of Forestry, 100091 Beijing, China Quercus glauca Thumb Tel: 86-10-62889073, FAX: 62884972, Email: Chisato Takenaka, Masayuki Akaya [email protected] Nagoya University, Bioagricultural Sciences, Chikisa-ku, 464-8601 Nagoya, Japan Keywords: Plantations, ecological and Tel: 81-52-789-4052, FAX: 81-52-789-4055, Email: environmental quality, insect pests and diseases, [email protected] soil fertility, water loss and soil erosion. Keywords: Al stress; photosynthesis; Quercus glauca A comprehensive analysis was made on the forest Thumb; Ca/Al; ecological and environmental state and quality by the five years successive monitoring from 46 Soil acidification is one of the serious forest located monitoring sites of newly established environmental problems caused by human activity. plantations for 7 main species in the managerial The effect of Aluminum on trees is the most critical areas in China. The results showed that the among the various impacts by soil acidification. Not decisive factors affecting the ecological and only the Al concentration but also the Ca/Al ratio in environmental quality were water loss and soil soil solution have been considered as important factors erosion soil fertility states and occurrence of for the assessment of Al stress. Although many studies insect pests and diseases. about Al stress on photosynthesis have been reported, the specific response and mechanisms by each tree Basing on the statistics and analysis of soil species are ambiguous. The purpose of this study is to erosion monitoring, the results indicated that the clarify the mechanism of Al effects on the soil erosion mainly occurred in the first and the photosynthesis of Quercus glauca Thumb, which is second year after the plantations established. and the typical tree species in the Japanese temperate about 81% of monitoring sites showed extremely forests. slight or slight soil erosion, 16% of sites showed heavy soil erosion. High intensive site preparation To investigate the effects of Al concentration and and young plantations tending were the main Ca/Al ratio in root environment on the photosynthesis causes of soil erosion, especially the over all of Quercus glauca Thumb, three-year-old seedlings ploughing. The soil nutrient loss was planted in glass beads instead of soil were exposed to

322 Division 8 various nutrient solutions containing Al at two polyciclic forest management of mixed, irregular concentration levels (5 and 10 mM) with three forests, this period is the cutting cycle and is levels of Ca/Al ratios (5.0, 1.0, and 0.16). The pH determined by the structure of the residual forest and of the solutions were adjusted to 3.3-3.4 to avoid its growth rate. That is the importance of growth the precipitation of Al. The treatments were studies. continued for 14 weeks. Before, during and after Twelve one-hectare Permanent Sample Plots (PSP) the Al treatments, photosynthesis activities and have been established before logging in a rainforest at chlorophyll fluorescence were measured. After the Osa Peninsula, Costa Rica. Eighty, one-thousand the treatments, the morphology and the water square meters, PSP were established in a dry forest at absorption ability of roots were observed The Las Trancas, Lomerios Region in Santa Cruz contents of various elements and chlorophyll in Department, Bolivia (eight hectares sample). in both the leaves were also determined. cases increment models have been fitted by regression. The exposure to the nutrient solutions, in which The models of increment show that in bolivian forest the Al concentration was 10 mM (Ca/Al=0.16), the diametric increment, three years after harvest is 29 limited the photosynthesis and caused a decrease per cent lower than that of two years after logging. in in the stomatal conductance. The treatments with the case of costa rican forest the increments, five years 5 mM Al did not affect the photosynthesis even after logging are 35 percent lower than the observed in when the Ca/Al ratios were 0.16. The results of the period of three years after harvest. the chlorophyll fluorescence and chlorophyll content, which showed no significant differences The models have been used to predict the growth of among the treatments, indicated no effect of the residual forests and to determine the time required to Al treatments on the photochemical processes. growth a volume equivalent to harvest. A spread sheet This means that the photosynthesis limitation program has been used in order to simulate growth. should be due to the stomatal closure and the Changes in increment rates causes differences in decrease in the carbon dioxide fixation process. estimated cutting cycle All seedlings treated with Al had increased Al In conclusion: contents in the leaves, decreased P contents in the leaves and decreased water absorption ability in It has been observed, and measured, that growth rates the roots. These results indicate that the Al of logged forests shows changes in different periods treatments affected the nutrient availability and after logging. Then it is necessary to adjust the time function of the roots. However, since the effect on period of the cutting cycle, in order to avoid a harvest photosynthesis was observed only with the 10mM greater than growth. PSP have showed to be an treatment, it is suggested that the Al effects on the excellent tool for the monitoring of the main factors root functions were not correlated with the that assure sustainability in wood production. It is decrease in photosynthesis. necessary to make a revision of the Forest Management Plan each five years. Forester must use In addition to these results, the changes in the information from the PSP established in the forest or enzymatic activities due to Al stress will be from other similar forests. shown and the mechanism of stress transmission from the root to the photosynthesis function in leaves will be discussed. Goals and Goal Conflicts in Forestry Stig Wandén Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, s-10648 Decision making on cutting cycles in Stockholm, Sweden neotropical forests in Costa Rica and FAX: +46-8-69815585, Email: [email protected] Bolivia Keywords: integration, environmental goals, goal Juvenal Valerio, William Cordero conflicts, evaluation. Instituto Tecnol¢gico de Costa Rica, School of Forestry, Post Box # 159, 159-7050 Cartago, Costa In the European Union, as well as in Sweden, there is Rica now a general consensus to accept the principle of FAX: 506 591 4182, Email: [email protected] integration, meaning that environmental protection Keywords: Logging; Sustainable forest should be integrated into the definition and management; Cutting cycle; Neotropical forest. implementation of other societal policies and activities. In other words, every sector of society - One of the points of departure for the sustainable such as transport, energy, agriculture, forestry, and forest management is that the logged volume must defence - is required to integrate environmental goals be equivalent to the growth of the forest in a with its "ordinary" activities. In Sweden, this principle determinated period of time. in the case of the is closely connected to the introduction of explicit

323 Division 8 environmental goals. Thus, the national environmental goals are to be broken down into 8.01.00 Ecosystems goals for each sector, which is then in principle responsible for their implementation. The process Net primary production and nitrogen of defining goals on different levels is presently mineralization of 12 forest ecosystems in under way. Shikoku District, Japan The Swedish Parliament has decided that the Yoshiyuki Inagaki, Satoru Miura production goal of forestry (producing enough Shikoku Research Center, Forestry and Forest Product Research Institute, 915-2 Asakura Nishi machi, 780-8077 timber and pulp for forest industry) should be Kochi city, Japan combined with environmental goals such as Tel: +888-44-1121, FAX: +888-44-1130, Email: preserving old forests and biological diversity, [email protected] avoiding acidification and eutrophication, and saving cultural values. The Forestry Board in Keywords: Nitrogen mineralisatiion; Net primary October 1999 proposed more concrete goals production; Conifer forest; Deciduous forests; Japan concerning biotopes, ecological processes and Nitrogen (N) is one of the limiting nutrients for functions, cultural values, diversified use of productivity in temperate forest ecosystems. Thus, one forests, and recycling. These goals are partly could expect that nitrogen availability index such as quantified, such as the area to be assigned to net mineralization rate is positively correlated with National Parks and the area of older forests to be forest productivity. Although many studies have preserved. revealed that the productivity of some plantations in However, the problem of goal conflicts then Japan is significantly related with soil conditions such arises, including not only conflicts between as water status and C/N ratio, little is known about the environmental and other goals (external effect of net N mineralization rate. in the present conflicts), but also conflicts between different study, we investigated the relationship between environmental goals (internal conflicts). The nitrogen availability determined by the laboratory paper outlines an on-going evaluation of the incubation technique and forest productivity of 12 principle of integration and goal conflicts. The forest ecosystems in Shikoku District, Japan. They are evaluation uses methods from the social sciences, composed of four different types of forests; Sugi including questionnaires and interviews. The (Cryptomeria japonica) plantations, Hinoki results of these are presently being analysed. One (Chamaecyparis obtusa) plantations, pine (Pinus observation is that government agencies, as well densiflora) forests, and secondary temperate deciduous as private sector actors, widely differ between forests. each other - a fact which may have farreaching In addition, we estimated annual N input rates via consequences for environmental policies. A litterfall for 2 years using litter traps. The study site number of suggestions to improve sector has the warm climate and high annual precipitation integration are also being considered, e.g. (2800mm), which favours plant growth. Net N establishing principles for solving goal conflicts mineralization rates during 28-day laboratory before they occur, more rational goal formulations incubation ranged from 7 to 207 ugN g-1, which was including alternative goals, a more rational higher in the deciduous broadleaf forests and lower in distribution of responsibilities, and better and the Hinoki plantations and the pine forests. Annual open information about goal conflicts. litterfall N input rates ranged from 2.1 to 7.0 gN m-2 yr-1, which was significantly correlated with net mineralization rates (r=0.79, p<0.01). This indicates the supply of N via litterfall is a crucial factor to affect the net N mineralization rate in soil. Indices of primary production, mean annual diameter growth of canopy trees and mean annual increment of stem biomass, were higher in the coniferous forests and lower in the deciduous broadleaf forests. We found no significant relationship between net primary productivity and net N mineralization in these forests. It is noted that high net N mineralization was observed in the deciduous forests with low productivity. On the contrary, litterfall N input to soil was negatively correlated with net primary production. This suggests the species,

324 Division 8 which has the high potential biomass production, Simulating landscape scale forest can reduce N loss by litterfall. Nitrogen loss by management of disturbance-prone forest litterfall implies the N loss form the ecosystem by ecosystems leaching due to heavy rainfall in the region. in the Volker C. Radeloff, David J. Mladenoff, Eric J. Gustafson, deciduous forests, the net N mineralization rate Donald R. Field, and Paul Voss during the 28-day incubation was as much as the University of Wisconsin, Department of Forest Ecology and annual litterfall N rate. This suggests that net N Management, 1630 Linden Drive, WI 53706-1598 Madison, mineralization is very high and exceeds the plant USA demand in this ecosystem. In summary, we Tel: +1 / 608 / 265-6321, FAX: +1 / 608 / 262-9922, Email: concluded that net N mineralization rate of soil is [email protected] largely determined by the litterfall N input, and Keywords: Forest modeling; Landscape scale; Forest the effect of species is a primary factor in these management; Disurbance; Land-use US forest soils. The differences of the net primary production were largely due to the inherent Landscape patterns of many unmanaged forest natures of the species rather than net N ecosystems are shaped by fire disturbance. These mineralization rates. patterns tend to change once forests are managed; for example, forests become denser and large openings no longer occur. Such changes are often detrimental to Relationship between Human wildlife species adapted to openings previously Activities and Condition of Floodplain created by fire. It has been suggested that the spatial Forest Ecosystems in Central Europe patterns of forest management should be altered so Emil Klimo that they resemble natural disturbance patterns more University of Agriculture and Forestry, Institute of closely. However, very little experience exists with Forest Ecology, Brno, Czech Republic such management, and experiments are difficult to Email: [email protected] conduct at the landscape scale. Our objective was to Keywords: Flood-plain forests; Anthopogenic simulate landscape scale forest management of the effects; Regional comparison; Central Europe Pine Barrens in northwest Wisconsin, U.S.A, to test In Central Europe, floodplain forests represent a how closely different management scenarios mimic residual biome that persisted after profound natural disturbance patterns. The Pine Barrens region changes in landscape use taking place in the past. was shaped by fire until European settlement began The first human settlements were established in around 1860. Detailed vegetation assessments of the the territory of floodplain forests so that their area pre-settlement vegetation are available. Also available and nature gradually changed due to the is a satellite classification of the current vegetation anthropological effects. Floodplain forests in the cover, which is significantly different from the historic alluvia of Morava, Dyje and Danube rivers landscape due to logging, farming, fire suppression, represent today unique biomes which show a high and forest management. We used LANDIS, a level of production, excellent biodiversity of both landscape model that incorporates fire, windthrow, plant and animal species, and valuable aesthetic succession, seed dispersal and forest management to and recreational functions in the landscape. in this simulate possible future conditions of the Pine territory, there is a national park, several protected Barrens. We conducted a factorial experiment and landscape and many natural preserves. At present, changed the variables 'clear-cut size', 'rotation length', the responsible organs try to take measures, which 'tree species for forest regeneration', and 'spatial would enable their reconstruction, extension and allocation of clear-cuts' within LANDIS. The model re-vitalisation. Using the ecosystem of Central- was run under each management scenario for 500 European floodplain forests as an example we years. We summarized the results as the abundance of shall try to describe the extent, present condition openings for wildlife, and the volume of timber being and way of use of these forests by man. We have harvested. The comparison of different management selected floodplain forests in the Litovelské scenarios allows resource managers to choose the Pomoraví alluvium (Czech Republic) as well as optimal management strategy according to their those along the confluence of the Morava and management goals. Our analysis reveals that forest Dyje rivers (Czech Republic and Austria), in the management options exist that improve landscape National Park Danube (Austria), floodplain patterns for wildlife without decreasing timber forests along the Morava river in Western production significantly. However, different Slovakia, floodplain forests near the Gabekovo landowners in the Pine Barrens will manage their dam in South Slovakia, and a unique example of lands for different goals. We specified several floodplain forests situated within an urban region management areas according to land-ownership and of Leipzig (Germany). housing density, and conducted further LANDIS runs

325 Division 8 with spatially variable forest management The exposure of a specific shore is a key-factor that scenarios. For instance, areas with high housing influences the vegetational gradient, i.e. species density and small private landowners are unlikely composition, initial establishment levels, rate of to be harvested in large clear-cuts. Land owned by succession, etc. Thus, islands and peninsulas continue industrial forest corporations may be harvested in to rise seawards, and con-sequently the ex-posure of a large blocks, but economic considerations are specific shore may change (decrease) over time likely to determine management decisions. Public because of changed (increased) relative shelter. forestland may be managed to maintain both large Moreover, as the community matures the importance openings and commodity production. By allowing of allochthonous plant colonization decreases, while for different management practices for different the importance of autochthonous resurgence increases. landowners we were able to simulate future states It can furthermore be assumed that early successional of the Pine Barrens realistically. Landscape scale processes primarily are under abiotic control while forest modeling can provide realistic predictions biotic factors take on greater importance later in the about the future of landscapes. These predictions sequence. As the condition changes, this may modify are important for forest managers when they the successional sequence by trigging a switch, or attempt to achieve multiple goals, such as wildlife maintain a continuous change, in the pathway. Hence, habitat and commodity production over extended multiple successional pathways should be taken into periods of time, and across entire landscapes. Our consideration, as well as disruptions in the presumed results highlight the potential and the limitations chronosequence. of forest management to restore landscape patterns previously created by natural 8.02.00 Site: soil carbon disturbances. We suggest that similar modeling approaches may be suitable for many other Soil properties under different types of forested ecosystems previously shaped by fire. tropical seasonal forests, in western Thailand Long-term chronosequences of Keizo Hirai, Masamichi Takahashi and Pitayakon Limtong Norway spruce primary succession Forestry and Forest Priducts Research Institute, Soil Chem. Johan Svensson Lab., Forest Site Envir. Sec., Forest Envir. Div., 1 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Matsunosato, Kukizaki, Matsunosato, Inashiki, 305-8687 Department of Forest Ecology, S-90183 Umea, Ibaraki, Japan Sweden Tel: +81-298-73-3211(Ext.362), FAX: +81-298-73-1542, Tel: +46 90 7865895, FAX: +46 90 7867750, Email: Email: [email protected] [email protected] In tropical seasonal forest area, soil moisture gradients Keywords: Picea abies; Primary succession; are one of the major factors for regulating forest types, Postglacial rebound; Chronosequence; Old- so that soil chemical and physical properties would be growth different among forest types. The aim of this research is to clarify the characteristics of soil properties under The Fennoscandian crust is experiencing different types of tropical seasonal forests in western postglacial land uplift following the weight down Thailand. It is necessary to evaluate soil productivity by the Weichselian ice mass. A consequence is a for sustainable management of qualitative and perpetual exposure of new ground along the quantitative maintenance of tropical seasonal forest. shores of the Gulf of Bothnia, ground on which Sites and methods The study site is located at the Mae primary succession is occurring as plants colonize Klong Watershed Research Station, Kanchanaburi and community forms. The ongoing land uplift western Thailand (Suksawang, 1995). Soil type around provides a topographic sequence equivalent to a study site was classified to Ultisol or Inceptisol chronosequence - the lower the elevation the (USDA 1997). Natural vegetation types around the younger the land with younger, pio-neer watershed are mainly mixed deciduous forest (MDF), communities, the higher the elevation the older dry dipterocarp forest (DDF) and dry evergreen forest the land and the more develo-ped the (DEF). Teak (Tectona grandis) plantations (TPF) and communities. The uplift amounts to maximum grassland that was used for shifting cultivation (GRL) 0,092 m/year in the northern part of the Gulf of in the watershed were also surveyed. in 1995, Bothnia. On a specific shore, the vegetational seventeen soil profiles under different forest types and gradient reflects the actual course of succession. topographic positions were described, and soil samples As long as no major disturbance interferes the are collected for soil chemical and physical analysis. primary succession continues progressively Nitrogen availability of top and sub surface soil towards the regional climax for each ecosite type. samples were also determined. Results and discussion

326 Division 8 Amounts of carbon storage in soil were higher 205t/ha/100cm depth in DEF and lowest 71 Nutrient Dynamics in the Throughfall, t/ha/100cm depth in DDF. The carbon storage on Stemflow and Litterfall of Korean Pine, MDF, TPF, and GRL did not vary among pedons. Japanese Larch and Hardwood Stands at Organic carbon and total nitrogen content in GRL Kyunggi-Do, Korea were higher than another soils but these contents Don Koo Lee, Dong Yeob Kim and Young Dae Park among another soil were not so different. in most Seoul National University, Dept. Forest Resources, 103 case, carbon contents decreased gradually from Seodun-Dong, Kwonsun-Gu, 441-744 Suwon, Korea R. top to lower horizon but the soils under DDF Tel: +82-331-290-2337, FAX: +82-331-293-1797, Email: showed drastically decrease in carbon contents [email protected] from the surface horizons. The same trends were Keywords: Nutrient dynamics; Pinus koraiensis; Larix observed for nitrogen distribution patterns in the leptolepis; Hardwood soil profiles. Available nitrogen contents in soils of MDF and DDF types were 0.45-1.1mg-N/kg The objective of this study was to examine the amount dry soil. GRL also had high available nitrogen in of nutrient input and dynamics by throughfall, soils (1.3-1.6mg-N/kg dry soil) while TPF had stemflow and litterfall among Pinus koraiensis, Larix low available nitrogen (0.5 mg-N/kg dry soil). in leptolepis and hardwood stands including oak forests each forest type Soils in lower slopes showed at Kyunggi-Do, Korea. The nutrient distribution and higher nitrogen availability than in ridge and cycling in a forest ecosystem was strongly influenced upper slopes. Nitrate nitrogen was major part of by tree species and human impacts including forest available nitrogen. Nitrification rate (nitrate practices. The amount of Ca in the aboveground nitrogen to available nitrogen) were more than vegetation was the highest, followed by N, K, Mg, P 80% in almost of surface soil samples. Calcium is and Na in descending order. Nutrient content in the a major exchangeable base and following to hardwood stand was relatively high, although its tree magnesium and potassium. The content of Ca and biomass was low. The amount of K in the hardwood Mg were also high in GRL, DEF and lower slope stand was exceptionally high whereas that of L. of TPF but were on the lower than those in the leptolepis stand was the lowest in nutrient contents. soils of limestone plateau near the watershed The amount of litter nutrient in the P. koraiensis stand reported by Janmahasatien et al. (1997). was relatively lower than other stands, which seems to be due to the forest practices. The amount of N in the Conclusion: The results of soil chemical litterfall was the highest, followed by Ca, Mg, P, K properties indicate that soils in this watershed are and Na in descending order. relatively fertile, especially for soils under DEF. The GRL also showed high soil fertility although Monthly amount of nutrient input by throughfall and they used to be utilized for shifting cultivation. stemflow was significantly affected by the The soils in TPF contained lower nutrients even characteristics of rainfall and stand structure. The though they located on lower slope. The reason is amount of throughfall in the hardwood and L. not sure but this may be caused by high nutriment leptolepis stands showed greater than P. koraiensis requirement of tree growth or surface soil erosion stand while that of stemflow in the hardwood stand did of teak plantation. We are great thanks to National greater than other stands. The differences in the Research Council of Thailand Science and amount of throughfall and stemflow for each of the Technology Agency Japan and Japan stands seemed to be caused by its leaf-retaining period International Research Center for Agricultural and physiological characteristics. Sciences for their financial support in this The ion concentrations of throughfall and stemflow research. + + 2+ showed in the following order: NH4 -N>K > Ca > + 2+ 2- - - Na > Mg for cations and SO4 > NO3 N> Cl for anions. After the precipitation passed through the canopy, K+ increased most in the hardwood stand, whereas NH4+-N did most in the P. koraiensis and L. leptolepis stands.

327 Division 8 lands where miombo trees were earlier cut with Ectomycorrhizal fungal flora in the regular thinning of sprouts or uprooted and replaced miombo woodlands of Africa: diversity by exotic agroforestry trees. Selective cutting of and sensitivity to land-use ectomycorrhizal trees followed by removal of sprouts Esron Munyanziza from the stumps inhibited the occurrence of Sokoine University of Agriculture, Department of ectomycorrhizal mushrooms in the site and in the Forest Economics, Post Box # 3011, Morogoro, farms. in the cleared plots only saprophytic fungi Tanzania produced sporophores while a wide range of Tel: +255 56 4865, FAX: 255 56 4648/3718, Email: ectomycorrhizal fungi produced mushrooms in the [email protected] control. The study revealed the very intimate Keywords: Miombo woodlands; Ectomycorrhizal relationship between the trees and the mushrooms. It fungi; Mushroom; Thinning; Tap root; Africa showed the sensitive part of the host: the leaves. The study suggests that the energy stored in the root The miombo woodlands occur in the eastern, system or in the stem is either unfit for central and southern African countries. They are ectomycorrhizal fungal use or is set aside for particular found in areas having limited rainfall, function of the tree prbably to reinitiate sprouting after experiencing regular wildfires and subject to the long dry season or after top removal. This study continuous human disturbance. They are the most carries the message for the sustainable management of extensive vegetation and the most used type of the miombo woodlands for multiple uses. woody ecosystem in Africa. Millions of humans and animals depend upon the miombo woodlands Planting trials of indigenous species at for food, water and shelter. Wild mushrooms are sandy soil area in southern Thailand among the most frequent resources and yet the Mariko Norisada, Katsumi Kojima, Gaku Hitsuma, Takeshi most vulnerable and the most endangered. in Tange, Takashi Yamanoshita, Masaya Masumori, Tanit order to cope with uncertainties and capture short- Nuyim, Hisayoshi Yagi, Satohiko Sasaki lived opportunities, the miombo trees focus on the The University of Tokyo, Asian Natural Environmental development of the root compartment. (1) They Science Center, 1-1-1, Yayoi, 113-8657 Tokyo, Japan develop a very extensive and robust tap root FAX: +81-3-5689-7233, Email: [email protected] system where they store carbon and water. (2) Keywords: Reforestation; Sandy soil; Indigenous They are associated with ectomycorrhizal fungi, species; Dipterocarps; Southern Thailand which help extract water and minerals in a hostile physical environment. We have been carried out reforestation trials since 1994 in southern part of Thailand, where infertile The working hypothesis was that sugar reserve in sandy soil area is expanded as a result of a failure of the taproot is a necessary store to enhance and agricultural development. We have been trying to sustain mushroom occurrence during the period plant valuable trees focusing on indigenous species when the top is thinned in the cropping season. including Dipterocarps. Twenty-three tree species This kind of thinning is common in the miomo have been tried; Anisoptera sp., Dipterocarpus alatus, zone. in order to test this hypothesis selective D. chartaceus, D. obtusifolius, Hopea odorata, Shorea cutting of all ectomycorrhizal trees of the genera glauca, Shorea hypochra, Shorea leprosula, Shorea Julbernardia globiflora or Brachystegia species roxburghii, Parashorea sp., Vatica pauciflora, Acacia was implemented in the middle of the miombo mangium, Acacia auriculiformis, Anacardium woodlands in Morogoro, Tanzania. Cutting was occidentale, Alstonia macrophylla, Alstonia spatulata, made just prior to the short rains, which usually Casuarina equisetifolia, Euodia roxburghiana, start towards the end of October. Subsequent Fagraea fragrans, Syzygium grande, Syzygium shoots, which sprouted from the stumps, were kunstleri, Syzygium oblatum and Syzygium spicatum. regularly thinned to zero. Stumps were kept alive. The area undergoes a severe drought in dry season and The control plots were demarcated in the is waterlogged in rainy season. in dry season, the surrounding of cut plots. These were left intact. surface soil temperature exceeds 40 oC. The seedlings Farms established in the neighbourhood by total planted in such area are faced to harsh environmental clearing of the miombo woodlands were stresses, resulting in low survival ratio and little identified. During the short rains and the long growth. Our trials revealed that planting Acacia rains, which fall sometimes between end of mangium proceeding to the purposed-tree planting February to the end of May, daily visits were improves the seedlings' survival and growth. in Acacia made to the plots and mushroom occurrence mangium forest, light intensity was diminished and assessed in the cleared and the non cleared plots. soil surface temperature was dramatically lowered Similar assessments were made in agricultural

328 Division 8 than those in open area, which may weaken the some forest ecosystems have characteristic humus photodamage under infertile condition or high properties, characteristics of the adsorption complex temperature stress. Acacia mangium itself also display considerable variability, the correspondence suffers from the harsh environment, resulting in between the properties of humus and the adsorption low survival ratio in case of no treatment. complex can be explained with internal and external Plowing brought remarkable improvement of the factors, the adsorption complex and humus correspond Acacia mangium survival, which confirms its well to floristic diversity of forest stands, in clayey beneficial ability to nurse the subsequently- and sandy substrates (or substrates that release either planted indigenous species. Pot size effects on clayey or sandy material via transformation) an seedlings' survival and growth were examined on influence can be detected not only on the state of some dipterocarp species. Larger pots brought adsorption complex, but also on the state of humus. better seedlings survival without any help of Acacia mangium. Ecophysiological studies have Brazilian ecological classification for tree also been carried out for better understanding of planting the planted seedlings' growth performance. Maria das Gracas F. Reis, Ivone P.S. Moreira, Leonaldo A. Among the dipterocarp species examined for Andrade; Victor H. Acosta planting at open site, D. obtusifolius showed Federal University of Vicosa, Department of Forestry, obviously better survival than others. We 36571-000 Vicosa, Brazil compared photosynthetic performance of D. Tel: 55-031-8991209, FAX: 55-031-8992478, Email: obtusifolius, D. chartaceus and H. odorata, which [email protected] revealed remarkably higher light-saturated Keywords: Ecological classification; Brazilian photosynthetic rates in D. obtusifolius than in territory; Tree planting other two species. Additionally, the light- saturated photosynthetic rates of D. obtusifolius An ecological classification of the Brazilian territory were even higher than those of Acacia mangium. has been developed in order to subdivide the country into ecological regions and sub-regions with the aim to Properties of organic matter and the subsidize tree species selection for planting. The classification system was subdivided into two levels: soil adsorption complex in forest at the first one, the country has been subdivided into ecosystems of Croatia ecological regions using the altitude and several Nikola Pernar, Darko Baksic climatic variables related to air temperature, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Forestry, precipitation, humidity and some of the Thornthwaite? Svetosimunska 25, Zagreb, Croatia Tel: 385 1 235 24 29, Email: [email protected] indices; at the second one, native vegetation types, soil classes, geological groups, relief classes and drainage Keywords: Organic matter; Humus; Soil density have been used to subdivide the country into adsorption complex; Forest ecosystems ecological sub-regions. Transformation and movement of matter and In order to obtain the delimitation of the territory into energy is a characteristic feature of every ecological regions, the steps are described as follow. ecosystem. A specific correspondence among All published data available from meteorological individual elements of an ecosystem is manifested stations have been used. Considering the reduced in a particular manner in the soil. in forest number of meteorological stations in Brazil, associations, which are in natural harmony with precipitation data have been obtained from the climate and parent substrate, the properties of pluviometric stations. Estimated temperatures have physical-chemical soil sorption and the condition been obtained for all pluviometric stations lacking this of organic matter in the surface part of the soil are information. At first, these data were submitted to very interesting. This is significant interpolation, using cells of about 15 x 15 km, in order pedogenetically in terms of transformation and to have an even distribution of the data. This analysis migration of matter, and physiographically in has been developed in blocks of 4o by 4o of latitude terms of the nutritive soil status analysis and the and longitude. in the next step, the data were related ecosystem diversity. submitted to factorial analysis. Factorial loads with Research was done on the humus content and the correlation higher than 70% were extracted from each adsorption complex saturation in humus- factor to constitute the linear indices, which replaced accumulative soil horizons in characteristic the original variables. These indices originated the climatozonal associations in the vegetation belts input data for grouping and discriminant analysis, located in flat, hilly, and mountainous regions in generating the subdivision of the territory into Croatia. The results of research have shown that ecological regions. Each region was described based

329 Division 8 on the average value of the cells contained on it, for each variable analyzed. Carbon and Nutrient Cycling in a Mixed In order to obtain the delimitation of the territory Deciduous Forest of western Thailand into ecological sub-regions, the steps are Masamichi Takahashi, P. Limtong, S. Suksawang, U. described as follow. The maps containing native Kutintara, P. Tummakate, S. Anunspongsak, K. Hirai, and vegetation types, soil classes, geological groups, K. Ishizuka Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Tsukuba relief classes and drainage, when available, were Norin Kenkyu Danchi-nai, P.O.Box 16, 305-8687 Ibaraki, digitalized. A net corresponding to 8 x 8 km in the Japan field was designed over the map in order to obtain Tel: +81-298-733211, FAX: +81-298-731542, Email: the proportion of cover of each variable per cell. [email protected]. These data were submitted directly to both non- Keywords: Nutrient cycling; Seasonally dry tropical hierarchical grouping and discriminatory analysis, forest; Soil conditions; Mineralization making possible the delimitation and characterization of each ecological sub-region. Nutrient cycling is an essential knowledge for sustainable forest management. Especially in tropical At the ecological region level, the results have countries, biomass is largely accumulated in shown that three to four factors can be responsible aboveground on relatively nutrient poor soils, which for 80 to 88% of the cumulative explanation of indicates that deterioration of forest would directly the original data. The first factor usually explains result in loss of nutrient from the ecosystems. Many from 40 to 59% of the variance in the original studies on the distribution of carbon and nutrient pools data and is mainly constituted by altitude and in the forest ecosystems were conducted in the tropical temperature variables. The recent inclusion of rain forests but a few studies are available in Thornthwaite? indices improved substantially the seasonally dry tropical forests. Mixed deciduous forest delimitation of the ecological region, once most (MDF), a vegetation type of seasonally dry tropical indices were included in the first or second forest, is widely distributed in eastern Asia, from India factors, in special for the northeastern region, to Thailand. It is concerned that intensive uses and where water availability is quite variable within frequent fire may reduce forest resources and nutrient very short distances. in the southern region of pools in the ecosystem. The objective of this study is Brazil precipitation is quite high and uniformly to determine the pool sizes and fluxes of carbon and distributed. For this region, humidity was more nutrients in MDF of western Thailand for important than precipitation with all humidity understanding nutrient dynamics in undisturbed variables used being included in the second condition. The study was conducted at an undisturbed factor. mixed deciduous forest in the Mae Klong watershed At the ecological sub-region level, the method research station, Kanchanaburi, western Thailand. was already applied to one block of 4o by 4o. The Annual rainfall is about 1,600 mm and it falls mostly discriminant analysis proved that 94% of the cells from April to November. Mean annual air-temperature were correctly allocated to the ecological sub- is about 27 C. Dominant tree species are Shorea regions, using a subdivision into 12 sub-regions. siamensis, Dillenia parviflora var. kerrii, Xylia The variables used were complimentary, i.e., xylocarpa var. kerrii, and Vitex peduncularis. Most of when two or three regions were similar in terms the forest understory was prevailing with bamboo of one variable they differed from each other species. Ultisols are dominant soil types, which are based on other group of variables. derived from sedimentary rocks and gneiss. in this watershed, limestone is also found. Soils show slightly acidic and lightly clay textures. In the total ecosystem, carbon was sequestrated 308 MgC/ha. Above and below ground biomass were accounted for 130 and 43 MgC/ha, respectively. Bamboo understory showed 16.4 MgC/ha for aboveground, and 3.1 MgC/ha for belowground. Mineral soil (0-1m in depth) stored 125 MgC/ha. For dead organic matter, a carbon pool in standing dead of trees and bamboos (6.8 MgC/ha) were larger than that in litter layer (2.8 MgC/ha). Annual carbon input was 4.5 MgC/ha by litterfall and carbon release by soil respiration was estimated 19.3 MgC/ha annually.

330 Division 8 The amounts of nitrogen in the above and below evergreen broad-leaved stands (2 plots) in Kanto vegetation were 1,470 and 593 kg/ha. Soil is a region, Japan. Soil samples were taken at depths of 0- largest pool for nitrogen and the pool size was 10cm and 10-20cm in each plot. The organic layer (O- 9,170 kg/ha. Phosphorus was distributed 166 layer) samples of forest soil were taken from 5 plots. kg/ha for aboveground vegetation and 57 kg/ha The fresh soil samples were sifted through a 4mm for belowground. For cation distributions, sieve, and the fresh O-layer samples were cut into vegetation is a main nutrient pool. Around 56 - 60 about 10mm pieces, and incubated at 20, 25, and 30? % of cations were stored in the aboveground for 100 to 200 days. The samples were extracted at 3- biomass. Nutrient pools in the soil were small for 30 day intervals, and the amount of inorganic N and available P and exchangeable cations: 13 - 15 % the rate of C dioxide (CO2) evolution were measured. of total pool. Using Arrhenius' law, experimental results obtained under each temperature conditions can be transformed Annual litter production was 9.0 Mg/ha and 66% into a mineralization rate at a standard temperature of the total litterfall was leaf litter. The fluxes of (25°). Parameters of N mineralization potential (N0), nitrogen and phosphorous by litterfall were 66 the N mineralization rate constant (k) at 25° and kgN/ha and 5.5 kgP/ha, respectively. For cations, apparent activation energy (Ea) are normally estimated 39 kg/ha of K, 129 kg/ha of Ca, and 27 kg/ha of by mathematical analysis using a simple type of Mg were return to the soil by litter annually. in kinetics model in forest soil. The N mineralization these nutrient returns, more than 90% of each process in the O-layer of forest soil was fitted to a element was transferred via leaf litter. kinetics model of N mineralization combined with an MDF contained relatively larger amount of immobilization. in the case of the O-layer, the nutrients in aboveground biomass than tropical potential of gross N mineralization (Nm0), rain forests reported. Low ratios of biomass: immobilization (Ni0) and net N mineralization (netN0 elements in fresh litter also indicate that there was = Nm0 - Ni0) were examined. The amount of C no nutrient deficiency in this ecosystem. mineralization was calculated by integration of the CO2 evolution rate. The integration of C Effects of carbon properties on mineralization was fitted to a simple type of the characteristics of nitrogen kinetics model, and the C mineralization potential (C0) mineralization in forest soil was examined. The relationship between the C/N ratio Hirohoto Toda, Kikuo Haibara and N mineralization parameters was not significant in Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, any of the soil samples. However, in soil samples Fuch, 183-8509 Tokyo, Japan where the C/N ratio was >20, the C/N ratio and N0 Tel: +81-42-5812, FAX: +81-42-367-5813, Email: had a negative correlation and the C/N ratio and Ea [email protected] had a positive correlation. These suggest that N Keywords: Carbon mineralization; C/N ratio; mineralization was limited by the C/N ratio of soil Kinetics model; Nitrogen mineralization; because active N was immobilized in soil where the Nitrogen immobilization C/N ratio was >20. in soil samples where the C/N ratio was <20, N mineralization was not limited by the C/N Nitrogen (N) is usually the most limiting nutrient ratio because N immobilization activity in the soil was in forest ecosystem vegetation. The amount of N depressed. There was a positive correlation between mineralization by microorganisms is an important C0 and N0; the regression line was C0/N0=20. The indicator of N availability in forest soils. in potential C/N ratio of available organic matter utilized general, the net N mineralization of organic by microbes was about 20 in the forest soil. k was the matter is small when the carbon/nitrogen (C/N) greatest and Ea was the smallest when C0 was 7-8% of ratio of soil is high because inorganic N is total C (C0/C). This suggests that there is little C0 immobilized by soil microbes. Nitrogen available for N mineralization when C0/C<7-8%, and availability in soil is frequently limited by not that there is sufficient C0 for N immobilization when only the amount of carbon (C) or the C/N ratio, C0/C>7-8%. Thus, C properties are important as but also by the amount of available C. in this indicators of movements of the amount of available N report, the characteristics parameters of N and C in forest soil. mineralization in forest soils were investigated by analyzing the kinetics model. It was based on the results of the following in vitro incubation. The soil samples were taken from Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) stands (3 plots), Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) stands (3 plots), deciduous broad-leaved stands (1 plot) and

331 Division 8 by Eucalyptus occidentalis Engl., the testing of the 8.03.00 Forest Hydrology and Water SEDD approach is carried out by comparing the Quality calculated sediment yield and the caesium loss at the morphological unit and basin scale. Applying the caesium-137 technique for studying sediment redistribution at Assessment of Selected Water Channels basin scale as Affected by Waste Disposal in Vito Ferro, C. Di Stefano, G. Callegari, F. Iovino, P. Nangalisan, Tuba, Benguet, Philippines Porto, A. Veltri, S. Rizzo Filmorie G. Ganzon Universiti di Palermo, Facolti di Agraria, Dipartimento Ecosystems Research and Development Service, di Ingegneria e Tecnologie Agro-Forestali, Sezione Department of Environment and Natural Resources Idraulica, Viale delle Scienze, 90128 Palermo, Italy Cordillera Administrative Region, Loakan Road, 2600 Email: [email protected] Baguio City, Philippines Keywords: caesium, sediment yield, tracers FAX: 0063-442-4531, Email: [email protected] Key words: water quality, biochemical oxygen demand Identifying areas of the landscape that are most sensitive or susceptible to erosion stimulated the In the Philippines, water quality assessment started at study of within-basin variability of the sediment Irisan, Baguio City (dumpsite ) and Calot Sablan, delivery processes and the use of spatially Benguet (piggery farm). The other sampling points distributed models coupled with Geographical chosen for consideration were closely monitored and Information Systems. evaluated as to which tributaries may contribute water pollution to stream and rivers. The progress of distributed models is hindered by the lack of measurements able to establish the link The BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) for all between the eroded soil leaving an area and the water samples collected during the rainy season is patterns of erosion and deposition occurring along within or below the limits of 5 mg/l (yearly average the hydraulic path from the considered area to the values). The results of analyses during the dry months nearest stream reach. Tracer techniques afford an are also below this limit. The findings revealed that the alternative to the use of plots and a means of stream can presently accommodate the approximate overcoming the problems of measurement quantity of oxygen that will be required to biologically representativeness and spatial variability. degrade/stabilize the organic matter present but in a specified time and temperature. The tracer most widely used in soil erosion and sediment yield studies is caesium-137, an On the other hand, the DO (Dissolved Oxygen) in all artificial radionuclide which was released into the water samples collected from the sampling points environment as a result of above-ground established at various locations during the rainy season thermonuclear weapons testing. Fallout deposition is above the limit of 5.0 mg/l. Surprisingly, when it on the land surface occurred mainly with was compared to the results taken during the dry precipitation. When fallout caesium-137 comes in season, it is still above this limit. From laboratory contact with soil, it is readily fixed or adsorbed on tests, it appears that dissolved oxygen is sufficient to the organic and clay particles and subsequent support and maintain all forms of aquatic life. movement by natural chemical and processes is Although it is being contaminated by various limited. combinations of liquid and solid wastes from residences and industrial establishments, aerobic In this paper caesium-137 measurements available decomposition is still taking place in the presence of for two basins with different crop covers, located oxygen. in Sicily and in Calabria, are used for validating the Sediment Delivery Distributed (SEDD) Meanwhile, the total coliform organisms detected in approach based on the Revised Universal Soil colonies per 10 ml of water samples at 24 hours Loss Equation and the sediment delivery ratio of included Escherichia coli, Citrobacter freundii, E. each morphological unit into which the basin is agglomerans and Enterobacter aerogenes. Water divided. For the Sicilian basin, which is used for samples tested on site have pHs ranging from 6.5 to wheat cropping, the predictive ability of the 8.5 indicating that microbial growth can be SEDD model is positively tested comparing the accommodated but if the pH falls below 5, microbial calculated sediment yield values with the activity will cease. No health-based guidelines have measured ones obtained by the caesiographic map been proposed for pH. and the proportional method of Martz and de Jong. For the Calabrian basin, which is covered

332 Division 8 Sustainable Management of a variation (median absolute deviation) for each of these Forested Catchment following parameters at the mid-rotation stage of the plantation Conversion from Eucalypt Forest to closely matches the historic variation of the catchment Radiata Pine Plantation under native eucalypt forest. These results indicate that Peter Hopmans, L.J. Bren, and D.W. Flinn the change in land use to more intensively managed Centre for Forest Tree Technology, Post Box # 137, softwood plantations has maintained the high quality 3084 Heidelberg, Australia of the water from this forested catchment. Tel: +61 3 9450 8693, FAX: +61 3 9450 8644, Email: [email protected] Modelling the Water Balance on Small Key words: water quality, water yield, radiata pine Mountaineous Catchments Australia has a large trade deficit in forest Pavel Kovar products and extensive plantations of radiata pine Czech University of Agriculture, Forestry Faculty, have been established as part of a strategy to Kamycka 129, 165 21 Prague 6 Prague, Czech Republic expand the nations wood resources. Initially, Tel: + 420-2-24382148, FAX: + 420-2-20922252, Email: softwood plantations replaced native eucalypt [email protected] Key words: Water balance, torrent control, deforestation forest, but since the mid 1980s plantations have been established mainly on cleared agricultural Land use and management in a catchment can land. Associated with this conversion of significantly influence rainfall-runoff processes. This catchments to intensively managed, fast-growing effect is even greater on small mountainous plantations are changes in hydrology and potential catchments with highly fluctuating water discharges impacts affecting water yield and water quality. and with substantial sediment transport. To reduce the detrimental impacts associated with storm rainfalls, Australia has adopted the Montreal Process of foresters may apply a broad variety of torrent control socio-economic and environmental criteria and measures on a catchment. indicators for the sustainable management of forests. The maintenance of water quality within Expensive hydraulic structures and heavy the range of historic variation is one of the embankments in river beds are usually less effective environmental indicators included in this Process. than those implemented sustainably over the whole catchment. However, this does not mean that torrent In the mid 1970s the Cropper Creek Hydrology control associated specifically with rivers should be project was established to study the hydrology of minimized, and land use or forest protection applied three small catchments of mixed species eucalypt exclusively as a safeguarding measure. Foresters are forest. in 1980 one catchment was cleared except usually well aware that a combination of both for a 30-m wide riparian zone for the technical and biological aspects applied over the establishment of a plantation of radiata pine. in whole catchment is necessary for effective torrent the short term this change in land use increased control. Such a qualitative assessment is well known. annual water yield by 3.5 ML/ha, but yield However it is necessary to quantify rainfall-runoff gradually decreased to pre-treatment values with processes and to understand them better before time from clearing (Bren and Papworth 1991). deciding on a final form of torrent control. Only minor changes in water quality were observed, but export of suspended solids and To better analyse natural processes in a catchment, the nutrients in streamwater increased because of implementation of hydrological models is higher water yield in response to clearing recommended. With this view in mind the WBCM-5 (Hopmans et al. 1987). model (Water Balance Conceptual Model, version 5, Kovar et al., 1996) has been developed. This model In 1997, the Cropper Creek study was resumed to can provide a good simulation of the catchment water evaluate the long-term changes in hydrology and balance when rainfall-runoff data are available. in the water quality of the 17 year-old radiata pine case of ungauged catchments the model parameters plantation compared with historic data for the can be estimated from hydrological and forested catchment prior to conversion. This geomorphological analyses. Furthermore, the WBCM showed little change in water yield and water can be used to predict the impact of changes in land quality. Present median values for turbidity (3.6 use, and forest pattern especially species displacement NTU), total suspended solids (4.2 mg/L), and age structure. The model is physically based on electrical conductivity (2.9 mS/m), and probability distributed values of parameters over a concentrations of sodium (2.4 mg/L), potassium catchment in respect to their area variability. It has 13 (0.6 mg/L), calcium (0.8 mg/L), and magnesium parameters only three of which need to be optimized (1.5 mg/L) are in close agreement with historic according to runoff observation or "adjusted" to values. Furthermore, results also showed that the resemble similar soil-hydraulic conditions. The other

333 Division 8 parameters can be determined from maps and Hiei (35°06’ N, 135°51’ E) in Otsu, Shiga Prefecture, from commonly available data. The WBCM three from Kagawa Prefecture (34°12’ N, 134°12’ E), model considers all substantial interactions one from Jiulianshan (24°31’ N, 114°28’ E), southern between individual horizontal zones as China, and Chiang Mai (18°47’ N, 98°37’ E), northern vegetation, land surface, active (root) zone, Thailand. pH was determined by glass electrode; EC unsaturated and groundwater zones. It simulates (electrical conductivity) by a conductivity meter; Na+, + + 2+ 2+ - - 2- the following processes: NH4 , K, Ca , Mg , Cl , NO3 , and SO4 by ion · Potential evapotranspiration and interception chromatography; Si (only for stream water) by · Surface runoff and active zone dynamics inductively coupled plasma (ICP) spectrometry. The - · Unsaturated zone moisture and actual concentrations of HCO3 (meq/L) were calculated from evapotranspiration the difference between total measured cation and · Saturated zone dynamics, basic runoff, total anion concentrations. runoff EC and strong acid anion concentrations in stream In this study, the water balance of a small water increased with low Humidity Index (HI) values, experimental catchment, CERNA NISA in suggesting that dry conditions increased northern Bohemia in the Czech Republic (area: concentrations due to high rates of evapotranspiration. 1.87 k m2, length of stream 2.10 km with the Anion concentrations were also affected by other - slope of 2.3%, average altitude 800 m a.s.l., factors. The Cl concentrations in stream waters were average annual rainfall 1070 mm, average annual higher in those watersheds which had closed canopies - runoff 666 mm) was analyzed. The outlet of and were nearer to the ocean. The NO3 concentrations CERNA NISA is gauged (profile UHLIRSKA) were higher in those watersheds having well and the daily flow was first used for the model developed soils and high moisture conditions, but parameter assessment. Data for the growing were lower in tropical and subtropical watersheds seasons from 1980 to 1996 were used to simulate which had high rates of nitrogen uptake and for the water balance. The next step was to watersheds with large areas of saturated soils. The 2- 2- implement the model further in a simulation of SO4 concentrations were affected by SO4 adsorption hypothetical scenarios representing changes in properties of the soils: at Shibecha, Jiulianshan and 2- land use and deforestation in particular. It has Chiang Mai with high adsorption capacities. SO4 2- been shown to what extent deforestation can concentrations in streams were low. High SO4 influence individual components of the water concentrations were found at Mt. Hiei and Kagawa balance. It usually decreases interception and due to the weathering of sulfur minerals and high actual evapotranspiration, and increases surface levels of atmospheric sulfur deposition. Within the 2- runoff. These changes have been quantified by the regions, SO4 concentrations were inversely related to - - WBCM model in other places in the Czech NO3 concentrations. However, HCO3 concentration Republic (Kovar, 1998). The model can also be did not exhibit a clear relationship with HI. This may - used to predict flood levels when the active zone be caused by the fact that (a) HCO3 concentration is is close to saturation. affected by CO2 partial pressure, pH and geological - conditions, and (b) HCO3 concentrations may include The mountainous stream water some organic anions in this study. A comparison among all watersheds exhibited significant positive chemistry from Japan to northern - correlation between HCO3 concentration and pH, Thailand suggesting that H+ consumption in deeper soil Yasunori Nakagawa, Goro Iwatsubo increased pH and HCO - concentrations. The Kyoto University, Laboratory of Forest Ecology, 3 correlation between pH and EC was clearer than that Graduate School of Agriculture, Oiwake-cho, - Kitashirakawa, Sakyo-Ku, 606-8502, Kyoto, Japan between pH and HCO3 concentrations in stream FAX: +81 75-753-6080, Email: [email protected] water. The relationship between pH and EC was - u.ac.jp determined mainly by that between pH and HCO3 concentrations, and partially by the neutralization of Key words: stream water chemistry strong acid anions in soil. The chemistry of mountainous stream waters from 12 forested watersheds in six regions was evaluated. Three watersheds were selected from Shibecha (43°17’ N, 147°37’ E), Hokkaido Prefecture, two from Takayama (36°11’ N, 137°19’ E), Gifu Prefecture, two from the Mt.

334 Division 8 Sungai Layang Reservoir was determined by using an Water yield from Pinus radiata event-based stochastic model developed by Duckstein plantations: A review and Bogardi (1978). Lindsay Rowe, B D Fahey, R J Jackson The area surrounding Sungai Layang Reservoir is Landcare Research, PB # 69, 8152 Lincoln, New covered with palm oil and rubber trees with some Zealand portions under primary forest. The remaining land is Tel: +64 3 325 6701, FAX: +64 325 2418, Email: [email protected] used for agriculture, cultivation of fresh water fish, Key words: water yield, Pinus radiata, plantations, etc. Fertilizer was used to increase the agricultural afforestation yield. There are some chicken and pig breeding areas which affected the water quality of the reservoir. Globally, there are fears that the establishment of There are five rivers flowing into the reservoir. plantations of exotic forest species for wood fibre However, all of the rivers except the river flowing production may have a detrimental effect on the through Ladang Ban Foo are dry most of the time, but environment, especially those aspects relating to the main channel has water flowing throughout the water yield, water quality, erosion and year. All other rivers have water flowing only during sedimentation, soil degradation, and biodiversity, heavy rainfall. These fears are often raised where Pinus and Eucalyptus forests are established in the The model described by Duckstein and Bogardi took headwaters of catchments in areas where there into account the two types of phosphorous: dissolved- could be diminished water yields. Arguments can phosphorous and sorbed-phosphorous. Sorbed- then arise between foresters who 'use' rain water phosphorous is also known as sediment-phosphorous. to meet the biological needs of trees for growth, In the precipitation event-based stochastic model the and downstream-users who require water for stochastic nature of the nutrient input is recognized. municipal, stock-water and irrigation supplies, The model also encoded uncertainties in the form of a and to sustain minimum levels in rivers for relative frequency distribution and probability density recreation and maintaining-stream habitats, function (pdf). Daily inflows for the stochasticity especially at times of seasonally low river flows. estimation are acquired by means of the Mike 11 This paper reviews data on water yields from NAM model. The probabilistic description of catchments with established Pinus radiata phosphorous loadings in terms of relative frequency, plantations. The information, mainly from studies mean and variance is sought. in New Zealand, Australia and South Africa, has Water samples were taken randomly from both the been obtained from a search of the literature in river and reservoir at the water surface, and the world-wide databases. A number of these studies middle, and bottom layers. The water samples were report on the differences in water yield between tested with reagent phos Ver 3 phosphate using DR pine-covered catchments and those with other 3000 to indicate the phosphorous content in mg/l. vegetation covers, e.g., indigenous forests, Preliminary studies indicated that dissolved grasslands, and pasture. phosphorous concentrations ranged from 0.01 mg/l to 1.07 mg/l from various locations in the river and Layang Reservoir sorbed- reservoir. The total average concentration obtained phosphorous loadings estimation from the study was 0.0410 mg/l @ 41.0 ug/l. Other Supiah Shamsudin, Mohd Azraii Kassim aspects of water quality were also recorded: average University Putra Malaysia (UPM), Serdang 43400 pH was 6.95, while the average DO was 7.19 mg/l. Selangor, Malaysia The mean dissolved-phosphorous loadings per storm Key words: phosphorous loadings, sediment yield computed from the event-based stochastic model was 0.095 t/event while the variance was 0.021 t/event. Phosphorous (P) and sediment inflow from The mean annual total dissolved P-loadings was 4.175 reservoir drainage areas can accelerate the process t/yr and the variance was 3.81 t/yr. of eutrophication or lake aging. The phosphorous and sediment inflows may originate from forests Sediment yield was estimated using the Modified Soil or agricultural activities and plantations around Loss Equation (MUSLE) developed by Williams the drainage area. Recent investigations seem to (1975a). The average annual sediment yield was favour phosphorous as the limiting factor for estimated at approximately 400 tons/ha/yr. This value reservoir productivity (Henderson 1979). The was compared to information given by the Department purpose of this study was to estimate the rate of of Agriculture. The sediment yield value was used to phosphorous loadings from the drainage area into compute the total sediment-phosphorous loadings. Sungai Layang Reservoir situated in Johor, In order to retain overall lake water quality, activities Malaysia. The phosphorous loadings rate at the within the watershed should be properly and

335 Division 8 systematically managed. The various control The steep upper portion of these headwater channels, methods proposed to decrease the content of as well as the channels impacted by more recent debris phosphorous in the lake include soil erosion flows, contain less woody debris than other channels. control, better techniques for fertilizer utilization, LWD was transported to the lower reaches of these the timing, amount and method of application, systems where large volumes of sediment collected chemical treatment by alum or copper sulphate, behind these dams. The recent clearcut sites contain and bubbling oxygen through anaerobic layers of large accumulations of logging slash. While this slash stratified lakes. Wetland construction could be is storing some sediment in these headwater systems, considered as an alternative technique for it is doubtful that stability of such small dams will phosphorous removal besides improving the withstand large stormflow events. It appears that the nature of the landscapes upstream of the reservoir. smaller diameter woody material associated with the debris flow and recent clearcut channels is rather Interactions of Woody Debris and effective in storing sediment from more chronic Sediment in Headwater Channels of erosion processes, e.g., minor bank erosion, bedload Coastal Alaska transport, surface erosion from old landslide scars. in Roy C. Sidle, T. Gomi contrast, the old-growth sites have less but larger University of British Columbia, Department of Forest diameter LWD in their channels. These jams trap a Resources Management/Geography lesser amount of sediment, presumably because of the 2424 Main Mall - 2nd floor, V6T 1Z4 Vancouver, undisturbed nature of the drainage, but the deposited Canada sediment appears more stable. For more episodic Tel: +1-604-822-3169, FAX: +1-604-822-9106, Email: events (e.g., large storms, small debris flows), LWD [email protected] dams may fail sequentially based on structural Key words: large woody debris, timber harvesting integrity and position. Additionally, we are Numerous studies in larger low gradient forest investigating the effect of LWD type, volume, and streams have noted the importance of large woody location in these headwater systems on the channel debris (LWD) in relation to fish habitat, sediment roughness as it affects the routing of water and storage, and channel morphology. Very few suspended sediment to larger fish-bearing streams. studies have been conducted in headwater Such information is useful to help evaluate the effects channels even though these systems are more of timber harvesting in steep terrain on sediment directly impacted by timber harvesting. dynamics and hydrology of headwater systems as well Headwater streams are dynamic environments as to estimate downstream impacts. because of their steep gradients (usually > 10%), susceptibility to landslides and debris flows, and Stream Chemistry and The Sources of direct effects of land use activities, especially Solutes in Rainforest Catchments when channels are deeply incised. To address the Underlain By Metamorphic Sandstone hydrologic and geomorphic linkages between the Zulkiflli Yusop, Abdul Rahim Nik and Baharuddin Kasran hillslope and channel in steep terrain as well as Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong, 52109 the dynamics of sediment and water movement Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia related to riparian vegetation and woody debris in Keywords: stream water chemistry streams, a series of headwater channels on Prince of Wales Island, Alaska was investigated. Streamwater quality of two forested catchments namely, C1 and C2 was monitored over 3 years at All streams were in steep glaciated valleys; some Bukit Tarek Experimental Watershed (BTEW) in the of the sites were clearcut in the late 1950s, others State of Selangor, Peninsular Malaysia. The forest was were clearcut in 1995, and still others were in old- logged more than thirty years ago and now has fully growth Sitka spruce-western hemlock forests. Six regenerated. The area is underlain by metamorphic of the 15 channels studied were impacted by sandstone. Streamwaters were grab sampled during debris flows: 3 of the channels were scoured by baseflow conditions and sampled by automatic water debris flows in the early 1960s several years after samplers during storms. clearcutting; the remaining 3 channels were scoured by more recent debris flows in 1993. of The water is slightly acidic with mean pHs of 5.57 and the other 9 streams, 3 were in old-growth forests, 5.30 for C1 and C2, respectively. The acidity was 3 in recent clearcuts, and 3 in older clearcut areas significantly higher during high flow conditions and that were not significantly impacted by debris seemed to be governed by NO3 concentrations. Levels flows. Riparian zones of channels scoured by of electrical conductivity (EC) were low with a mean earlier debris flows have recolonized with alder. of 8.3 mS/cm. The EC levels increased during storms

336 Division 8 and were accompanied by increases in the concentrations of major ions (K+, Ca2+, Mg2+). Hydrologic Effects of Forest Harvest in This indicates that the upper soil horizon could be Northwestern California, USA equally important in providing nutrients/solutes to Robert Ziemer the ecosystem especially for sites that have low USDA Forest Service, 1700 Bayview Drive, CA 95521 weathering rates. The sources of nutrients in the Arcata, USA upper horizon are mainly leached from canopies Tel: +01-707-825-2936, FAX: +01-707-825-2901, Email: and forest litter. The concentrations of K+, Ca2+, rrz7001@axe.humboldt.edu Mg2+ and Na+ at BTEW were generally lower Key words: forest harvesting effects, peakflows, lowflows than those reported for catchments of different Streamflow, suspended sediment, and bedload have lithologies. been monitored since 1962 in the 473-ha North Fork Total ionic contents were higher in the stormflow and the 424-ha South Fork of Caspar Creek. These samples than in the baseflow: 181.4 vs. 162.3 watersheds are about 7 km from the Pacific Ocean, on meq/l in C1 and 189.9 vs. 150.4 meq/ in C2. This the Jackson Demonstration State Forest, 10 km south showed that stormflow components were more of Fort Bragg, California, USA. About 35% of the dominant than baseflow for delivering ions into slopes are less than 17° and 7% are steeper than 35°. the streams. The sum of cations exceeded the Elevation ranges from 37 to 320 m. The soils of the anions during both baseflow and stormflow basins are well-drained clay-loams, 1 to 2 m in depth, conditions. The anionic deficits vary from 10.3 to and are derived from Franciscan graywacke sandstone 37.4% and most probably are due to unanalyzed and weathered, coarse-grained shale of Cretaceous organic compounds. in both catchments, the Age. About 90% of the average annual precipitation of baseflow was dominated by Mg2+ with slight 1200 mm falls from October through April. Snow is differences in the cationic sequence as follows: rare and rainfall intensities are low. 2+ 2+ + + + + Prior to treatment, the watersheds supported a 90-year- C1: Mg >Ca > K > Na > NH4 > H ; 2+ + 2+ + + + old second-growth forest composed of coast redwood C2:Mg > K > Ca > Na > NH4 > H (Sequoia sempervirens (D.Don) Endl.), Douglas-fir 2+ 2+ + With Mg , Ca and K dominating the cations, (PseudoTsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco), western the weathering sources could be attributed to hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla (Raf.) Sarg.), and grand micas and plagioclase which are common fir (Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D.Don) Lindl.). From minerals in metamorphic rocks. The sequence 1963 to 1967, both forested watersheds were measured + shifted slightly during storms with K becoming in an "untreated" condition. in 1967, logging roads 2+ + more dominant than Ca , and H took over from were built in the South Fork. From 1971 through 1973, + NH . K is a major element in plant tissues and about 65% of the stand volume was selectively cut could be easily leached from the organic horizon. from the South Fork watershed, while the North Fork The two catchments shared similar anionic remained as an untreated control. Logging began in - sequences with HCO3 dominating the baseflow the North Fork in 1985 and ended in 1991. The timber - and NO3 the stormflow as follows: volume removed from the North Fork watershed - - - 2- 3- approximated that cut from the South Fork in the early Baseflow:HCO3 > NO3 > Cl > SO4 > PO4 ; - - 2- 3- 1970s, but clearcutting rather than selective harvest Stormflow:NO3 > HCO3 > Cl > SO4 > PO4 - was used. The size of clearcut blocks in the North HCO3 is the by-product of silicate weathering Fork ranged from 9 to 60 ha and occupied 35% to - from the deeper soil layer whereas NO3 was 100% of individual tributaries. entrained from the upper soil during storms. Logging-induced changes in the South Fork's peak It is evident that stream chemistry is influenced streamflow were greatest for the first storms following by the paths by which water travels to the stream lengthy dry periods. There was no significant change channel. The slower path at the deeper soil profile in the largest peakflows (>10-year return interval) carries ions from the weathering front whereas the after selectively logging the South Fork. Peak more rapid flow is dominated by ions derived streamflows following clearcut logging in the North from organic matter in the upper soil horizon. Fork behaved similarly. There was a mean increase of 17% for the class of peakflows with return intervals >0.45-year (>0.004 m3 s-1 ha-1). Annual runoff in the South Fork increased between 9% and 30% for the first 5 years after selective logging. This is equivalent to an average increase in water yield of 900 m3 ha-1. The increased annual water yield slowly returned to prelogging levels over the following 15 years. After

337 Division 8 clearcut logging in the North Fork, the annual manner (see also sketch referring to local and increase in water yield varied from 9% to 58% in geological situation). the first 7 years, with an average increase of 945 Triggering factors for the slope movement were: m3 ha-1. This result is similar to that observed - the saturated debris masses resulting from heavy following the removal of about the same volume summer rainfall of trees from the South Fork. However, 7 years - the movement of previously occurring wet snow- after clearcutting, there is still no trend of return falls to prelogging levels. - the inflow of karst water and the damming up of Selection logging of the South Fork increased water by aquiclude strata underneath. summer lowflow by about 0.3 l-s-1-km-2 for each In November and December 1996 the landslide was of the first 3 years after logging, an increase of still very active, meanwhile it became stabilised. The about 80% from that predicted by the pre-logging water of the Krottenthaler Graben discharges without regression. This increased summer flow declined problems below the debris masses. A reactivation of with regrowth of the vegetation so that within 7 to the slope movement seems only possible when the 8 years after logging, summer lowflow had prevalent coarse-grained material is highly soaked. returned to pre-logging levels. Clearcut logging Extreme conditions can, however, lead to the about 50% of the North Fork produced minimum damming up of the Krottenthaler Graben, which may summer flows averaging 0.4 l-s-1-km-2 (146%) end in a breakthrough of debris flow extending to the larger than predicted. The increased flow was valley floor, thus endangering the settlement at the greatest (250%) during the first 2 years after foot of the debris cone and the trunk road B 307. clearcutting, but 7 years after cutting, summer flow was still 112% above prelogging levels. As a preventive measure the office for regional water management in Rosenheim arranged for the clearing 8.04.00 Natural disasters of the retention basins downstream of existing torrent defence works and gravel traps in order to dispose of Krottenthaler Graben Landslide - some 40,000 cubic metres of receiving volume. The Disaster Documentation - An costs of these measures amounted to about one million Approach To A Solution DM. Günther Bunza, Göttle, Albert As further preventive measures the Bavarian State Bayerisches Landesamt für Wasserwirtschaft, Office for Water Management (LfW) and the State Lazarettstrasse 67 (Postfach 19 02 41), 80602 Office for Geology (GLA) prepared an investigation München, Germany Tel: (089) 92 14-01, FAX: (089) 92 14-14 35, Email: and observation concept. The relevant investigations [email protected] will be based on previously performed laser-scan air photography in 1998. Keywords: Landslide case history; Ground water; Preventive measures Urban growth and geodynamic processes The "Krottenthaler Graben landslide" near Geitau, in the high jungle of Peru municipality of Bayrischzell, county Miesbach Raol C. Carreno, Susana Kalafatovich happened on 21 November 1996 at the north - Swiss Federal Institute of Technology - Lausanne (EPFL), exposed slope of the "Miesing massif" (1,861 m DGC-Ecublens, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland above sea level) orographically situated on the FAX: + 41 - 21 - 693 4153, Email: [email protected] right of the so-called "Krottenthaler Graben". The Keywords: Subandean cities development; main fracture area of the landslide lies at an Agricultural exploitations; Floods and debris flows; altitude of 1,370 m above sea level, its lowest Geological setting level at 965 m. The loose masses of a cone- shaped debris slope partly stocked with forest and The transition area between the andean mountain dwarf mountain-pines were affected by these range and the amazonian plain of Peru is known as movements. in all, some two million cubic metres forest brow or high forest (Ceja de selva o Selva alta). of material covering an area of approx. 50 acres This region is characterized by its relatively narrow started to move. Whereas between 1,030 m and valleys and their high slope. The soils plows not very 1,100 m above sea level the highly piled up stable and easily prone to erosion. masses blocked the Krottenthaler Graben for a The climatic conditions and the abundance of humus short term, eastern parts of the masses were favour the abundant vegetation and the high biological moving downwards the slope in a debris flow diversity.

338 Division 8 Historically this region has not a significant cities. of another side, the ignorance of the soils human occupation, especially due to the existence characteristics and of the geodynamic processes of illnesses against those the andean inhabitants prevents to begin or to organize prevention and didn't have defenses. The Inkas didn't end up mitigation activities. in this way, many cities of the conquering this region, where small cultures or Peruvian high forest go a state of permanent disaster, tribes only existed. The colonization of the high thanks to the irreversible environmental deterioration forest begins strongly in the XIX century, after that suffer the surrounding ecosystems. the peak of the rubber, the vanilla and the chestnut. Some valleys were previously only busy Determination and designation of flood for the cultivation of coca and fruits. Due to the plains in Bavaria social problems of the coastal and of the Albert Göttle, Karl Deindl mountainous regions, as well as for the arrival of Bavarian State Ministry for Regional Planning and European and Japanese immigrants, the Environmental Affairs, Postfach 810140, 81901 Munich, colonization of this region acquires great Germany importance and they have been formed the first Tel: +49 89 92 14 ext 43 78, FAX: +49 89 92 14 ext 22 66, cities approximately for one century. Email: [email protected] The main characteristic of these cities is that they Keywords: Flood control storage; High water settle in alluvial terraces or in the few places discharge; Aerial photographs where the rivers form wide plains. These cities The most effective way to avoid risks for the have strong dependence of the agricultural and population as well as flood damages is the prevention forest activities. of danger potentials in areas, which are susceptible to In the last times, several subandean cities shows a flooding. Sustainable regional planning can be great urban growth that induced them to occupy achieved by preventive flood protection measures, hillsides and unstable terranes. This process goes especially by providing special-use corridors which accompanied by the qualification of new are designed for flooding or must be kept free from agricultural exploitations in and lives sheer lands settlements or other similar uses. To secure these it lives. The destruction of the natural forests is special-use corridors for flood control storage and high quick. water discharge the designation of flood plains is provided for in the German water laws. in order to The most tangible effects in this process of urban fulfill this legal obligation within the scope of a and agricultural growth are given in the field of nation-wide initiative, Bavaria started in June 1996 the the geodynamic disasters. in the last decades the project "Determination and designation of flood plains flood episodes, debris flow and big mass in Bavaria" Approximately one third of the required removals have increasing, forming natural dams designations have been put in practice. Priority of this and overflowings. The soils erosion is alarming, project is, however, to determine flood plains along the same as the reactivacition of large landslides. waters of a total length of about 6,000 km and make The geological setting favor these processes, them ready for designation. It is planned to achieve because the predominance of the paleozoic most of this task until the end of the year 2005. To materials (mainly Schists), and the Quaternary obtain the necessary actual data and working basis for deposits are not well consolidated. Besides it, the this project, aerial photographs of flood plains have seismic activity is important, due to the existence been taken since the year 1997. of active regional faults, like they are those related with the of Abancay and Huancabamba Gold exploitation and erosion processes deflexions. in the rain forest of southeastern Peru Susana Kalafatovich, Raul Carreno Cities like Oxapampa, VillaRica, Quillabamba, PROEPTI, Apartado postal 638, Cusco, Peru Huanuco, Satipo, etc. are affected almost annually Email: [email protected] by floods and debris flow. The access highways to these areas are continually off for collapses and Keywords: Peruvian high jungle; Alluvial gold ore landslides. The economic effects are devastating, exploitation; Forest ecosystems; Soil erosion and mainly during the rainy season: the supply of contamination; Socio-economic problems services and the supply of products are disrupted. The well-known region as high jungle (Selva alta) The lost of crops and the prices increasing corresponds to the subtropical humid forest (andean accompanies to these phenomena. piedmont) and it constitutes the transition area Another aggravating factor is the lack of urban between the andean mountain range and the planning that disables an orderly growth of the amazonian plain. The soils of this region are extremely

339 Division 8 fragile, for their little tickness and their high - Biotopes and endemic species destruction, with organic content. The erosion processes is alteration of the biological general regime of the area. developed quickly by effect of forestal activity, Besides these effects on the environment, big socio- agricultural or mining exploitations. This is economic problems announce many great scale favoured by the intense rains concentrated on few conflicts in the future. Another secondary effect is the months a year. permanent installation of human groups in the forest, In this subandean region located at the southeast above its soportability limits. After the exhaustion of of Peru, there are very important Quaternary the auriferous locations or the technical impossibility geological formations that possess big alluvial of continuing their exploitation, the workers opt for gold ore deposits. Most of these locations are the agriculture. exploited of handmade way. The depredation of The soils of the forest are not very favorable for the the forest ecosystems become highly disturbing. intensive agriculture, for what a process of migrant Due to the low tenor of the ore deposits, a very agriculture begins, where after three or four years of high removal of masses is required. in the last exploitation, people are obligated to leave these years begun is had to it introduces heavy locations, to enable new lands, leaving desertified machinery but without any planning neither spaces. control. of another side, in spite of the great thickness of the Quaternary formations, the exploitation is only bounded to the superior strata, Network constructions for wood debris while the deepest deposits cannot be exploited by control in torrents technical and economic questions. Anton Loipersberger, Albert Göttle Bavarian Water Management Agency, Lazarettstrasse 67, D The erosion is heady directly to the rivers - 80 636 München, Germany (especially the fine silts) while the thick materials Tel: +49-89-92141042, FAX: +49-89-92141041, Email: form piles where the vegetation difficultly can be [email protected] regenerated. At the moment there are among Keywords: Torrent control; Wood debris control; 120'000 to 150'000 people working in the gold Construction works exploitation in Madsre de Dios department, at southeast of the Cusco. The great majority of Not only in Bavaria, but all over the europian alps these workers comes from the andean region and mountain forests are widely not in a good status, they develop a parallel agricultural activity to the moreover the situation tends to deteriorate even more. mining, the same one that is also depredatory Consequently wood debris has become an increasing since it applies inappropriate technical problem in the recent years. Due to blockage of agricultural for the forest. Equally they hunt bridges or in the torrent bed itself additional damages species in risk and they destroy unique are caused, which otherwise would not have occurred. ecosystems of the subtropical rainy forests. During the last few years different constructions for Among the problems caused by this irrational wood debris control have been developed, consisting exploitation we have: of various types of grid or slit construction. Sometimes - Beginning of a wide desertificaction process, for they are built in combination with check dams. As destruction of the vegetable covering and for the experiences in Switzerland (Sachseln 1997) show, this laundry of the fine particles of the floor. The combination may fail in special situations and the recovery of the forests seems impossible. Neither retention of the wood debris does not work. the agricultural use is viable. - Appearance of fronts of regressive erosion that In Bavaria we have been using network constructions affect to the forest and they advance toward areas for about 10 years successfully in the field of of more slope. avalanche control. So the idea arised, to transfer the - Permanent water turbidity that affects to the experience to torrent control works for the retention of flora and the fluvial fauna and it produces the wood debris. in fact the idea of network or rope elevation of beds, with what the flood dangers constructions for torrential works is not completely increase. new. in East-Tyrol (Austria) this type has been used - Strong contamination of the soils, waters and for about 10 to 15 years. The main purpose here is the plants for irrational use of the mercury. retention of bedload. - Climatic alteration. For the first works carried out we developed a design - Contamination of soils for petroleum and oils. method based on theoretical considerations. The development of the network construction in practice was accompanied by a physical model at the Water

340 Division 8 Research Institut of the Technical University Thus, the forests in Japan have close interaction with Munich. of course we are aware of the fact, that the people's life. Especially, as a result of significant the simulation of a complex natural process is economic development of Japan in recent years, the very difficult. Nevertheless we expected a better foot of mountains near cities were developed into understanding of the process and also some housing land and leisure facilities in many areas after information about the influence and sensitivity of felling forest trees so that the danger of the occurrence different design criteria. Now as the simulations of natural disasters tended to increase. After all, urban are completed some valuable results and and suburban forests around residential areas are more tendencies became obvious. At the moment we important than remote mountain forests when natural are considering another test in a 1: 1 scale in disasters such as landslides, falling rocks, and debris nature. This should serve detailed information flow are likely to occur. Consequently, it is necessary about the external static and dynamic load on the to improve techniques for the creation and construction which couldn't be investigated maintenance of urban and suburban forests in order to sufficiently in the model. prevent disasters. With respect to the effects of forests in urban and suburban areas on the surrounding Mechanical Estimation of Biotechnical microclimate, the degree and range of the effects of Slope Stability Effect by Tree Root forests on temperature and humidity has been studied Systems based on the balance of solar energy among forests Masanori Suyama with different tree species and stand density. On the Shizuoka University, Fac.of Agriculture, Ohya 836, other hand, the estimation of the environmental 422-8529 Shizuoka, Japan conservation effect of urban and suburban forests has Tel: +8154 238 4889, FAX: 81-54-238-4889, Email: not studied completely yet. In the present research, the [email protected] slope stability of forests were generally determined Keywords: Suburban Forest, Tree Root from the incidents of slope failures by investigating Morphology, Tensile Strength, Shear Strength, the forest conditions in mountainous regions where the Slope Stability failures occurred frequently after heavy rains according to the classification such as planted In the metropolitan area and the Kansai district of forest,natural forest, conifer tree, broad leaf tree, tree Japan, there are many urban and suburban forests. age and forest density and it confirms that trees are These forests serve frequently as used to control erosion on slopes, to stabilize landslide disasterprevention forests. Recently in Japan, scars, and to absorb debris flow impacts. Roots due to improvement of techniques for the creation and their tensile strength and frictional or adhesive maintenance of disaster prevention forests and properties, reinforce the soil, increase soil shear urban and suburban forests has been urgent. strength. Particularly, the tree roots may anchor into Accordingly, the existing protection forests of firm strata providing support with the upslope soil urban and suburban areas were firstly described. mantle through buttressing and arching. In this paper, in order to find out mechanism of biotechnical the latest topics about the effect of environmental slope stability maintained by tree rootsystems, the conservation function of forests from the above variety of tensile strength of tree roots between mentioned point of view was comparatively discussed. several species was discussed by comparing Then we reported on the results of our survey of the hillside revegetation works in urban and suburban actual situation of urban and suburban forests and we forests. and the latest topics about the efffect of discussed the mechanical evaluation method for the environmental conservation function of forest beneficial factors in terms of slope stability due to the from the above mentioned point of view will be presence of urban and suburban forests. comparatively discussed. On the other hand, the shear strength decreases due to distance from a The role of forests in slope stability and solitary tree and the distribution of shear strength preventing landsliding processes changes at the middle of sample tree were also Ahmad bin Mat Isa Zainal, Haron bin Hj. Abu Hassan discussed for the urban forests in Kyoto. Institut Rimbawan Malaysia, Forestry Deapartment, 50660 The forests in Japan, in response to the various Salahuddin, Malaysia requirements of the national economy, have an Tel: 03 2988244, FAX: 603 2925657, Email: [email protected] important role in providing steady supplies of timber and other forest products. The forests, on Keywords: Landslides; Storm precipitation; Ground the other hand, possess a function of public water in forests; Slope stability; Pore pressure increase benefits as conservation of national land and Malaysia's commitment to achieve sustainable forest water resources, filtration of air and water, and management in the overall context of sustainable promotion of health and recreation for the people.

341 Division 8 development will continue to emphasize pollution landslides occur is an issue to be looked into. The control and prevention, the integration of matter of concern is our ability to model or predict environmental factors into project planning and stream flow responses from rainfall events and our implementation as well as incorporation of ability to simulate subsurface water levels in landslide- environmental inputs into resource and regional prone terrain. development. Concerted efforts and development towards sustainable management are diverse and 8.05.00 Forest Fire manifold whereby Forestry Departments of Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah and Sarawak and A study of fire history and the vegetation other related agencies will enhance their policies, change of a lowland, peat swamp forest in strategies and programmes towards the attainment the Lake Sentarum Wildlife Reserve, West of the goals of sustainable development and Kalimantan, Indonesia integrated environmental considerations in Gusti Z. Anshari decision making process. Monash University, Dept. Geography & Environmental The paper describes the present situation Science, Wellington Rd, Victoria 3168 Clayton, Australia Email: [email protected] elaborating on the role of rainfall and groundwater in landsliding processes and slope Keywords: Tropical lowland peat land; Biomass stability concern in forestry with special reference burning; Vegetation history; Pollen study to Peninsular Malaysia. Landslides and washouts This research provides a long-term perspective on are becoming a common cause of accidents on the impacts of fires on tropical lowland peatland forest, steep terrain areas. Landslides occur naturally in and record vegetation change in the Lake Sentarum undisturbed areas or are influenced by effects of Wildlife Reserve. This study used pollen and management and development activities microscopic charcoal analyses of sediment cores especially with regards to roads. Roads have the collected from the peat swamp forest within the capability of altering natural water pathways of reserve. The correlation of pollen spectra with the subsurface moisture flow and road drainage present vegetation types in the Lake Sentarum design as well as maintenance should be a major Wildlife Reserve was analysed, using correspondence management concern. It is noted that climate analysis, while impacts of prehistoric fires on past strongly influences landslide occurrences. in vegetation was valued, using Monte Carlo permutation addition, landslides rates are strongly influenced tests. by intense precipitation events and saturated antecedent conditions. As such, it is also observed Peat land forests in the Lake Sentarum Wildlife that landslides invariably occur during periods of Reserve has existed since at least 30000 yr BP. The storm precipitation. Among other occurrences in initiation of peat in Late Pleistocene in this reserve Malaysia, as reported by the STAR on the 3 July suggests that this area is predominantly ever wet. This 1995 (Monday), the tragedy of two landslides study also indicates that prehistoric forest fires occurred at the Genting Highlands slip road that frequently occurred in this region. These fire took the lives of at least 20 people and injured disturbances have minor effects on past vegetation another 23. The second landslide caused most of communities, but recent forest fires, probably since the damage of bringing down large volume of 3000 yr BP, seem to have persistently shifted the gushing water and uprooting a 150 m stretch of forest types, from closed peatland forests to secondary trees. forest types. Human activities and recent El Nino phenomenon may have significant roles in this current The paper also articulates the need to enhance the change. understanding of relevant factors such as topography, bedrock geology, the hydraulic properties of forest soil and the hydrologic properties of water that have major effects on subsurface flow processes during large rainfall events. The paper highlights the important mechanism for causing slope failures which emphasizes the height of saturation above a potential failure plane (and the accompanying increase in pore pressure) decreases the shear strength of forest soils. Lack of information in areas of steep terrain where

342 Division 8 fire on a broad scale are poorly understood. Despite Fire in Temperate and Boreal Forests- the global importance of understanding the role, Global Change, Fire Management, and management, and impacts of fire on forest health and Sustainability sustainability, we do not have adequate monitoring Susan G. Conard, Brian J. Stocks systems to accurately quantify burned areas, fire USDA Forest Service, Vegetation Management and severity, or the effects of boreal and temperate forest Protection Research, Sidney R. Yates Federal Building fires on carbon storage (or trace gas emissions). Forest (1CEN), PO Box 96090, 20090-6090 Washington, management, and estimates of global carbon balance, D.C., USA must consider the changing role and impacts of fire FAX: 1-202-205-2497, Email: sconard/[email protected] and impacts of alternate fire management strategies Keywords: Global carbon budget; and changing climate in these temperate and boreal Boreal/temperate fire emissions; Management systems. strategies Forests fire: monitoring and management While the importance of temperate and boreal using satellite remote sensing data forests as potential carbon sinks is widely Mohd. Hasmadi Ismail, Kamaruzaman Jusoff recognized, the role of wildland fire in the Universiti Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Forestry, 43400 UPM dynamics of these sinks is not. in some instances, Selangor, Malaysia accurate accounting of fire emissions may Tel: 60-3-9486101 ext. 2414, FAX: 60-3-9481522, Email: completely alter estimates of source/sink kamaru @forr.upm.edu.my relationships. in most of these forest types, Keywords: Satellite remote sensing; Forest fire; surface fires or stand-replacement crown fires ASEAN Region; Malaysia have been part of the landscape for thousands of years. These fire patterns are altered by human Forest fire has an important influence on the activities (such as fire suppression, grazing, vegetation cover, dependent animal, soil, stream flow, forestry practices, urbanization, or intentional or air quality, microclimate and perhaps life and even the unplanned ignitions), by interactions with other world climate. The loss of timber, destruction of disturbances such as insect outbreaks, or by short wildlife, property and recreation value are also readily and long-term changes in climate. Changes in perceived. Unfortunately, the damage to the protective frequency, intensity or size of fires, in fuel values of the forest are not equally discernable. It is structure, or in forest health and composition can quite clear that an innovative approach on forest fire have important effects on net carbon storage, on hazard monitoring and management requires the use of forest health and sustainability, and on new technique to obtain, process and display spatial susceptibility to future fires. Fires in boreal and information in a timely and cost effective ways. The temperate forests contribute perhaps 20-30 large size, remoteness, and temporal variability in percent of the global carbon emissions from occurrence of wildfires in tropical forest regions make biomass burning. Fires are also sources of key remote sensing/GIS techniques well suited for greenhouse gases, which add to the potential monitoring and studying wildfire. impact of changing fire regimes on global In other situation, the information gathered are useful climate. Estimates based on global climate change in helping to make decision on the wildfire area. This models suggest that fire hazard in boreal zone paper focussed and emphasized on Malaysia and forests could increase substantially in the future. South East Asia due to the frequent occurrence of Management of global carbon requires a full many forest fires during the past few years. The main understanding of the factors affecting carbon objective of this paper is to promote the usefulness and release from fires, and of the potentials and capability of satellite remote sensing as an alternative pitfalls for managing fire regimes to enhance tool for monitoring, mapping and managing forest fire sequestration. For example, attempts to increase in the ASEAN region. carbon storage through elimination of fire on a landscape scale can lead to increased risk of insect and disease attack, increases in flammable fuels, and greater danger of severe fires in the future. While intensive silvicultural treatments, such as thinning, can reduce these risks, they are not practical on the scale that would be necessary for fire protection across the vast landscapes of temperate and boreal forests. and the ecological impacts of substituting mechanical treatments for

343 Division 8 information available about the main factors that Forest Fire Monitoring and Damage promote the forest fire and information about the Assessment Using Remotely Sensed forest condition after the forest fire. This is one of the Data and GIS: A Case Study from East reason why forest area neglected after they are burned. Kalimantan, Indonesia. Remote sensing and GIS are helpful tools to provide a Yousif Ali Hussin, Heri Sunuprapto quick and accurate data acquisition and that can The International Institute for Aerospace Survey and describe the forest condition after the forest fire. Earth Science (ITC), 7500 AA Enschede, Netherlands The objectives of this research were to asses the ability FAX: (31) 53-4874-399, Email: [email protected] of satellite remotely sensing data to detect, identify Keywords: Forest fire hazard; Damage and classify forest damage caused by fire and to assessment; Remote sensing; GIS develop a forest fire hazard spatial model. Forests are inestimable and renewable natural resource of a nation. They are gaining prominence Sustainable Management of Natural increasingly day by day on account of their resources: Forest and Fire (Ghana) protective, productive, recreational and ecological Paul Kankam Forestry Research Institute of Ghana, BOX 632, Kumasi, values. So is the case with the wildlife, of which Ghana forests are the abode. Furthermore, soil and water FAX: 233-51-60121, Email: [email protected] are to be given salience of the highest order as these two support the plant kingdom directly and Keywords: Ghana forest/savanna fires; Fire damage; ultimately affect mankind in its varied Control and prevention dimensions. Thus, soil, water and forests form the This paper describes how the tropical country in the trinity which is indispensable for the existence world began to record most of its important forest fire and survival of mankind. But unfortunately these events from the early 1970s which normally spread forests of utmost importance are subject to occasionally from nearby savannah along the northern various kinds of injuries, out of which forest fire margin of forest zone. in 1983, fire in the forest zone is the most consequential incite, doing of West Africa were so severe and extensive that incalculable harm to the forests. everyone become aware of their importance. The year Forest fire has an portentous influence on most of was notable for prolonged and extensive drought in the vegetation and, through it, on dependent West Africa and in many of the worlds tropical forest fauna, soil, stream flow, air quality, microclimate, areas. and perhaps even general climate. Many of the During that time, the environmental damage from the direct, immediate effects of fire are common combined effects of fire and drought was knowledge; they are also the reasons why fire is a unprecedented with great losses of crop yield and the matter of concern for foresters. The cumulative destruction of an estimated 4 million cubic meters of impacts of the environmental perturbations timber in savannah dry semi-deciduous forests, a unleashed by the forest fire, poses insurmountable middle zone vegetation. Since than fires have recurred threat on the supply of natural resources. in an in years with unexceptional dry season, carving a area of wildlife the risk is even more pronounced progressive degradation of the forest especially on the as they can be devoured by the fire or asphyxiated northern margin vegetation bothering the forest zone by the scorching debilitated air. in the south and savannah zone in the north which are Indonesia, as a part of Malaysian botanical region, the two main vegetational types in Ghana. is the richest tropical rain forest in the world. The major causes of the bush fire have been harsh Those forests are second only to Brazil's forest in climate condition and anthropogenic or human size, and represent 10 percent of the world activities. Due to this activities forest fire in the remaining tropical rain forest. of its total land area countries have had adverse and widespread influence of 193 million hectares, about 144 million on especially the semi-deciduous forest. Following the hectares or nearly 75 percent are classified as drought of 1982-1983, fire has significantly altered the "forest land". More than 95 percent of those forest structure and composition of about 30 percent of these land are outside Java island (80 percent in forests. The stem densities have been reduced and Sumatra, Kalimantan, and Irian Jaya). Indonesia proportion of pioneer trees in the community suffered from huge forest fires in 1983, 1986 and increased. The effect of the fire is the considerable last year (1998). reduction of the economic value of forest in terms of Forest fire in Indonesia is a yearly potential stands timber. The measures which have been taken caused for forest degradation. Insufficient for forest protection through prevention and control

344 Division 8 include fire risk assessment and publicity, fire 2.6-5cm dbh), whereas regeneration above 5cm dbh breaks, early burning, operational forest fire are less effected. Prescribed burning carried out in the management and policy and legislation. Therefore early summer season was found to cause the minimum a more intensive collaborative approach is being damage to regeneration, as compared to burning adopted to ensure a better protection of the carried out in the late summer season. Shrubs and country forest. There are also plants to intensify herbs showed an apparent increase either in total the development of more feasible forest fire number or species diversity after fire. Fire favoured management action plan and policy which will the growth of secondary tree species, herbs and fully integrated not only. Monitory, research, grasses. This trend was more obvious in late burn institutional framework and capacity development plots. Among the different moist deciduous tree but also socio-economic considerations land species, thick bark species such as Gmelina arborea resources management ad utilization, training and and Pterocarpus marsupium were found to be more education. It is importance to identify the need to resistant to fire. Air temperature and air humidity play prevent and suppress wildfire and to rehabilitate a very critical role in predicting fire behaviour. It is degraded forest reserves. observed that once the fuel quantity and fuel moisture content cross a certain limit which is sufficient for Fire-related Regeneration Dynamics in occurrence of fire, further change in fire behaviour is the Moist Deciduous Forests of controlled by fuel porosity and fuel continuity. Other Western Ghats: A case study factors which control the rate of fire spread are size A. R. R. Menon, K.J. Martin Lowel and thickness of leaves, rate of decomposition, soil Kerala Forest Research Institute, PeechiThrissur, 680 moisture regime, wind and presence of grasses. The 653. Kerala, India paper elucidate the different aspects of this experiment FAX: 0487 - 782247, Email: [email protected] in and concludes on the possible impact of fire on the status of moist deciduous forests in this part of India. Keywords: West Ghats; Tropical forest fire impacts; Regeneration; Fire behavior Haze, Forest Fires and Landuse Practices: One of the major causes of degradation in tropical An Assessment forests and particularly the moist deciduous Samsudin Musa, Shamsudin Ibrahim, Ismail Harun Raja forests, is the recurrent incidence of fire. It is well Barizan, Azman Hassan, Wan Mohd Shukri & Ismail Parlan known that fire causes extensive damage in the Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Natural Forest forest ecosystem by affecting regeneration and Division, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia stocking and ultimately leading to poor status. Keywords: Indonesian fires; Transboundary Impact of fire on regeneration largely depend on smoke/haze impacts; Cross-sectoral approach the intensity and periodicity of fire and the level of the regeneration. The present paper deals with Malaysia and some of her neighbouring countries impact of fire on the regeneration of moist namely, Indonesia, Singapore and the Philippines have deciduous forest at a location in the Western ghats of late experienced one of the worst occurrences of in Thrissur forest division, Kerala State, India, at haze. The Problems is mainly caused by poor landuse varying fire frequencies. practices of burning secondary forests and agricultural lands during preparation for agriculture. This Twelve 0.25ha (50m x 50m) plots were phenomenon is not new and has been occurring almost established for different burning treatments, viz. every mainly in Indonesia. However, its severity and early-burn, late-burn, one year and two-year fire impacts have increased to such an extent that frequencies and control, with three replications. environmentalists have called the 1997 haze and forest Regenerating elements of tree species (1-10cm fires in these region ecological disasters. The fires had dbh) were tagged and enumerated in all the plots. resulted in a significant loss to property, loss of Shrubs with height above 50cm and dbh below income, reduced the quality of the environment and 1cm were identified, height measured and also caused health problems to nearby communities. recorded from randomly selected 4m x 5m However, several issues pertaining to the occurrence quadrats in each of the plots. Herbs (height below of the fires has not been properly addressed and the 50cm) were also identified and counted from extent of these negative impacts not adequately randomly selected 1m x 1m quadrats. All the assessed. It is evident the problems are transboundary observations were taken before and after in nature and that a collective effort is required to prescribed burning and compared with the control address them. At the same time, the problems are also (no burn) plots. cross-sector in nature involving a variety of different The intrime results indicate that impact of fire is agencies and ministries and thus an integrated effort more in lower diameter classes (1-2.5cm dbh and would be necessary. This paper gives an assessment of

345 Division 8 the extent of the fires, its causes and impacts, and average number of fires was 55.45 and the mean efforts that could or that are being made to burned area 460.46 ha. Using indicators cited in the overcome the problem. literature, the efficiency of forest fire control in the province of Pinar del Rio, when compared to other History of Forest Fires in the Province countries, can be considered very good. of Pinar del Rio, Cuba Marcos Pedro Ramos Rodriguez, Ronaldo Viana Managing Smoke in Forestry and Crop Soares Estate Sector in Indonesia University of Pinar del Rio, Pinar del Rio, Cuba Eulis Retnowati FAX: +55-41-253-2332, Email: [email protected] Forest and Nature Conservation Research and Development Keywords: Cuban fire dynamics; Fire causes; Center, FORDA, Jl. Gunung Batu, PO BOX 165, Bogor, Indonesia Impacts; Fire control efforts Tel: +62-251-325111, FAX: +62-251-325111, Email: The knowledge of the fire occurrence history in a [email protected] region is of great usefulness for the efficient Keywords: Smoke impacts; Fire research; Shifting planning of fire control activities, because it cultivation; El Nino permits to establish the: i) locals of greater occurrences; ii) length of the fire season; iii) main The increase of destruction in Indonesian forest fires causes of the fires; iv) types of vegetation affected in 1997 and 1998 totaled around 10 million ha, with by the fires; v) extension of burned areas by damage estimates of US$ 10 billion. Other negative periods of time; and vi) evaluation of the impacts included heavy smoke effecting flora and efficiency in fire control. in this paper the history fauna, humans, and relations between other countries. of fire occurrence in the province of Pinar del Rio Law enforcement was weak, proving that the during a 22 year period (1975 to 1996) is management of forest fire prevention, suppression, analyzed in order to contribute to the increase of mitigation and rehabilitation was neither satisfactory the efficiency on fire control in the region. Pinar nor effective. Even with highly advanced equipment del Rio, region of natural occurrence of Pinus used to fight, millions of US$ spent, and many caribaea var. caribaea, the most important forest international groups and thousand of peoples involved, species in Cuba, is located between the latitudes the fire did not stop, ending with heavy rains at the 21° 45' and 23° 01' North and the longitudes 82° end of May 1998. It was found that Indonesian forest 51' and 84° 57' West, covering an area of 10,901 k fire management lacked useful data rooted in forest m2. During the observation period the total annual fire research, making effective action against forest precipitation varied from 1,089 to 2,229 mm; the fires very weak. There was also a weakness in the monthly average temperature ranged from 21.59 interest of the people who working in the forest C in January to 26.85 C in August; the mean wind plantations and agricultural activities such as rubber speed ranged from 7.0 km.-1 in August to 12.0 and oil palm plantations that use fire in land km-1 in March; and the mean relative humidity preparation without any clear guidelines. There is no varied from 76% in April to 84% in September. alternative solution for shifting cultivators who have Pinar del Rio is the most important forest been using fire for land clearing for thousand of years. province in Cuba and also the number one in fire There is also a loss of control from the government occurrence, with 21.48% of the total forest fires side which cause rules and laws become absurd. This recorded in the country. The majority of the fires situation has remained for a long time, even there were (93.28%) and the area burned (94.44%) were a large forest fires in 1982/1983 which destroyed 3.6 observed in native or planted forests of Pinus spp million ha. Unfortunately forest fires have occurred (76.72% of the recorded fires), Eucalyptus spp every year from small to large scales as happened in (11.56%), and Casuarina spp (5.00%). Statistical 1994, destroying 5.4 million ha of forest and land. analysis showed that fires were significantly more Shifting cultivation and El-Nino would be blamed for frequent in forestry plantations than in natural those fires, without any clear solution on how to solve forests. The main cause of the fires was lightning the problem. To solve this problem, the management (47.46%) but most of the burned area (39.42%) of Indonesian forest fires must be based on was due to fires caused by negligence, the second information sources from research; and not just those main cause, with 27.38% of the recorded fires. directly translated from other countries experiences About 83.70% of the fires and 92.40% of the without any adjustments. The local people who live burned area were recorded from March to August, near the forest must also be approached, giving them and 69.43% of the fires occurred between 1:00 to the best alternative solutions, so that their life style 4:00 PM. During the studied period the annual will be highly appreciated. Full attention must also be

346 Division 8 focused on the peoples working in the forest and not just those directly translated from other countries with agriculture activities using fire. They must experiences without any adjustments. The local people be given clear guidelines and law enforcement who live near the forest must also be approached, must be defined and established correctly. The giving them the best alternative solutions, so that their government side should give full support for this life style will be highly appreciated. Full attention mechanism, including their official staff not only must also be focused on the peoples working in the in the forestry and environmental sectors but also forest and with agriculture activities using fire. They from the justice side along with other sectors. must be given clear guidelines and law enforcement must be defined and established correctly. The Fire Research and Society Interest as government side should give full support for this Limiting Factors in Minimizing Large mechanism, including their official staff not only in Forest Fires in Indonesia the forestry and environmental sectors but also from Bambang Hero Saharjo the justice side along with other sectors. Bogor Agricultural University, Faculty of Forestry, Post Box # 168, 16001 Bogor, Indonesia The Interest of Students on Forest Fire Tel: +62 251 627750, FAX: +62 251 621244, Email: Studies (Bogor, Indonesia) [email protected] Lailan Syaufina Keywords: Smoke impacts; Fire research; Universiti Putra Malaysia, Faculty of Forestry, 43400 UPM Shifting cultivation; El Nino Serdang, Malaysia Tel: 603-9486101-10 Ext.2405, FAX: 603-9432514, Email: The increase of destruction in Indonesian forest [email protected] fires in 1997 and 1998 totaled around 10 million Keywords: Forest fires; Insects; Disease; ha, with damage estimates of US$ 10 billion. Regeneration; Fire danger rating; Forestry students Other negative impacts included heavy smoke effecting flora and fauna, humans, and relations There are about 32 undergraduate thesis of the between other countries. Law enforcement was students of the Faculty of Forestry, Bogor Agricultural weak, proving that the management of forest fire University, Indonesia on forest fire in the period of prevention, suppression, mitigation and 1984 to 1998. Though the figure seems to be rehabilitation was neither satisfactory nor fluctuating during the period, however it indicates a effective. Even with highly advanced equipment positive tendency of the interest of the students on used to fight, millions of US$ spent, and many forest fire studies. The studies were conducted in international groups and thousand of peoples forest plantation as well as in natural forest in Java, involved, the fire did not stop, ending with heavy Sumatra and Kalimantan which consist of varies areas rains at the end of May 1998. It was found that of forest fire such as: forest fire impacts (12 titles or Indonesian forest fire management lacked useful 37.5 %), fire danger rating (9 titles or 28.1 %), fire data rooted in forest fire research, making season (3 titles or 9.4 %), fire causing factors (3 titles effective action against forest fires very weak. or 9.4 %), fire behaviour (2 titles or 6.3 %) and control There was also a weakness in the interest of the (3 titles or 9.4 %). of which 2 titles (6.3 %) were people who working in the forest plantations and laboratory studies while the other 30 titles (93.7 %) agricultural activities such as rubber and oil palm were field works. The studies on forest fire impacts plantations that use fire in land preparation were primarily emphasised on soil and vegetation without any clear guidelines. There is no damages, appearance of pest and diseases, forest alternative solution for shifting cultivators who regeneration, besides on socio economic condition of have been using fire for land clearing for forest dependent people. Forest regeneration and thousand of years. There is also a loss of control inventory of dead trees and injured trees, which are from the government side which cause rules and classified by species and diameter classes, were laws become absurd. This situation has remained common studies in the last few years. Besides, the for a long time, even there were a large forest studies on the appearance of pest and diseases in fire fires in 1982/1983 which destroyed 3.6 million affected areas were also get interest by the students. ha. Unfortunately forest fires have occurred every While, the impacts of fire on soil were still on early year from small to large scales as happened in stage of which emphasised on soil properties and 1994, destroying 5.4 million ha of forest and land. erosion. Economical loss of forest resources, wood Shifting cultivation and El-Nino would be blamed and non-wood forest products, gets more attention in for those fires, without any clear solution on how recent years. Fire danger rating was the second most to solve the problem. To solve this problem, the interesting study of the students. The following are management of Indonesian forest fires must be some examples of the studies: the application of fire based on information sources from research; and danger meter types such as 8-100-0 and Rocky

347 Division 8 Mountain, Drought Index calculation, physical environment, unique biogeographic location determination of relationship between Vegetation and tropical conditions have given rise to extremely Stress Index and Normalised Difference high levels of biological diversity, higher than in most Vegetation Index, and determination of other tropical Asian countries, when measured per unit relationship between Drought Index and area. Much of this diversity is endemic, presumably a Normalised Difference Vegetation Index. Close to reflection of the island's separation from the Indian the study is fire season, which had also been an subcontinent since the late Mesozoic. More than 3650 interesting study of the students. Since almost all species of flowering plants, 300 species of forest fires in Indonesia are caused by human pteridophytes, about 400 birds, almost 100mammals factor, the study on fire causing factors seemed to and more than 160 reptiles are known to occur and have little attention. The study in Java stressed on new species, of even higher plants and animals, are clarifying the socio economic background of still being discovered. Sri Lanka is also one of the forest dependent people as the most common fire- Asia's most densely populated countries and much of causing factor. On the other hand, the study in the its natural forest has been cleared for settlement, other outer islands more focused on classification cultivation, development and timber production. The of activities using fire in land clearing for forest area per capita has declined from 1.3 ha in 1900 plantation, timber estates and traditional to less than 0.1 ha in the 1999. Sri Lanka fortunately agriculture. Besides, there was a study on the role has a strong tradition in conservation and its system of of cigar on forest fuel burning in laboratory scale. conservation areas is one of the most extensive in Asia Though fire management is an important area in and covers about 14% of the total land area. These the study of forest fire, it seemed that the students relatively impressive area figures notwithstanding, a had paid lees attention on the area. The studies number of deficiencies beset the conservation of its were still in the preliminary study, which is biological diversity and management of wildlife and focused on fire prevention, such as: vegetative protected areas (PAs). These arise mainly from the fire breaks, fire prevention system and fire Department of Wildlife Conservation (DWLC), the application techniques in land clearing. Similarly, agency responsible for the management of PAs, not the study on fire behaviour got also less intention. being able to keep pace with the drastic demographic, So far, only two titles concern with the area, land use, socio-economic and political changes that namely: the influence of wind velocity and aspect have come about since its inception in the mid 50s. on fire spread and the influence of forest fuel Management of PAs is largely ineffective and suffers characteristics on fire spread. from inadequate scientific inputs and weak institutional structures. The situation is further Based on the above information, it can be compounded by a majority of PAs being small (30% highlighted that there is still lack of studies in the of PAs are less than 100 ha and 54% are less than area of: fire behaviour and fire characteristics, fire 1000 ha) and isolated, reflecting the fragmented nature management including forest fire prevention and of the remaining natural habitats. suppression, and also fire ecology. Therefore, it is required to imply some efforts in encouraging the No systematic PA management plans exist which students in conducting their studies in those could meet the scientific requirements of wildlife and important areas. biodiversity conservation, as well as relate to the ground realities of the pressures and problems of the 8.06.00 Wildlife local communities. It is widely recognized that a good management plan is a pre-requisite for good Planning for conservation of biological management as the plan provides strategies for diversity: lessons learned from Sri resolving conflicts between conservation objectives Lanka and prescribes actions for achieving the management Vinod B. Mathur objectives. Realizing the importance of the Wildlife Institute of India, Post Box # 18, 248 00248 management plans for scientific and efficient 001 Chandrabani, Dehradun, India management of PAs, the Global Environment Facility Tel: +91-135-640112 to 115, FAX: +91-135-640117, (GEF) project of the DWLC initiated the process of Email: [email protected] management plan preparation for its PAs in 1996. Keywords: Biological Diversity; Conservation; The paper discusses the lessons learned in the Protected Areas; Conflict Resolution preparation of scientific management plans for PAs in Sri Lanka, though one of the smallest nations in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. New strategies for Asia harbours biological diversity of global maintaining the integrity of PA boundaries, significance. Its varied topography, diverse organizational strengthening, conflict resolution,

348 Division 8 mitigation of man-elephant conflict, generation of hydroelectric power projects. The ecodevelopment, ecotourism, research and creation of valley bottom water reservoirs is now an monitoring have been adopted in the planning integral part of the planned development in India. process. It is felt that the speedy implementation Developments of this form undoubtedly place the of these strategies would go a long way in greatest demands on some of the country's finest conserving the rich and varied biological diversity forests and wilderness tracts. Experiences of impact of this island nation. assessment studies of most of the water resource projects in the country suggests that the diversion of Wildlife conservation amidst forest land and the non forest wilderness areas for development: challenges in Indian river valley projects and their associated losses of scenario wildlife and genetic resources may lead to some Asha Rajvanshi irreversible ecological trends. These trends if not Wildlife Institute of India, Post Box # 18, halted or arrested, can lead to the genetic Chandrabani, 248 001 Dehradun, India impoverishment of some of the wildlife areas of the Tel: +91-135-640112 to 115, FAX: +91-135-640117, country. Email: [email protected] The growing economic instability of the forest Keywords: Hydropower projects; Wildlife dependent society, generally induced due to the conservation; Biodiversity impacts; Socio- marginalistion of the land and the shrinking resource economic impacts; Mitigation planning base that supports the sustenance driven demands of India with varied attributes of geology, terrain, the local people is another undesirable dimension of hydrology and climatic regimes, harbours water resource development projects. approximately 7% of the world's flora and 6.4% Given the present scenario of disparities in of the world's fauna on approximately 2.2% of the development and conservation interest, pressures will global land that actually represents 0.5% of the continue to mount to both use and conserve our total world's forested area. India also enjoys the resources, as a result of which it may not be possible dubious distinction of being the world's second to fully prevent the impacts of development. The paper most populous country supporting 16% of the suggests the need for evolving and implementing more world's population (846.3 million) and 14% of the pragmatic approaches for mitigating biodiversity world's livestock population (415.8 million). losses that involve the enhancement of productivity of Given the constraints imposed by the adverse croplands and the increased protection in the residual ratios of people to land and wildlife species to wilderness areas. wildlife habitats, setting aside of 4.5% of the country's geographical area and subsequent Importance of Bird Species in Forest proposal for an increase to 5.6% for the Reproduction conservation of wildlife in protected areas has Mohamed Zakaria, Mohd Nordin been a formidable undertaking. Universiti Putra Malaysia, Department of Forest Incongruities and aberrations in landuse continue Management, Faculty of Foresty, 43400 UPM Serdang, Malaysia to remain and are increasing. These, coupled with FAX: 603-9432514, Email: [email protected] unsound development strategies have led to increasing challenges in wildlife conservation Keywords: Primary forest; Logged forest; Frugivorous which so far have been partially achieved against bird; Seed-trap; Disperse several odds. The existing inadequacy in the Selective logging has created great impact to flora and coverage of wildlife areas under Protected Areas, fauna in Malaysia (Nordin and Zakaria 1996, Zakaria and the loss of forest due to diversion of land for 1994). Although only the timber species were agriculture (2.6 m ha.), river valley projects (0.5 harvested, non-timber species were also destroyed m ha.), transportation and infrastructure projects during logging. Most of these non-timber species were (0.8 m ha.), industries (0.13 m ha.) and other fruit trees important for birds (Howe and Smallwood miscellaneous uses (1.0 m ha.) in last one decade, 1982). As a result most of the fruit-eating birds have severely jeopardized the wildlife (frugivores) were less often observed feeding on fruit conservation efforts in highly man modified trees in logged forest compared to primary forest environments of the wilderness areas of the (Zakaria and Nordin 1998). Chapman and Chapman country. (1995) asserts that when frugivore community was no This paper illustrates through some select longer intact, recruitment of fruiting trees might be examples, the inherent inconsistencies between reduced and thus, the long-term persistence of tree development and conservation that are linked to species is questionable. However, there was no

349 Division 8 evidence to show that fewer seeds were dispersed mature within 30 years, many of the fruit tree species in logged forest compared to primary forest. might become extinct since the next cycle of logging would happen in 30 years. These species might not Thus, in this paper, results of an 18-month detail have an opportunity to produce and disperse their study on the amount of seeds dispersed by seeds because it has been shown that many species frugivorous bird species in primary and logged require more than 80 years to mature and reproduce forest were presented. The study was conducted at (Liew 1978). Thus, it is concluded that logged forest the Ulu Segama Forest Concession, in the state of might be able to regenerate, but it might not be able to Sabah, East Malaysia. Two study sites were fully recover as the original species composition. chosen - a primary forest which was located within the Danum Valley Conservation Area 8.07.00 Biodiversity (DVCA), and a two-year-old logged forest which was located adjacent to the DVCA. Seed traps were used to estimate the number of seeds being Biodiversity assessment and monitoring: dispersed in both study sites. Each trap was made- an adaptive management approach for up of four PVC pipes (75cm long) and a net forest conservation and development (100% polyester cloth) of about 1 m2 in area. The Francisco Dallmeier, Alfonso Alonso and James Comiskey net was raised at each corner by the four PVC Smithsonian SI, MAB Biodiversity Program, Washington D.C., USA pipes to about 30cm above the ground, depending Email: [email protected] on the ground level. Fifty traps were placed at random in each study site. Keywords: Forest biodiversity; Conservation and development; Multi-taxa; Forest assessment and This study clearly shows that more of the smaller monitoring size seeds (less than 5mm in length) were being dispersed in logged than in primary forest. This is The Smithsonian Institution/Monitoring and consistent with earlier study that found that in Assessment of Biodiversity Program (SI/MAB) and logged forest there were abundant of small size Shell Prospecting and Development B.V. Per (SPDP), birds particularly bulbul species (Nordin and in cooperation with national and international Zakaria 1996). Bulbuls are colonising species and organizations, joined efforts for the environmentally prefer to feed on small size fruits especially of sensitive development of world class reservoirs of secondary or pioneer species such as Macaranga. natural gas and condensates. The area is located in the in primary forest, bulbuls were uncommon and heart of Amazon rain forest hot spot for biodiversity. mostly dominated by larger size frugivores such For sensitive development and forest conservation, as barbets, myna, bluebirds and hornbills (Zakaria two main goals were established: 1) through the forest and Nordin 1998). This suggested that they prefer biological assessment of six taxonomic groups to eat larger size fruits and thus, dispersed larger (vegetation, aquatic systems, invertebrates, size seeds (more than 5mm in length). Larger size amphibians and reptiles, birds, and mammals), to fruits are normally produced by primary plants obtain baseline information on the distribution and species (pers. observations). This is probably the abundance of species for long-term monitoring in reason why higher number of large size seeds was order to determine possible changes due to the obtained in primary forest. industrial operation; and 2) to provide SPDP with the information necessary to make decisions concerning The implication of this study is that more seeds of their operation. The assessment started in August 1996 the secondary species were being dispersed in and ended in November 1998, when SPDP and the logged forest. Vice versa, more seeds of the Peruvian government failed to reach an agreement primary species were being dispersed in primary concerning the full development of the area. We found forest. Logged forest would then be dominated by high diversity in all groups studied, and published secondary species of plants. This would reports have being distributed widely. Through eventually change the species composition as adaptive management, we influenced SPDP in three compared to the primary forest. Therefore, the important decisions: 1) the location for the survival of frugivorous birds is vital to the development of a gas plant; 2) the continued use of an survival of fruiting trees and in maintaining the "off-shore" policy by using helicopters rather than biodiversity of our tropical forests. building roads; and 3) the depth in which the proposed As a result re-establishment of original stands pipeline had to be burried for immediate revegetation particularly of primary fruit tree species important with native species. A forest biodiversity conservation to birds would take longer period of time in and development model was developed. logged forest. If they fail to establish and become

350 Division 8 types, (2) Identifying potential indicators of forest The BEAR-project: Indicators for biodiversity for these forest types, (3) Agreeing on the monitoring and evaluation of forest preferred methodology for assessing these indicators. biodiversity in Europe (4) Performing a dialogue on feasability with endusers Tor-Bjorn Larsson (5) Packaging the results as Biodiversity Evaluation Swedish Environmental Protection Agency, S 106 48 Tools (BETs). Stockholm, Sweden In the conference, the followings will be presented; Email: [email protected] 1) What are indicators and BETs? Keywords: Biodiversity indicators; European 2) How will we work? forests; Biodiversity evaluation tools; Assessment 3) The BEAR-workplan and monitoring methodology The need for Indicators and Biodiversity Species Diversity and Stand Structure of Evaluation Tools Secondary Forests after Different Disturbance Events European countries have agreed upon a common Junji Sano goal to conserve the biodiversity of forests. This Tottori University, Department of Forest Science, 4-101 is essential for the sustainable use of the forests as Koyama-minami, 680-8553 Tottori, Japan well as for preserving forest ecosystem functions. Tel: +81-857-31-5376, FAX: +81-857-31-5347, Email: European forestry is diverse, ranging from [email protected] industrially managed forest areas supplying wood Keywords: Deciduous broad-leaved secondary forest; to export industries to private forests treated to Disturbance events; Fire-oak hypothesis; Prescribed meet the owners, specific needs. fire; Quercus serrata; Selective cutting; Species Furthermore, forests may primarily be managed diversity; Sprouting capacity; Tree species with respect to multiple socioeconomic goals, like composition recreation, beauty, biodiversity, historical value, The patterns of species diversity are due to the effects water protection etc. Grazed areas are currently of different disturbance regimes on life history being transformed into forested land. strategies (Denslow, 1980). The forest structure is also Sustainability with respect to timber harvesting is dependent on the pattern of forest development since long an accepted prerequisite for European following major disturbances (Oliver, 1981). in this forestry. The sustainable management of forests is study, the species diversity and stand structure were further developed in a panEuropean cooperation examined in deciduous broad-leaved secondary forests signed by the Forest Ministers ("The Ministerial dominated by Quercus serrata and the other species in Process for Protection of Forest in Europe"). The western Japan, with an emphasis on the effects of environmental awareness of the customers of different disturbance events on the species diversity of forest products has resulted in certification trees in the secondary forests. Although the substrate procedures. Forest management and silvicultural and topography are fairly homogeneous in both methods are thus currently being further forests, they have different disturbance histories. The developed in order to satisfy the increasing secondary forests established after different environmental awareness, including the disturbance events (fire and selective cutting) showed conservation of biodiversity. Landscape different patterns in species composition and stand approaches are introduced, in which the structure. Lower diversity with even-aged structure arrangement in time and space of forest types and dominated by Q. serrata was shown in the site after ages are considered when the planning of forestry fire whereas higher diversity with many sprouts was operations. Biodiversity Evaluation Tools (BETs) shown in the site after selective cutting. are required to make these new planning and silvicultural methods effective. The BEAR- Fire and selective cutting are a large-scale and a small- project will formulate an integrated system of scale disturbance, respectively. Large-scale indicators of forest biodiversity that are applicable disturbances are likely to contain relatively few over a wide range of European biogeographic species adapted to patches with the size and regions, and at regional, landscape and stand environmental conditions created by fire (Denslow, levels. 1985). The domination of Q. serrata and even-aged structure after fire must be an evidence of the fire-oak The work procedure will recognise potential hypothesis (Abrams, 1992). As establishment patterns indicators of forest biodiversity by: (1) and species composition affect stand development Identification of key parameters with respect to patterns (Cobb et al., 1992), the Quercus domination biodiversity according to forest structure and dynamics in a wide range of European forest

351 Division 8 will have a profound influence on the growth and as follows: canopy/understorey structure (height and development of other species. furcation index of trees, frequency of poles and sapling), abundance of lianas, volume and state of The stand seems to be in the understory dead wood and leaf size classes. These vegetation reinitiation stage of the forest stand development structure variables were correlated with various (Oliver, 1981) from the point of stand structure indices of bird species diversity. Under further with two strata. The lack of Quercus in the analysis, number of species is not significantly differs understory suggests its shade-intolerant and early among the three sites but species composition within successional traits (Goebel and Hix, 1996). guild are changing with respect to logging. It was Quercus, however, may be able to regenerate in recorded that 7 species from unlogged forest the old-growth stage after several decades or more disappeared including 2 endemic species, 19 new (Sano 1997). species were added within 3 years over logged site (1 of migrants) and 5 new species appeared in logged Impact of selective logging on avian over 8 years site. The vegetation structure caused by community with respect to different intensity of logging may create diversity of environmental and habitat condition in microclimate preferably to certain bird species and Wanariset Sangai, Central Kalimantan cause to the distinction in species composition and Titiek Setyawati, Timothy J. Boyle, Agus Salim high variability in number of individual per species CIFOR, Center for International Forestry Research, among the sites. Other factors for example differences Post Box # 6596 JKPWB, 10065 Jakarta, Indonesia in landscape formation prevailed on any single site Tel: 62-251-622622, FAX: 62-251-622100, Email: may contribute to such and influence as well. Some [email protected] common species to the primary forest that found Keywords: Selective logging; Dipterocarp forest; within logged over forest indicating that the Avian community; Species at risk; Impacts of environment is not much differ from the pristine site forestry practices; Species Diversity or it may due to the less intensive logging prevailed. It is clear that every single species may response In Indonesia there are approximately 25-30,000 differently based on their capability to adapt with the species of flowering plants, 750 mammals species environmental changes and these will be further and 1250 birds species. Logging and clearance for discussed in the full paper. Hence, to find out the agriculture had threatened the island of underlying causes of animal dynamic in some extent Kalimantan or Borneo which known as the most need to justify the sample sizes, which that for birds extensive remaining Dipterocarps forest will certainly require much larger study areas. It is remaining within the region. Selective logging is recommended to conduct further study on specific bird likely to deplete the density of bird species that species within particular guild sensitive to disturbance. may cause to the extinction of some sensitive species. Still, no one know precisely on what extent that several birds species can sometime Plant Species Diversity of Larch survive suffering such a heavy disturbance or Ecosystems of Siberian Cryolithic Zone some would easily gone even after experiencing and its Post-fire Transformation the light one. This study is aimed to further O. A. Zyryanova, T.N. Bugaenko, N.N. Bugaenko examine the effect of selective logging on avian V.N.Sukachev Institute of Forest SB RAS, community and find out its relationship between Akademgorodok, 660036 Krasnoyarsk, Russia vegetation structure. Field study was carried out Tel: +7(3912) 49-44-65, FAX: +7(3912) 43-36-86, Email: [email protected] within a logging concession in the Lowland Dipterocarps forest of Central Kalimantan. We Keywords: Species diversity; Siberian forest looked over three location of one unlogged and ecosystems; Fire disturbance; Larch forests two logged over forest for comparison (3 and 8 Larch ecosystems of Siberian cryolithic zone are years) within 3000 ha concession areas. characterized by the lowest plant species diversity Environmental model was used to predict the among the forest ecosystems of the Northern Eurasia. availability of physical resources necessary for It has resulted from the small heatrovision and plant growth. The use of this method has geological youth of the subpolar landscapes. The advantages over field observation in that it can phytodiversity of the northern forests has been calculate attributes that are not readily observable forming at the permafrost conditions. The ground in the field. It was shown from research result that wildfires are the main disturbing factors of the region. logging become the most important factor in They destroy the millions of the forested area determining the vegetation structure. The aspect annually. of vegetation structure affected may be grouped

352 Division 8 Plant species diversity (diversity according to R.H.Whittaker (1977)) of Siberian larch 8.08.00 Forest and Climate ecosystems has a number of the peculiarities. There are many evolutionary primitive plants in Interconnection between environmental their composition. The share of the wooden plants change and forest on the mountainous is usually more than a half (56%) of the total territory of the South Central Asia. species number. The mosses and lichens occupy Hukmatullo M. Ahmadov almost all forest habitats. Their amount can vary Tajik Forest Institute, 724055 Dushanbe, Tadjikistan from 27 till 45% per each larch association. FAX: (3772) 213332, Email: [email protected] Subarctic and boreal species (their ratio is equal Keywords: Environmental change; Mountain forests; to 53.7:58.2%) combine in the floristic Desertification; Reforestation; Drought composition as well. One of the biggest parts of the mountainous territory Northern larch associations have very complex of the South Central Asia is the Pamirs-Alai mountain structure. There are 4- species groups in them system. The most investigated area of this system is which differ in dominance degree. As a result, the situated on whole territory of Tajikistan 93 % of dominance-diversity curves have the multistep territory of our republic compose of mountain ranges shape. Such species composition has resulted which altitudes come up to 7500 m above sea level. from the cryogenic microrelief as well as from The insignificant violation of fragile mountainous mixed hydrothermal and edaphic conditions. ecosystem always can lead to many catastrophic The ground fires considerably change plant consequences. At the beginning of century the area of species composition of larch associations. in 3 forests of Tajikistan was in several times bigger than it years after the fire the number of the vascular is at the moment. The modern position of wood and plants is 1, 2, 3 times more as compared to that of bush vegetation is damaged by human activities and it beforefire association. Both the appearance of the is necessary to start the intensive restoring processes. new plant species and their families as well as the Otherwise the climatic drought and desertification restitution of beforefire plants are responsible for (erosion processes) can be really strengthened and such increase of species diversity. The initial their consequences would be very tragic. The main plant species diversity has usually regenerated in role in the mountainous ecosystem play wood and 3 postfire years. Green moss and lichen species bush vegetation. This is because the mountainous composition is completely changed after the fire. forests are the main components in the mountain It regenerates extremely slowly. The pioneer moss landscape formation. The insignificant negative species of the permafrost burned areas is anthropogen influence of human on mountainous Marchantia polymorpha. landscape can lead to many negative consequences. The connection between changes in environment and Temporal and spatial structure of larch forests takes place by such scheme: first of all the associations begins to change only in 2 years after destruction or cutting of wood and bush vegetation fire. The dominance-diversity curve analysis <=> desertification (degradation of soils) and dynamic witnesses this fact. The following years the processes <=> the changes of water balances <=> microrelief destroyed, the permafrost depth changing of climate <=> biodiversity etc. All elements decreased, the hydrothermal and edaphic of environment are tightly connected between conditions of the habitats changed as well. themselves and forests are taking the main place in Structureless plant associations are characteristic this structure. in the different parts of South Central of such postfire progressive stages. They include Asia the connection between wood and bush annually change single dominant species and a vegetation with another components and their changes large number of the separate plants of small was investigated. It is determinated that the main role abundance. The first structural elements of the in this process plays human. in different climatic zones new secondary communities appear in four years it happens differently and depend on complex of some after the wildfire. Plant species diversity of natural, anthropogenal and economical factors. The 90year old larch associations is the result of the huge tracts of forests are in good conditions only in interspecific competition. The experimental the zones there the big coalfields are found. The local distributions for such associations are more population is sparing the mountainous forests. The similar to the geometric series distribution. lack of fuel is lead to destruction of unique mountainous forest- massifs and valley tugays. By the time the peoples don’t think about future consequences and about life of next generation. They don’t execute the reconstruction of these forests. The

353 Division 8 Tajikistan in some conditions has the really big Recording of every changes in the natural environment possibilities for reconstruction and widening of of the Nature Zapovedniks forms a special document forest- and rarely forest- areas. The called Chronicles of Nature. It is a yearly master data interconnections between mountainous forests register of the state of the protected areas, of all and mountainous river- balance, dynamic biogeocoenological observations. Some of processes and degradation of soils, intensive cattle Zapovedniks have been keeping records of their grazing and etc. parameters were determinated. Chronicles over 60 years. This work is to be performed in all Zapovedniks following an unified The recommendation of plantation of new wide programme agreed by researchers throughout the leafed and small leafed antierosion forests was country. The programme was prescribed to mark not compiling. in the low mountain and middle only common, usual phenomena, but also mountain zones the big attention spared to extraordinary ones. The document should mark pistachio and nut plantations and in middle and various deviations in the natural environment: high mountain zones to juniper plantations. droughts, severe winters, avalanches, high floods, For the first time in Tajikistan the map of downpours, forest fires, epizooties, etc. The data environment change degree which found under obtained in such a manner are united each year in the the influence of anthropogen factors (cutting and book called Charonicles of Nature, and once in 5 years destruction of forests, degradation of soils in a summary book is compiled. The highly developed forest zones, intensity of watershed agriculture) network of biotic observation posts and stations given was compiled. by the State Nature Zapovedniks has allowed to obtain The common scheme of interconnection between reliable information on biodiversity changes in forest formation with another natural anthropogen selected territories in all natural zones of Russia. components and of their degree of influencing on Research carried out in most State Nature environment were compiled. Zapovedniks and in some National Parks differs from that in other forest areas, first of all, by almost Environmental changes recording in complete exclusion of experiments in nature. in this Russian protected areas respect, forest research in these two categories is in Vladimir A. Borissoff opposition, and at the same time, a complement forest All-Russian Research and Information Centre For experimental stations. Research in protected areas is a Forest Resources, 69, Novochermushkinskaya Str., conditio sine qua non for environmental monitoring. 117418 Moscow, Russia Unspoiled plots are ideal points of reference for Tel: +7-095-332-5360, FAX: +7-095-331-0533, Email: surveying natural and anthropogenic changes in the [email protected] natural environment. Keywords: Nature reserve; Environmental Even excluded from direct econimic use, the monitoring; Global change; Natural disaster; Zapovedniks of the central areas of Russia situated Biodiversity less than 50 km from large cities and major industrial By end-1998 Russia had 99 strict nature reserves centres are appreciably affected be human impacts, (zapovedniks) and 34 national parks taking up acid rains, alien wildlife species intrusion, increased respectively 32.6 and nearly 7 million hectares concentration of game animals that leads to (other kinds of protected nature areas degradation of vegetation and soil cover. Research in corresponding to the IUCN categories III, VI remote Pas allows monitoring background changes in number several thousands and occupy tens the natural environment. million hectares). State zapovedniks and national parks are territories of Federal importance. The purposes of these two categories are determined in the Law no as to protect and to study unique and typical natural complexes and features, remarkable natural formations, features and gene pool of plant and animal life, processes in the Biosphere and to monitor changes in its state. Since the beginning, the main task of Russian State Nature Zapovedniks research consisted in carrying out stationary year-round interdisciplinary studies in situ of unimpeded course of natural processes and phenomena.

354 Division 8 The mixed stand exhibited a total accumulated Modifications in Microclimate and biomass of 322.2 t/ha (81% boles and 18.6% crowns). Litter Fall Production and Total estimated aerial mineralomass was 3,480.2 kg/ha Decomposition Caused by Forestry distributed on a percentage basis in 52.9, 27.2, 9.7, Use of Natural Nothofagus pumilio 4.5, 3.6, and 1.1 of Ca, N, Mg, K, P, and Mn, respectively. The remaining 1% corresponds to Cu, Fe, Forests in Magallanes, Chile Zn, and B. Juan Caldentey, Ibarra Manuel, Schmidt Harald, Promis Alvaro y Hernandez Jorge When simulating application of a protective felling Universidad de Chile, Departamento de Silvicultura, (shelterwood system) on the pure stand with a 49.6% Casilla Postal 9206, Santiago, Chile reduction in the basal area and a protective canopy of FAX: 56 - 2 -541 79 55, Email: 161 trees to remain standing, 129 t/ha of biomass [email protected] would be extracted and 79 t/ha would remain as Keywords: Forest; NothoFagus pumilio; harvesting waste. An amount of 521 kg/ha of Intervention; Nutrient; Litter fall; Decomposition; mineralomass (97.9% macro-nutrientes and 2.1% Biomass micro-nutrients) would be removed. A figure of 1,935 kg/ha of nutrientes in the waste would remain on the The use of a forest ecosystem under sustainable forest floor. If extracted boles were barked on site, assumptions implies the need of evaluating the extracted biomass would descend 7.2% and the distribution and total amount of existing products removed mineralomass amount would be 422.5 kg/ha. feasible of being extracted from a forest with each forestry intervention. The productive capacity of a When simulating application of a protective felling on forest site may be determined through the mixed stand, with a 45.2% reduction in the basal quantification of existing biomass (dry weight area and a protective canopy of 176 trees to remain unit/surface unit). This information may be standing, 146.2 t/ha of biomass would be extracted supplemented with the study of nutrient and 30.4 t/ha would remain as harvesting waste. accumulation in trees to optimize forest resource Development would remove 1,125 kg/ha of use. mineralomass (98.2% macro-nutrients and 1.8% micro-nutrients). A figure of 564 kg/ha of nutrients in In order to estimate the effects of natural the waste would remain on the forest floor. If barking NothoFagus pumilio forest management on is considered, extracted biomass diminishes 9.6% and biomass and nutrient extraction, two stands - one exported mineralomass amounts to 462 kg/ha. pure, uneveraged of the species, and another one mixed, uneveraged with NothoFagus betuloides - were studied, both located in the Province of Estimation of soil erosion levels Magallanes, Chile. David Lopez Cornelio Shimane University, Faculty of Life and Environmental In order to estimate existing biomass in each Science, Office #505, 690 Matsue, Japan stand, allometric equations providing the dry Email: [email protected] weight of the different tree components were Keywords: Soil erosion; Deforestation; Tropical adjusted using BHD and their total height as forests; Land-use change; Satellite observation; predictive variables. Nutrient accumulation was Biodiversity estimated by weighing biomass amount with nutrient concentrations determined in tissue In Peru, nearly 1,800 acres of tropical and subtropical subsamples. Forestry intervention in each stand forests are cut daily, amounting to 670,000 deforested was simulated using extraction rates accepted acres each year; this phenomena eliminates critical under Chilean legislation, estimating biomass and habitats for wildlife and plants species (Peru ranks nutrient amounts extracted, to remain standing, number two in the world in bird diversity, number and to remain as waste on the forest floor, three in mammal diversity and number five in plant comparing two treatments: one with and the other diversity, within its borders exists 83 of the worlds without barking. 114 natural community types). An accurate and up to date assessment of forest area and rates of depletion is Total accumulated biomass in the pure stand was fundamental to the development of improved national 421.8 t/ha (85.1% boles and 14.9% crowns). Total forest management strategies. Satellite observations estimated aerial mineralomass reached 5,572 provide an objective and quantitative approach to the kg/ha (96% accumulated in woody tissues and 4% measurement of land-cover change; a research is in leaves), with percentage distributions of 55.2, proposed in order to determine the land use change, 29.2, 6.7, 4.4, 2.2, 1.6, 0.3, 0.4, 0.7, and 0.03 in the conversion from active agriculture to secondary Ca, N, K, Mg, P, Mn, Fe, Zn, B, and Cu, forest (re growth), infer the patterns of land use by respectively.

355 Division 8 type in the long term considering the past and annual numbers of dead trees and the stem analysis of present trends, and propose an ideal map of those, remarkable affections by the typhoon is clear. sustainable land use according to the ecological and socioeconomic characteristics of the site, in a The Effect of Reforestation and Forest representative area of Peruvian tropical rainforests Plantation Programme On Carbon Sinks (Iquitos region, a 75km x75 km area located in Zuraina Samli the Amazon watershed at 3*43*46 South RCFM + FRIM, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Latitude, 73*14*18 West Longitude) using JERS- FAX: 603 - 6377233, Email: [email protected] 1 images. The Japanese Earth Resources Satellite Keywords: Carbon sink; Tropical forests; ?1 has been continuing to observe and collect data Reforestation; Forest plantation since 1992 with a mission data recorder by the high performance Synthetic Aperture Radar Although deforestation in the tropics has been (SAR) and Optical Sensor (OPS); TNT mips will identified as one of the main contributing factors, very be used in order to process the images, a few studies have actually been made on the effect of processing system for geo spatial analysis with reforestation and forest plantation programme on fully integrated GIS, CAD, TIN, desktop carbon sinks. Since the early seventies the debate on cartography and geo spatial database the increase of carbon dioxide concentration in the management. atmosphere and its predicted impact on global climate has been the focus of many national, regional and Monitoring of the Forest Damaged by international discussions. The large amount of carbon the Salt-winds and the Gale of the in its vegetation and in its soil has made forests to be Typhoon one of important factor to be considered in regulating Tadashi Nakashima climate. It has been acknowledge that the release of Kyoto University Forest in Hokkaido, Tawa, Shibecha- carbon from this vegetation and soil due to human cho Kawakami-gun, 088-2339 Hokkaido, Japan activities could have significant impact to the climate. FAX: +81-1548-5-3667, Email: [email protected] This paper highlights the important contribution of u.ac.jp forest ecosystem to the total carbon budget including Keywords: Forest; Wind damage; Salt-wind; absorption and release of carbon in Malaysia. Typhoon Preliminary results from a study conducted in Malaysia show that tropical forests particularly the There was a great deal of damage throughout undisturbed forests, play an important role as a carbon Japan caused by typhoon No.19 in 1991. As the sinks in the global carbon cycle. Based on the analysis peak gust records in many of the meteo-rological using COPATH method in the project under observatory were renewed, a great deal of damage Sustainable Forest Management, result shows that was caused by gales. Damage to the forests in the total carbon above ground portion for Superior Forest northern part of Kyushu and the western part of based on third National Forest Inventory in Peninsular Chugoku were very severe, and salt-wind damage Malaysia is about 205.8 million ton. Thus, any form of was added in Chugoku. destruction (burning) or reduction in area of these The damaged forests near Tokuyama forests will lead to a substantial increase of carbon Experimental Forest (T.E.F.) were investigated. dioxide concentration in the atmosphere. It is The southeast gales came over the ridges. The anticipated that carbon sinks will be increased through heavily damaged forests are situated on the appropriate reforestation and forest plantation ridges, on the slopes of the valley and in the programs. depths of the valleys. The leaves of bamboo around T.E.F. were changed to yellow or white and those of needle-leaved trees in the edge of forest turned brown. Three years after, the leaves damaged by the salt-winds seemed to have recovered, but the leaves and trunks damaged by the gale had either not recovered or had some after effects of injuries. The change of a damaged forest, which is situated in the depths of a valley has been observed. This forest is the 28 years old plantation of Hinoki (cypress) and has about 400 trees. According to

356 Division 8 system. The performance of the FACE system together A Free Atmospheric Carbon with the growth and physiological responses of three Enrichment Experiment on Short poplar clones grown under CO2-enriched atmosphere Rotation. Intensive Poplar Plantation will be discussed. Giuseppe Scarascia-Mugnozza, P. DeAngelis, M. Sabatti and G. Matteucci The forest fire transformation of soil cover University of Tuscia, DISAFRI, 01100 Viterbo, Italy condition Tel: +39-0761-357395, FAX: +39-0761-357389, L. I. Sukhorukova, Belenets Y.E., Kobrin N.Y. Email: [email protected] St.-Petersburg Forestry Research Institute, Institutsky pr., Keywords: Plantation; Poplar; Global change; 21, 194021 Saint-Petersburg, Russia FAX: (812) 552-80-42, Email: [email protected] Agroforestry; Productivity; CO2 Keywords: Forest fire; Ground vegetation; Boreal The mechanistic and process-based responses of forests; Soil structure; Soil chemistry trees and tree communities to global change, particularly in response to the predicted increase To study changes in forest function of growth and of atmospheric [CO2], will be crucial in qualities of forest soils, subjected to fires, two types of determining the ability of woody plantations and burned-out forest lines were defined. Each line was natural forests to sequester carbon at the global presented by five burned-out plots (from latest to 25 scale. Despite the key role played by trees and year-old ones) and a test virginal plot. The type of fire forests within the terrestrial biosphere, we still is low with elements of debris layer and humus. have very limited information on the total Variants with low and high fire intensity were responses of agro-forestry and forest systems to observed. These experimental plots were located in enhanced CO2 because of the complex web of Leningrad region in different forest growth conditions. possible interactions. The few studies conducted The first line consists of Pinetum hylocomosum of the at the whole-tree and community scale indicate IV age class and III quality of locality class, which that there will be a marked increase of primary grow on semipodzol rough (coarse) sandy soils typical production, but this increment will be mainly for these sites. On the plots subjected to the high allocated into below-ground biomass. However, degree of fire intensity the soil is damaged to great the proportionality of this response may well extent: the ground vegetation and debris layers burn depend on nutrients and water availability in the out and the lower podzolic mineral horizon A2 soil and, also, on genotypic characteristics. A uncovers. It leads to the considerable loss of soil fundamental issue of the research on global productivity. On the plots with low fire intensity only change effects on terrestrial biosphere is the need partial damage of top soil cover is observed: ground to appropriately design the experiments to be vegetation and part of debris layer (the thickness of conducted at the community and ecosystem level. debris layer is 1-3cm on this plot and 3-4cm on the test The FACE technology has the great merit of not virginal plot). The second line is presented by Picetum altering the general microclimate of the test area myrtillosum of the V age class and II quality of and allows to conduct the research on impacts of locality class, growing on the peaty podzol loamy global change truly at the ecosystem level; sandy and loamy soils. in these moistening conditions however, FACE facilities should be combined thicker debris layer and A2 horizon are formed, which with adequate forest tree systems in order to avoid are the high-quality combustibles in the dry period of a such drawbacks as lack of replication, large year. When the organic horizon is destroyed by fire, genetic variability and delayed response of spruce rots burn out and the tree falls down. in the already adult trees. The aim of this research is to burned-out forests of this line there are such spruce improve our understanding of the effects of trees. in this case, on the plots subjected to fires of elevated [CO2] on forest ecosystem, using a short high intensity the vegetation layer and debris layer and rotation intensive plantation of poplar trees as a peat horizon that is organic synusia and the organic model system. Poplar trees represent a unique burn out. The plots subjected to fires of low intensity opportunity to study processes and mechanisms can be referred to the category of slightly damaged determining biomass production at the ecosystem debris layer and peat horizon is only partially level, since they are extremely fast growing, have destroyed. Thus influence of fires on soils is versatile. genetic reproducibility and a short life-cycle, Intensive debris-humic fires cause the greatest especially when grown as short-rotation coppice. damages, changing morphological qualities of soils. Therefore, the research we present is rather Soils under investigation have an acid reaction. unique because we combined a fast growing, Organic and A2 horizons are characterized by higher agro-forestry ecosystem, capable of elevated acidity (pH3,25-3,90). in the lower soil layers its level biomass production, with a large-scale FACE evidently decreases (pH 4,57-5,52). Soil-colloidal

357 Division 8 complex has a low degree of base richness thermal conditions and soil properties, alpine dwarf (saturation)-less than50%. in the organic soil pine scrubs, snow patch vegetation and beech forests horizons the content of carbon is 32-37%. The have been dealt with in detail. great quantity of carbon is concentrated in the 1. Effects of temperature on soil properties on Mt. debris layer. The content of humus in the top soil Akaishi layer varies from 0,72 to 2,45%. The supply of podzol soils by the elements of mineral nutrition One of the studies evaluated the effects of thermal wholly depends upon their level of humicilization conditions on soil properties, measuring thermal and (presence of humus). The quantity of nitrogen soil conditions along a slope from the montane (1120 available in hydrolyzed organic compounds m a.s.l.) to the alpine zones (2725 m a.s.l.) of the makes up 15-20 mg/100g in debris layers and 0,7- Akaishi Mountains, central Japan (Kobayashi et al. 1,8 mg/100g in top mineral layers. 1996). These results suggests that the global warming will accelerate litter decomposition rate at higher After the fire which partially or completely elevation in subalpine and the acidity of topsoil will be destroys organic part of soil a new pirogenic more neutral. horizon appears. Thus, the top soil profile is characterized by neutral and alkaline reactions 2. Alpine dwarf pine scrubs on Mt. Kinpu (pH 7,0-8,0), low exchange and hydrolytic acidity Kajimoto et al. (1996) studied the effects of and high quantity of exchange bases. The content temperature increase caused by global warming on the of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium is population dynamics of the alpine dwarf pine (Pinus lower than on the test virginal plot. Carbon losses pumila) in relation to the predicted upward shift of make up 10-14 t/hectare. The level of trophogenic subalpine conifer trees on Mt. Kinpu, central Japan. It soil productivity decreases. Deterioration of soil is suggested that subalpine confers expand into alpine conditions influences the general state of forest regions, but hardly succeed the vegetation zone where stand. well-developed P. pumila scrubs had already The researches carried out on the burned-out occupied, even under the higher temperature forest plots showed that as a result of forest fires, conditions. acidious indicators get to their norm in 8-10 years, 3. Snow patch vegetation on Mt. Zarumori whereas neutral and alkaline reactions transform into sub-acid reaction even in 2-3 years. Two studies focus on the snow patch vegetation on Restoration of mineral nutrition and humus Mt. Zarumori, Northeast. in snow patches formed by contents is a slower process. Five years after the snowdrifts, the spatial distribution of the snow depth is fire the content of carbon makes up about 2,5-3,0 mainly affected by the interaction between topography t/hectare (15-20%) of the initial quantity. It will and the prevailing wind direction in winter. One study take no less than 25-30 years for complete on microclimate and phenology of snow patch plants restoration of carbon. According to our data, revealed that the phenological stages of Faulia crista- restoration of flora and phytocoenosical structure galli, that is one of the dominant species in the snow of vegetation layer will take about 25 years. Only patch, are closely related to the effective accumulated then differences in debris layer on the test virginal temperature which is determined by locations on the plot and experimental plots completely disappear. slope and vary mainly with the distance from the snow patch (Ohtani et al. 1996). It appears that the F. crista- Effects of global warming on the galli changes its phenological stages with an increase mountain vegetation in Japan in the effective accumulated temperature. Another Nobuyuki Tanaka, Hirosi Taoda and Kenji Omasa study reconstructed past climatic conditions by means Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute of alpine-subalpine meadow soil stratigraphy, which (FFPRI), Regeneration Process Laboratory records past snow disappearance time in nivation Post Box # 16 Tsukuba Norin, 305-8687 Ibaraki, Japan hollows (Daimaru and Ikeda 1996). The analysis of FAX: +81(Japan)-(0)298-73-3796, Email: fossil peat soils suggests that "Medieval Warm Period" [email protected] was prevailed in the meadows in Northeast Japan. Keywords: Mountain forests; Natural vegetation; When the warming will exceed 2 C (BC, snow patches Global warming; Litter decompostion; Spatial and the alpine-subalpine meadows will shrink distribution; Snow cover considerably and when it will be accompanied by decreasing snowfall and snow accumulation, the Studies on effects of climate change on mountain shrinkage will be accelerated and many meadows will vegetation were conducted in mountains of disappear. central and northeastern Japan. Among the topics,

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4. Beech forests in the Pacific Ocean and the Sea CO2 uptake from the atmosphere and carbon storage. of Japan sides The long-term continuous measurements of Similar to the cases of snow patch vegetation, but atmospheric fluxes by means of the eddy covariance in the larger scale, the distribution area of beech technology are a powerful tool for investigating the (Fagus crenata) is affected by snowcover as well overall ecosystem exchanges and hence to determine as by temperature. There is a climatic gradient of the annual budgets of carbon and water. Furthermore snowfall between the Pacific Ocean side and the the possibility to analyze the response of the Sea of Japan side of the Honshu Island as well as ecosystems to climatic and biotic perturbations, in a a temperature gradient along latitude. in view on variety of conditions, including extremes events, the time scale of more than 100 years, the present represent a unique framework for biogeochemical pattern of beech distribution may shift upward in models evaluation and improvement. response to the global warming if the precipitation In synthesis the general objectives of the project can conditions do not change. On the other hand, be summarized as follow: changes in winter precipitation may affect beech distribution, even if the thermal conditions do not 1. Characterize long-term fluxes and energy exchange change. in the Pacific Ocean side, an increase in of representative European forests in order to provide snowfall may assist beech to expand its habitat useful parameters to modelers and to analyze the along elevation and increase its dominance in variables that determine energy partitioning by forests forests. in the Sea of Japan side, a decrease in in different climatic conditions; snowfall may reduce its elevational distribution 2. Determine the sink strength of European forests for and dominance in forests. in conclusion, these carbon and analyze the variables that determine the researches indicate the importance of snowcover gains are the losses of carbon from different forests; and topography as controlling factors of vegetation distribution as well as temperature. 3. Analyze the response of European forest water and Effects of global warming on vegetation will not carbon fluxes to climate factors in order to aid regional only induce the shift of vegetation zones toward scale modeling designed to predict impacts of global north and higher elevation in macro-scale, but environmental change on forests; also complex changes depending on the diverse 4. Provide objective data for the validation of forest controlling environmental factors in smaller models, related to growth, partitioning of primary scales. production, water cycling and hydrology; Long-term carbon dioxide and water 5. Recommend management strategies for the vapour fluxes of European forests and conservation of carbon stores in forests. interactions with the climate system The project was carried out at 15 representative forest Riccardo Valentini sites encompassing the entire range in European University of Tuscia, Department of Forest climate, species distribution, and site conditions. in Environment and Resources (DISAFRI), Via San addition 2 sites with external funding have joined the Camillo de Lellis, I-01100 Viterbo, Italy consortium. Common protocols and hardware FAX: +39 0761 357389, Email: [email protected] requirements have been defined and implemented, as Keywords: Carbon absorption; Gas fluxes; Eddy well as data quality checking and missing data covariance; European forests interpolation policies. The variation of the ecological parameters and climatic factors is rather interesting The EUROFLUX program, funded by the EU for and allow to explore the ecosystem responses along three years (1996-98), investigated the relevant environmental gradients. biosphere atmosphere exchanges of European forests. There has been also a modeling component within the Euroflux program. The aims of Euroflux in this The quantitative estimation of fluxes is needed to respect were to develop tools be used for interpolate develop surface parameterizations and missing data, extend in spatial scale the flux aggregation schemes in order to scale up from the measurements and establish a bridge between our patchwork of landscape evident in Europe to project and other existing initiatives. regional and, ultimately, global scale. Atmospheric exchange of European forest The presentation will describe the project with more ecosystem deserve special attention due first to details and results from 1996 to 1998 will be their potential mesoscale effects on rainfall presented. Overall, the results indicated a greater distribution and soil water storage, and also carbon uptake of temperate forests versus the northern because of their potential role in the long-term

359 Division 8 boreal forests, with a pronounced internal primary forest (P1). We set flower fragrance attractant variability site by site. traps on forest canopies in plot S1 and P1 for flower visiting beetles. Numbers of dominant species of 8.09.00 Human impacts on tropical rain Dasyvalgus in the primary plot (P1) were greater than forests with long term view those in secondary plot (S1).

Effects of selective logging on We compared the assemblies of understorey butterflies, as representatives of understorey insect understorey butterflies and flower herbivores, between two primary (P1, P2) and two visiting beetles after 30 years secondary (S1, S2) plots. We placed every 8 fruit-bait K. Fukuyama, K. Maeto and Laurence G. Kirton traps around the 1 ha square plots to attract and catch Hokkaido Research Center, FFPRI, Entomology Laboratory, Hitujigaoka 7, 062-8516 Toyohira, understorey butterflies. Twenty-two nymphalid Sapporo, Japan species were captured, with 0.65 individuals per day Tel: +81-11-851-4131, FAX: +81-11-851-4167, Email: per trap. The similarity in species composition was [email protected] very high between the two secondary plots, though they were most distant from each other. On the other Keywords: Balloon trap system; Attractant trap; hand, it was low between the primary plots, thus the Scarabaeidae; Dasyvalgus; Canopy fauna total number of species captured in the primary plots Lowland tropical forests should be preserved (19 species) was about 1.5 times that in the secondary because of the importance of genetic resources for plots (13 species). It is most likely that the assembly of future human beings. On the other hand most of understorey butterflies and flower visiting beetles has all tropical lowland forests have already been not completely recovered after selective logging about developed. Therefore, one of the best ways to 30 years ago. Understorey butterflies can be preserve bio-diversity in tropical forests is to quantitatively sampled with the traps and are rather practice sustainable use of secondary forests easily identified by non-specialists, thus they should based on thoughtful consideration for bio- be counted as one of high priority indicator groups for diversity. the monitoring of protected or disturbed forests, in addition to birds and mammals. Though selective logging is the most typical forest treatment in tropical forests, there is little data on the effects of the treatment on bio- Recovery assessment of logged-over diversity in tropical rain forests, especially a long forest areas in Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia time after logging. Also, we do not know how Mohd Zaki Hamzah many years it takes to recover the primary Universiti Putra Malaysia (UPM), Faculty of Forestry, 43400 Serdang Selangor, Malaysia arthropod assembly of tropical rain forests after FAX: 03-9432514, Email: [email protected] selective logging. Therefore, we attempted to estimate effects of selective logging on bio- Keywords: Forest recovery; Logged-over forest; diversity of forest arthropods. Comparative Malaysia analysis of flower visiting beetles and butterflies Over the years, large tracts of tropical forests in were carried out between primary and secondary Peninsular Malaysia have been deforested mainly for forest logged about 30 years ago, in Pasoh Forest the expansion of crop-tree plantations. The remaining Reserve, Peninsular Malaysia. forests are under constant pressure from commercial Ten plots to research on flower visiting beetles and illegal harvesting. These forest stands require were set from edge to core along a path in Pasoh some kind of assessment as to their natural recovery Forest Reserve. Two attractant traps to catch and succession. Forest recovery assessment based on flower visiting beetles using flower flagrance, phytosociological vegetation studies was made in the linalool and eugenool, were hung from emergent state of Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia to elucidate the trees at the height of 20m and 10m in each plot. state of natural recovery of the degraded, logged-over The number of Dasyvalgus spp., one of the main forest areas. This approach called for vegetation flower visiting groups, in the core area (primary surveys to be conducted on logged-over areas forest) was significantly greater than that in buffer (harvested in 1950s, 1960s, 1970s, 1980s and 1990s) area (secondary forest), whilst Mecinonota, as well as primary forests in the state. A total of 35 another dominant flower visitor, showed no phytosociological releves were made in four forest difference. Species structures of Dasyvalgus were reserves during the two-year study period (early 1997 different from each other. We established research to the end of 1998). The natural recovery is very slow plots (100m X 100m) in secondary forests for areas that were heavily logged and compacted, selectively logged 30 years ago (S1) and in a such as sites formerly used as logging roads and

360 Division 8 timber landings during forest harvesting. Only highly adapted, early-successional species, such Monitoring of CO2 flux above Pasoh as METLAstoma, Eupatorium and Paspalum, Forest managed to inhabit the sites. Such sites with very Yoshikazu Ohtani, Y. Yasuda, T. Watanabe, M. Okano, Y. poor environmental conditions will take a long Tang, N. Liang, T. Yokota, Abdul Rahim Nik, Zulkifli time to recover their pristine original state, unless Yusop, M. Tani and T. Okuda intensive rehabilitation is carried out. Similarly, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Kukizaki, sites that were harvested from 1963 to 1973 with Inashiki, 305-8687 Ibaraki, Japan conventional harvesting techniques (under the Tel: +81-298-73-3211 Ext.374, FAX: + 81-298-73-1542, Malayan Uniform System) have shown a Email: [email protected] relatively slow recovery rate. The sites have small Keywords: CO2 flux; Eddy correlation method; NEE; average coverage by emergent and dominant Rain forest trees, and only a few Dipterocarps occupy this layer. However, the stands have recovered in The CO2 flux over tropical rain forest was measured terms of species abundance and dominance. in by an application of the eddy correlation method. The these stands a few more years are required for the forest for our study was in Pasoh Forest Reserve, dipterocarp species from the lower layers to reach Forest Research Institute Malaysia, located in the dominant and emergent sizes. On the other hand, center of Peninsular Malaysia (2ø58N 102ø18E). The the sites harvested in 1984 under the Selective elevation of the gently undulated terrain was Management System recorded an average ST- approximately 120 m. The forest had a complex layer coverage of 12% and fairly even coverage in canopy, i.e. the general height was approximately 35 the tree (dominant), tree understorey (co- m, although emergent trees exceeded 45 m. A 52 m dominant), shrub and herb layers. Due to lack of tall tower constructed in the forest was used for the dipterocarp species in these forests, the forests platform of the meteorological observations. A three require replanting of dipterocarp species to enrich dimensional ultrasonic anemometer-thermometer them. The 1996 stand is in the beginning of its (DAT-600, Kaijo) and an air inlet were installed on the recovery following harvesting recently. As in the tower at a height of 52.6 m. The fluctuation of CO2 forest harvested in 1984, this 1996 stand requires concentration in the air was measured by the closed- replanting of some dipterocarp species. The only path CO2 gas analyzer (Li-6262, Li-Cor). Data were complete recovery was achieved by the stands recorded at the sampling frequency of 10 Hz. The CO2 harvested in 1950s. The stands have recovered concentration at the different 6 heights above and both in terms of canopy structure and species within the forest was also measured to calculate the abundance and dominance. The mean emergent storage changes. The net ecosystem exchange (NEE) height in these stands is 47m which is similar to was a main interest of the observation. The NEE is the natural stands, and the average canopy defined as NEE = Fc + Qc, where Fc is the CO2 flux at coverage (of emergent and dominant) is the reference height. and Qc is the storage term that insignificantly different from the primary forests. the temporal change of the CO2 storage below the The study shows that it takes at least around 40 reference height. The diurnal change of the CO2 flux, years for the logged-over stands to recover to the storage and NEE were obtained for the representative original state. It is proven through this study that days. the phytosociological vegetation study approach The maximum CO2 flux was approximately 0.3 mgm- is very useful to assess the present status of 2s-1 and 0.8 mgm-2s-1 for the release in the night time natural recovery (succession) of the deforested and the absorption in the day time, respectively, on a area. fair day in March. The magnitude of the storage term was comparable to that of the flux. The CO2 flux rapidly changed from release to absorption at 10 MST, and it showed the maximum absorption at around 13 MST. After 13 MST, the CO2 flux (absorption) gradually decrease until 18 MST, and then it changed to release. However, the CO2 storage rapidly changed from increase (release) to decrease (absorption) approximately 2 hours earlier than the flux, and it showed the maximum absorption at 10 MST. The storage term decreased rapidly after 10 MST, then it showed almost zero at 13 MST.

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In the early morning, the large CO2 absorption by canopy gaps in the primary forest than in the the ecosystem was initiated when the decrease of regenerating forest. the stored canopy CO in the night time seemed to 2 The mean canopy surface area per hectare in the be the main contributor. This continued primary forest was 27844 m2, 1.5 times as large as that approximately for 2 hours, then the CO 2 in the regenerating forest (19288 m2). The mean crown concentration of the canopy air decreased. in the size of individual trees of the canopy layer in the day time after 10 am, the flux played the main primary forest was 95 m2, which was twice as large as contributor for the ecosystem absorption. The that in the regenerating forest (43 m2). The number of daily NEE showed absorption ranged from 7.4 to trees whose crown size >300 m2 was 3.3/ha in the 8.1 gm-2day-1 through the observation period. primary forest and 0.5/ha in the regenerating forest. On the other hand, the number of trees with smaller Effect of Selective Logging on Canopy size crown (<100 m2) was 49.5/ha in the primary Structure and Tree species diversity in forest and 177.5/ha in the regenerating forest. a Lowland Dipterocarp Forest in However, the species area curves derived from the tree Peninsular Malaysia map data were not distinctively different between Toshinori Okuda, N. Adachi, M. Suzuki, E.S. Quah plots. The two plots did not differ in the ten families and N. Manokaran having the largest number of species. The stem density NIES (National Insititute for Environmental Studies), was not distinctly different between the two plots; Onogawa 16-2, 305-0053 Tsukuba, Japan 6418 individuals /ha in the primary forest and 6067 FAX: +81-298-50-2483, Email: [email protected] individuals/ha in the regenerating forest. The basal Keywords: Canopy structure; Lowland Tropical area in the primary forest was 42.2 m2/ha and 43.3 Rainforest; Selective logging; Species Diversity m2/ha in the regenerating forest. In order to study the impact of selective logging These results suggest that selective logging under on the tropical rain forest, canopy structure and MUS regime did not significantly change tree species species diversity were compared between primary components and diversity, but resulted in monotonous and regenerating forests in Pasoh Reserve, canopy structure which was formed by small canopy (2o58'N, 102o18'E) in the state of Negeri trees growing in high density. These findings also Sembilan, about 70 km southeast of Kuala imply that gap formation and structural development Lumpur, Malaysia. For the primary forest, a data take a long time in a regenerating forest, owing to the set taken in a 50-ha plot in 1995 was used. For the time taken for self-thinning among the trees. regenerating forest, a 6-ha plot was selected in 1997 in an area at the southern end of the reserve Species assembly and site preference of that was selectively logged under the Malaysian tree species in a primary Seraya-Ridge Uniform System (MUS) between 1955 and 1960. Forest in Peninsular Malaysia in both plots, all woody plants of 1 cm in diameter K. Abd. Rahman, K. Niiyama, Azizi R., S. Appanah and S. or larger within these plots were identified, Iida measured, tagged and mapped to the nearest 10 Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM), Kepong, 52109 cm. The canopy height was determined every 2.5 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia m intervals from aerial photographs taken at a Tel: +603-634-2633, FAX: +603-636-7753, Email: scale of 1:6000 in February 1997, which covered [email protected] the entire part of the 50-ha and 6 ha study plots, Keywords: Cluster analysis; Ordination; Indicator and canopy digital elevation model (CDEM) was species; Seraya-Ridge forest made for both plots. Canopy surface area was acquired in every 10 x 10 m mesh based upon The paper describes the use of common species as the CDEM. Crown size of trees in canopy layer was criteria to classify forest sites using multivariate determined by tracing the crown edges shown in methods. The main objective is to clarify indicator the aerial photographs. species and its site preferences in a typical primary Seraya-Ridge Forest. The sample is based on a There was no distinct difference in the mean contiguous 150 subplots of 20 m x 20 m from a six canopy height between the primary (27.4 m) and hectares plot (200 m x 300 m). The group of sites was regenerating forests (24.8 m). However, the detected using hierarchical clustering analysis and site variance of the mean height was much larger in ranking by ordination method. The indicator species the primary than in the regenerating forest. This analysis determined the characteristic species of that implies that there are many more emergent and particular site group. Eight site groups were identified. canopy trees > 40 m in height and many more The ordination results showed a strong correlation

362 Division 8 with elevation gradient. Most of the characteristic species showed a strong association with elevation gradient and topographic positions, while generalist species showed a weak correlation. The indicator values of thirty-nine characteristic species at each step of hierarchical structure were computed and tested with the mean indicator value obtained from a Monte Carlo randomization procedure at P-value 0.01. The characteristic species which have broad niche breadth in the higher elevation were Shorea curtisii Lithocarpus wallichianus, Eurycoma longifolia, etc., while in the lower elevation the characteristics species were Pimelodendron griffithianum, Antidesma cuspidatum, Artocarpus lanceifolius, etc. These species were responsible for similarities between habitat and for the nested hierarchy structure in the site typology. Several species such as Drypetes polyneura and Gironniera parvifolia had been identified as requiring narrower site preferences. The diagram of hierarchical cluster and associated indicator species provides a simple and intuitive way to express species assembly, while the ordination helps in explaining their site preferences.

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Task Force 1 Environmental Change

Coordinator John INNES Forest Resources Management University of British Columbia Forest Sciences Centre 2nd Floor - 2424 Main Mall, Vancouver V6T 1Z4, Canada fax: +1-604-8229106 tel: +1-604-8226761 e-mail: [email protected]

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Task Force 1 our locally valid case study, but also extend our results Excess nitrogen in a fragile montane to a bigger picture, that considers the regional water forest ecosystem balance. Moreover we intend to present the remedies, Robert Jandl, Lee Heng, Jiri Simunek that can be offered by silvicultural management Forest Research Center, Seckendorff Gudent Weg 8, practices, that help to improve the utilization of the 1131 Vienna, Austria available nitrogen. Tel: +43-1-87838-1302, FAX: +43-1-87838-1250, Email: [email protected] Keywords: nitrogen deposition, eutrophication, montane forest Montane forests on calcareous limestone are fragile ecosystems of the Alps. We investigate, if The adaptation potential of Central there are already indications for nitrogen European mountain forests under saturation and derive its consequences for the scenarios of climatic change - an regional water quality. The soils are mostly shallow and often have a low water holding ecological risk assessment capacity. The growth of most of these forests has Manfred Lexer, Karl Hönninger, Helfried Scheifinger; Matulla, Ch., Groll, N., Kromp-Kolb, H. been limited by nitrogen until now. The nitrogen University of Agricultural Sciences, Institute of Silviculture, demand of the forest stand and the herbaceous Peter-Jordanstraáe 70, A-1190 Vienna, Austria vegetation was high enough to almost fully Tel: 0043/1/47654 - 4050, FAX: 0043/1/47654 - 4092, exploit the nitrogen supplied by the soil solution. Email: [email protected] The last few decades have modified the biogeochemistry forest ecosystems in Europe. Keywords: risk assessment; climate change; climate Due to the increase in combustion processes and change impact; mountain forests; patch model; the increase in N emissions from agricultural Central European forests comprise a wide range of sources the availability of nitrogen has generally ecological site conditions from high altitude increased. The recently shown increase of growth coniferous mountain forests to low elevation forests rates of European forests is understood as a dominated by broadleaved species. These forests in consequence of a nitrogen eutrophication. general have to serve a multitude of functions and in Ecosystems, that used to be a sink for nitrogen, particular play an irresistible role in maintaining alpine will no longer retain it fully. Consequently landscapes. Discussions on a likely global climate nitrogen is lost from the ecosystem, primarily change give rise to questions on possible impacts on dissolved as nitrate in seepage water, and forest ecosystems. So far model applications to assess secondarily in gaseous form as nitrous oxide. The the potential impacts of climate change on forests surface waters draining montane forests have so suffered from several shortcomings: (a) simulation far been of the highest chemical quality and have studies for individual more or less synthetic site been suited as drinking water without further conditions conducted with forest succession models of treatment. So settlements, as potential polluters, the gap-model type miss the spatial dimension and had access to water of highest purity and local coverage, (b) risk asessment studies with static pollution was diluted to water of still good vegetation-site equilibrium models miss the quality. If nitrogen leaks out of montane forests individualistic nature in the formation of vegetation indeed, this favorable situation may be history. composition, and (c) the non-consideration of todays Society will be able to rely to a lesser extent on forest composition and structure in climate change the water purification by montane forests. related simulation experiments. To circumvent these Our study site is located in the province of the limitations in this contribution a risk assessment Tyrol. It is a mature spruce forest with some true procedure for the identification of potential impacts of fir and beech. We monitor the quantity and climatic change on mountain forest ecosystems in the chemical quality of precipitation above and below Eastern Alps in Austria is presented. the stand canopy, soil temperature and moisture, In our approach a newly developed 3D-patch model is and emissions of trace gases. The assessment of employed to simulate vegetation development at geochemical fluxes is especially difficult, because approximately 3.000 sample plots of the Austrian soils are gravelly and shallow. Karst phenomena Forest Inventory (AFI) under current climate and inhibit the direct measurement of stream water under climate change scenarios. The model runs are because an unidentified quantity of groundwater initialized with ground true site (slope, aspect, water leaches into subterranean caveats. We therefore holding capacity, pH, C/N-ratio) and vegetation use a combined soil chemical- physical simulation (species, diameter distributions regeneration) data program, UNSATCHEM, to derive a nutrient provided by AFI. The sampling scheme of AFI with budget. We intend to present both the results of more than 10.000 of sample plots all over Austria

367 Task Force 1 allows to sample from the multi-variate space of Modeling Tropical Deforestation and vegetation/site-combinations of Austrian forests. Carbon Flux Scenarios Current climate data were interpolated from a Matti Palo, Erkki Lehto network of more than 800 climate stations of the Finnish Forest Research Institute (METLA), Unioninkatu Austrian weather services. Simulated vegetation 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland development under current climatic conditions is Tel: +358 9 857051, FAX: +358 9 85705 717, Email: used as a control-run. For each involved sample [email protected] plot several climate change scenarios were Keywords: tropics, deforestation, carbon fluxes, derived from global circulation model (GCM) modeling, scenarios output by statistical downscaling techniques. No management interventions are assumed to capture The purpose of our paper is to make quantitative the potential natural transient behaviour of current scenario analyses on tropical deforestation and its forests. To synthesize the various model output consequences to carbon fluxes up to 2025 and 2050. variables as rational as possible the analytic The study comprises natural tropical forests, which hierarchy process (AHP) and multiple-attribute- means that plantation forests, trees outside forests and utility-methodology (MAUT) were utilized. other wooded lands are excluded. Indicators used in this approach represent both the The empirical source of forest, land and ecological transient as well as the longterm response of zone data is FAO's FORIS-database, which covers 117 current forests, and comprise shifts in the tropical countries and about 600 subnational units. The potential natural vegetation composition (PNV), original inventory year data from 1953 to 1998 from short- to midterm vegetation development the FORIS database are used. The number of countries (species, accumulated biomass) and detailed was reduced to 62 when more independent variables thermoenergetical indices of potential biotic were included in the modeling. stressors such as phloem feeding insects. Scenarios are based on trends and multiple regression In a demonstration example for a subregion in the models for tropical Africa, Asia and Latin America. Eastern Alps substantial shifts of the potential The trend scenarios assume that deforestation natural vegetation under altered climate occured continues as in the 1970's and in the 1980's. The linear indicating changes of the ecological site potential. trend with equal deforested area in the future is Under the climate as produced by the global adopted as a base scenario (zero alternatives). Three circulation model ECHAM4 under the "business other trends were computed including another kind of as usual run" of the IPCC just at a small portion linear and two non-linear trends. (11.7 %) of 409 simulated sample plots included in the example abrupt changes in species The regression models were estimated using ordinary composition or biomass occured, thus indicating least squares method (OLS) with standard statistical forest dieback events due to the underlying tests. Cases were weighted with forest areas because in climate change scenario. the scenario making this would reflect in a more valid way the different roles of the small and large countries From our experiences we conclude that the and their subnational areas in the deforestation presented methodology is well suited to identify process. potential problem areas where the functioning of forests might not be granted under the assumed Regression scenarios until 2025 were computed by climatic changes. We found it especially continents. The results indicate that forest area would important to evaluate the possible range of forest decrease in Latin America by 29-39, in Africa by 37- responses to a changing climate by using several 41 and in Asia by 31-36 percent. Accordingly, tropical different climate change scenarios, thus covering America has the largest potential for carbon the uncertainties involved with predictions of conservation (40-55GT C) if deforestation is future climates. To derive management scenarios decelerating, followed by tropical Africa (21-23 GT C) to mitigate possible adverse impacts of a climate and tropical Asia (15-17 GT C). change and to secure the sustainable functioning New modeling of deforestation scenarios was made of alpine forest ecosystems forest management for this conference. The model has not only income, has to be considered explicitely. However, it is population and reliability of forest data variables as important to note, that optimized silvicultural changing independent variables but also agricultural response strategies within the frame of a multiple productivity and the openness of trade as key purpose forestry have to be planned at spatial independent variables. The other - time-invariant - scales beyond the stand level. independent variables consist of moist and dry

368 Task Force 1 ecological zones, total land area as well as two of carbon dioxide. Thus replacement of gasoline with dummy variables for island and African ethanol, derived from renewable biomass feedstocks identification. that sequester carbon dioxide during growth, is expected to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 90- The model is operational and statistically sound. 100%. Researchers in the U.S. estimated that enough It nearly doubles the previous degrees of neat ethanol could be made from the available local determination (R2 = 0.79 in this latest model). cellulosic biomass residues to replace twice the The previous regression scenarios are respectively amount of gasoline consumed within that country. revisited. in the conference paper proper we shall report primarily the results from this new The bioconversion of lignocellulosics (including modeling. wood) to ethanol is a complicated and strongly interdependent series of process steps. Currently there The new provisional scenarios indicate somewhat are no true examples of commercial or totally lower scenarios on deforestation and carbon integrated demonstration-sized plants which can fluxes than the previous results. Increasing convert lignocellulosic materials to ethanol. Although agricultural productivity is decreasing some of the current and past pilot plants have been deforestation whereas the growth of openness in able to demonstrate the successful operation of entire foreign trade tends to expand deforestation under sets of process steps, these plants have not been able to tropical land tenure conditions where often open operate over a prolonged period of time. access to forests is existing. This effectively slows down the appearance of competitive stumpage Through our association with the International Energy markets which would automatically decelerate Agency (IEA) we have come in contact with a number deforestation. of groups researching and commercializing various lignocellulosic-to-ethanol processes. We are aware, Our results indicate higher deforestation than through this association with IEA, that there are FAO has modeled for 1990-1995 in the State of currently a number of commercial interests building World Forests in 1997. We have the following pilot and demonstration facilities to technically prove explanation for this difference. in the two studies a number of the process steps. However, at this time, different models are applied - in our case there does not seem to be a single group that possesses regression modeling with log-log transformation all of process steps required to provide a complete of the variables and Chapman-Richards-model by continuous process particularly when presented with a FAO. Our model has some more relevant number of different lignocellulosic feedstocks variables, such as an income variable, which are (agricultural, hardwood and softwood residues). This missing from the model by FAO. We believe that presentation will review some of these attempts at our modeling approach is more relevant for this demonstrating biomass-to-ethanol process elements purpose. and provide a likely scenario for the future. Wood-to-ethanol: process options and Our group at the University of British Columbia targets for commercialization (UBC) has been researching the potential of using John N. Saddler, David J. Gregg softwood sawmill residues as a feedstock for Faculty of Forestry, University of British Columbia, producing fuel ethanol. Our recent techno-economic Forest Products Biotechnology, Department of Wood modelling work has shown us that it is crucial for Science economic viability to recover as much of the original 2424 Main Mall, V6T 1Z4 Vancouver, BC, Canada cost of the feedstock in the form of marketable Tel: 1 604 822 9741, FAX: 1 604 822 8154, Email: products. Most of the past research (agricultural [email protected] residues and hardwoods) concentrated on processing There is growing concern that the continual build- only the cellulosic component to a marketable product up of atmospheric CO2 is contributing to global (ethanol). The lignin component was assumed to be climate change. The combustion of gasoline in burned to produce energy and steam for the rest of the transportation vehicles represents a significant process and the hemicellulose component was source of CO2 produced anthropogenically. discarded or only minimally utilized to produce a Several groups around the world are researching marketable product (ethanol). Our more recent ways to convert forestry and agricultural residues research has focused on optimizing the recovery and to ethanol as a way of displacing gasoline for utilization of all three main components as marketable transportation vehicles. products and developing new processing methods for softwoods (processes that were developed for When ethanol is produced from renewable hardwoods and agricultural residues are not effective sources such as biomass it can both decrease urban air pollution and reduce the accumulation

369 Task Force 1 for softwoods). This presentation will provide a summary of current worldwide research directions.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from the forestry sector in Malaysia Azman Zainal Abidin, Jenny Wong Siew Chiong, and Ramdzani Abdullah Abdullah Universiti Putra Malaysia, Department of Environmental Sciences, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor D.E., Malaysia FAX: 603-9438109, Email: [email protected] The world community has many needs for reliable estimates of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions as it discusses global climate change. Emission estimates can be used to compare the relative contribution of different emission sources and different GHGs to climate change, and to ascertain the portions of emissions attributable to individual countries and different regions of the world. A preliminary GHG inventory for the country was first carried out in 1995, in which the emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) were estimated from the various sectors. However, in that inventory, the component on land use change and forestry (LUCF) was not included due to lack of appropriate data at that time. The present study was therefore carried out to fill in that missing gap. The objectives of the study were to estimate the GHG emissions and sinks from the LUCF sector, and to determine if Malaysia was a net CO2 emitter or sink in as far as the LUCF sector was concerned. in carrying out the study, the following procedures were adopted: 1) the collection of relevant secondary data, 2) the preparation of the inventory using the 1995 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Guidelines, and 3) the comparison between the emissions and sinks for the years 1990 to 1996. From the inventory exercise carried out, it was found that in the LUCF sector, Malaysia was a net CO2 sink. Keywords: Greenhouse gases (GHGs), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), land use change and forestry (LUCF), Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).

370 Task Force 2 Forest in Sustainable Mountain Development

Coordinator Dr. Martin PRICE Centre for Mountain Studies Perth College, University of the Highlands and Islands Crieff Road, Perth PH1 2NX, United Kingdom fax: +44-1738-631634 tel: +44-1738-877217 e-mail: [email protected]

371

Task Force 2

coffee was the principal product. Twelve Characterization of Agroforestry experiences of family production, one experimental Experiences with Coffee in the Zona da area of the Federal University of Vicosa, and one Mata of Minas Gerais, Brazil experimental area of the Vicosa Family Agriculture Fernando Silveira Franco, Laercio Couto, Irene Maria Group were studied during the years 1997-98. The Cardoso, Cassio Murilo Moreira Trovatto, Marcos Iwao visits utilized Rapid Participatory Diagnosis through Ito, Juliana Sialino Müller the technique of semi-structured interviews Universidade Federal de Vicosa, Departamento de characterized by a few pre-established questions to Engenharia Florestal, 36570.000 Vicosa, Minas Gerais, provide a line of discussion and a basic structure Brazil connected to themes in which all subjects were FAX: (031) 899-2478, Email: [email protected] permitted. in this way the interviewees were Agroforest systems are alternatives in natural considerd the "experts" in their respective areas of resource management in which woody species activity and in the way in which they related their (trees, bushes, palms) are utilized in deliberate opinions, thoughts, and desires. The protocol used association with agriculture and/or animal covered History (land use, degree of awareness of husbandry in the same area, either simultaneously or adoption, reasons for adopting the system, natural sequentially, with significant ecological and vegetation prior to implantation); Resources, economic interactions between components. These including natural (solo, water, temperature, alternative systems can use natural resources to exposure, et cetera), agricultural (size, quality, and augment or maintain land productivity without ownership of land; skill and availability of labor), further degradation beyond that already seen in the capital (financial physical,), and productive; and elevated degree on occupied and cultivated lands Systems, including species (objectives for the that do not permit such augmentations to food, fiber, components, interactions, spatial and temporal energy, or other products. Agroforest systems are arrangements), management (species comportment, viable practices that can be utilized to recuperate succession, silvicultural techniques), and evaluation. landscapes degraded and fragmented by farming and The majority of experiences were initiated four grazing, common situations in the Zona da Mata. years prior in areas of low carrying capacity. The Zona da Mata is characterized by centuries of Vegetative species numbered 115, representing 49 agricultural occupation, traditional agricultural plant families. By category of use, these species practices, and a preponderance of smallholder were implanted in different stages of soil recovery, production. The resulting landscapes are succession, and agroforest production and furnished insufficiently productive for natural recuperation to foods, medicinals, and other products such as their productive potential. For many local farmers, fuelwood and sawtimber. Diverse types of systems coffee cultivation still represents the principal were identified, from simple associations of coffee source of income to meet family needs. Many agro- with two forest species to more complex systems ecosystems of the Zona da Mata are characterized involving 76 species with a variety of objectives by declining productivity and low soil fertility (rapid production, green manures, nitrogen-fixation, derived from the adoption of technologies ill-suited shade production, advancing natural succession, et to the region. cetera). Conclusions include both ecological and The central objectives of this work are to contribute economic benefits (reduced erosion, greater soil to an ecologically and economically efficient moisture and organic matter, reduced use of agro- agriculture, strengthen coffee cultivation, and create chemicals, and reduced labor expense at later conditions in which the cultivator may diversify and stages) described by the interviewees as well as sustain production through agroforest systems. To limitations related to management and economics. these ends, surveys were undertaken of agroforest systems and trees associated with coffee in the Zona da Mata to describe their predominant functions, the phyiological comportment of coffee under the shade of these trees, and the establishment of a system to record descriptive and quantitative information on the systems and species located. To develop this work visits were undertaken to properties where the concept of agroforest systems were integrated in the method of production and

373 Task Force 2 Despite the importance and vulnerability of Global Distribution of Mountain Forests mountain forests their distribution has been poorly Val Kapos, J. Rhind, I. Lysenko, C. Ravilious and M. understood. The first global digital map of forests Price was published by WCMC in 1996, but this did not World Conservation Monitoring Centre, 219 Huntingdon identify mountain forests. While subsequent Road, CB3 0DL Cambridge, United Kingdom versions did identify some mountain forests based FAX: +44 (0)1223 277136, Email: on classifications in the source data, coverage of [email protected] these important ecosystems was not consistent. Despite constituting only a small proportion of the Global forest data are constantly being updated both world's forests, mountain forests are especially at WCMC and through remote sensing programmes important in providing resources that benefit human (e.g. EROS Data Centre in collaboration with FAO populations and are particularly susceptible to and WCMC), but explicitly identifying mountain damage and loss. The importance of sound forests in a globally consistent manner has not management of mountain forests has recently been previously been included in any of these efforts. recognised increasingly in international policy fora; a thorough understanding of their global distribution The analysis presented in this paper addresses a is critical to identifying policy and management number of the difficulties inherent in considering issues that need to be addressed at international mountain forests. While globally accepted scales. in this paper we present the results of an definitions of "forest" exist, the problem is with analysis combining global forest distribution and identifying those that fill the important roles and protection data with topographic data to generate the characteristics of mountain forests. Though it is not first mapped dataset on the distribution and in itself sufficient, elevation is one key component protection of mountain forests world-wide. in defining mountain forests. A newly available global digital elevation model (DEM; GTOPO30) The importance of mountain forests for mankind is provides new possibilities for defining and multifaceted. They are vital as sources of water for identifying mountain areas; elevational difference as irrigation and power generation. They intercept and a proxy for slope and total local altitudinal range store water from rainfall, mist and snow, and release were employed to try to include those mountain it slowly, thereby reducing soil erosion and forests that occur at relatively low elevations as a downstream flooding impacts. Mountain forests are result of the "Massenerhebung effect" and related very important as repositories of biodiversity. The phenomena. By developing such methods of proximity of many different ecosystem types in identifying mountain areas using the DEM and steep topography and an evolutionary history of combining the result with digital forest cover data, it climatic fluctuation and species migration, have led has been possible to produce a preliminary map of many mountain forests to develop diverse and mountain forests in order to highlight regions of complex faunas and floras. Because they are usually potential conservation concern. isolated from similar ecosystems by steep terrain and intervening lowlands they are frequently sites of Wild Edible Herbs and Maple Sap as an high species endemism. That very isolation and the increasing pressures on the forest below make many Income Source in Mountain Areas of mountain forest species very vulnerable, a fact Korea reflected in the occurrence of many mountain forest Don Koo Lee, Gab T. Kim species on the lists of the world's most critically Seoul National University, Dept. of Forest Resources, 103 Seodun-Dong, Kwonsun-Gu, 441-744 Suwon, Korea endangered species. R. Mountain forests are often highly threatened by the Tel: +82-331-290-2337, FAX: +82-331-293-1797, Email: activities of growing human populations around [email protected] them. Some of the most densely populated areas of Characterized by four distinct seasons and the world are mountain zones, where demands for mountainous topography, extending southward from land to grow crops, for fuelwood for cooking and the northeastern part of the Asian continent, China heating, and for construction materials combine to and Russia, the Korean peninsula has a wide range exert high pressure on remaining forests. FAO of habitats and corresponding vegetation types - (1993) has estimated the annual loss of forest from located at the latitudes 34° 40' to 43° 39' N and the upland regions in the tropics to be 1.1%, 30% higher longitudes 124° 0' to 132° 42' E. of these plants, than elsewhere in the tropics. wild edible herbs widely distributed in mountain forests are useful and valuable as sources of food or for their medicinal effects or commercial attraction.

374 Task Force 2 However, only a small minority of wild edible herbs the villagers questioned expressed great concern has been studied by biologists or for their role in the regarding the rapid reduction of plants due to over- local economy. This paper presents a case study on collection, and increasing numbers of collectors wild edible herbs in mountain forests, conducted at from outside the area. Mt. Gariwang (about 5000 ha, Pyungchang-gun The geographical distribution, habitat, growth, field Kangwon-do, South Korea) with a focus on their characters and chemical contents of wild edible distribution and contribution. herbs should be further studied. Based on well- At Mt. Gariwang, there were 58 species of wild established biological information on wild edible edible herbs and 80 species of wild medicinal herbs. herbs, economic potential of the plants can be much These are important beneficial species - their high enlarged. Considering its demand as the essential economic value makes them highly attractive to source of food and relative rarity in amount, mountain villagers. However, increasing market marketability of wild edible herbs is brisk and demand for such resources has resulted in their rapid steady. Therefore, development of appropriate depletion in recent years. cultivation methods in mountain areas is indispensable to meet the increasing demands and Of the 58 species of wild edible herbs, Pimpinella help maintain sustainable production of the plants brachycarpa, Ligularia fisheri and Codonopsis concerned. in particular, utilization of marginal lanceolata provide the largest source of income. The agricultural upland areas, which are expanded by distribution of herbs was diverse and distinctive: P. 30,000 ha per year countrywide, can be brachycarpa was distributed mostly in mixed advantageous to the economy and environment of broadleaved forests; L. fisheri in clear-cut areas, the local communities. meadow and oak forests; and C. lanceolata randomly. P. brachycarpa and L. fisheri were found Maple (Acer mono) saps were collected below 800m under wet soil-moisture conditions, and slope of Mt. Gariwang during 10 - 15 days in March. orientation was one of the major determinants of Mean amount of saps per day was 2,250 ml from distribution. C. lanceolata was generally found on maples with DBH of 12 to 25 cm and mean amount north-facing slopes. Most species of wild herbs were collected from single maple tree ranged from 22.5 to absent from conifer plantations. 33.7 litters. The collecting period at Mt. Gariwang was later than that at Mt. Baekwoon located in Leaf production of wild edible herbs differed with Southern areas of Korea and the collecting amount forest type: P. brachycarpa yielded 37.9 kg. ha-1 in at Mt. Gariwang was greater by 20 litters than that oak forests, 34.5 kg.ha-1 in mixed broadleaved at Mt. Baekwoon. forests and 2.5 kg. ha-1 from clear-cut areas and meadow. Leaf production of L. fisheri was 30.3 A total of 231 trees in Mt. Baekwoon and Mt. Chiri kg.ha-1, 24 kg.ha-1 and 34.6 kg.ha-1, respectively, were monitored for daily sap flow from 1993 to while that of C. lanceolata was 2.5 kg.ha-1 in oak 1995 to understand factors affecting spring sap flow forests and 1.5 kg.ha-1 in mixed broadleaved of Acer mono Max. Major factors were tree size, forests. Annual leaf production of wild edible herbs tapping methods, weather and site conditions. was estimated as follows: P. brachycarpa yielded Annual mean sap flow per tree was 6.73 liters in 48 t.year-1 fresh weight (10 t.year-1 dry weight). 1993, 11.20 liters in 1994, and 11.30 liters in 1995 Annual leaf production of L. fisheri was 40 t.year-1 with mean DBH of 21.4cm. Sap flow increased with and 9 t.year-1, respectively, while that of C. increasing crown diameter, DBH and tree age, with lanceolata was 2 t.year-1 and 0.5 t.year-1, a correlation coefficient of 0.52, 0.49 and 0.56, respectively. respectively. Size of tap hole did not affect the sap Overall, 25% of households collected wild herbs, flow, but number of tap holes per tree from one to with an average of 1.2 collectors per household. The two holes increased sap flow substantially. Maples collection period was from mid-April to early June in north-facing slope produced more sap than those and the mean number of collecting days was 12.6 in south-facing slope. A large temperature per year. The mean amount of wild edible herbs fluctuation between day and night raised sap flow. collected by mountain villagers was estimated to be Night temperature below freezing point, clear sky of 12 kg.day-1.person-1. of this, 58% was sold and the daytime and slight breeze considered favorable 42% consumed by the household. (73% raw 27% weather conditions for sap flow. Day time for cooked). heaviest sap flow was observed during 2 to 4 p.m. As of July 1997, there were a total of 99,347 A. A survey of mountain villagers found that 71% mono trees in 16,211 ha: 6.1 trees/ha. Mean considered wild edible herbs highly profitable. For frequency of A. mono was 20.7%. The 73.9% of 28%, the economic contribution of wild edible herbs maple trees were younger than 40 years with less to total income ranged from 10% to 20%. Half of

375 Task Force 2 than DBH of 20cm. Therefore, sap production is One of the experimental sites was chosen in a expected to increase naturally with tree age. secondary valley (Sadole) of Fiemme valley (Province of Trento), where, because the high slope, Further research on maple sap production is needed the forest cover has a primary role of protection for to develop strategies for sustainable management of the people and the infrastructures, limiting the Acer mono; to promote its natural regeneration and breakdown and the rocks rolling caused by the to grow them in artificial plantations. steepness of the slope. The forest cover is also a source of wood production. Besides it has an Multifunctional management in the additional role in landscape and recreation. Alpine mountain forests Claudio Pollini, Vittorio Tosi The forest is represented by pure spruce stands or, in Wood Technology Institute (ITL-CNR), 38010 San some cases, by stands of prevailing spruce with Michele a/A. (Trento) Via Biasi, 75, Trento, Italy larch and Swiss stone pine.The structure partition of Tel: +39 0461 660111, FAX: +39 0461 650045, Email: the stand is almost even-aged; mature over mature [email protected] stand and adult trees prevail. The one stored Management of the mountain forests has changed structure of the stands depend on the natural gradually over the last few decades: sylvicultural tendency of the primary species present (P.abies). in objectives characterised by the primary aim of this site the rules adopted for the forest planning are timber production have been replaced by the based on the sylvicultural needs of the various development of multi-functional cultivation models stands. designed to satisfy a range of new and differing It was decided to begin a regeneration phase of the needs. mature and over mature stands, starting from the The interest of the community for other forest groups that are in the best site conditions in regard functions has been increasing and at the same time a to the stability of the stand. With these remarks, in naturalistic type of sylviculture (near-to-nature) has the area the general rules of forest system are developed, attempting to harmonise differing and followed, using the clear cutting by hole inside the sometimes opposing interests which tends to: older stand to stimulate the regeneration of spruce - search for cultivation equilibrium characterised by and larch, and in the same time it is tried to satisfy a high degree of naturalness and stability; the multi-functions of the area (protection, - maximise the different functions exercised by the recreation, landscape and wood). A first felling was forest; carried out during 1996 in two holes. The timber - reduce conflicts that may appear among the was yarded by using a sky-line crane. different functions; The operation was a complete success because it - favour forest self-defence capability against both was possible to apply the sylvicultural forest system natural and human attack. as designed, in an attempt to reach a number of Cosequently forests are managed according to goals. The important hydrological function of this management plans prepared by the Province's or forest was left intact. Releasing a number of green Community's forestry technical office. Adapting screens along the cut was extremely effective in this traditional forest management practices is deemed respect. After two years no erosive problems essential: one must develop techniques that are cost interested the slope. No rockfalls have reached the -effective, that respect the typical structure of the valley bottom. Furthermore the cut did not detract stand and that allow a continued maintenance of from the scenic value of the landscape. Although these forests, so that they can exert at best their rather large, the patches were managed in a way that protective, productive and recreational roles. they are screened if observed from the most popular Moreover, considering the different roles of observation points. The adequate space of each mountain forests, one must approach the silviculture opening will certainly favour the regeneration of and the harvesting of these stand in an holistic, spruce and of other less common species, such ass coherent and objective way, in order to implement Swiss stone pine and larch which could increase the the most effective strategy for each specific local biodiversity and the ecosystem level. objective. In conclusion, this trial gives us a founded hope that This is the approach of a particular experimental the most part of Sadole forest could be successfully project, carried out in the Italian Alpine region by a rejuvenated in the next years. That entails that if a multi-disciplinary team of silvicolturists, forest large regeneration effort must be conducted in a managers and harvesting experts. short time span, it may be worth planning some

376 Task Force 2 improvements that will make the operation even mobilisation est onéreuse. Ces expérimentations more effective. devraient garantir à terme (dans les vingt à trente ans) une variabilité d’espèces suffisante, mais aussi Enjeux écologiques et financiers de la l’installation d’une couverture végétale complète qui revégétalisation des mines en Nouvelle- diminuera rapidement l’érosion et apportera Calédonie rapidement une forte amélioration paysagère, avec Jean Michel Sarrailh, A. Cornu, C. Le Roux des coûts d’installation convenables. CIRAD-Forêt Programme Arbres et Plantations, BP On a montré, par exemple, que deux espèces 10001 Noum‚a, New Caledonia, France ligneuses locales, Acacia spirorbis et Casuarina Tel: 687 - 246515, FAX: 687 - 246519, Email: jean- collina avaient une croissance rapide sur ces milieux [email protected] dès que l’on apportait de la matière organique et Un grand massif de péridotites s’étend sur un tiers formaient aisément des peuplements denses et de la superficie de la Nouvelle Calédonie faisant de fermés. Ces deux espèces faciles à multiplier ce Territoire le troisième producteur mondial de permettent actuellement le meilleur rapport nickel. Jusqu’à récemment les entreprises résultats-coûts. Il est cependant possible d’ajouter déversaient systématiquement les stériles dans les quelques autres espèces à développement moins pentes. A l’impact environnemental de première rapide et de définir des modes d’installation et de grandeur – stérilisation des terres, pollution des gestion qui vont garantir une diversification propice cours d’eau, dégradation du paysage, pollution du au développement naturel d’autres espèces et à la lagon – s’ajoute une perte progressive de la durabilité du système. Les travaux menées en biodiversité, le milieu possédant une flore unique au microbiologie autorise à espérer des avancées monde avec 90% des espèces végétales endémiques. rapides dans la maîtrise des associations bactéries Aujourd’hui les sociétés minières adoptent une ou mycorhizes avec les espèces plantées. attitude beaucoup plus respectueuse, mais faute de réglementation contraignante les travaux de Rehabiliation of Degraded Forestlands revégétalisation n’ont réellement commencé que by the Poor Families in the Hills of vers 1993. Chaque société intervient à sa guise, Nepal: the Community-based Action selon des priorités qui lui sont propres. Certaines research affichent une volonté de maintenir avant tout la Bijay Kumar Singh biodiversité et la conservation d’espèces FAO Representative, GPO Box 25, Kathmandu, Nepal emblématiques des lieux où elles exercent leur FAX: 977-1-242640, Email: [email protected] activité. D’autres, plus préoccupées de corriger la The paper summaries the results of community- dégradation du paysage et de réduire l’érosion based action researches in the Leasehold Forestry choisissent une revégétalisation considérée comme and Forage Development for poor in which process plus pragmatique, à plus grande échelle. Pour y has been developed for the rehabilitation of parvenir, elles interviennent au moyen d’espèces, degraded forestlands remained barren for long parfois même introduites, dont l’utilisation avec des period and degrading each year. All the researches techniques appropriées permet des résultats have been conducted between 400-2000 metre rapidement visibles et relativement fiables. altitude from average sea level (asl) mostly in Cette dualité entre un contexte d'urgence et le sloppy hills and mountains of Nepal which are most maintien de la biodiversité est au cœur de la fragile. These forestlands are now a good source of problématique posée par la revégétalisation sur le income for poor families with a new concept of Territoire. forage farming in multiple product forestry. The technologies and processes are simple but effective L'environnement industriel et financier évolue that include: (a) zero (no) grazing in the degraded sensiblement avec une baisse structurelle des cours lease land; (b) forage farming (with proper du nickel et l’arrivée de compagnies internationales. inoculation) of perennial species preferably legumes Il imposera une approche beaucoup plus with a minimum tillage, (d) establishment of legume économique de la revégétalisation. hedgerows that also provide forage, (e) cut-and- Les recherches menées par le CIRAD – Forêt en carry system for animal rearing, (f) application of A- Nouvelle Calédonie doivent permettre de définir des Frame to find out contours and planting of fast itinéraires techniques qui soient un compromis growing multipurpose tree and fodder species along satisfaisant entre la biodiversité et le coût de contours, (g) multiple product forestry that render réalisation. En effet la revégétalisation des talus est both short-term and long-term products and benefits difficile en Nouvelle-Calédonie et nécessite pour to rural poor. l’essentiel l’utilisation d’espèces endémiques dont la

377 Task Force 2 The institutional arrangement for the action research encompassed: (i) formation of small functional groups of families living below poverty line ranging 5-10 families, (ii) land tenurial ownership of degraded forestland to these groups up to forty years and renewable of another term, (iii) participatory action research facilitated by the Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC) involving leasehold groups members (poor families), (iv) minimum input supply including seeds and planting materials and training to the leasehold members, (v) research plots in the open degraded lands without fencing and protection responsibility of the leasehold members, (vi) assurance of ownership on products (forage and tree) to the leasehold groups but harvesting of crops at the presence and observation of researchers for data recording. The action-research package contains Integrated Research, Development, Extension and Training (IRDET) which covers research with poor farmers at open forestlands (without barbed wire fencing). Field staffs and farmers are trained in this aspect and lessons learned are replicated in other areas as well. The results of action researches are obvious that the project, on its initial three-year exploratory phase, initiated and tested the technologies and processes in four project districts. High level Mid-term Evaluation Mission (including representatives from the (FAO/IFAD/HMGN) evaluated the findings and very interesting lessons were learnt from the action- researches. Now the concept of leasehold forestry for poor and its technologies have been successfully replicated in ten hilly districts of Nepal. in total 4268 hectares degraded forestlands have been brought under productive area that accrue a good source of income to the poor families chiefly through improved animal rearing. of the ten species tested, Stylo (Stylosanthes species) and molasses (Melinis minutiflora) are found the promising species for eradicating forest killer (Eupatorium odoratum) and improving soil. Other species that stabilizes the degraded forestlands and also provides short-term benefits to poor families are: broomgrass(Thysonaleana maxica), bamboo (Dendrocalamus), Arunodnaria and suitable fruit trees in the locality. Shrub species like Flemengia, sunhemp (Crotalaria juncea) are found suitable leguminous hedgerow forage species in the restoration of degraded forestlands.

378 Task Force 3 Sustainable Forest Management

Coordinator Alain FRANC University of Forestry Département Mathématiques Appliquées et Informatique 19, avenue du Maine, F-75732 Paris, France fax: +33-1-45498827 tel: +33-1-45498905 e-mail: [email protected]

379

Task Force 3

Management System (SMS) with the objectives of optimising the management objectives of economic Research Establishment and and efficient timber harvest, sustainability of forest Maintenance of Access Racks' Network and minimum forest development cost, under prevailing conditions. The practice requires the in Relation to tending Operations of selection of management regimes based on Young Sessile Oak Stands inventory data, which will be equitable to both Mihai-Liviu Daia, Ion I. Florescu and Norocel-Valeriu logger and the government, as well as ensure Nicolescu National Forest Administration Romsilva, B-dul Magheru ecological balance and environment quality. This 31, 70164 Bucharest, Romania paper deliberates on the costs incurred in Tel: 01- 659 20 20, Email: [email protected] implementing the current SMS practices incorporating Malaysian Criteria & Indicator Sessile Oak (Quercus petraea (Mattuschka) Mill.) is (MC&I) verses conventional SMS in an integrated one of the most valuable forest species in Romania, timber complex in Peninsular Malaysia. The actual covering about 720,000 ha (3 per cent of the forest costs of forest management activities were collected area). Usually, it is naturally regenerated by using using data from thirty-seven logging compartments group shelterwood system and young stands are for the period 1992 to 1997. The cost of forest extremely dense (tens of thousands of seedlings per management activities was computed for eight hectare), pure and impenetrable. activities: pre-felling inventory; tree marking; Taking into account some of its main characteristics boundary delineation; road and log yard (e.g., high stand density; relative intolerance of construction; harvesting; closing report; post felling shade; danger of epicormic brancing; quite slow inventory; and silvicultural rehabilitation cost. The growth), the silvicultural models traditionally breakdown of the logging cost components was applied to the Romanian young sessile oak stands, reported and cost equations of each of this forest before the first commercial thinning, includes low management were estimated using linear regression moderate intensity weedings and cleanings, model. The cost function was estimated using the reducing stand density down to about 80 per cent. ordinary least square technique. Results of the study show the cost of implementing the SMS varies by Based on research works carried out in different different forest management activities. Timber sessile oak-based stands from the Tirgoviste Branch harvesting and administration costs accounted for of the Romanian Forest Administration since 1992, about 62.37 percent of the total cost, either per a new approach is proposed and includes: hectare of area logged or per cubic meter of timber - opening and maintenance of access racks, 0.8 - 1.0 harvested. The average cost of timber harvesting m wide (seedling stage) up to 1.5-2.5 m wide and administration is estimated at RM2, 454.10 per (thicket stage), made at intervals also depending on hector (RM50.41 per cubic meter) and Rm1, 746.79 development stage (between 6-12m in seedling per hectare (RM37.30 per cubic meter), stage in 25-40 m in thicket stage); respectively. The higher proportion of cost incurred by these two activities is due intensive forest - weedings and cleanings of various intensities (e.g., management activities during harvesting and moderate in highly dense stands, non-treated from planning stags. Regression analysis indicates that the very beginning, with high slenderness indices such factors as timber output, area of the distance of (over 120-150), where stand density is reduced forest to the main road and altitude affect each cost down to about 85 per cent or moderate-high in component in a different manner. The depends on continuously treated stands, where stand density can the nature of forest management activities carried be reduced down to 80 or even 75 per cent). out by the Concessionaire. If the logging concessionaires were to comply with the sustainable Costing Study of Implementing forest management guidelines using the MC&I, Selective Management System (SMS) for higher costs would be expected since many an Integrated Timber Complex in additional activities and specifications of forest Peninsular Malaysia management activities will have to be followed by Ahmad Fauzi Puasa, Abdul Rahim Nik, Mohd Azmi the concessionaire. The implication is that the Mohamed Idris, Salleh Mat, Mohd Shahwaid Othman incremental cost would have significant effects on and Awang Nor Abdul Ghaani the economics of timber harvesting and forest Forest Research Institute Malaysia, Techno-Economics management. Suggestions on appropriate policy to Division, Kepong, 52109 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia ensure long term benefits of sustainable forest The current practice of forest management in management resulting from incremental cost of Peninsular Malaysia is based on Selective

381 Task Force 3 forest management activities is also highlighted in cada especie en particular implica determinar la the paper. respuesta de la especie a diferentes condiciones ambientales y tratamientos de manejo, así como sus Elementos tecnicos para la producción tasas de crecimiento y regeneración de la biomasa sostenible de recursos vegetales no de cosecha. maderables del bosque tropical El cuarto paso se refiere a la integración de varias Daniel Marmillod, Roger Villalobos, Gabriel Robles especies dentro del proceso de aprovechamiento CATIE, 7170 Turrialba, Costa Rica integral del bosque, es decir la concepción del Tel: (506) 556 0301, FAX: (506) 556 8417, Email: sistema de manejo diversificado del bosque. Para [email protected] ello se deben definir metodologías de inventario Desde 1989 el Centro Agronómico Tropical de diversificado que reduzcan los costos y determinar Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE) estudia la la compatibilidad o antagonismo entre especies en problemática del aprovechamiento sostenible de los función de su respuesta a los tratamientos silvícolas. bienes del bosque diferentes a la madera, como La experiencia de CATIE demuestra que este alternativas para el desarrollo. La experiencia de proceso es práctico y factible de realizar, como una estos años de investigación se ha sistematizado en forma de contribuir a la valoración y conservación una metodología para incorporar especies vegetales subsecuente de la biodiversidad en bosques en procesos de manejo forestal diversificado, tropicales. entendido como un manejo técnico de las poblaciones naturales y no como algunas prácticas Vers des Aménagements Forestiers extractivas tradicionales, carentes de indicadores Villageois de Concepcion Evolutive sobre la capacidad y limitaciones productivas del Regine Peltier, S. Dan Baria, H. Djibo, S. Giraud, P. recurso. Esta metodología esta basada en estudios Montagne sobre plantas con diversos tipos de producto y CIRAD-Forêt et E.N.G.R.E.F., Montpellier, France hábitos de crecimiento. Email: Genevieve Reynaud [[email protected]] El desarrollo de nuevos criterios de manejo en el En 1992, le projet Energie II a initié l'aménagement bosque tropical debe ser paralelo al de plusieurs forêts du Sud-Niger au profit des aprovechamiento, por lo cual la selección cuidadosa populations riveraines. Des groupements villageois y sistemática de las especies a incluir en ese proceso denommés "Marchés Ruraux" (M.R.) ont été créés constituye el primer paso del mismo, y se basa en su pour commercialiser le bois de feu. capacidad de adaptarse a los objetivos últimos del Six années plus tard, en 1998, une évaluation plan de manejo. Considerando la gran gama de technique et socio-économique de ces combinaciones de las especies no maderables en aménagements et des organisations villageoises cuanto a hábitos de crecimiento, órganos cosechados denommées "Structures Locales de Gestions" y tipos de mercado, la definición clara del producto (S.L.G.) a été réalisée. a cosechar en cada caso y sus normas de calidad es el segundo paso, sin el cual es imposible definir las Il s'avère que certaines S.L.G. ont fait preuve de herramientas del trabajo posterior, solo debe salir dynamisme tant dans le domaine des réalisations del bosque la biomasa que será aprovechada. sociales au profit du village que dans celui de la gestion des forêts villageoises. D'autres au contraire El tercer paso es la definición del proceso se sont rapidement essoufflées dès que productivo, esto incluye el conocimiento mínimo de l'encadrement du projet s'est retiré. la especie en cuanto a su hábito de crecimiento y requisitos ambientales generales. Posteriormente se Les notions de quota, de parcellaire, de rotation, desarrollan herramientas para caracterizar su d'espèces protégées, de diamètre minimum et de estructura de población, es decir variables prácticas hauteur de coupe ainsi que les techniques simples de de medición que permitan diferenciar estados de régénération (paillage) ont été assimilées et madurez de los individuos, calificarlos como réappropriées par la majorité des bûcherons. productivos o no productivos y estimar la cantidad On constate que les aménagements ne peuvent être de producto de cosecha por unidad de área. La durables que s'ils sont conçus de façon évolutive información que se obtiene a partir del diámetro a la afin de pouvoir s'adapter aux aléas climatiques altura del pecho de los árboles maderables puede (nécessité d'exploiter d'avantage à l'occasion des obtenerse de otro tipo de variables en el caso de années d'alimentation déficitaire) et aux nouvelles especies no maderables, como número de cepas por connaissances acquises par l'encadrement ou par les macolla o dimensiones de una hoja. El desarrollo de bûcherons eux-mêmes. La composition de la S.L.G. un sistema silvícola y plan de aprovechamiento para

382 Task Force 3 doit également être revue régulièrement. Sustainability in the Indian context is the dynamic L'aménagement doit donc pouvoir être modifié and complex interaction of the existing social, légèrement en cas de nécessité et, plus economic and ecological conditions. Well being of profondément, à chaque rotation de coupe. the forest dependant communities along with the well being of the forest health is the key to figuring En général, lors de la création d'un M.R., les out sustainability of India's forests. However, there villageois sont méfiants par rapport à was no mechanism to monitor the progress of l'administration ou au projet et ne veulent s'imposer achievement of sustainability as envisaged in the qu'un minimum de contraintes concernant la gestion 1988 Forest Policy. des forêts. Ce n'est qu'au bout de quelques années de fonctionnement de la S.L.G. qu'une confiance A hierarchical framework of "Criteria and mutuelle peut s'établir entre l'administration et cette Indicators" (C&I) is being used in eight different structure. Cette dernière peut alors imposer aux regional processes as part of the UNCED bûcherons des règles plus contraignantes. On peut sustainable forest management (SFM) initiative. ainsi passer d'une gestion très simplifiée, à un Due to the unique nature of the socio-economic and aménagement préservant l'écosystème et forest conditions in India it was found that none of garantissant une production soutenue. L'Etat peut the earlier regional processes would be appropriate alors accorder des baisses importantes de taxes, sur to assess sustainability in Indian conditions. For le bois provenant de ces forêts, pour encourager Sustainable forest management (SFM) of India's cette démarche patrimoniale. Il doit alors être forests, a separate set of C&I was designed to vigilant sur le contrôle de son application réelle sur provide cost-effective information for helping in the le terrain. sustainable management of forests in conditions of the South Asia subcontinent. A set of eight criteria On comprend donc que les états qui se sont engagés and fifty-one indicators was developed under the dans ce type de stratégie de gestion décentralisée Bhopal-India process. Assessment of the sustainable doivent tout faire pour que leurs fonctionnaires development of India's forest and simultaneously the apportent un appui effectif aux structures locales de achievement of the forest policy principles is to be gestion. done at the national level by using these C&Is. Mots clés: Aménagement Forestier, Gestion Though these indicators would not directly establish participative, Sylviculture, Niger, Décentralisation whether management is sustainable or not, the direction of change of indicators would provide Development of Criteria and Indicators insights into the directions of change towards for Sustainable Management of Forest in sustainable forest management. This would help in India: Bhopal-India Process developing or revising policies and legislation and Ram Prasad, S. Raghavan, Bharati Joshi refining national forestry programs. Indian Institute of Forest Management, Nehru Nagar, PO The eight criteria identified in the Bhopal India Box 357, 462003 Bhopal, MP, India process were based on the principles enunciated in Tel: +91-755-775716, FAX: +91-755-772878, Email: [email protected] the 1988 forest policy. These are the extent of forest and tree cover, forest ecosystem and vitality, Over a hundred years ago India adopted the biodiversity conservation and soil and water principle of sustained timber yield management conservation. and also other criteria like forest from its forests. The other dimensions of resource productivity, forest resource utilisation, sustainability, though considered during the social cultural and spiritual needs and policy, legal development of management plans for forest and institutional framework. divisions, were given lesser priority. However there were major changes and some reversal of priorities This paper deals with the method of evolution and in the National Forest Policy (1988). The main development of each criterion and its associated focus of forest management from now on was to indicators and verifiers. The paper also discusses the maintain environmental stability through research needs required for each criterion and the preservation and restoration of ecological balance development of norms or standard for some verifiers and the conservation and enhancement of biological and indicators. The applicability of these criteria and diversity. Direction of forest management has to be indicators at the regional or state level is discussed focussed towards the increase in forest productivity and the type of changes required to adapt these C&I and to meet the basic requirements of fuelwood, at the forest management unit level is also smallwood, fodder and non-timber forest produce of discussed. the rural and tribal people.

383 Task Force 3

Sustainability of remaining forest Ecosystem Management of Forests in fragments in the Atlantic forest region Russia: Strategy of Forest Account Maria das Gracias F. Reis, Geraldo G. Reis; Jose S. Works Almeida-Junior, Agostinho L. Souza; Joao A. A. Meira Valentin V. Strakhov, andrey N. Filipchuk Neto All- Russian Research and Information Centre for Forest Federal University of Vicosa, Department of Forestry, Resources, Novocheremushkinskaya STr. 117418, 36571-000 Vicosa, Brazil Moscow 69 Moscow, Russia Tel: 55-031-8991209, FAX: 55-031-8992478, Email: Tel: 7-095-332-5338, FAX: 7-095-331-0533, Email: [email protected] [email protected] The floristic, successional stage and landscape Economic reforms in Russian are conducted to characteristics were studied in four secondary forest delimit mechanisms employed in State management fragments within the Atlantic Forest domain in and economic development. in all branches of Minas Gerais State, southeastern region of Brazil. economy they are directed, first of all, on a Fragments 1 and 2 are elongated with an area of 12 decentralisation of management and of decision- and 13 ha, respectively, and fragments 3 and 4 making procedures. However, as regards the forest tended to round with an area of 23 and 18 ha. All management and system of forest accounting, first fragments were mostly located on the upper part of of all, with inventory and planning, the most the slope. persistent inertia survives in preserving The point centered quarter method was used to centralisation of planning and financing regardless obtain the data. Three approach levels were taken of real needs of regions. Enlargement of approaches, into account to proceed analyses: height: 3 m and completeness and depth in realisation of the whole DBH: 5cm; 5 cm DBH: 10 cm; DBH 10 cm. complex of forest accounts needed. It was sampled 57 species in the fragment 1 and 77 The sustainable forest management is connected, in the fragment 2, which are elongated, and 85 in first of all, to the economic activity. Transition to fragments 3 and 4, which tended to round. anew quality of human interrelations with forests from "using" to "management", brings on the first The initial secondary species group predominated in plan the interconnection of ecological, social and all fragments, however, these fragments present economic process. The economic aspect, thus, different successional stages. The fragments 1 moves from the first to the last place in the system (elongated) and 4 (round) exhibited the earliest and "Nature - Society - Economics". The estimation latest successional stage, respectively. Lianas were only of timber resources concedes a place to a present in all fragments and represent a serious complex estimation of forests as ecosystems. barrier for natural regeneration, and imposed high Therefore, traditional use of existing base of mortality of trees. knowledge on forests becomes insufficient for The biodiversity was deeply depreciated in all sustainable forest management. fragments due to their small size, strong edge Forest, these spatially distributed natural features, effects, low surround permeability (roads, crops, require a geographical approach (i.e. use of extract pastures) and high antropic pressure, specially for co-ordinates for the describing and updating data); the fragment 1. The fragment 1 presented 19.3 % of that is especially important for ensuring sustainable species with a population smaller than 50 development of land and forest uses. Besides, and individuals with height greater than 3 m. The values influenced by economic activity and environmental for fragments 2, 3 and 4 were 14.2, 0.0 and 10.5 %, changes, is necessary. It needs urgently to fix respectively. These results indicate that fragment 1 priorities concerning depth completeness and presents the lowest sustainability, followed by timeliness of the information on forest. fragment 2, both with elongated form and small size. It is obvious that t the State level (federal and Regional) of forest management we should have the possibility to assess truly key parameters of the forests' dynamics. This issue could be carried out with a system of State Forest Inventory (SFI), budget-fed irrespective of the pattern of ownership of forest parcels. SFI should provide for collecting, transmitting, processing and analysing information on forest and

384 Task Force 3 for selective driving it to bodies of forest management and of nature conservation, as well as to various users. The information is intended for duly revealing of changes in the forest state, their estimation, prevention and elimination of consequences of negative processes. It will be also an practical opportunity to integrate data of Russian forests into world information system of world-wide forest resources assessment. Accuracy and the reliability of the SFI will guarantee bodies of forest management against making strategically faulty decisions, they will allow to reliably assess contribution of Russian forests into global processes of climatic changes and preservation of a biological diversity.

385 Task Force 3

386 Task Force 4 Management and Conservation of Forest Gene Resources

Coordinator Dr. Veikko KOSKI Finnish Forest Research Institute Department of Forest Ecology Metsäntutkimuslaitos (Metla) PO Box 18, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland fax: +358-9-85705711 tel: +358-9-85705470 e-mail: [email protected]

387 388 Task Force 4 their origin to locations that are suitable for seed Genetic Impacts of Forest production are assessed and reviewed. Alternative Fragmentation in Northwestern Costa silviculture systems such as seed tree, shelterwood Rica and patch cuts were compared to clear cut and Johnathan Cornelius, Timothy J. B. Boyle and Francis C. control old growth forest and the genetic quality of Yeh natural regeneration is determined. Finally, Tropical Agricultural Center for Research and Higher commercial thinning practices are evaluated and Education, 7170 Turrialba, Costa Rica their impact on tree species' genetic diversity and the understorey plant species community dynamics Since the sixteenth century, grazing and agriculture are evaluated. have transformed the landscape of the Bagaces Valley, northwestern Costa Rica; where once was forest interrupted only by rivers, there remain only Impact of logging on tropical forest riparian and non-riparian forest patches embedded resources in pastureland, sugar-cane and rice-fields. As K. Wickneswari, Ho, W.S.; Lee, C.T. genetic diversity of forest trees is thought to Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of influence their population viability the genetic Science and Technology, 4360015KM Bangi, Selangor, characteristics of fragment populations have Malaysia important implications for the conservation of biodiversity in such landscapes. We report on such Tropical forests are found in more than 80 countries characteristics, concentrating on two species. and account for about one third of the world's forest Plumeria rubra (Apocynaceae) is a wind-dispersed, cover. Although deforestation occurs in all types of hawkmoth-pollinated pioneer. Within the study tropical forests ranging from lush rainforests to arid zone, it is typically found on the exposed rock of the thorn woodlands, logging is more predominant in many river canyons, with outliers on similar, but the humid tropical forests. Annually more than 4.0 non-riparian, habitats. Anacardium excelsum million hectares of tropical rainforests are logged for (Anacardiaceae) is bat- and gravity-dispersed and timber. The volume of timber extracted varies from pollinated by small-to-medium-sized insects. It is region to region according to the stocking of found predominantly as the dominant species of the commercially valuable stems. The damage to the gallery forest, but also occurs as non-linear, discrete stand is generally related to the number of stems fragments. We report on allozyme diversity, harvested per hectare and the nature of the logging effective sizes and mating systems within fragment operations. Logging not only has an impact on the populations of these contrasting species, and their timber species being harvested but also on all other relation to variables such as fragment size, shape goods and services provided by the forest viz, fuel and degree of isolation. in our conclusions, we food, fodder, shade, shelter, environmental address the implications of our results for stabilization, and amenity, cultural and spiritual biodiversity conservation. values. Hence, a continuous assessment of damages to the biotic and abiotic components due to logging Genetic Consequences of Intensive and is important for sustainable management of forests Alternative Silvicultural Systems for its goods and services. This paper will address Yousry A. El-Kassaby, Michael Stoehr the impact of logging on forest genetic resources, The University of British Columbia, Department of mainly the plants which form the base for most life Forest Sciences, Faculty of Forestry, Vancouver, BC, forms. Canada Reduction in basal area of trees from different size Tel: (250) 381-1404 Local 230, FAX: (250) 381-0252, classes due to a single logging event can range from Email: [email protected] 13-56% in tropical rainforests with large tees of low The effects of various intensive silviculture options abundant limber species being most affected. such as tree improvement delivery systems and However, recruitment of seedlings and presence of alternative silviculture methods such as partial saplings are generally high in immediately logged- cutting and commercial thinning on genetic over forests. A decrease in genetic diversity ranging diversity are assessed. Intensive management from 5-23% has been detected in adult individuals methods of parent tree selection before and after of timber and non-timber species immediately after progeny testing, genetics of seed orchards and logging. An evaluation of young regenerants of seedling production are evaluated. More three tree species immediately after logging importantly, seed orchard "after-effects" that are revealed high genetic diversities. Pedigree analysis resulting from the common practice of moving seed of regenerants in one species showed substantial orchard parents by several degrees of latitude from contribution of genes from neighbouring stands in

389 Task Force 4 the logged stand. No significant change in genetic harvesting practices and sustainable management of diversity has been observed for a number of plant tropical forest genetic resources will be discussed in species in regenerated forests after about 40-45 this paper. years of logging. Implications of these and other demographic and genetic diversity changes on

390 Task Force 5 Water and Forests

Coordinator Dr. Rob VERTESSY Cooperative Research Centre for Catchment Hydrology CSIRO Land and Water GPO Box 1666, Canberra ACT 2601, Australia fax: +61-6-2465845 tel: +61-6-2465790 e-mail: [email protected]

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terrestrial water, ecosystems and humans) are the Terrestrial Biosphere Models and primary focus of study rather than processes within Forest-Atmosphere Interactions any of these components. Michael Raupach and Damian Barrett The chapter begins with a description of a terrestrial CSIRO Land and Water, Canberra, Australia biosphere model, followed by a description of the Tel: +61-2-6246 5848, Fax: +61-2-6246 5845, E-mail: key processes operating in the system. We then [email protected] consider the integration of these process The terrestrial biosphere, encompassing vegetation descriptions to canopy scale, and introduce the new and the adjacent soil and atmosphere, is a phenomena that need to be handled at this level of biogeochemical crossroads. Here the fluxes of integration. These include nutrient distributions and water, carbon, energy and nutrients all interact and light use efficiency, gross and net primary influence one another, to an extent greater than productivity, and plant growth and resource practically anywhere else in the cycles of these allocation. We describe new techniques for entities. To understand the transfer of any one entity parameter estimation which move away from the through the terrestrial biosphere, say water, it is traditional view of a model as an a priori predictor necessary to recognise the relationships among these from specified data on the meteorological variables crucial fluxes. Why are they crucial? From the and process parameters. Finally, we demonstrate standpoint of a catchment or forest hydrologist, the how the terrestrial biosphere (as a complex system cycles of water and nutrients through vegetation described by a terrestrial biosphere model) exhibits exert crucial influences on vegetation growth, simple or at least understandable behaviours at large catchment water yield, and water quality. From an (canopy and greater) scales. These behaviours atmospheric standpoint, the energy and water fluxes emerge from the negative feedbacks exhibited by at the earth's surface largely control atmospheric the system, and are manifested as quasi-equilibrium motions and the global hydrological cycle. From the states. standpoint of the biogeochemistry of the earth system, key fluxes through the terrestrial biosphere Forest Management Induced Leaching include those of chemically or radiatively active of Nitrogen from Temperate Forests gases such as CO2, methane, N2O, volatile organic Karsten R. Rasmussen, Per Gundersen carbon compounds (VOCs) and particulates. Danish Forest and Landscape Research Institute, Because of these diverse motivations, transport Department of Forest Ecology, Hoersholm Kongevej 11, DK-2970 Hoersholm, Denmark processes in terrestrial biosphere are important in Tel: +45 4576 3200, FAX: +45 4576 3233, Email: meteorology and climatology, plant physiology, [email protected] agricultural science, ecology, remote sensing science, and hydrology (including forest hydrology Nitrogen leaching may potentially cause as an important sub-discipline). However, these eutrophication of surface water and contamination disciplines have developed views of essentially a of ground water. Generally, water from forests is of single set of processes which are surprisingly good quality with a relative low concentration of distinct. When encapsulated in model form, the dissolved nitrogen. Water resources from forests are resulting descriptions are often known as terrestrial already in use for drinking water purposes in several biosphere models, or sometimes as SVATS (Soil- regions and this use may increase in the future since Vegetation-Atmosphere Transfer Schemes). other land use (agriculture industry and urban use) Examples of extant terrestrial biosphere models expose a high risk for contamination of ground and include SiB, Century, Biomass, Biome-BGC, surface waters. Afforestation on agricultural land SCAM, WAVES, and others. takes place, e.g. in Northern Europe, to improve the water quality and to secure water resources in the The task of this chapter is to review the current state future. and development of terrestrial biosphere models, especially from the standpoint of forest hydrology, Temperate forests are generally considered nitrogen and to highlight some directions for future limited and they are characterised by a very tight development. A theme throughout is that there is a nitrogen cycle. Losses of nitrogen are low with -1 great deal of convergent evolution between background levels less than 0.3-0.5 mg N l in soil terrestrial biosphere models arising from different water. Often the losses mainly occur as organic parent disciplines. This is happening as a small part nitrogen. However, low concentrations of nitrogen of a much larger movement towards a unified study in seepage water from forests may not per se be of the earth system, in which the interactions expected. Several investigations show between components (atmosphere, oceans, soils,

393 Task Force 5 concentrations of nitrate in the soil solution and plant cover has developed. The question is how the stream water well above the background levels. nitrogen cycling will develop in the long-term on these types of soils. Recent studies of forests In parts of Europe and North America, air pollution developed on formerly cultivated soils have shown with nitrogen compounds is the main reason for that the soil still have nitrogen cycling increased nitrogen leaching. Inputs often above 10- characteristics more comparable to cultivated soils 20 kg N ha-1 yr-1 increase nitrogen concentrations in than to soils with continuous forest cover even 100 foliage and foliage litter, increase nitrogen years after afforestation. mineralisation and thus accelerate the nitrogen cycle. Recent advances in the understanding of In the paper, findings on the impact of silvicultural nitrogen cycling in forest and the effect of nitrogen management on soil solution chemistry and deposition have identified the conditions where freshwater quality from the temperate forest regions there is risk for nitrate leaching from mature forests will be synthesized. The interaction between at least for coniferous forests. As an example management and air pollution nitrogen input will be coniferous sites with nitrogen concentrations in discussed as well as ways to reduce the impact of needles above 1.7 mg g-1, total nitrogen input to soil silviculture on water quality. (throughfall + litterfall nitrogen input) above 80 kg N ha-1 yr-1 and/or forest floor C/N ratio lower than Effects of disturbance on nutrient export 25 were leaching nitrate if nitrogen deposition was from forested catchments in the humid elevated. tropics Other reasons for elevated nitrate leaching may be Paul Reddell, Michael J. Webb related to forest management. The classical CSIRO, Tropical Forest Research Centre, Atherton, experiment at Hubbard Brook in the 1960s with Queensland, Australia clear-cut and herbicide treatment of a whole Site fertility affects the productivity, structure and catchment illustrated the potential vast impact on functioning of tropical forests. Consequently, the water quality (leaching of 140 kg N ha-1 yr-1) at maintenance of site fertility is an essential extreme forest disturbance. biophysical element in the sustainable utilization of Forest management induced leaching may result forest resources in humid tropical landscapes. from one or a combination of the following impacts Disturbance events (both natural and man-induced) on the nitrogen cycle: frequently cause the release or 'mobilisation' of nutrients within the ecosystem and this may result in Increased input of nitrogen (fertilisation, planting of an increased potential for nutrient loss or 'leakage' N2 fixing trees) out of the system. A predictive understanding of the Decreased biological uptake (clear-cut, thinning, likely risks and levels of nutrient export from weed control) ecosystems and catchments associated with particular forest disturbances in the humid tropics is Increased net mineralisation (liming, soil thus critical to the sustainable long-term preparation, ditching (lowering of groundwater)). management of both natural and plantation forests Following the Hubbard Brook experiments forest in these landscapes. research in Europe and North America have In this review we consider: substantially increased the knowledge on impacts of forest management. Especially the impacts of clear- - the pathways of potential nutrient loss from cut are well established demonstrating that the risk tropical forest catchments; for nitrogen losses is highest at nitrogen rich sites. - the features of disturbance events in natural and High nitrogen losses have been demonstrated after plantation forests that govern the extent of possible liming and ditching, as well as after planting of nutrient export, and; coniferous species on former deciduous forest soils. - some of the methodological problems involved in Afforestation on former agricultural land will be an measuring nutrient export from catchments. important silvicultural activity at least in Europe during the next century. Modern agricultural soils The importance of integrating research in nutrient are characterised by high pH, high amounts of dynamics, hydrology and plant ecology to address nitrogen bound in organic matter with a C/N ratio issues of sustainable utilization of forest resources often below 10 and nitrogen mineralisation in the tropics is emphasised. dominated by nitrification. in the first years after afforestation nitrate leaching will occur until the

394 Task Force 5

Transpiration of Trees and shrubs and The hydrologic and growth response of hydrological balance in water limited eucalypt forests to soil salinity and environments under Xerothermo waterlogging. Mediterranean climate Richard P. Silberstein, Robert Vertessy Gabriel Schiller, Yehezkel Cohen and Shabtai Cohen CSIRO Land and Water, CRC for Catchment Hydrology, The Volcani Center, Department of Agronomy and Canberra, Australia Natural Resources, Post Box # 6, 50250 Bet-Dagan, Tel: +61-2-6246 5848, FAX: +61-2-6246 5845, Email: Israel [email protected] Tel: +972-3-9683678, FAX: +972-3-9669642, Email: The response of trees to salt in the soil is a vexed [email protected] problem for land managers in much of southern Studies were conducted in the late 60is and early Australia. Clearing native woodland for agriculture 70is on the hydrological balance of areas of various has resulted in dramatic increases in waterlogging vegetation types and cover, in Thermo- and secondary salinisation which are arguably our Mediterranean climatic conditions sensu Emberger two greatest land management issues. Over the last et al. 1963. Interest in these studies resulted from 10-15 years there has been a concerted effort by concern about the hydrological balance of Israel's government, and private groups and individuals, to aquifers as influenced by large afforestation projects put trees back on the land, and to do this in a way and reclamation of devastated natural oak scrub which complements rather than replaces existing formations. The studies failed to produce accurate agricultural systems. This "greening" of agricultural data due to calibration problems of the different areas is intended to ameliorate the hydrologic methods used, and the extremely large spatial imbalance which has arisen from the forest clearing, variabilityin site conditions, which prevented the and simultaneously provide an alternative crop for determination of the water storage capacity of the farmers. bedrock-soil complex. However, there is considerable debate over the One of the ways to determine the water balance of likely success of replanting much of the degraded forest areas is to use physiological parameters of the land. Many of the commercial tree species are vegetation itself as an indicator of the bedrock-soil sensitive to salinity and waterlogging in their root complex water availability. of the several zone. These sensitivities are compounded by the parameters available, we selected the sap flow degradation of soil structure which has arisen from velocity, i.e., transpiration measured by the cultivation and from the rise in, often saline, improved and calibrated heat pulse technique sensu watertables. The structure of the clayey subsoils has Cohen et al. (1981, 1989) in the tree's trunk. also been degraded by changes in the soil water electrolyte mix which accompanied the rising Sup flow, (i.e., transpiration) was measured watertables. continuously during several days on between 8 to 15 dates during a year in eight or 16 trees, whose Most of the native forest and woodland cleared in diameter distribution represent the diameter Australia grew in regions with mean annual rainfall distribution of all the trees growing in a plot situated from 300 to 1100 mm. The trees adapted, and either in Pinus halepensis, Quercus calliprinos, Q. flourished, in conditions where small scale salinity ithaburensis, Phillyrea latifolia and Tamarix levels were very high, but the depth and extension aphylla forests, (all native species); and in of their root systems appeared to allow them to Eucalyptus camaldulensis plantations, a introduced capture water where it was available. This strategy species. Results of these measurements were used to resulted in forests and woodlands which could scale up the single tree water use to stand water use survive drought periods, as well as locally at a given environment. concentrated salt. This ability to exploit the soil depended on macropores from old root channels and The relationshipe between water availability pedological structures, features which may well be (rainfall), and the estimated amount of water used hampered by the changes in soil structure. This by the forest vegetation, should be regarded as a paper reviews knowledge of how the native, largely majore factor in forest management. Eucalyptus, forests of southern Australia respond to soil salinity, soil water deficit, and waterlogging conditions, and implications these have for integration of plantations with agriculture.

395

Task Force 6 Internet Resources

Coordinator Lauri VALSTA Finnish Forest Research Institute Metsäntutkimuslaitos (Metla) Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN-00170 Helsinki, Finland fax: +358-9-85705717 tel: +358-9-85705242 e-mail: [email protected]

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Task Force 6

may link very fast to a specific document or data set Web-based information resources for by their weighting mechanisms. forestry research on the Internet However, in other cases only the visit of an Alois Kempf authoritative source on the net will allow to search Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Zürcherstrasse for the information needed in a database stored 111, CH-8903 Birmensdorf, Switzerland "locally" . Email: [email protected] A few examples will illustrate the current situation Keywords: bibliography; reference information; with respect to both fee-based services and publicly document type; public access; knowledge exchange; accessible data. As far as forestry research is resource discovery; electronic publishing concerned one can expect quite a broad range of Internet applications have evolved in many ways bibliographic collections available through web during recent years. One extraordinary development interfaces: library catalogues / web-OPAC, is the multiple use of World Wide Web features. publisher's price lists, table of contents or cited This is especially true in the scientific context, but references produced by research institutions and developments in e-commerce, web-based scholarly associations, personal homepages, etc. messaging, cyber-administration, distance learning Additionally one can find other types of reference or in the entertainment industry are also shaping information, i.e., current research descriptions, interpersonal communication and business meta-data services, media collections (images, audio processes. These changes can be observed in the files, ...) or even basic data on patent literature. forestry and wood sector as well as in the field of Terminological aids, classification schemes, virtual forest sciences, e.g., electronic publications, libraries and other tools which facilitate a high directory information on the Web, archives of quality profile of interaction within the scientific mailing lists, downloading of software, e-shop community are increasingly in use on the Web. facilities, document repositories, modelling IUFRO is also supporting these activities by its web programmes. site and special projects, namely the Task Force In fact, facing the mass of data available by an GFIS (Global Forest Information Service), the Internet address (URL) on the Web the user is terminology clearinghouse SilvaVoc, its looking for support in locating, filtering, selecting or bibliographies/catalogue, search engine, and sorting relevant information. The retrieval process documents in PDF. The Task Force on Internet has become - in a paradoxical manner - simpler and Resources has contributing in the past to setting up a more complex at the same time. New search engines basic information infrastructure in favour of the IUFRO research network.

399

Task Force 7 Global Forest Information Service

Coordinator Dr. Risto PÄIVINEN European Forest Institute Torikatu 34 / PO Box 333, FIN-80101 Joensuu, Finland fax: +358-13-124393 tel: +358-13-2520213 e-mail: [email protected]

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Task Force 7

- providing local access to electronic resources The Role of Libraries and Information which cannot be globally networked Centres in the Global Forest Information - developing inter-connected catalogues hyperlinked Service directly to electronic resources R. A. Mills - encouraging IT literacy and the development of University of Oxford, Oxford Forestry Institute, South electronic publishing Parks Road, OX1 3RB OXFORD, United Kingdom - advising on copyright and other intellectual Tel: +44 1865 275080, FAX: +44 1865 275074, Email: property issues [email protected] - publicising GFIS in conjunction with local and As the information society develops, traditional regional networks of all sorts libraries and information providers are changing: - offering a 'human face' for electronic systems, in a moving from physical 'places' to digital 'spaces'. familiar context and local language Electronic resources supplement and in part replace This paper reviews how far these and related local holdings, and formerly stand-alone services are activities have already progressed, what more can be increasingly integrated into institution-wide, implemented with current technology and which country-wide or regional facilities. Despite this, areas need further investment. there remain huge distributed collections of printed material, not available in electronic format but still IUFRO Task Force Global Forest of high relevance to forest research; and even Information Service (GFIS) for improving though electronic publishing is growing fast, so is access to information on forests print: every year sees a further rise in the numbers Risto Päivinen, Reynolds, J., Landis, E. Martin, M. Mills, of printed scientific journals published. The R., Petrokofsky, G., Richards, T., Saarikko, J. and provision of access to non-electronic material is thus Schuck, A. a key element of the Global Forest Information European Forest Institute, Torikatu 34, FIN-80100 Service and this paper examines the role of libraries Joensuu, Finland in meeting that challenge. Tel: +358.13.252.020, FAX: +358.13.124393, Email: [email protected] Libraries have traditionally had both a curatorial and an educational role, which applies as much to Improving access to forest information was formally electronic as to conventional resources. Digital recognised as a priority by the United Nations material poses difficulties in organisation, long-term Conference on Environment and Development in retention and preservation, just as other media do, 1992 when it stated in Agenda 21, Chapter 40: and librarians have long experience in devising "Countries and organisations should exploit various innovative solutions to these problems. The initiatives for electronic links to support information profession is devoted both to the preservation and sharing, to provide access to databases and other dissemination of knowledge, working with information sources, to facilitate communication for educators and researchers to facilitate its creation, meeting broader objectives, such as the sharing and use. The computer, and the internet in implementation of Agenda 21.The particular, provide powerful tools in aiding this Intergovernmental Panel on Forests in 1997 process, but human input is required in all three of "emphasised the need to review and improve its facets; machine based systems speed up its information systems. Attention should be given to operation, but also create increasing demands for world-wide access to information systems that reliable, well-evaluated resources and high-quality would encourage effective implementation of education in their use. national forest programmes, increased private-sector investment efficient development and transfer of Libraries within the GFIS subject envelope can help appropriate technologies, and improved co- meet these demands by: operation". - locating, describing and classifying relevant resources in all formats The aim of the Task Force on Global Forest - guiding local and remote users in their most Information Service is to develop a strategy for, and efficient use to implement an Internet-based meta-data service - providing rapid access to requested material by that will allow co-ordinated world-wide access to traditional and electronic means forest information. The resulting service will - identifying non-electronic resources for provide multiple benefits to information users and digitisation providers including: faster access to key information - organising the creation and maintenance of digital sources; and improved dissemination and quality of archives forest-related data and information.

403 Task Force 7 The service will provide access to both digital and Mobilising and Disseminating non-digital information on forest resources, forest Information on Forests to Promote policy, criteria and indicators for sustainable forest Sustainable Management in Africa management, research activities, and other timely Robert Szaro, Cobbinah, Joseph; Martin, P. Michael; and relevant issues. David Langor International Union of Forestry Research Organizations, Technical & Design Options for Seckendorff-Gudent-Weg 8, A-1131 Vienna, Austria Implementation Email: [email protected] Tim Richards, Reynolds, J. Keywords: Global Forest Information Service, Global Vegetation Monitoring Unit Africa, Networking, Capacity building Space Applications Institute, Joint Research Centre; TP 641, Via E Fermi,1, I-21020 Ispra, Italy Much of the groundwork for building capacity in Tel: +39-0332-789102, FAX: +39-0332-789960, Email: African countries that are signatories to the Lomé [email protected] Convention (ACP countries) has already been completed: contact has been made with the relevant The mission of the Task Force on Global Forest international forest information providers, a Information Service (GFIS) is to develop a strategy prototype of the Global Forest Information Service for, and to implement, an Internet-based catalogue (GFIS) has been launched on the Web, a Users' service that will provide access to forest information Needs Analysis has been carried out, and world-wide. The resulting service will provide enthusiastic agreement in principle to the concept of multiple benefits to information users and providers the GFIS has been received from FAO, JRC, EFI, including faster access to information resources; and OFI, IUFRO, CIFOR and WFI. This Service will improved dissemination and quality of forest-related answer needs highlighted by the Convention on data and information. The service will provide Biological Diversity, the Intergovernmental Panel access to both digital and non-digital information on on Forests, the Convention on Climate Change and forest resources, forest policy, criteria and indicators the Forest Principles. Without access to good for sustainable forest management, research information on forests, policy-makers, forest activities, and other timely and relevant topics. managers, economic planners and researchers from This paper describes the technical options for many disciplines do not have a solid basis on which implementation of GFIS. By definition, GFIS to operate. This is particularly important in tropical facilitates information dissemination between forest forest countries, where forest change is happening information providers and the user community using most rapidly. GFIS will serve the needs of a great the Internet. Users should be able to find the variety of people, and ultimately lead to a better information they require in a simple and logically understanding of the world's forests and consistent manner, and in such a way that ownership management impacts, both positive and negative. and attribution of the information is respected. With the approval of the 3 year project by the GFIS has predecessors in other disciplines than European Commission DG VIII "Mobilizing forestry, and there are many lessons to learn. scientific information on forests to promote their Different design options are reviewed and one is sustainable management in ACP countries" the proposed based on the model of a regional network establishment of five nodes within Africa began. of 'information servers' which, taken together, form These nodes will facilitate access to and a single distributed catalogue (known as a dissemination of scientific and technical information metadatabase). With such an arrangement, users on forests and their utilization. The location of these may search for 'metainformation' held in diverse and nodes are Western Africa (Ghana and Senegal), disparate databases. Having located the information Eastern Africa (Kenya), Southern Africa required, they can then access the information (Zimbabwe), and Island Africa (Madagascar). through appropriate hyperlinks. The information GFIS and its regional nodes will be a valuable server concept enables peers to interact in a virtual information resource for decision-makers in tropical community. forest countries, and others. in particular it will The language used by information specialists differs provide forest information and generating integrated from that used in other disciplines, including information products. The use of the World Wide forestry. This paper attempts to describe the Web is rapidly increasing in the developing implementation of GFIS in language that both countries, and GFIS will give agencies in those communities can understand. countries an opportunity to use information that has up to now only been accessible through inter-library

404 Task Force 7 loans or after long searches through foreign institutional facilities. Two project staff members will be located at FAO in Rome and will have responsibility for developing the interfaces for GFIS-AFRICA and for helping to set up equipment. Each node will be provided equipment, training, salary for an information specialist and operational costs for each of the five nodes. As the project is implemented many new partners will be included to help develop the network. The objectives are: (1) to improve access to reliable scientifically based information on forests in ACP countries and their utilization, (2) to build capacity in selected regional research institutions to develop and manage internet-based systems to facilitate broad access to research information on forests in the ACP countries, (3) to share experience and good practice in information management between ACP countries, and (4) to enhance integration and comparability between national data on forests throughout the ACP countries.

405

Task Force 8 Science/Policy Interface

Coordinator Dr. Richard GULDIN USDA Forest Service PO Box 96090, Washington D.C. 20090-6090, United States fax: +1-202-2051530 tel: +1-202-2051507 e-mail: [email protected]

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Task Force 8

patterns (e.g. groupings) in the data. Accordingly, How social values have affected forest many policy researchers face the problem of having policy to compare extensive data, consisting of both Jo Ellen Force, Greg Fizzell qualitative and quantitative elements, in a large University of Idaho, Forest Resources, ID 83844 numbers of cases in a systematic way. Moscow, USA Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) is a Tel: 885-7311, Email: [email protected] comparative tool which has been developed by Social values are difficult to define and measure. Charles Ragin to bridge some of the gap between Social scientists define social values as desired end- qualitative and quantitative analysis. The method states that go beyond self to address the concerns of uses Boolean algebra for a systematic analysis of the larger society; they are not necessarily values similarities and differences across cases. It is held by the majority of society. Two primary gaining popularity in sociology and political indicators of social values are public opinion and science, and it is also taking its first steps in people's behavior. The American people associate a comparative forest policy research. Therefore, it is wide range of social values with our forests. Forest reasonable to ask what this new tool is like. Which policies attempt to respond to and reflect a range of type of applications have most potential for social social values. The challenge facing foresters is the science research in forestry, and why? disconnect between public opinion which supports QCA is mostly associated with causal terminology increased environmental protection and reduced and applications, which makes it unattractive to forest commodity production (i.e., "what I say") and many qualitative researchers. in our view, the people's behavior which demands an increased greatest problems related to QCA are not based on amount of forest products and services (i.e., "what I the technique of the method but on the limited ways do"). We suggest that public judgment, which goes in which it has been applied. Although not beyond public opinion and addresses taking commonly recognised, the method has no in-built responsibility for the consequences of one's premises validating only causal applications. behavior, merits consideration. Foresters have an important role to play in facilitating public This paper aims to provide an understanding of judgments about our forest resources. QCA that would encourage experimentation with the method in social science in forestry, regarding Keywords: Social values, public opinion, behavior, different kinds of research, data and questions public judgment, forest policy asked. This is done by presenting an example of two different types of non-causal approaches to QCA in Qualitative Comparative Analysis: research that compares environmental forestry Opening New Paths for Social Science conflicts during 1984-95 in seven cases (Finland, Research in Forestry Sweden, Norway, France, Germany, Minnesota and Eeva Hellström, Kati Rantala the Pacific Northwest region of the USA). The data Finnish Forest Association, Salomonkatu 17 B, FIN- for the research consists of a total of 210 focused 00100 Helsinki, Finland interviews conducted within these countries. Tel: +358-9-685 088 12, FAX: +358-9-68508820, Email: [email protected] At first, the data is analysed with the "empirical The internationalisation of the forestry dialogue and typology" approach to QCA. in this approach, the subsequent internationalisation of forest policy value, policy, market and resource aspects of brings about new challenges for social science environmental forestry conflicts are analysed research in forestry. One evident need is to increase separately, with the aim to organise and condense our understanding of similarities and differences the data in a systematic way. The empirical between cases through comparative studies at both typology approach is already known in literature but regional and global scale. it has been used in very few applications with real data. Secondly, the "hermeneutic" approach to QCA On the one hand, comprehensive social or policy is used to explore the interface and to discover research in forestry typically addresses a large interactions between value, policy, market and number of economic, resource, social, policy and resource aspects of environmental conflicts. This cultural aspects, not all of which are quantifiable so application to QCA has been developed within that they could be analysed with quantitative research conducted by the authors of this paper. methodology. On the other hand, despite significant advances in qualitative analysis software, most These non-causal applications increase flexibility in qualitative methods are rarely used to do more than the use of QCA and, thus, greatly extend the "pattern" analysis, that is discovering structural applicability of the method in comparative social

409 Task Force 8 research in forestry. It will also be demonstrated that de gestion publique et de la dynamique régionale when applying QCA, different types of applications ainsi que l'analyse du système de taxation forestière. may be combined in order to produce an Au niveau des pratiques forestières les acteurs qui understanding of the whole. jouent les rôles les plus importants sont pour la plupart des citadins pour ce qui concerne les filières Changer de mode de régulation de de produits ligneux. Ce sont ces dernières qui l'utilisation des ressources forestiere représentent la plus importante chiffre d'affaire en Madagascar valeur monétaire. Pour les produits non ligneux les Bruno Ramamonjisoa communautés riveraines des ressources maîtrisent la Ecologie Politique et Biodiversite, C/o ESSA Forêts BP décision de coupe mais les filières ne représentent 3044, 101 Antananarivo, Madagascar qu'un chiffre d'affaire monétaire minime. Au niveau FAX: 261 20 22 611 84, Email: [email protected] de ces pratiques, et quels que soient les sites Madagascar s'est doté d'une nouvelle politique d'études, plus le chiffre d'affaire est important et forestière depuis 1995 avec l'appui méthodologique plus le rôle des spéculateurs urbains devient des universitaires. Cette politique pour sa mise en prépondérant. Mais le système de gestion de la œuvre préconise plusieurs types de moyens ressource bute aussi sur des problèmes de gestion stratégiques dont celui de la gestion participative, le technique proprement dit tant au niveau de désengagement de l'Etat de la gestion opérationnelle l'exploitation (forte perte) qu'au niveau de la et la réforme de l'administration forestière. Malgré reconstitution de la ressource (manque de données). que l’Etat et les bailleurs de fonds se sont engagés Au niveau du système de gestion public les pour sa mise en œuvre, cette politique présente des communautés sont assez différentes mais présentent difficultés d’ordre méthodologiques. En effet, la des ressemblances notamment sur l'existence de société malgache vit avec un ancrage culturel deux types de pouvoir: celui légal qui est profond qui fait que les méthodologies découvertes constamment contourné et celui coutumier qui est ailleurs rencontrent des problèmes d'adaptation pour plus ou moins respectée. Les premières conclusions leur utilisation dans des projets forestiers ont mis en évidence la nécessité de faire transiter par Malgaches. Ainsi, la gestion participative qui les droits coutumiers les règles de gestion. constitue le moyen stratégique par excellence pour l'intégration des acteurs dans la préservation et Mais la durabilité de la gestion participative réside l'exploitation de la ressource risque d'aboutir, dans aussi dans la possibilité de répartir équitablement le cas d'échec, à un résultat totalement contraire. entre les acteurs la ressource monétaire mobilisable C'est dans cette perspective que la recherche sur la à partir des taxes forestières. En effet, les enjeux formulation de méthodologie ayant rapport à monétaires sont telles que les activités sources de l'élaboration de norme a été conduit depuis 1997 au revenus sont rapidement contrôlées par les acteurs niveau de la Division d'Enseignement et de dominants que sont les spéculateurs urbains. Le Recherche en Economie et Politique forestières du système actuel de taxation transitant par des circuits Département Forêts de l'ESSA. Cette étude a pour administratifs trop classiques ne peut que but de mettre à disposition des forestiers de terrain développer la pratique de la corruption et nécessite une méthodologie pour la mise en œuvre d'une un besoin de réarrangement institutionnel qui gestion participative d'une ressource forestière. devrait suivre le processus de la décentralisation du pouvoir à Madagascar. La recherche est conduite sur plusieurs sites malgache correspondant à une typologie écologique Mots clés: Politique forestière, gestion mais aussi culturelle notamment Mandraka et communautaire, fiscalité forestière, dynamique Ranomafana (forêt dense humide et une population régionale d'agriculteur à niveau d'éducation élevé) sur la falaise orientale Malgache, Morondava (forêt dense sèche décidue et une population d'agriculteur- éleveur ) sur la Côte Ouest et Tampolo (forêt dense humide littorale et population d'agriculteur itinérant). L'approche utilisée a été celle systémique qui englobe à la fois l'analyse des pratiques forestière (produits ligneux et non ligneux, défrichement) et des systèmes de gestion de la ressource mais aussi l'analyse du système de production, celle du système

410 Task Force 8

Foreign Direct Investments of Forest Forestry in Transition Industries in a Global Economy Tamas Szedlak Jussi Uusivuori and Susanna Laaksonen-Craig Ministry of Agriculture, Bureau of Forestry (Erdészeti Finnish Forest Research Institute, Unioninkatu 40 A, FIN Hivatal), Pf. 1, 1860 Budapest 55, Hungary 00170 Helsinki, Finland Tel: 36-1-301-4000, FAX: 36-1-301-46-78, Email: Tel: +358-9-857051, FAX: +358 9 8570 5717, Email: [email protected] [email protected] Keywords: political changes, countries in transition, Even if forest industries have not been the sustainable forestry, public awareness, climate forerunners in the globalization process, foreign change. direct investment (FDI) by forest companies has increased rapidly in the 1990s. A central question There are many changes and challenges for the then is to what extent FDI and traditional trade in mankind at the end of the 20th century. The world the forest sector are substitutes or complements to changed dramatically during the last hundred years each other, for example, does FDI lead to increased while the population reached the 6 milliard peoples. or decreased exports from the home country in the There are substantial changes in natural, political long-run. This paper explores the dynamic and social environments and these components have relationship between foreign direct investment a certain reaction one another. The political changes (FDI) and exports of forest industries with U.S., promote the natural awareness in the former Finnish and Swedish data. Both short-term and socialist countries. These countries are the long-term interrelationship between FDI and exports "countries in transition", because the centrally is studied, as well as the short-term and long-term planned system is replaced by market economy effects of exchange rate movements and exchange conditions. Since 1990 also the Forestry is adapting rate variation. to the market economy. Co-operative forests have been given back to their former private owners, and The results show that for the U.S. forest industries, one part of the state forest have been privatised FDI generates more exports of forest products in the together with some technical services and wood long-run. in the case of the Finnish and Swedish processing plants. These changes are coinciding forest industries, it is the exports that seem to drive with the reorientation of the international the investments abroad. The effects of exchange rate environmental and forest policy. in accord with the risk and movements on FDI were estimated to be increasing public awareness in environmental low in the case of the U.S. and Finnish forest issues, the non-wood forest functions got higher industries, and only moderate in the case of Swedish priority, and the sustainable forest management are forest industries. The results suggest that initiatives interpreted in a much wider context, where the toward freer trade may also spur increased FDI by conservation of biological diversity and sustainable forest industries. development of the natural and human environment Keywords: Globalization, trade, corporate strategies are equally important criteria. While the other part of the world the area of the forests decreases, in Europe increases. The multifunctional forestry appears important in this densely populated continent. The climatic and economic changes in the last decade arose the importance of forests, forest science and forest policy. The transition includes a large scale changes in ownership in course of privatisation in the eastern part of Europe. Some of these countries have a large agricultural potential, while they want to join into the European Union which has a great problem with his own agricultural policy. The changes in environment and society were the main elements which made the legislation to create new acts for forestry and environment protection in these transition countries. How can the forests serve the needs of the environment protection, rural development under the changing climate, economy and society? There will be the main questions for the forestry, forest policy and forest science in the beginning of the next century.

411 Index

INDEX

Abrahamson, L.P., 9 Braasch, Helen, 306 Dupuy, Bernard, 3 Acar, Halis Hulusi, 61, 243 Brack, Cris, 274 Dwyer, John, 270 Achard, Frederic, 135 Brand , Martha Andreia, 158 Eckelman, Carl, 173 Adnan, Mohammad, 100 Brandl, Helmut, 73 Edge, Philip, 219 Agbeja, Busuyi Olasina, 283 Brassel, Peter, 122 Edwards, David George W, 54 Aggarwal, Sudesh, 196 Bratovich, Ricardo Armando, Eid, Tron, 120, 128 Agyeman, Viktor, 64, 254 119 El-Kassaby, Yousry A., 391 Ahern, Frank, 115 Buford, Marilyn A., 83 Ellatifi, Mohammed, 103 Ahmadov, Hukmatullo M., 356 Bunza, Günther, 340 Elliott, Stephen, 22 Ahmed, Miyan Rukunuddin, Burns, Denver, 226 El-Sayed, Abdelwahab B., 61 235 Bustos, Oscar, 67 Eriksson, Lennart, 74 Akca, Alparslan, 109 Bytnerowicz, Andrzej, 312 Eriksson, Ljusk Ola, 129 Alder, Denis, 96 Caldentey, Juan, 357 Essmann, Hans, 259 Alfaro, Rene, 303 Campbell, Bruce, 198 Evans, Hugh, 307 Ali, A. Emran, 213 Carreno, Raol C., 340 Falck, Jan, 22, 65 Alig, Ralph J., 119, 281 Cavendish, William, 198 Fauzi Puasa, Ahmad, 383 Aloni, Roni, 149 Chaix, Gilles, 53 Feng, Fong Long, 111 Alvarez, Nerida Puentes, 224 Chi, Yeong-Nain, 255 Ferro, Vito, 334 Aly, Hussein Ibrahim Christy, Lawrence C., 263 Finegan, Bryan, 5, 323 Mahmoud, 155 Chumachenko, Sergei I, 317 Finkeldey, Reiner, 40 Andersen, Finn G., 142 Clancy, Karen M., 289 Foahom, Bernard, 304 Anshari, Gusti Z., 344 Cleuren, Herwig, 3 Folving, Sten, 137 Arola, Esa, 251 Cobbinah, Joe R., 303 Force, Jo Ellen, 411 Aruga, Kazuhiro, 76, 82 Conard, Susan G., 345 Fox, Julian Christian, 89 Asan, Üal, 126 Connor, M. A., 183 Frampton, E. Ruth, 308 Ashton, P. Mark S., 21 Conroy, Czech, 238 Franco, Fernando Silveira, 375 Awang, Kamis, 205 Cornelius, Johnathan, 391 Fredericksen, Todd S., 6 Ayan, Sezgin, 59 Corona, Piermaria, 110 Freer-Smith, Peter, 312 Azlan, Nik Ismail, 238 Cote, Marc André, 255 Fui, Lim Hin, 247 Bagyaraj, Joseph D., 291 Couto, Laercio, 226, 375 Fukuda, Kenji, 299 Bahamondez, Carlos, 136 Cown, David J., 149 Fukuyama, K., 362 Baier, Peter, 289 Dahlsten, D.L., 306 Fung, Paul, 181 Bailleres, Henri, 177 Daia, Mihai-Liviu, 383 Futai, Kazuyoshi, 296 Balandier, Philippe, 14 Dallmeier, Francisco, 352 Fuziah, Raja, 187 Balasundaran, M., 292 Dambrine, Etienne, 36 Galiana, Antoine, 33, 34 Ballerini, Aldo, 172 Darmawan, Wayan, 163 Gallardo Gallardo, E., 263 Banik, Ratan Lal, 101 Daugavietis, Mauris, 199 Gallo, L., 43 Barbour, Jamie, 206 Davis, Robert, 125 Gandaseca, Seca, 62 Batish, Daizy R., 317 Dawson, Bernard, 164 Ganzon, Filmorie G., 334 Beck, Roland L., 231 Day, Keith, 304 Garland, John J., 69 Becker, Michel, 197 de Bello, N., 96 Gautam, P. L., 200 Begus, Jurij, 232 de Gier, Alfred, 110, 123, 136 Gellerstedt, Sten, 70, 78 Bellefontaine, Ronald, 102 de Hoop, Cornelius, 69 Gertner, George, 122 Bergdahl, Dale R., 296, 305 de Jong, Wil, 198, 200 Giri, Chandra Prasad, 137 Bertrand, Alain, 246 de Souza, Amaury Paulo, 63, Gnanaharan, Rajamoney, 185 Bevers, Michael, 127 69 Goglia, D. Vlado, 71 Bhandari, Ananda, 246 De Yoe, David, 227 Goh, Doreen K. S., 34 Bhargava, Alka, 52, 55 Devall, Margaret, 190 Golubeva, Elena, 17 Bhat, K. M., 177 Dey, R. K., 301 Gorozhankina, S. M., 317 Bismarck, Friedrich von, 16 Dhanda, R. S., 97 Göttle, Albert, 341, 342 Blada, Ioan, 40 Dralle, Kim, 111 Green, Edwin J., 122 Blay, Dominic, 21 Duju, Alik, 150 Greene, J., 264 Borazjani, Hamid, 166 Duncan, Michael J., 9 Grönlund, Anders, 153, 165 Borissoff, Vladimir A., 356 Duplain, Gordon, 164 Grulke, M., 23

412 Index

Guan, Biing T., 123 Johnson, James E., 233 Laming, Peter B., 179 Guerard, N., 289 Johnson, Marlin, 207 Langström, Bo, 290 Guimier, Daniel, 79 Josue, James, 66 Larsson, Tor-Bjorn, 353 Gürses, M. Kurtulus, 239 Kahle, Hans-Peter, 93 Lausti, Antrei, 133 Guttenberger, Helmut, 47 Kalafatovich, Susana, 340, 341 Le Master, Dennis C., 266 Hailu, Michael, 220 Kamata, Naoto, 309 Lee, Bryan, 313 Hameed, Salwa M. Abdel, 112 Kammesheidt, Ludwig, 6 Lee, Don Koo, 10, 329, 376 Hamzah, Khali Aziz, 138 Kamo, Koichi, 25, 27 Lee, Shih-Hao, 153 Hamzah, Mohd Zaki, 363 Kang, Kyu-Suk, 50 Legilisho-Kiyiapi, James, 256 Hannerz, Mats, 44 Kangas, Jyrki, 131 Leinonen, Timo Antero, 80 Haque, M. S., 248 Kankam, Paul, 346 Lexer, Manfred, 369 Hardiyanto, Eko B., 4 Kanowski, Peter, 207 Li, Bailian, 38, 41 Harstela, Pertti, 74 Kant, Shashi, 143 Li, Bosheng, 103 Harun, Ismail, 65, 97, 347 Kapos, Val, 376 Li, Huiqing, 104 Harun, Jalaluddin, 188 Karjalainen, Eeva, 216 Li, Zhiyong, 252 Hasenauer, Hubert, 112 Kärnä, Jari, 193 Liebhold, Andrew, 309 Hasmadi Ismail, Mohd., 345 Kastenholz, Edgar, 71 Lim, S. C., 150 Hecker, Markus, 79 Kathirithamby-Wells, Limin, Dai, 318 Hellström, Eeva, 236, 411 Jeyanacar, 237 Lindholm, Markus, 191 Helms, John A., 223 Katigula, M. I. L., 249 Lipoglavsek, Marjan, 71, 72 Herbst, Peter, 264 Kaudia, Alice A., 233 Liu, Jinlong, 229 Hetemäki, Lauri, 282 Kawai, Shuichi, 172 Löfström, Irja, 270 Heuveldop, Jochen, 98, 228 Kempf, Alois, 401 Loipersberger, Anton, 342 Hirai, Keizo, 328 Kennedy, P., 116 Lopes, Eduardo da Silva, 63 Hiroshima, Takayua, 129 Keogh, Raymond M., 178 Lopez Cornelio, David, 140, Ho, K. S., 159 Khosla, Prem Kumar, 257 358 Hoeflich, Vitor Afonso, 227 Kiam, Thai See, 50 Lou, Yiping, 188 Hoen, Hans Fredrik, 120, 128 Kilic, Ayben, 155 Lujan Alvarez, Concepción, Hogg, James N, 143 Killmann, Wulf, 201 105 Holm, Mikael, 138 Kim, Joong Myung, 216 Lund, H. Gyde, 225 Holopainen, Markus, 275 Kim, Kae-Hwan, 10 Maas Bijker, Jelle B., 319 Hopmans, Peter, 335 Kiragu, Jane, 276 Maddumba, Helen A., 229 Horne, Paula, 251 Kirschbaum, Miko U.F., 94 Magnussen, Christer, 297 Hornsten, Lisa, 213 Kleinn, Christoph, 123, 134 Maguire, Douglas A., 89 Hossain, Mohammed Kamal, Kleinschmit, Jochen, 37 Majumdar, Neil B., 202 24, 25 Klemperer, David, 133 Malkov, Jakov V., 320 Houpis, James L.J., 31 Klimo, Emil, 327 Mandallaz, Daniel, 124 Humble, Leland M., 308 Klins, Ullrich, 265 Mander, Ülo, 18 Hummel, Susan Stevens, 4 Knowles, James M., 14 Maoyi, Fu, 186, 188 Husain, Hamdan, 174 Koch, Barbara, 139 Marmillod, Daniel, 384 Hussin, Yousif Ali, 114, 320, Kofman, Pieter D., 80 Martin, Yuri, 105 346 Koizumi, Toru, 123 Martinic, Ivan, 276 Hutacharern, Chaweewan, 301 Kong, Hoi Why, 182 Marzalina, M., 55 Hüttl, Reinhard F., 17 Konstantinov, V. K., 112 Mathur, Vinod B., 221, 350 Hytonen, Leena, 130 Korotkov, Alexander V., 126 Matsumoto, Mitsuo, 224 Hyttinen, Pentti, 260 Koskela, Erkki, 284 Matyas, Csaba, 38 Ibrahim, Shamsudin, 65, 347 Kostrikin, V. A., 48 McNabb, David H., 140 Ikeda, Takefumi, 299 Kovar, Pavel, 335 Meidinger, E., 267 Inagaki, Yoshiyuki, 326 Kraigher, Hojka, 44, 83 Mendoza , Guillermo A., 141 Inoue, Makoto, 243 Kremsa, Vladimir, 117 Menon, A. R. R., 347 Ishii, Katsuaki E., 35 Krpan, Ante P. B., 77 Millan, Jaime, 277 Isik, Fikret, 41 Kukreti, M. C., 234 Mills, R. A., 405 Iwaoka, Masahiro, 76, 82 Kulinich, Oleg A., 297 Miner, Cynthia L., 230 Jakobsen, Christine H., 262 Kumar, S. Shashi, 49 Mohan, Varadharaja, 59 Jandl, Robert, 369 Kuo, Yau-lun, 31 Mohanan, Choran, 294 Janssen, Jules J.A., 186 Kurbanov, Eldar, 284 Moren, Tom, 160 Jim, C.Y., 271 Kusan, Vladimir, 140 Muguga, Kefri, 257 Jinshan, Ye, 49 Laasasenaho, Jouko, 124, 275 Munyanziza, Esron, 330 Jöbstl, Hans A, 143 Lal, Piare, 35 Murray, John, 217 Joeman, Bernadette, 220 Lal, Ravindra B., 103 Musa, Muhamed K., 320

413 Index

Musa, Samsudin, 347 Prins, Kees, 240 Sedjo, Roger A., 144 Muziol, Christoph, 127 Prüller, Renate, 226 Sehgal, R. N., 279 Nabuurs, Gert-Jan, 121 Puri, Sunil, 27 Seitz, Rudi Arno, 8, 237 Nair, K. K. N., 26 Purohit, Mamta, 55 Sekyere, Daniel, 175 Nair, K. S. S., 302 Purwanto, Yohanes, 107 Sellers, Terry, 168 Nakagawa, Yasunori, 336 Quintana, Yudel Garcia, 107 Setiadi, Yadi, 20 Nakashima, Kiyoshi, 42 Quirino, W., 184 Setyawati, Titiek, 354 Nakashima, Tadashi, 358 Radeloff, Volker C., 327 Shakri Mat Seman, Ahmad, Natarajan, K., 293 Rahman, K. Abd., 365 169 Nayyar, Harsh, 189 Rajvanshi, Asha, 351 Shamsudin, Supiah, 337 Ndam, Nouhou, 98 Ramamonjisoa, Bruno, 412 Sharma, Jyoti K., 294 Negri, M., 113 Ramirez, Fernando Ortiz, 234 Sharma, Om. Prakas, 230 Nilsson, Kjell, 272 Ramirez-Angulo, Hirma, 99 Shehaghilo, I. M, 60 Nitami, Toshio, 77 Ramos Rodriguez, Marcos Shiba, Masami, 68 Nketiah, K. S., 106 Pedro, 348 Shigesada, Nanako, 310 Nobuchi, Todashi, 180 Rasmussen, Karsten R., 395 Shin, Won Sop, 214 Norisada, Mariko, 330 Raupach, Michael, 395 Shiratori, Keiko, 214 Nuruddin, Ahmad Ainuddin, Razak, Mohd Abd. Ali, 15 Shiva, Mahabir Prasad, 203 321 Rebugio, Lucrecio L., 258 Shparyk, Y. S., 322 Nuutinen, Tuula, 121 Reddell, Paul, 396 Shukla, A. N., 293 Nyrud, Anders Qvale, 165 Reed, Mark, 278 Shulga, Galia, 169 O'Hara, Kevin L., 90 Reis , Maria das Gracias F., 386 Shutov, I. V., 47 Ohtani, Yoshikazu, 364 Ressmann, Johannes, 81 Sidle, Roy C., 338 Oja, Johan, 153 Retnowati, Eulis, 245, 258, 348 Siegel, William C., 268 Ojeda Ojeda, Nelson Herno, 117 Richards, Tim, 135, 406 Sievänen, Risto, 91 Okai, Reynolds, 161 Robak, Ted E.W., 63 Silberstein, Richard P., 397 Okuda, Toshinori, 364 Robek, Robert, 83 Simatupang, Maruli H., 170 Okuyama, Takashi, 180 Rodrigo, V. H. L., 100 Singh, Adya P., 155 Olsen, Carsten Smith, 244 Roos, Anders, 11, 166 Singh, Bijay Kumar, 379 Ozanne, Lucie K., 208 Rowe, Lindsay, 337 Sinha, Diwakar, 231 Paiva, Maria Rosa, 291 Roy, Shyamal K., 60 Skoupy, Alois, 84 Päivinen, Risto, 121, 405 Rozenberg, Philippe, 45 Smith, Colin, 85 Palijon, Armando Manito, 273 Run-Peng, Wei, 43 Smith, Joyotee, 8, 323 Palo, Matti, 245, 370 Rykunina, Irina, 162 Smith, Robert, 194 Pandalai, R. C., 60 Sabogal, César, 8 Solberg, Birger, 282 Pandey, Deep Narayan, 278 Saddler, John N., 371 Sougoufara, Bassirou, 108 Park, Young-Goo, 322 Saharjo, Bambang Hero, 349 Spiecker, Heinrich, 95 Parnuta, Gheorghe, 42 Sakai, Tetsuro, 261 Stahl, Göran, 125 Parrotta, John A., 18 Salang, Andrew Tukau, 150 Statz, Jochen, 204 Parysow, Pablo, 90 Salleh, M. N., 46 Sterba, Hubert, 92 Pathania, M. S, 222 Salom, Scott, 310 Stier, Jeffrey C., 268 Peltier, Regine, 384 Samli, Zuraina, 359 Stokes, Bryce J., 82, 83 Penttinen, Markku, 75 Sanabria, Ernesto O., 185 Strakhov, Valentin V., 386 Percy, Kevin, 314 Sano, Junji, 354 Straw, Nigel A., 305 Pérez Cordero, Luis D., 7 Saracoglu, Nedim, 11 Su, Xianfeng, 324 Pernar, Nikola, 331 Saranpää, Pekka, 151 Su, Yu-Chang, 151 Persson, Reidar, 239 Sarkar, M., 172 Suharti, Sri, 249, 259, 262 Peterson, George, 253 Sarrailh, Jean Michel, 379 Sukhorukova, L. I., 360 Petrovici, Valeriu, 167 Sasaki, S., 66 Sulaiman, Ani, 152 Peyron, Jean-Luc, 144 Sawaguchi, Isao, 67 Sundarapandian, S. M., 108 Philip, Elisabeth, 223 Scarascia-Mugnozza, Surep, Aswati, 114, 141 Phillips, Paul, 91 Giuseppe, 359 Suryaprakash, S., 250 Phua, Mui How M., 132 Schaaf, Wolfgang, 19 Suyama, Masanori, 343 Picard, Olivier, 76 Schabel, Hans G., 302 Suzuki, Yasushi, 78 Podgorski, Laurence, 162 Schaitza, Erich Gomes, 175 Svensson, Johan, 328 Pollini, Claudio, 378 Schardt, Mathias, 117 Syaufina, Lailan, 349 Pouta, Eija, 253 Scherr, Sara J., 8, 15 Szaro, Robert, 406 Prasad, Ram, 202, 385 Schiller, Gabriel, 397 Szedlak, Tamas, 413 Price, Colin, 145, 254 Schmithüsen, Franz, 267 Tabarsa, Taghi, 154 Prietzel, Joerg, 94 Schmoldt, D., 132 Taira, Hideaki, 51

414 Index

Takahashi, Masamichi, 328, Tyrväinen, Liisa, 273 Wingfield, Michael J., 295, 311 332 Uusivuori, Jussi, 413 Wisniewska, Emilia, 118 Takano, Tsutomu, 171 Vaganov, E. A., 192 Wong, A. H. H., 157 Takenaka, Chisato, 324 Valentini, Riccardo, 361 Xuhe, Chen, 209 Tamm, Ülo, 32 Valerio, Juvenal, 325 Yahya, Noor Azlin, 218 Tanaka, Nobuyuki, 27, 360 Valkonen, Sauli, 93 Yamane, Akiomi, 300 Tang, R. C., 154 van Acker, Joris, 173, 187 Yamashita, Naoko, 27 Tang, Yanhong, 32 van Heerden, Schalk W., 295 Yang, Baojun, 299 Tangan, Fatima T., 109 Verwijst, Theo, 13 Youngquist, John, 173 Tay, John, 145 Vila, C., 64 Yusop, Zulkiflli, 338 Taylor, Peter, 280 Virtanen, Jussi, 195 Zainal Abidin, Azman, 372 Teissier du Cros, Eric, 39 Visschedijk, Peter A. M., 215 Zainal, Ahmad bin Mat Isa, 343 Teraoka, Yukio, 114 Vlosky, Richard, 195 Zakaria, Mohamed, 351 Thibaut, Bernard, 177 Wagner, Stefan, 268 Zang, Daoqun, 33 Toda, Hirohoto, 333 Wanden, Stig, 325 Zhang, Daowei, 270 Togashi, Katsumi, 300 Wästerlund, Dianne Staal, 73 Zhang, Shougong, 13, 152 Toivonen, Ritva, 182 Weaver, George W., 134 Zheng, Yongqi, 46 Tomazello, Mario, 191 Webster, John M., 298 Zheng, Youbin, 314 Tosi, Vittorio, 378 Weiss, Gerhard, 269 Zhongrong, Cao, 171 Tromborg, Erik, 285 Westphal, Joanne M., 218 Ziemer, Robert, 339 Tuck-Po, Lye, 242 White, Robert H., 156 Zingg, Andreas, 135 Tullus, Hardi, 12, 18 Wickneswari, K., 391 Zuhaidi Yahya, Ahmad, 4 Tunytsya, Yuriy Y., 285 Wiedenhoeft, Alex C., 156 Zyryanova, O. A., 355 Turcani, Marek, 311 Wimmer, Rupert, 193

415