FAO TechnicTechnical I FORESTRY forestryfor-siry PAPER education 47 Design and implementationimplementation
by H.A. 11rniHilmi and D. Sim
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FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THETHE UNITED NATIONS Rome, 19841984 The designationsdesignatio.ns employed and the presentationpresentation of materialmaterial in thisthis publicationpublication do not implyimply the expression ofof anyany opinionopinion whatsoeverwhatsoever on thethe part ofof thethe Food Food and and Agriculture Agriculture Organization Organization of the United Nations concerning thethe legallegal status of anyany country,country, territory, city oror areaarea oror of itsits authorities,authorities, oror concerningconcerning thethe delimitationdelimitation of itsits frontiersfrontiers or or boundaries. boundaries.
M-39 ISBNISBN 92-5-102080-9
.AllAII rights reserved. No partpart of this publication may bebe reproduced,reproduced, stored in aa retrievalretrieval system,system, oror transmittedtransmitted inin ahya~y formform oror by by any any means. means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise,otherwise, withoutwithout thethe prior permission ofof thethe copyrightcopyright owner.owner. Applications for suchsuch permission,permission, . with aa statementstatement ofof the the purpose purpose andand extentextent of of the the reproduction, reproduction, should should be addressed toto the Director,Director, PublicationsPublications Division, Food and AgricultureAgriculture Organization ofof the UnitedUnited Nations,Nations, ViaVia delledelle Terme Terme didi Caracalla, Caracalla, 00100 00100 Rome, Italy.
© FAOFAO 19841984 iii -
ACKNOWLEDGMENPSACKOOllLEDGMENl'S
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United NationsNations acknowledges with thanks a financial contribution from the Swedish International Development Authority (SIDA) whichWhich has helped to makemake this publicationpublication possible.possible.
The authors are greatlygreatly indebtedindebted forfor helpful suggestionssuggestions and valued assistance from a number of people, inin particularparticular S.-G.~G. Larsson and J.D. Leefe. -v-
CONI'CONTENTS EIIl'S
Page
PART I - EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGYTECHlllLOGY AND HUMAN R~IREMENI'SREQUIREMENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ...... ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ...... GOO ..... 000000000000
2. TRAINING REQUIRENENTSREX;aIIREMERrS FOR FOREST ~HNICIAl5TECHNICIANS ••••••••••••••••••••• 1
3. TmHNICALTECHNICAL TRAININGTRAINIlll IN RELATION TO OTHER0l'J!ER FORMSFORM> OF TRAINIlDTRAINING ...... 2
4. DIFFERENCES FROMFROM OTHEROTHER FOREEFORMS OFOF TRAININGTRAINING ...... ••••••••••••••••••••••••• ...... 2:1
4.1 Differences from professional training ••••••••••••••••••••• 2 4.2 Differences from vocational training ••••••••••••••••••••••• 2
5. AIMS OF TEX:HNICALTECHNICAL FORESTRY TRAINING ...... 3
5.1 Overall aim of the training 0000•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ..... 000000 ...... 3 5.2 Specific aimsaima ofof the training ...... ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••...... 0000000001 3 5.5.2.12.1 Planning skillsskills ...... •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000000 ...... oeo0op0000po 3 5·2.25.2.2 Supervisory skills ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000 ...... 0000 ...... *04,0000o0000on 3 5.5.2.32.) Management ofof tools,toolSt machinerymachinery andand equipmentequipment •••••••• 3 5·2.45.2.4 Relevance to other rural activities ••••••••••••••••• 3 6. DESIGN AND IMPROVEMENTIMPROVEMENl' OF CURRICULACURRICULA ANDAND SYLLABUSESSYLLABUSES ...... 4 6.16.1 CUrriculumCurriculum contentcontent e00015••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ..... *00000.00000000G...... 4 6.2 Decisions onon coursecourse formatformat •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0000000000000000000000 ..... 00000. 4 6.36.) Syllabus construction ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••...... o.. o. oso COG o o 5 6.4 Syllabus development •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0000C ...... 00000000 ...... 5 6.5 Time scalescale ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 5 6.6 Cross-checkingCrosschecking ofof syllabussyllabus contentcontent ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 6 6.7 Relationship to university and overseasoverseas coursescourses ...... ••••• • •••••• 6 6.8 Sub-divisionSubdivision ofof topicstopics ••••••••• • •• • ••••• • •••••••••••••••••• 6 6.9 Inclusion ofof basicbasic studiesstudies ...... ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ...... 000000G 6 6.10 Validation ofof coursescourses ...... •..•.•...... •...... •...... •...... 0000000 6 6.11 Handouts and training manualsmanuals 00000000000•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ..... 00000000000000 7
7. ORGANIZATION OF PRACTICAL WORK AND STUDY TOURS ••••••••••••••••••• 7
7.1 Importance of practical work and tours •••••••••••••••••••••...... 7 7.2 Initial demonstration and training area •••••••••••••••••••• 8 7.3 Practice yard •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8 7.4 Training forestforest •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 8 7.5 Training inin planningplanning andand supervisionsupervision ••••••••••••••••••••••• 8 --vivi --
Page
7.6 Training in oommunity forestry and extension ••••••••••••••• 9 7.7 Study tours ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••coo ***** co ...... oc 00000 ~ ••••••••••••• 9 7.8 WorkWork expeJ;'iexperience.ence ...... ,. •••••••••• 9
8. TEACHINGTEACHING ANDAND TRAINING TRAINIM 'METHODSDETHODS ...... ooac00000coocoo.00Poccocc000..•.•...... ••..•.•.... 0000000000 10
8.18.1 Class teacn~ngteacning ...... 000000 00000000004000000000000000000' ••••••••••••••••••••••• 10 8.2 StudentStudent participa.tionparticipation ••••••occoccocooccoccococ000posocceoc '!. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0000000 10 8038.3 LecturesLectures ••••••••••••6006000000000060000,00- ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 000000 000000000 0000000 10
8.4 Discussion ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 11
8·58.5 Demonstrations ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 11
8.6 Group work ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 11
8.7 Project work ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 11
8.8 Written instructions ••••••••••••••••••• •• •••••••••••••••••• 12
8·98.9 AssessmentAssessmentE. s ...... •...... 12 8.108.10 Conclusionsconclusions ...... •...... •...... 0000000000004 0000000000000 0000600000006.^000000.....•. 12
LEA.R.NIWLEARNIM RESOURCESROURC.M. •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••00000000000000"e00000060660066060.000 12
9.1 Prepared diagramsdiagrams 0000000000•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 0006000006000000666000.0006 OOOOO 121X ,_ ~.,;. 9.29.2 Chalkboard diagrams ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000600 OOOOOOOOOOOO 13-13 9039.3 Flip charts coo°•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• OOOOOOOOO 000poc000000cocooc000000e 00000000 oo 13 9.4 Horizontal chalkboardschalkboards •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••00000000 0000006600000 OOOOO 6 OOOOOOOOOO 13/3 9.5 Sand table or terrain modelmodel ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOOO OOOOOO OOOOOOO 13 9.6 Magnetic board ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 13 9.79·7 Felt boards •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 13 9.8 Overhead projector ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 14 9.9 Colour slidesslides and filmfilm stripsstrips 00006000060000000006000•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• OOOOOOO 14 9.10 8mm films and film loopsloops •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOO...... 14 9.11 16mm sound filmsfilms ...... •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0000060000000600000...... 14 9.12 Tape recorder ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••00069000006.00,000060600000004000600000000000006 15 9.139. 13 Television, video recorders and video camerascameras •••••••••••••• 15 9.14 Miscellaneous items •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 15 9.15 Library ...... ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0600000000000000600000006000000 ...... 0p 1515
10. DURATION OF TRAINING ...... ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 000000.000 OOOOO0000000000000 16
10.1 General considerations ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 16 10.10.22 Level of entryentry inin relation to the locallocal communitycommunity •••••••••• 16 100310.3 Level of basic educationeducation required •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 16 10.4 Dangers ofof a too hie'high educationaleducational threshold ••••••••••••••••...... 17 10.5 Problems with a rangeran~ ofof academic levelslevels •••••••••••••••••••...... 17 10.6 Deficiencies ofof aa 2-year2-year course course ...... •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ...... o 17 10.7 AdditionalAdditional problemsproblems inin acquiring practicalpractical experienceexperience •••••• 18 vii
~Page 10.8 Alternative entry leVellevel ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••6000060000000600606066000006600600 18 10.9 Job requirements 000•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 00000 0000000000 00000000 0000000000• •••••••• 00000 18 10.10 Possibilities for specialization •••••••••••••••••••••••••000000 ...... 19
11.11. ENTRANCEENrRANCE QUALIFICATIONS 0000••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ..... 060000 ..... 000006600006006000006 19
11.1 Level of general education •••••0000000000e0000006000000.00000• ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 19 1102 Physical fitnessfitness ...... •...... •..•.•.•.•.•...... •...... 000000000000 000000000000 19 11.3 Aptitude and integrity ofof traineestrainees .....••••••••••••••••••••••• ...... 20 11-3.111.3.1 Assessment ofof aptitudeaptitude ...... •••••••••••••••00000000000Ceeee• ••••••••••• 20 11-3.211.3.2 Judgment of integrityintegrity ...... •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 20 11-3.311.3.3, Pre-service training ...... ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ..... • • 20 11-3.411.3.4 Links with training institutioninstitution •••••...... • •••••••••••• 21
12.12. SCHOOL BUILDINGS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••00000600660 ...... 0000006000000060000000600606000• •••••••••••••••••••• 21
12.1 Size in relation to staff requirements ••••••••••••••••• • • 21 12.2 Purpose-built schools •••••••••••••••••••••••• • ••••••••••• 23
12.3 Shape and layoutl~out of academic and administrative buildings ...... 00 ...... • •..•...... •..•.•...... •....•..000 ...... e ...... 000 ...... 0000000000 23 12.4 Studentstudent dormitoriesdormitories and and catering catering facilities facilities •••••••••••••• -0...0-- 24 12.5 Staff quartersquarters andand otherother buildingsbuildi~ ...... ••••••••••••••••••••••• ...... 24 12.6 Landscaping of school groundsgrounds ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000000.000oaeo ...... 000000 25
13. CONTROL OF TRAINING •••••••••••••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 25
13.1 Centralized institutions ••••...... • •••• •••••••••••••••••...... • •••••• 25 13.2 Departmental institutionsinstitutions .....•••••••••••...... • •••••••••••• .....•• •••••• 25 13-313.3 Control of small institutions ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0000000000000000.00000000e00 26 13.4 Relationship withwith universityuniversity education education ...... ••••••••••••••••••• ..... 26
14. LOCATION OFOF SCHOOLSSCHOOLS ...... •.....•...... 26
14.1 Social factors •••••••••••••••••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••• 26 14.2 Level of development of forestryforestry • ••••••••••••••••••••••••...... 27 14.314-3 Source of studentstudent intake ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • •••• • 27 14.4 Constraints on location in rural areas ...•.....•...... 27
15. TRAINING ANDAND EMPLOYMENTEMPLOYMENr OF TEACHING STAFF ...•...•.•...... 27
15.115·1 Selection ...... •...... •....00006660066000000 ..... *0060...... 0000000 27 15.2 Induction ...... 0e00.50000e00000...... •...... •...... 0000000000 28 15-31503 FurtherFu.rther developmentdevelopment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ...... 660006000060000000600 28 15.4 Pedagogic training ••••••••••00 ...... 006060000060636000000004006000• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 28 15·51505 Higher levellevel educationaleducational trainingtraining ...... •••••••••••••••••••••••• ...... 29 - viii -
~Page 15.615·6 Inter-departmentalInter- 16. TYPESTYPESOF OF COURSE 00000•..•...•.•...... •...... ••..•...... •. ***** 0o000800900000004000000000000000coo0e000 32 16.1 Need for different levels oo.o0000,0000000000040040••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• OOOOO coo 32 16.2 Lower technical courses •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0000000000 33 16.3 Higher technical courses ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0000000000000000000000000000000 33 17·17. CONrINUINGCONTINUINGEDUCATION EDUCATION 00.000000600000000000170000000000000610.0000...... •.....•...... •...•.....•.... 34 1717.1 .1 ObjectObjectives ives 00000090000000000000000000000000000000000e•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 34 17.217·2 Types of courses 00000000080oo,0000000000000000O000000•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 34 170317.3 Frequ.encyFrequency ofof courses ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0000so0oomoosos0000m0000s00000D0000 34 17.41704 Duration of courses 0000000000000000000000000••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 000000 00000000 35 17·51705 Attitud.eAttitude changechange •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••....0000eooeoo 40000000000.000060000000o0o 35 17.617·6 Promo410/1Promotion cou_rsescourses •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000000000000000000000000000000000042000 35 17.717·7 Extension education 9000.0000000000000070000000000000000000••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 35 17.8 Timing of continuing education ...... •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 36 18. STUDENTACTIVITIESSTUDENr ACTIVrrIES ANDAND MORALEl«)RALE 000000000.0000BC00000000000O0000.*O0•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 36 18.1 Introduction 00000mOopo000000.30000000000000000000000000oo0o•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 36 18.2 School insignia •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••ocr0000000000000000000ec0000000,000000000000 36 18.31803 Student association and societiessocieties •••••••••••••••••••••••••440410000000000000p0000000 37 18.4 Sports activities •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0000000000000000000000000o000000,0000 o o 00 37 18·518.5 School magazine ...... ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 37 18.6 PriPrizes zes ...... 0000000000000000000000000000000000ll0000o00000e 37 18·718.7 Student counselling •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000000000000 006.4.009,700900.00.00.700 37 19. ANNUALNEWSANN'UAL I!!VENl'S •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 00000100000000000000000D00000oo00D00000 38 19.1 Introductionintroduction 000ls000000000004000000000p00000000000000p00000•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 38 19·21942 Budget preparation 0000000000000000D000000000000000000e00•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 38 19.3 Examinations ...... Ge00000000990000000000000 38 19.4 Presentation ofof diplomasdiplomas andand certificatescertificates 00000000000000900••••••••••••••••• 38 19.5/905 SportingSPOrting events •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••00000000000D0000.00000000.1110004000000D000.00 39 ix PART IIII -- PH/BICALPH'lSICAL FACILITIESFACILITIES ANDAND EQUIPMENTEQUIPMENr 1 • INTRODUCTION000000000000.00000000000000060006000000060000000,00000oINl'RODUC1'ION """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 41 2. CLASSRoomCLASSROOM0.000000,, """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 00000000000000*0 000000000000000000000000 0000*00 41 2.1 Basic conceptsconcepts •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••60000000000000000000000000000000006000600060000 41 2.2 SpaceSpa.ce """""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 41 2.3203 Light'Ligh.t ing """"0000000000000000000000000000000000000000o000.0000000""""""""""""""" """" ,,",,",,"""""",,",,""",,"",,",,",,",,",," 41 2.4 VentilatiOnVentilation ...... •.0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000...... 42 2.52·5 FurniFurnishings shings ...... 00000.0.0.0*o...0"e•...... •...... 00000 00000000000 42 2.6 Electrical installatinstallationi0T1Ss •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000000000000000000eseosot00000000000 42 2.7 Safety """,,,,""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""... 000000000o 000000 00000000000000000066,0000,000 42 3. TEACHINGTEA.CHING LABORATORIESLABORATORIES .0000000000000000000.06900000000000060.00006000 ...... •...... •...... 42 3.1 Needs """"" ..... •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 000000000000000000 000000 42 3.2 Combined chemistry/soils labOratOrYlaboratory 00000600000000000000000000•••••••••••••••••••••••••• 42 3.2.1 Space allocations OOOOOOOOOOOOO••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 000000006000000000000000 43 3.2.2 Stora~Storage and preparation facilitiesfacilities ••••••••••••••••••••...... 43 3.2.3 Lighting ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000000000000000006000000000 OOOOO 0000000000006 43 3.2.4 Ventilation 00000000000600oo0000060000••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• OOOOOO 000000000o• ••••••••• 43 3.2.53.25 Furnishings •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••00000 OOOOOOO 43 3.2.6326 ServicesServices 60,100.00000000000000000000000•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 44 3.3303 Biological laboratory ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••00000000c0000000000000000.09000090.00009 44 3.3.1 Space allocations 000000000000006000000000.0600000e.00••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 44 3.3.2 Lighting and ventilation OOOOOO••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ...... • 44 3.3.3 Furnishings ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 44 3.3.4 Services 0000000000000000000000•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• OOOOOOO 0000000000 OOOOO 44 3.4 Safety 000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000o••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 44 HERBARIlJMHERBARIUM 000000000000000000•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• OOOOOOOO 00000oo00.00o06000000060000000 45 4.1 Timber specimensspecimens •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000000000009000000000000000000000000000000000 45 4.2 Lighting •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 000000000060004,000o000o0o0o00000•••••••••••••• 45 DISPLAY/STORAGE AREASAREAS FORFOR OTHEROTHER COLLECTIONSCOLLONIONS .•••••••••••••••••••••••...... 45 5.1 Lighting and ventilation •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••6000000000600000060.a000000.000.000000 45 502 F'urniFarniShingS shings 000006000000000000000000000000000000000.0000000oo•••••••••••• 0 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 45 6. DRAWINGDRAWIID 01,1,ICE OFF'ICE •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••00000000000000.20000000000e000000000000000000000000000 45 6016.1 Alternative solutionssolutions ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOO 00000060000000000000000000000000000 46 6.2 AdditAdditional ional equipment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••00000000000.600000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO o o 46 6.}6.3 Lighting and ventilation •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000000062000000 OOOOOOO 00 OOOOO 40000.00 46 7· LIBRARIESLIBRARIES0000000000000000.00000060000600000000000eo000000000.00 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 46 7.1 Ideal facilities 000eao0000000000.00000000e0o0000000000••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 46 -x- ~Page 7.2 Stack areaarea ...... •.•...•..• ***** IO ••••0.0001,00.e0e0 IO •• IO. IO ••• IO ••••••OOOOOOOO IO ••• 0.2.000000eaeaocedep IO. IO •••••••••••• IO. 46 7037.3 Reading facilities ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOOOOOOOO . OOOOO GO0000000000000000.0000000 46 7·47.4 Storagestorage of large flatflat itemsitems •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••diep000ep0000esoeoce000.OOOOOOOOO 47 7·57.5 WorlcroomWorkzroom ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOO009120000000O0abaeaa000 47 7·67.6 Study area ...•••••••••••OOOOOOOOO IO •••••• IO. IO ••••••••••••• IO ••••••••••••••••• 47 7·77.7 Exhibition area •••••••••••••000000000900000••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOOO 0000000000,300000 OOOOOOOOO 47 7.8 Photograph collection •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000000000000.00.000006000090000000. OOOOOO 0 47 7·97.9 Lighting and ventilation •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 47 7·107.10 SeatSeating ing •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••- IO ••• IO ••• IO •• • IO ••••••••••••• 47 8. OFFICES FOR TEACHINJTEACHING STAFF ...... 00001,000 OOOOOOOOOOOOO *00000000 OOOOO 0008000 47 8.1 Principal ••••••••••••••••••••.••••• IO •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 47 8.2 InstI"Uctorsinstructors •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000 00 000,9009eaoOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOO 48 OFFICES FOR ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF ...... 48 9.1 General principles 41.00aO0••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0000aeo00 000000000046"es 00 48 9.2 Layout ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOOOOOOOOOO 0000 00 00 0 0pOODOO000e0000o0000000oaaea 48 9.3 Typing and reproduction facilities ...... ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOOOOOOOOO 49 9.4 Print room room •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• oo"000s...... eageage...... op000.....eoo 49 10. WORKSHOPS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 49 10.1 Categories of workshop ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••aeap00404000O000000OO00000,006OOOOOOO 00 49 10.2 Students'Students f workshop ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOOOO...... OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 000000 49 10.3 Maintenance staff workshops •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOOOO ...... OOOOOOO...... 50 10.4 Vehicle maintenance workshopsworkshops OOOOOOOOOOO••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 00100900001790000.0000 50 11 • TOOL STORES ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 50 11.1 Layout and furnishing ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 51 11.2 Maintenance facilitiesfacilities 0OebeeepeaaeO0O4.00 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• OOOOOOOOOO 00eOOOOOOOOa 51 12. DARKROOM •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 51 13. SPORTS FACILITIES ...... 51 14. DORMITORIES •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••Oaaaa040.0200000O00000000.0,1000e0o0e0a Da" ea "ea0 0 52 14.1 Arrangement of accommodation •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 525? 14.2 Furnishingsfurnishings...... 52 14.3 Sanitary facilities ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 52 14414.4 Storage facilitiesfacilities ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••-"gee.**<0060000000O0O000 5252 14.5 LightingLigilting •••••• O'...... 53 14.6 3afety •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•• 53 xi ~Page 15. CATE:RINGCATMINGFACILITI FAcn..rrIES OOOOOOOOOOOO...... OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ...... " 53 15.1 General arrangements •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOO 00000000000000000000000000 OOOOOO 000000 53 115.25.2 DDiningining hall ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••.•••.•••••••••••••000000000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 000000000000 OOOOOO 000000 53 15.3 Serving arrangements ••••000000•••••.•••••••••••••• OOOOOOOOOOOOO 0000000000000000000013000••••••••••••••••••• 53 15.4 Food preparation areasareas ••••••••••••.••.1+00000006 000000006000900000000000600• •••••••••••••••••••••.•• 0 53 15.5 Storage facilities •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••040 OOOOOOOOOOOO 0 OOOOOOOO 000000000000000000000 54 16. RECREATION HALL ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 0000000000000000000 54 QUARTERS FOR STAFF ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOOOO OOOOOO OOOOOOOOO 00001000000ap0o00 OOOOOOOOOO• •••••••• 54 17.1 General principles ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 54 1717.2 .2 Grades of accommodation OOOOO•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• OOOOO 00000000020000000000 OOOOOOOOO 54 170317.3 Location of quarters ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 55 17.4 Quarters for non-teaching staff ••••••••••••••• • •••••••••••••••• 55 17·517.5 Standards of housing ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 55 17.6 Bachelor's accommodation and mess •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 55 17.7 F'urnishingsFurnishings ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••eepoo.eoego....e.OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOeo 55 18. CLINIC/FIRST-AID ROOM ••••••••••••••••0000000000000000000000000000• ••••••••• OOOOOOOO• ••••••••••••••••••••• 000000000000 55 19. PRACTICE YARD AND UTILIZATION UTILIZATION TRAINIlll TRAINING AREA AREA . .•...... OOOOOOOOO 56 19.1 Location •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000000000000000000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 00000 OOOOOO 0 56 119.29.2 Facilities ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 56 19.3 Charcoal production ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOO 0000000000000000 OOOOOOO 00 OOOOOOOOOO 56 19.419.4 Exhibition/demonstration area ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOO...... 0 56 19.5 Access...... Access00000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ••••••••• •• ••••••• ••• ••••••••••• 000 ••••••• 000 co•• ••••• 56 20. SCHOOL FOREST •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 57 21. FORESTNURSERYFOREST IDRSERY .000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 ...... •...... OOOOOOOOOO 57 21.1 SizeSi ze •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOOO OOOOOOOOOOOOOO .0..0 90 000 00000000000000 000000 57 21.2 Layout •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000000000000000000000004000000000000000000000000000000000 57 21.3 l'iorkingWorking shed 000000.000000••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• OOOOOO 000000000000000000000000000 OOOOOO 57 •02104 21.4 NarSerYNUrsery office andand storestore •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••OOOOOOOOOOOOO 0000000 OOOOOOO 000000000000 57 22. METEOROLOGICALMETEOROLOGICALSTATION STATION OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO...... 0000000000000000000000000 . 58 23. EQUIPMENTEQUIPMErIr ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••••• 58 23.12).1 Teaching equipment ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 58 23.2 Office equipmentequipment OOOOOO••••• ••••••••••••••••••• 0000 OOOOOOOOOOOOOO••••• 00000000000000000000000•••••••••••••••••• 58 23.2.123 . 2. 1 Principal'sPrincipal' s and instructors'instructors' officesoffices ••••••••••••••••••• 58 23.2.2 Administrative officeoffice •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 59 23.2.3 Typists' office •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 5959 "- xii - Page 23.3 Laboratory equipment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0000000000000000Q0000000000000000000000 59 23.4 Herbarium ...... •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 59 23.5 Library ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••00000000000000000000000000000,00000000000000000o0000 59 23.6 Workshop equipment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000000000000000000000000o.000000000o00000 59 23.7 Field equipment ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••00000om00000oeome000000o0o0o0000 60 23.8 Camp equipment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••...... 000oo0000000000000000000000Qoaoe 60 23.9 Catering equipment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0000000000000000000000000000000000000000o 60 23.10 FirefightingFire-fighting equipment equipment ...••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000oo 0000 OooecoO000000s0000Omp 60 24. DESIGN ANDAND SUPERVISION OFOF BUILDINGBUILDIMJ PROJECTSPROJECTS ••••••••••••• • ••••••••• 61 APPENDAPPENDICES ICEB APPENDIX 11 Assessment of knowledge/skills requiredrequired byby forestforest technicians toto performperform their their duties duties .. ••••••••••••••••••••••• ...... 63 APPENDIXAPPENDIX2 2 Core curriculum •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••000000200000000000oGoo00000000000000000000o 64 APPENDIX 3 Course objectives - Course: Silviculture - 0.100,C.100, Section: Plantations - C.111C.111 ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0000900000000.80000000000000000 71 APPENDIX 4 Methodology for assessing trained manpower requirements for forestry and related industriesindustries ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 73 APPENDIX 5 Accommodation standardsstandards forfor educational buildings ••••••••• 80 APPENDIX 6 Teaching equipment 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 81 APPENDIX 7 Office equipmentequipment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 83 APPENDIX8APPENDIX 8 Laboratory equipment ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0000oonopoo000000000000000000000000000 85 APPENDIX9APPENDIX 9 Herbarium equipmentequipment 11000oec00000000000000000000000000000••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 87 APPENDIX 1010 Library equipmentequipment ..... • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ...... 0000000000000000000000 88 APPENDIX 1111 Books for technical forestryforestr,y schoolschool librarieslibraries ••••••••••••• 90 APPENDIX 12 Workshop equipment 00000000000000••••••••••••••••••••••0000000••...... •••••••••••••••• 114 APPENDIX 1313 Field equipment •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••0000000000000000o000000000000.0000000000 117 -1- 1 - - PART II - EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY ANDAND HUMAN REQUIREMENTSREQUIHEMENrS 1. INl'RODUCTIONIRTRODUCTION A forest technician provides an essential link between the relatively small number of professional and research workers in a forestryforestry organization and the very much larger group of vooational and manual workers who execute the day-to-day work of the organization. The knowledge and skills requiredrecjuired for this task cannot readily be acquired by "on-the-job" training oror by privateprivate study.study. For the development of a substantial cadre of forestry technicians within a reasonable period of time, a carefully planned training programme, linked with practical experience, isis considered necessary. The purposepurpose of this manual is,is, therefore, to review,review, andand inin someBome casescases to re-define, the requirements and procedures forfor forestry training at technical level. It relates to countries where forestry already plays, or is destined to play, an importantimportant part in the development of the community in itsits widest sense. In PartPart I, thethe manualmanual attempts toto cover thethe basicbasic aims and methods of thisthis typetype ofof training, the range and length of courses likely to be required, the recruitment procedures for students,students, and the selection and training of teaching staff.staff. Part IIII givesgives the range of physical facilities and equipment which are considered desirable to meet the training objectives. The appendices givegive additionaladditional detaileddetailed information,information, includingincluding aa corecore curriculum. Because of the wide rangerange ofof conditionsconditions whichwhich areare likelylikely toto be foundfound withinwithin thethe oountriescountries that this manual must serve,serve, it cannotcannat be too specificspecific with many of the sugges-sugges tions. However, it can point the way to a number ofof options inin certaincertain circumstances.circumstanoes. The oneone most suitedsuited to locallocal requirementsrequirements maymay thenthen bebe selected,selected, oror usedused asas aa basisbasis forfor further development. 2. TRAINING REQUIHEMENl'SREQUIREMENTS FOR FOREST TECHNICIANSTEX::HNICIAN3 A technician requires, primarily, a broad understanding ofof the interrelationships of forestry, farming, grazing, water supplies,supplies, and wildlife inin his workingworking area. He needs to learn the contributions that all these activities can makemake to the well-being ofof the population of the area in both goods and services.services. More specifically he, oror she,she, needsneeds toto acquire the capability of translating oraloral and written instructionsinstructions fromfrom professionalprofessional staff,staff, or researchresearoh workers, into languagelanguage or programmesprogrammes of practicalpractical activityactivity which juniorjunior gradesgrades of staff can fullyfully understandunderstand andand implement.implement. The forest technioiantechnician requires the skill to interpret or understand, within the frame-frame work of existing knowledge, the results obtainedobtained in the fieldfield andand to draw attentionattention to any apparent abnormalities or unusual conditions that have arisen. The technician must alsoalso understand the needs and aspirations of the local peoplepeople andand bebe trained and willing to meet these requirements within the limits of goodgood forestryforestry practicepractice andand the fundsfunds available. Skills of leadership, planning, instruction and communication areare also necessary forfor the technician to enable him to motivate and develop the labourlabour forceforce oror the locallocal community to undertake increasingly complex tasks forfor the publicpublic good.good. In many instances, trainingtraining may also bebe required to provide knowledge, experience and skill in a wide range of activities which in a more developed society could be acquired by personal experience oror byby aa broadbroad education.education. Examples are familiarityfamiliarity withwith mapsmaps andand plans,plans, the conduct of official business and preparingpreparing concise andand lucidlucid reports. Training may also be requiredrequired toto produceproduce anan attitudeattitude changechange fromfrom thethe outlookoutlook ofof aa young student to that of a mature government,government, or corporatecorpOrate official,official, intointo whosewhose hands con-con siderable responsibility for funds, equipment, materials and employment is placed. For this, a high degree of self-discipline andand integrityintegrity inin conductconduct andand decision-makingdecision-making isis re-re quired and trainingtraining should be oriented, at all stages, to develop these qualities. --2- 2 - Finally, training at this level should be sufficiently intensive to provide a foresfores- try organization with a cadre of knowledgeable, skilled and motivated technical workers. It will thenthen bebe possible toto select from among themthem well-qualified candidatescandidates forfor advanceadvance- ment to higher technical oror professionalprofessional posts.posts. 3. TECHNICAL TRAINING IN RELATION TO CTHEROTHER FORJoflFORMS OF TRAINING A forestry technician, byby virtuevirtue of the link the post provides between professional staff andand lower supervisory staff or manualmanual workers, must acquireacquire aa rangerange ofof skillsskills andand knowledge which, to some extent, will overlap with the levels both above and below thethe post. A broad understanding of the task is also required in order toto intintegrate egrate success- fully advice received fromfrom manymany specialistspecialist sources.sources. A technioiantechnician who is in close contact with skilled forest workers, requires initially a degree of understanding and competence in fnrestf orest operations in order to determine if standardstandard techniquestechniques or procedures are being efficientlyefficiently carriedcarried out.out. A thorough knowknow- ledge of variousvarious operational performance rates is also required, both to plan timetime schedules for different tasks and to identify individuals who may require further training to reach satisfactorysatisfactory standardsstandards ofof performance.performance. A further requirement is the ability toto teach workers new skillsskills and to upgrade existingexisting skillsskills within the workforce. The technician, therefore, requires a background of scientific knowledge linked closely to the ecological conditionsconditions andand day-to-dayday-to-day operationsoperations ofof forestforest areas.areas. Insight into thethe planning and organizing functions of a professional forester is also essential, to be able to understand the importance ofof following approved techniques for forest operations and the necessity for accuracy in data submitted for either record or planning functions. However, the technician's interests should lie more in the outcome or applicaapplica- tion ofof theories andand formulae,formulae, ratherrather thanthan inin theirtheir scientificscientific basisbasis oror derivation.derivation. Ideally, sufficient competence in an international language should be acquired toto enable reports and technical papers to be read both to widen knowledge and reinforce interest in the Job.'job. 4. DIFFERENCESDIFFERENCE3 FROM OTHER FORmFORMS OFOF TRAINIlIlTRAINIM 4.1 Differences fromfrom professionalprofessional training A technician's training shouldshould differ fromfrom that ofof aa professionalprofessional foresterforester whose education will normally be based on generalized theories or concepts from which he has been trained to derive, on his own,own, specificspecific solutionssolutions to particularparticular problems.problems. The tech-tech nician, on the other hand, is not likely to have had the time or the opportunity to develop this generalizedgeneralized approach.approach. Closer guidance is, therefore, required on techniques and standard procedures derived for him by the professional staff. Nevertheless, an adequate range of discretion should be left for the adoption of techniques and procedures considered to be the most suitable for the various situations encountered. Whilst the training of a professional officer must equip him to integrate ideas or data fromfrom many sourcessources inin orderorder to developdevelop plansplans oror instructions,instructions, aa technician requiresrequires more interpretive skills both to read and extract from such documents the information on which he must act.act. A technician, therefore, requires training in the logical arrange-arrange ment of the contentscontents ofof instructions, whichwhich willwill ensureensure that theythey areare passedpassed onon properlyproperly to workers and correctly executed.executed. For this, the regular use of written instructions in the training programmeprogramme isis an importantimportant aspect.aspect. 4.2 Differences from vocational trainingtraining Vocational training must initially placeplace greatergreater emphasisemphasis onon certaincertain personalpersonal skillsskills in order that these skillsskills cancan bebe passedpassed downdown toto thethe workforce.workforce. Vocational training,training, therefore, concentrates more on preciseprecise performanceperformance withinwithin defineddefined limitslimits ofof programmesprogrammes or work techniques and aims for the effective use of labour and resources provided. A technician's training presumespresumes a greatergreater freedomfreedom inin decision-makingdecision-making onon thethe techniques to be applied and the ability to integrate costs oror productionproduction datadata fromfrom vocational oror lowerlower level supervisors,supervi'sors, in order to give professionalprofeSSional staff a clear picture of the status of operations within a workingworking area.area. - 3 - 5. AIMSAIm OF TECHNICAL FORESTRY TRAINING 5.1 Overall aim of the training The overall aim of the training mustmust be to produceproduce a personperson with the basic physical,physical, manual and mental skills to cover the rangeran~ of operations which a forest technician is currently likely to meet and a degree of interest and adaptability to acquire additional skills as these become necessary. To this mustmust be addedadded aa well-definedwell-defined bodybody ofof knowledgeknowled~ of forestry technology and practice,practice, as well as ecological topics, to enable suitable techniques to be appliedapplied inin appropriateappropriate circumstancescircumstances whichwhich areare inin keeping withwith the over-over all ecological and development needsneeds ofof thethe area.ares. The technician mustmust alsoalso bebe ableable toto reoognizerecognize abnormal conditions or resultsresults and to describe these precisely, when seeking specialist help inin solvingsolving anyany problemsproblems thatthat maymay result.result. 5.2 Specific aims of the training 5.2.1 Planning skills A technician must be taught a range of planning skills or techniques which fall within the frameworkframework ofof responsibilitiesresponsibilities atat technicaltechnical level.level. An understanding is re-re quired of how to schedule a programme " of work over a period of time in relation to climatic conditions, the possible labour supply and any variations in cash flow or allocations. Additionally, some knowledge of planning the use of transport and equip-equip ment is required to maximize the benefits of any expenditure incurred on these items. The technician shouldshould also be ableable to definedefine monthlymonthly oror weeklyweekly workwork schedulesschedules which con-con formform to longer term plans, and to monitor progress and cost at frequent intervals to detect, as earlyearly as possible, anyany deviations fromfrom the overalloverall plans.plans. Skills in planning may also have to extend to personnelpersonnel matters,matters, includingincluding schedulingscheduling vacations andand training courses to fitfit inin withwith plannedplanned operations.operations. Knowledge ofof budgetingbudgeting andand expenditureexpenditure controlcontrol is also required as wellwell asas familiarityfamiliarity withwith thethe reportingreporting proceduresprocedures adoptedadopted byby employers. employers. 5.2.2 Supervisory skillsskills The training must also equip the technician with the knowledge and skillsskills necessary for undertaking supervisory duties and,and, with further experience, to be ableable to undertake the day-to-day management of aa forestry enterprise. 5.2.3 Management ofof tools,toolSt machinerymachinery and equipmentequipment The technician must have an adequate knowledge of the range ofof tools, machinerymachinery and equipment currently available for the tasks which have to be performed. The need to obtain informationinformation on new developments througnthrough literatureliterature and contactscontacts withwith supplierssuppliers has alsoalso to be pointedpointed out.out. The technician1stechnician's responsibility for looking after and main-main taining in goodgood order all suchsuch materials whichwhich areare made availableavailable mustmust similarlysimilarly bebe stressed. In addition, the technician must bebe mademade awareaware ofof thethe needneed toto balancebalance thethe . supply ofof materialmaterial resourcesresources andand personnelpersonnel requiredrequired forfor thethe performanceperformance ofof anyany givengiven'·' tasks. '''' 5.2.4 Relevance to other rural activities An awareness is rrequiredequired of the social and development values of forestry to the communitycommunity and of its close relationrelationshipship to agriculture and other rural activities. The technician shouldshould also be equipped withwith the knowledgeknowled~ andand skillsskills necessarynecessary to motivatemotivate locallocal people to work forfor an improvementimprovement ofof theirtheir livingliving conditions.conditions. The training of technicians for serviceservice in a specifics pecific countrycountry must alwaysalways be closelycl osely linked to the real needs ofof thatthat country.country. No matter how attractiveattractive thethe syllabus or propro- gramme of another country may look, the basic criteria in syllabus construction must always be the requirements ofof that particularparticular countrycountry oror areaarea atat thatthat stagesta~ ofof develop-develop ment, and how it can best be conveyedoonveyed to the level ofof candidates available. --4- 4 - 6. DESIGN ANDAND INPROVENENTIMPROVEMENl' OFOF CURRICULACURRICULA ANDAND SYLLA3USIBSYLLABUSES 6.1 Curriculum contentcontent The basis for development of a relevant curriculumcurriculum mustmust bebe anan initlalinitial wide-rangingwideranging studyStudy of all the operations currently being performed by staff at the technical level in the employing organizations. Initial information on this can be gatheredgathered fromfrom aa studystudy of the budget and any written instruCtionsinstructions issued to staff on technical operations, adminisadminis- trative or reporting procedures.procedures. This should be supplemented and verified by a close study of work in the field, and in the offices, of staff of this category. It may lead to a better understanding of the true role of the target group if someBome observations are also made of the groups of employees immediately above and below the technicians being studied. Detailed job descriptions, where they exist, supported by simple activity samples of field and administrative tasks, can lead to the definition of several broad categories of work and areas of knowledge and skills which appear to be important in the role of the technical staff.staff. SomeSon e informedinformed opinionsopinions onon thethe relativerelative importance of these broad categories of work and areas of knowledge and skills can be acquired by listing them and then devising aa ratingrating scale.scale. A wide range of experienced staffstaff ofof the technical levellevel and above are then invited to complete the assessment sheets, bearing in mind the importance of each topic in the foreseeable future (i.e. a 5 to 10year10-year perspective).perspective). Rating can be done on either a 55 or 7 point scale.scale. Verbal definitions should be given of the meaning of each rating point to the field staffstaff completing the assessments. An .example of a 5 point scale is given below: Rating pointspoint s Degree of knowledge/skills required 1 Little or no knowledge/skills required 2 Some knowledge/skills required 3 Relatively good knowledge/skills required 4 Very goodgood knowledge/skills required 5 Specialist knowledge/skills required.required. A list of possible topics which staff maymay bebe askedasked toto assessassess isis givengiven inin AppendixAuendix 1.1. This would refer to a forestforest area where there isis aa relativelyrelatively lowlow levellevel ofof educationaleducational and technical development and hence there is considerableconsiderable emphasisemphasis onon the more technical aspects of the forestforest operations.operations. For each topic, the median point of all the responses can be worked out and the subjectssubjects ranked inin orderorder ofof the degreedegree ofof importanceimportance according to the ratinge.ratings. Whilst this can be a valuable guide in curriculum development and sylla-sylla bus construction, itit must be borne inin mind that the responses willwill be largelylargely influencedinfluenced by the degree of experience, and to somesome extentextent the educationaleducational background, ofof those who made the responses.responses. Hence, actualaotual teaching times required willwill not necessarily corres-corres pond to the ratinge.rat ings. 6.2 Decisions on course format At an early stage in curriculum development, aa policypolicy decisiondecision must be made asas to whether the course content isis to be integratedintegrated intointo aa fewfew relativelyrelatively broad areasareas ofof study,study, linking related topics, or divided into several separate course units each allocated spe-spe cific teaching timestimes andand creditcredit hours.hours. The choice between these systems is likely to be strongly influenced by the general pattern of education adopted within the country for technical courses inin otherother disciplines. It may also depend upon whether the training organization is largely autonomous and producingprodUCing candidates for a limited field of employ-employ ment, or integrated intointo the generalgeneral patternpattern ofof technical andand professionalprofessional education.education. In this case,case, coursecourse creditscredits maymay bebe interchangeableinterchangeable withwith otherother fieldsfields ofof study.study. A course format made up of a few wide-rangingwideranging areasareas ofof studystudy allowsallows greatergreater flexi-flexi bility whilst staffstaff are stillstill trying to definedefine moremore preciseprecise training needs.needs. Limited, specific course units, on the other hand, lead to greater clarity and precision of material to be taught, but shouldshould not be regarded asas immutable.immutable. Regular and careful scrutiny of their relevance to the overall aim ofof the coursecourse isis required.required. Core curricula forfor various typestyTes of courses are givengiven inin AppendixAppendix 2.2. - 55 - 6.3 Syllabus construction The list of subjectssubjects identified as essential forfor the course shouldshould be ranked in order of importance and then scrutinized by a small group of experienced forest staff, of whom several should have hadhad aa fairfair amountamount ofof teachingteaching oror instructionalinstructional experience.experience. If the organizations concerned intend to train candidates for employers outside the public sector, the opinions ofof these employers shouldshould also be represented inin this group.group. For each subsub- ject selected as relevant to the course, aa seriesseries ofof coursecourse objectivesobjectives shouldshould bebe derived,derived, setting out clearlyolearly whatwhat the aimsaims ofof teachingteaching inin thatthat topictopic oughtought toto be.be. Examples of Course Objectives based on those used at a forestry school in a developing country Bornesome years agoagn are given in AlyendixAppendix 3. When a series of Course Objectives have been defined, they can be made more specific by developing a series of Achievement Targets, precise statements derived from the broad objectives of what a student shouldshould know, or be able to perform, on completion of thethe course. Though both Course Objectives and Achievement Targets may initially have to be defined in rather general terms, both can, and should, be redefined more specifically at regular intervals.intervals. This will enable the course to match more closely to the ultimate job requirements. Examples of Achievement Targets for the relevant Course Objectives from the same source are also given in Appendix 3. 6.4 Syllabus development These stages of syllabussyllabus construction must leadlead to the identification, by a group of instructors, of thethe items of knowledge or skills - mathematical, verbal, or physical - a student must acquire inin orderorder toto reachreach thethe defineddefined AchievementAchievement Targets.Targets. From this a series of Course Outlines can be constructed, which after further discussion can be dede- veloped into detailed statementsstatements of CourseCourse Contents.Contents. In many cases, this wouldwould consistconsist in a particular topictopic of a brief statement of background information on the topic, ideally gathered from local experience,to establish its relevance to the programme in general. Secondly, it would includeinclude a generalgeneral description of the application locallylocally ofof any techtech- niques or procedures involved, giving objectives and reasons for the work. Finally, a step-by-step descriptiondesoription of the proceduresprocedures wouldwould be included, with details of any equip-equip ment required andand anyany recordsrecords whichwhich havehave toto bebe kept.kept. A concluding summary, restating the most important aspects of the study,study, is usually necessary. Suggestions of any practical or written exercises required to consolidate the knowledge oror skillsskills shouldshould bebe included.included. This material is best developed in a series of short, precise paragraphs which can form the basis of teaching han:iouts,handouts, and, in due course, a teaching manualmanual forfor thethe course.course. 6.5 Time scale Initially, thisthis must bebe derived from within a more or less arbitrary framework of overall time available for the whole course,course, divideddivided roughly intointo various sectionssections related to the importance of each part of the daily workwork ofof the fieldfield staff.staff. This, however, can only be a veryvery rough guide to the time allocationallocation required forfor eacheach broad sectionsection of the syllabus. Preliminary preparation ofof the teaching notesnotes cancan then proceed.proceed. As this takes place, adjustments will have to be mademade to the provisionalprovisional time allocations givengiven to the main subjects, in order to accommodate materialmaterial foundfound to be essential,essential, ifif the defined Achievement Targets areare toto bebe reached.reached. In some cases these targets may have to be modi-modi fied, if found to be too ambitiousambitious forfor thethe timetime available.available. Whenever possible, trial runs of sections of the course may be made on limited groups of students,students, suchsuch as during in-service courses,courses, to measure the time requirementsrequirements for suchsuch sections and to determine their effectiveness.effectiveness. Pruning ofof somesome materialmaterial whichwhich couldcould bebe taught, but which may not be vital, maymay have to take placeplace to keep the coursecourse material within the time limitslimits proposed.proposed. Eventually, a syllabus can be prepared allocating blocks of time for certain items of closely related material. Later, a "Scheme of Work"Work" should be preparedprepared by the instructorinstructor giving more precise teaching targetstargets forfor eacheach hourhour ofof thethe course.course. Further detailed revirevi- sion of the Course Content or time allocation can take place if, during teaching of the course, an accurate daily "Record of Work" is maintained detailing the topics actually - 6 - covered withinwithin eacheach hour.hour. This calls for a lot of hard work and interest on the part of the instructors,instructors, butbut isis wellwell worthworth thethe effort.effort. 6.6 Cross-checking of syllabussyllabus contentcontent As thethe syllabus sections and time allocations are developed, careful cross-checking must be carried outout to ensureensure that skillsskills required inin oneone topic, but taught under another, have in factfact been adequatelyadequately coveredcovered before they are required.required. This procedure increases in importance the more a course is broken into short, discrete course units. Checking can best be carried out by setting out Schemes of Work in related subjects, in parallel columns, in a form using a vertical time scale to show clearly when each topic will nornor- mally be covered in the course. AdjustmentAdjustments s may be required inin certaincertain programmesprogrammes toto ensure that different topicstopics keepkeep inin stepstep withwith eacheach other.other. 6.7 Relationship to university and overseasoverseas courses A possible short-cut in curriculum development, involving a wide-ranging review of what is taught either at university level or in similar forestry schools in other coun-coun tries may seemseem attractive, butbut maymay be totally misleading.misleading. It may cause inclusion in the syllabus ofof items which seem academically attractive, butbut may be of little relevance toto a particular country, at its present stage of development. This may leadlead to theoretical training in certaincertain subjects,subjects, before there isis aa substantialsubstantial bodybody ofof locallocal knowledge, or indeed any field activityactivity toto justifyjustify thethe course.course. An initial wide range of course titlestitles built up in this wayway maymay simplysimply leadlead to anan unnecessary andand unrewardingunrewarding searchsearch forfor anyany available material to fillfill outout thethe courses.courses. In thesethese circumstances, the courses are unlikely to be relevant to the realreal needsneeds ofof the countrycountry concerned.concerned. 6.8 Sub-division of topics Bearing inin mindmind the difficultiesdifficulties ofof recruitingrecruiting suitablesuitable teachers,teachers, andand the time taken for themthem toto build up skills in teaching and acquire detailed knowledge of local conditions, it is advisable for an initial programme of training to start with a syllabus limited to a few main broad topics.topics. This allows greatergreater flexibilityflexibility inin teaching.teaching. Sub-divisions of major subjects, e.g. the separationseparation ofof forestforest protectionprotection fromfrom aa generalgeneral course inin silvi-silvi culture, should take place only when sufficientsufficient locallocal materialmaterial has been accumulated to justify establishing a course in its armown right, and when there is adequate staff to cover the variety ofof topics. 6.9 Inclusion of basic studiesstudies A question of someBorne importance is whether a technical course of this nature should include a period of basic, non-forestrynon-forestry studies.studies. Generally it is bestbest if candidates cancan be recruited with the necessary qualificationsqualifications inin basic sciences,sciences, mathematics and language to avoidavoid this, andand to allowallow allall availableavailable timetime inin thethe coursecourse toto bebe devoteddevoted toto relevantrelevant technical studies.studies. If the basic qualifications of candidates prove inadequate for the understanding of the more scientificscientific partsparts of the course,course, a programmeprogramme of basic studiesstudies in subjects such as chemistry, mathematics, physics, biology, etc. may have to be devised. The material taught, and the exercises or experimentsexperiments undertaken inin this programme should, however, be specificallyspeoifically aimedaimed atat assistingassisting teachingteaching inin thethe laterlater technicaltechnical partsparts ofof thethe course. This may involveinvolve a considerableconsiderable periodperiod ofof researchresearch andand cooperationcooperation between the basic studies and technicaltechnioal instructors concerned, to devisedevise aa relevant training programme. It is no part of the functionfunction ofof aa technicaltechnical trainingtraining programme.programme toto provide bridging courses leading to university entryentry later.later. These can more properly be provided in other institutions such as juniorjunior colleges or continuing educationeducation centres.centres. A technical forestry course should concentrate its activities onon moremore clearlyclearly defined objectives. 6.10 Validation of coursescourses Validation of coursescourses must depend to somesome extentextent onon the levellevel ofof development ofof the employing agencies.agencies. Where there are clearly defined functions or standards of performance for staff membersmembers of particular grades, graduates from training programmes can be graded by their superiorsuperior officers onon theirtheir abilityability toto meetmeet thesethese requirements,requirements, withinwithin aa specificspecific time, afterafter completingcompleting theirtheir training.training. Where this indicatesindiccrtes anyany recognizable patternpattern ofof --7 7 - deficiencies in their performance, a review of the course must be undertaken. Both field staff and teaching staffstaff willwill normallynormally taketake partpart inin suchsuoh reviews.reviews. In some cases thethe trainingtraining institutioninstitution maymay in fact bebe runningrunning ahead.ahead of field propro- cedures and itit maymay notnot bebe possiblepossible toto validatevalidate thethe coursecourse inin thisthis way.way. A periodic re-re view should, however, be made by the most experienced field officers available, and the training staff.staff. This review should seekseek to measure the range of knowledge and skills the graduates possess and to assess how relevant they are to the current needs of the employers. 6.11 HandoutsHandouts and training manualsmanuals The development of an instructor's teaching notes into class handouts, and thethe use of thesethese in teaching programmes shouldshould receivereceive carefulcareful attention.attention. Handouts are fully justified when thethe complexity of thethe material being taught is such thatthat it cannot bebe concon- veyed adequately, either orally or by visual aids such as chalkboard notes. An example might be the preciseprecise wordingwording ofof forestforest lawslaws oror regulations.regulations. If they are used at all stages ofof a course, theythey may lead toto inattention in class and excessive dependence on thethe handout for later study. This may not always givegive satisfactorysatisfactory results.results. It requires a highhigh degree of skill on thethe part of an instructor both to retain thethe interest of a classclass and toto gain their active participation in learning, if students know theythey willwill get itit all in the handout at the endend ofof thethe lesson.lesson. Handouts may, therefore, be of greater value when used to summarize a substantial sub-divisionsub-division of a topic, before the instructor moves on to the following section, rather than as a daily teaching aid. Class handouts, after 2 or 3 years' use and careful revision, should form the basis of a comprehensive teaching manual onon the topic.topic. This, in turn, can become oneone segmentsegment ofof aa teaohingteaching manual for the whole course.course. Such a manual, whilst depending heavily on individual instructor's notes and handouts, should bebe extensively edited byby one person toto Beouresecure aa uniformityuniformity of style, language, sub-division and numbering throughthrough thethe oourse,course, and directly related to any sub-division or numbering system used in the syllabus. When such a manualmanual hashas beenbeen produced, thethe emphasis and pattern of the teaching can change. Students can be allocatedallocated adequate amountsamounts ofof timetime toto studystudy thethe manualmanual andand classclass teaching can concentrate more on practising skills, or using information they may have obtained from their guidedguided privateprivate study.study. The construction of a training manual is a considerable task and once completed, teaching staffstaff maymay feelfeel they cancan relax andand dependdepend uponupon itit asas theirtheir mainmain sourcesource ofof teachingteaching material, for aa considerableconsiderable period.period. Material very soonsoon goesgoes outout ofof date,date, however,however, either due to further research or to change of emphasisemphasis inin the course. Therefore,Therefore, toto bebe effective, the format of the manual must be suchsuch that smallsmall sectionssections ofof a few pages can be discarded and rewritten, without upsetting the flow or numbering of the material. A loose-leaf formatformat isis mostmost usefuluseful forfor thisthis purpose.purpose. 7. ORGANIZATION OF PRACTICALPRACTICAL WORKWORK ANDAND STUDYSTUDY TOURSTOURS 7.1 Importance of practical work and tours To be really effective,effective, a forestforest technician shouldshould havehave aa practicalpractical outlook,outlook, be capable of usingusing tools and equipment and be able to cope with all manner of forest con- ditions. It is essential, therefore,therefore, that a forestry trainingtraining programme at technical level shou~dshould include a great deal of practical work and opportunities to visit a wide range of forest sites.sites. However, it is not sufficient simply to provideprovide tools and equipmentequipment and then leave the students to work without guidance. This aspect ofof their training must be properly planned and closely linkedlinked withwith the theoreticaltheoretical instruction.instruction. To make the maximum use of the time allocated for practical work, itit has been foundfound that various types ofof training areas shouldshould be established.established. Details areare givengiven belowbel?w andand alsoalso somesome guidanceguidance onon the plan-plan ning ofof studystudy tours.tours. - 8 - 7.2 Initial demonstration andand training areaarea Ideally a training institution should have 2 or 3 field training areas.areas. One of these shouldshould be a seriesseries ofof plantationsplantations ofof differing age classesclasses and, if relevant, dif-dif ferent species, and aa reasonable amountamount ofof naturalnatural forest.forest. This shouldshould be under the exclusive control of the institution.institution. One staff member should exercise a supervisory oror coordinating function overover thethe wholewhole area.area. The detailed practicalpractical exercises should,should, howhow- ever, be planned and supervisedsupervised byby thethe staffstaff membermember ofof whosewhose coursecourse theythey formform aa part,part, withinwi thin the agreed framework of management for the training area. The area should, therethere- fore, as far as practicable, be operated under an approved management plan, similar toto those in use throughout thethe forestforest districtdistrict concerned.concerned. In general, however, unitunit areasareas to be treated will bebe considerably smallersmaller thanthan thosethose ofof aa full-scalefullscale plan.plan. The area should provide facilities for demonstrations and initial practice of forestry techniques by students.students. At this stage of theirtheir training, thethe quality of performance willwill be variable and the outputoutput generallygenerally low.low. These factors tend to upset operational plans, if such initial trainingtraining activities are carried out "iinn a forest under a normal management regime, hence the needneed forfor designateddesignated trainingtraining areas.areas. 7.3 Practice yard Depending upon the nature and range of operations required in the Demonstration Forest, the use of a Practice Yard may be justified.justified. This will enable initial instruc-instruc tion inin tool maintenance andand correctcorrect workingworking techniquestechniques toto be givengiven to students,students, beforebefore they take par-tinpart "in exercisesexercises inin thethe DemonstrationDemonstration Forest.Forest. This should ensure thatthat theythey opera-teoperate efficientlyefficiently and safely.safely. An open yard, preferably with a limited covered working area, should be established sufficiently close to the teaching block to permit quick access on foot. However, itit should alsoalso bebe farfar enough away, or sufficiently well screened,screen.ed, to avoid undesirable noisenoise reaching the teaching area.area. The yard should contain facilitiesfacilities for tool maintenance and supplies of logs for practisingpracti sing axe work and sawing techniques. A further area in which students can useuse toolstools forfor VK>rkingworking thethe sailorsoil or fire-fightingfirefighting tools,tools, hashas been foundfound to be useful. 7.4 Training forestforest Following initial practice inin aa demonstration area, itit isis desirabledesirable that studentsstudents should have access toto aa large-scalelargescale forest,forest, notnot tootoo farfar fromfrom thethe school,school, whichwhich has examples of as many types of field activities as possible. This allows full day exercises or longer periods of practical training during the course, with the minimum amount of travelling time. The definition of a large-scalelargescale forestforest dependsdepends uponupon locallocal managementmanagement objectives,objectives, but something with an annual working area of at least 1 ha. for every studentstudent usingusing itit isis desirable. The area must be sufficiently large to allow each studentstudent adequate scope to practice skills such as planting, tending, pruning, thinning, etc., or corresponding skills in natural forest techniques. On the other hand, itit shouldshould stillstill bebe sufficientlysufficiently compactcompact to allow a class to complete anan operationoperation overover aa unit area,area, suchsuch asas aa compartment,compartment, without having to call in workers to completecomplete the task. If thisthis is required, itit may leadlead to variations in standards ofof performance,performance, whichwhich cancan complicatecomplicate recordrecord keeping forfor the locallocal manager. 7.5 Training in planning and supervisionsupervision During initial practice, and in some casescases inin thethe earlyearly stagesstages ofof full-scalefullscale opera-opera tions, the work should be plannedplanned andand closelyclosely supervisedsupervised byby instructors.instructors. They must ensure that proper techniques are applied and that a goodgood organizational structurestructure is established to provide for the control of the operations. As soon as the techniques and patterns of work are well established, student leaders should be allocated, on a periodic basis. They will draw the necessarynecessary tools and equipmentequipment fromfrom stores;stores; issueissue itit to groupgroup members; allocate tasks and rates ofof output;output; verify that thethe workwork has beenbeen carriedcarried outout in a satisfactory manner; and ensure that the equipment isi s returned in good order. Exercises in such supervisorysupervisory functions, and experience of the various problems which may arise, are as important as experience inin thethe taskstasks themselves.themselves. -99 - 7.6 TrainingTrainin5 in communitycommunity forestryforestry and extension In areas where community forestryforestry or extension programmesprogrammes playplaya a significant role in the work of the forestforest authority, studentsstudents shouldshould have ready access to several areas in which active community forestry programmes are in operation. Either through their own instructors, or with the aid of communityoommunity forestry staff fromfrom the authority, they should be able to carry out casecase studiesstudies of locallocal needs and aspirations. They should also par-par ticipate in discussing, planningplanning and facilitatingfacilitating realistic communitycommunity forestry projects and in evaluating theirtheir results.results. The area to whichwhich they have accessaccess mustmust bebe reasonablyreasonably largelarge andand containcontain a consider-consider- able number of identifiable communitiescommunities with whom they can work. If this isis notnot so,so, students may tend to visit particular communities at too close intervals of time to generate any really fresh ideas or proposals on communitycommunity needs. The task may then de-de generate into a form of ritual discussiondiscussion and planning,planning, and failfail to identify problemsproblems arising in communities not yet oriented to this type of work. Students are unlikely to remain longlong enoughenough inin anan institutioninstitution to seesee the fullfull imple-imple mentation of any proposals they may draw up, but they cancan be gradedgraded in a careful review of written reports onon oneone oror moremore setset tasks.tasks. They can widen their knowledge by studying projects at various stagesstages ofof implementation.implementation. 7.7 Studystudy tours A programme of touring, preferablypreferably combinedcombined withwith practicalpractical studiesstudies andand exercises,exercises, inin ecological conditions which are not represented near the training institution, should be included in the training programme.programme. It is, however,however, often difficult toto achieve a satis- factory balance in suchsuch aa programme.programme. If the country is extensive, with widely differing ecologicalecological andand socialsocial conditions, there may be a need to extend touring to covercover asas manymany variationsvariations asas possiblepossible ofof the con- ditions. If, however, this involves long journeysjourneys and frequent changes of camp, students tend to become tiredtired and loselose interestinterest asas the tour proceeds.proceeds. A tour based on a large number of visits to differentdifferent activities maymay leadlead to anan excessexcess ofof experiences,experiences, moremore than a student can reasonably assimilate within a limited period. Field officers often show great enthusiasm for their work and tend to crowd into a short visit as much activity as possible. Opportunities forfor studentsstudents to practicepractice newnew techniquesteChniques forfor aa dayday oror two through-through out thethe programmeprograme areare desirable,desirable, thoughthough bothboth thethe levellevel ofof performanceperformance andand workwork outputoutput may be low, as the groupgroup isis unlikely to be ableable to spendspend enoughenough timetime to mastermaster aa newnew technique fully. If it iiss practicable, a number of short tours of 2 weeks' duration with fewer objectives may provide more useful experiences, but these in turn may involve greater expense and more unproductive travellingtravelling time.time. A programme involvinginvolving a camp inin oneone particularparticular area forfor aa periodperiod ofof 6 to 8 weeks pro-pro vides the opportunity forfor more detailed experienceexperience inin thethe techniquestechniques andand workingworking conditionsconditions of the area, but it will not provide the range of experience desirable when widely varied eoologicalecological conditions areare metmet withwith inin thethe country.country. 7.8 Work experienceeXperience A valuable contributionoontribution to practicalpractical training isis toto encourageencourage studentsstudents to seekseek paidpaid employment in forestryforestry activitiesactivities duringduring vacations.vacations. This is not so easy in some countries as it is in the temperate zoneszones where a season of annual vacations, or favourable working conditions, creates a demand for temporary employees. Vernacular language, lack of suit- able accommodation, food preferences, etc. all create problemsproblems initially.initially. It is worth- while, however, exerting a good deal of official pressure on locallocal staff to accept train-train ees, and to assist them in overcoming these problems. Experience in actual working concon- ditions, especially outside a student's home area, isis likelylikely to givegive a very valuable in-in sight into workers' attitudes and motivation, as well asas practicalpractical experienceexperience inin forestryforestry activities. - 10 -- 8. TEACHING ANDAM TRAININGTRAINING MEl'IIODSMETHODS 8.1 Class teachingteaching In someBorne of the countries for which this publication is intended, a major element of direct teaching, i.e. the transfer of knowledge or experience from instructor to student, may still be essential. Students from rural backgrounds may lack many of the basic exex- periences of tools, materials andand. literatureliterature that one could reasonably expect of students from more wealthy andand developeddeveloped areas.areas. Moreover, inin theirtheir strugglestruggle toto gaingain anan education,education, usually in very difficuldifficultt circumstances, their previous experience has conditioned them to concentrateconcentrate on absorbing materialmaterial taught, oftenoften withwith considerableconsiderable accuracy ofof recall, but not always with a full understanding of its practical applications. Sometimes, there also tends to be a strict compartmentalizationcompartmentalization of knowledge, one subject being regarded as a thing in itself, with no direct bearing on other subjects taught. This attitude mustmust be broken down and students trained to seek information for themselves and to use knowknow- ledge from one topic to solve problemsproblems inin another.another. This cannot normally bebe donedone inin oneone single step asas soon as teachingteaching commences; thethe results wouldwould in some cases bebe complete bewilderment and considerableconsiderable lossloss ofof teaching time. In thesethese circumstances,circumstances, well-preparedwell-prepared class teachingteaching mustmust first establish thethe needneed for, or utility of, an item of knowledge or skill inin relation to local environment or prob~bleprobable jobjob requirements. The matter should then be explained or demonstrated in its basic concept, using simplesimple terms and as few alternative language expressions as possible. It should also be related to local or regional conditions as closely as possible. Where a teaching task involves a fairly complex operation, made up of several sub-sub operations, e.g. the task of "planting", it is important at this level of training to "set thethe scene"; thatthat is, to review or describe brieflybriefly the overall task before describingdescribing and studying each of its component parts in detail. If this is ignored, it may be diffidiffi- cult for students to relate the component partsparts to each other or to determine their relarela- tive importance. A final review, linking up the parts taught and integrating them into the compositecomposite picturepicture ofof the operation,operation, isis equallyequally essential.essential. 8.2 Student participation Students Shouldshould be encouraged to comment on or question the material being presented to them. Time shouldshoul d be allowedallowed inin eacheach teaching unitunit forfor anan interchangeinterchan~ ofof questionsquestions between students and instructor to clarify pointspoints ofof doubt, or to verify forfor the instruc-instruc tor if the matter being studied has been adequately understood. However, the instructorinstructor must be careful to control question time and keep it objective, otherwise valuable classclass time will be lost.lost. Where convenient, classwork should be allocated to test the comprehencomprehen- sion of individual students and to allow additional private practice. 8.3 Lectures The formalformal lecturelecture has, inin general,~neral, onlyonly aa limitedlimited valuevalue inin technicaltechnical training.training. LecturingLecturing can only be an effective teaching technique where the studentsstudents are of a high level and are able toto extract, from a flow of descriptions, the key material to be recorrecor- ded in notes in order to reconstruct later, any detailed conceptconcept which has been presented.presented. The lecture approach normally requires extensive background reading by the student to supplementsupplement the information gathered inin the classroom.clasGroom. Frequently there isis aa shortageshortage of printed material at thethe required level, and what may be available may deal with the topic in general terms, rather than in the moremore detailed and specificspecific approachapproach required by technical students.students. Where students have the necessary knowledge and skills to benefit from lecture-type teaching, one might well consider whether they would not be better suited to professional rather thanthan technicaltechnical levellevel training.training. The problem lies mainly in extracting the key elements from the material presentedpresented by a teacher. The more detailed presentation of ideasidea~ with chalkboard notes, diagrams, or visual aids of various sorts, and the interplay of questions which should form part of a well-constructed lesson, is likely to suit a wider range of technical students.students. - 11 - 8.4 Discussion Discussion maym~ initially be ofof limitedlimited value as a teaching method. Students maymay at first be attuned to receiving information passively, than to contributing to it by sugges-sugges tions. Discussion presupposespresupposes thatthat the participantsparticipants have sufficientsufficient basic informationinformation on a topic to engage in relevant discussion, and that the material is "discussable", i.e. a matter on which a number of reasonable and valid views can be held. This inin general~neral tends -Loto limitlimit usefuluseful discussionsdiscussions to later stages in aa course.course. However, they may be helpful inin areas where working practices give an employee some discretion in his actions, e.g. times or degrees of thinning. They serveserve littlelittle oror no purposepurpose where techniquesteChniques are precisely laid down, and any divergence from these would jeopardizejeopardize the value of the work, e.g. in research procedures where results fromfrom various areas areare being compared.compared. Whilst their value cannot be overlooked,overlooked, inin the generallygenerally tight time-schedule ofof a technical course, use may be limited to selectingselecting oror planningplanning proceduresprocedures to be adopted in a groupgroup task. 8.5 DemonstrationsDemonstrat ions Demonstrations ofof the useuse ofof toolstools oror instruments,instruments, oror ofof workingworking techniques,techniques, areare anan essential follow-upfollow-up toto classwork.classwork. In fact, they may be a primaryprimary partpart inin teaching,teaching, andand inin this case the class shouldshould be held inin a locationlocation where the demonstration can most con-con veniently be staged.staged. If there is a considerableconsiderabl e element of practical skill in a topic being taught, the initial teaching might well be carried out inin the practicepractice yard, or in the field, and detailed analysis of the activity and the necessarynecessary note-taking be referred to a subsequent classroomclassroom period.period. The use of skilledskilled demonstrators,demonstrators, either highly trained workers or assistant instructors,instructors, may permit the instructor to continue a smooth flow of teaching and comment while aa procedureprocedure is being observed.observed. Supervised practicepractice isis anan essentialessential follow-upfollow-up ofof demonstrations,demo nstrations, soso techniques being introduced should, after an initial generalgeneral demonstration, be broken into sufficientlysufficiently small units to allow each component part to be practised thoroughly. This requires anan adequate supply of equipment and sufficientsufficient supervisorssupervisors to break the classc lass into small practice groups, where the performanceperformance of each studentstudent can be observed.observed. The heavy re-re quirements of staff to carry out this type of training effectively is not always fully ununderstoodder stood outside the immediate training organization. 8.6 Group work Group work isi s valuable as an exercise in cooperation and in developing formal and informal patterns ofof leadership.leadership. However, it again has itsits drawbacks, as not all the members in a group may benefit equally from the exercise. The most able andand energeticenergetic may gain a greatgreat deal.deal. The lessless ableable oror thethe indifferentindifferent maymay simplysimply havehave aa "freeUfree ride".ride It. Assessment of individual performance within a groupgroup activity is not easy, and the lessless able may gain from the general standardstandard of performance ofof the more enterprising members. The technique isis ofof mostmost value inin thethe laterlater stagesstages ofof aa topic,topic, oror aa course,course, whenwhen the participants have a basis of information or experience which they cancan pool.pool. It is of particular value when a task calls initially forfor the groupgroup to putput forwardforward constructive suggestions, followed up by aa detailed studystudy to translate these suggestionssuggestions intointo useful activity. Tasks related to the preparationpreparation ofof a management plan,plan, or the formulationformulation of proposed activities in Community Forestry work, are oftenoften suitable.suitable. 8.7 Project work An individual project can involve private reading, data collection, field observations or measurements; and activities such as specimen collection and examination,examination, or raisingraising plants. Spread.Spread over a substantialsubstantial periodperiod of aa course, itit givesgives the students anan opportu-opportu nity to show initiative, persistence, and personal enthusiasm forfor the tasks they have undertaken.wtdertaken. One possibility is the detaileddetailed study of a tree species requiring the collectioncollection of background information, supplemented by actual observations and activities over a full year, and culculminatingminating in a written report. This isis both aa usefuluseful educationaleducational activity and a suitable method of gathering valuable supplementarysupplementary information,information, perhaps not yet re-re corded in reference works.works. - 1212 - 8.88.8 Written instructions The use of written instructions in settings etting out tasks to be completed, or problems to be solved,solved, iiss a valuable teaching process. After leaving aa trainingtraining institution, aa stustu- dent will find that most of his directions for tasks to be accomplished, or techniques toto bebe practised, will come asas writtenwritten instructions.instructions. It is essential to provide students with practice at reading andand comprehendingcomprehending instructionsinstructions inin formalformal technicaltechnical language.language. During such exercises, studentsstudents should be encouraged to struggle with any problems of understandingunderstanding or interpretation ofof thethe instructions.instructions. Instructional staff should only answeranswer questions, or offer explanations, where it becomes apparent thatthat the instructions are open toto misinterpretation, or are too complex for them to be readilyreadily understood byby particular students. 8.98.9 AssessmentAssessments s Regular assessments of individual performance are an important 'part in the learning process, both forfor thethe studentstudent andand thethe instructor.instructor. It is impracticable to laylay down firmfirm guidelines for their use, as circumstances vary considerably in different courses. Nevertheless, short "quiz" type assessmenassessmentsts are very vavaluableluable and should be given at regular intervals during aa course.course. They are particularly useful when one stagestage is, to somesome extent, depedependentndent on the previous stage being properly understood. For such assessments, objective type questions are easy to grade and students can get feedback fromfrom their resultsresults withwith thethe minimumminimum delay.delay. Where classes are large, there are also great advantages from the instructor's point of view, in using objective type questionsquestions in the main assessmentassessment oror terminalterminal test.test. This, however, deprives thethe studentsstudents of practice in formulating ideas and putting them into their own words, which is a matter of great importance inin training atat thisthis level.level. Students, when learning in a languagelanguage other than their mothermother tongue (and(and this happens in many countriescountries wherewhere locallocal languageslanguages oror dialectsdialects exist),exist), needneed allall the practicepractice they can getget in expressing themselves freelyfreely andand preciselyprecisely inin the officialofficial language.language. The use of letter grades inin preference to numericalnumerical marksmarks tends to smoothsmooth outout somesome ofof the problems arising fromfrom this typetype ofof marking.marking. 8.8.1010 Conclusions The typeype ofof teachingteaching to to bebe employedemployed inin anyany setset ofof circumstancescircumstances dependsdepends uponupon the level of the students, the stage of the course, and the nature of the topic. FlexiFlexi- bility and variety of approach is mostmost easilyeasily arrangedarranged whenwhen wide-rangingwideranging coursescourses areare given broad allocations ofof time.time. Narrow courses within preciseprecise time schedulesschedules limit the pospossibilitiessibilities of digressing or trying a new approach to a topic. AnAn essentialessential require-require ment is for the instructor to have sufficientlysufficiently closeclose contactcontact withwith hishis classclass to sensesense if his material is being absorbed, andand toto stimulatestimulate hishis classclass toto cross-checkcrosscheck itit againstagainst anyany prior knowledgeknowledge they may have, or their general experience of the topic. A lessonlesson plan,plan, no matter how carefully prepared, shouldshould be suspendedsuspended oror eveneven abandoned ifif the instructorinstructor can sensesense that it is not being properlyproperly absorbed. The ability to switch,switch, whenwhen necessary,necessary, to a fresh approach to explain a topic which isis provingproving difficult to understand, isis a highly valuable skillskill in instruction. 9.9. LEARNING RESOURCES LearningLearning resourcesresources cancan vary fromfrom simplesimple piecespieces ofof equipmentequipment toto complexcomplex machines.machines. Within the limited finances of most technical training programmes,programmes, and the naturenature and level of the material being taught,taught t the simplersimpler types ofof equipmentequipment tend to have many advantages. 9.19.1 Prepared diagrams Diagrams are useful but must be usedused withwith care.care. TheyThey consistconsist largely ofof two-dimentwodimen- ssionalional symbols which a person from a culture accustomed to such things may find readily ununderstandable,derstandable, but which may be unintelligible to personspersons unused to expressingexpressing themselves in thisthis way.way. An area outlined in green on aa chalkboardchalkboard may well symbolizesymbolize aa forestforest to - 13 - persons used to that convention, but be confusing to someone unacquainted with it. Logical colouring of diagrams, however,however, appearsappears toto assistassist understandingunderstanding atat mostmost stages,stages, and costs very little more thanthan aa singlesingle colour.colour. Diagrams should, whenever possible, be of the "buildI1build up"Upll type, starting with the simplest conceptconcert or model, and adding information progressively as thethe description propro- ceeds. Well produced overlays forfor anan overheadoverhead projectorprojector areare excellentexcellent forfor thisthis purpose,purpose, but an instructor must balance the time taken to produceproduce these against their ultimate usage.usa~. To justifyjustify the time taken inin preparation,preparation, suchsuch aids must normally be used on a number ofof occasions.occasions. They are, therefore, best adapted to shortshort courses repeated 3 or 4 times a year. If requiredrequired only once a year,year, theythey are most valuable in areasareas of study where things do not change rapidly, e.g. some aspects of botany, entomology or forest utilization where the scope ofof teaching changeschanges relatively slowly,slowly, rather than in silvi-silvi cultural and management techniques wherewhere ideasideas oror proceduresprocedures maymay bebe outdatedoutdated moremore rapidly,rapidly, or where severalseveral alternative solutionssolutions maymay bebe acceptable.acceptable. 9.2 Chalkboard diagrams Skill in the production of neat chalk or crayon diagrams is a highly desirabledesirable attriattri- bute forfor an instructor.instructor. Such diagrams, built up before aa student'sstudent's eyes,eyes, withwith adequateadequate explanation, take away much ofof the awe and mystery ofof more complex preparedprepared diagrams, which may sometimes be difficult to comprehend and very difficult to transcribe into notes.notes. The use of "logical colours" inin all these diagrams isis an aid to understanding.understanding. 9.3 Flip chartscharts For more oomplexcomplex situations, flip charts prepared inin advance, especially where addi-addi tions are indicated in distinctive colours, are relatively cheap and very helpful. If left in a classroom or a library resource centre for further study, they can enable stu- dents to work outout the processprooess andand absorbabsorb itit atat theirtheir ownown speed.speed. 9.4 HorizontalHorizontal chalkboardschalkboards For taSKStasks where there is a spatialspa~ial element, e.g. the organization of groupsgroups in . inven-inven tory or silvicultura],silvioultural treatmenttreatment tasks,tasks, oror forfor firefire prevention,prevention, a "horizontal chalkboard" using models or counters suitablysuitably colour-codedcolour-coded to represent various tasks, isis a more logical method of explaining procedures than a vertical board or diagram.diagram. The only limitation to this techniquetechnique is that fewerfewer students can normally see a horizontal layout than a vertical one.one. If this cancan be overcome, the moremore readyready understandingunderstanding ofof particularparticular situationsituations,s , and the ability to demonstrate how to move persons or items of equipment over an area, is of great instructional value.value. 9.5 Sand table or terrain model A further development of the horizontal chalkboard isis a sandsand table or terrain model. This isi s normally a static exhibit ofof strongstrong construction,construction, requiringrequiring aa permanentpermanent spacespace inin circumstances where spacespace isis oftenoften atat aa premium.premium. It involves greatergreater workwork inin preparation,preparation, but allows a number of solutions to any problemproblem to be displayed atat the samesame time. 9.6 ngneticMagnetic boardboard A magnetic board allows models or counters to be used in the vertical position and hence overcomesovercomes the viewing limitationslimitations ofof the horizontal chalkboard.chalkboard. The disadvantages are cocostst and thethe amount of time required to prepare the models. It is, however,however, possible to improvise a magnetic board using, forfor example,example, aa metalmetal cupboard.cupboard. 9.7 Felt boards Felt boardsboards can be of particular value inin teaching situationssituations wherel-lhere aa number ofof alter-alter native solutions are possible and each one should be examined; for example, in discussing thinning or canopy opening operations.operations. However, it takes time to prepare the various items required to illustrate a topic and the storagestorage facilities must be both adequate and well-organized. If not, some of the illustrations tend to get lost, others become rather tattered oror alternativealternative usesuses areare foundfound forfor them.them. Felt boards are more · suitedsuited for courses which are repeaterepeatedd frequently, rather than for courses held annually. -- 1414- - 9.8 Overhead projector The overhead projector can be a very useful aid to teaching, but to be really effeceffec- tive, the instructional staffstaff requirerequire trainingtraining inin itsits use.use. This visual aid is particu-particu larlylarly suitable for certain topicstopics such as botany, entomology and soils, wherewhere illustrationillustrationss can remain unaltered forfor aa longlong period.period. With thethe use of a thermo-copier,thermo-copier, it is relativelyrelatively easy to transfer black and white drawings to transparency film which, with care, will last for years.Y8ars. It isis also possible to prepare a series ofof transparencies, inin permanentpermanent colours, illustrating variousvarious topics.topios. otherwise,Otherwise, the overhead projectorprojector cancan bebe usedused justjust like a chalkboard withwith non-permanentnon-permanent transparencytransparency markingmarking pens.pens. The differencedifference isis thatthat the instructor remainsremains seatedseated facing the class and possiblypossibly cancan maintain better studentstudent control. Another technique is to fit a roll of transparency film, which makes it possible to give a seriesseries of illustrationsillustrations and to refer back to the earlier ones, by simply re-re winding the roller.roller. Prepared transparencies can also be purchased with overlays and working parts which actually move.move. These can be of real value in connection with instruo-instruc tion concerningconcerning topics suchsuch as the maintenance ofof motor vehicles and machinery. It should bebe noted thatthat thethe screen must be fixed correctly above thethe projector, ifif thethe distortion of the image is to be avoided. Where the power supply is variable,variable, a voltagevoltage stabilizer should be used, as the bulbsbulbs areare veryvery sensitivesensitive toto voltagevoltage fluctuations.fluctuations. 9.9 Colour slides and film strips A comprehensive and well-indexed collection of colour slides of field activities or operations, or of areas of a country which cannot easily be visited, can be of conSiderableconS~derable value in supporting the instructions given. It must bebe remembered,remembered, however,however, thatthat partiParti- cularly in hot climates,climates, not all classrooms can be adequately screenedscreened for this purpose, and if they can, they oftenoften becomebecome veryvery uncomfortable.uncomfortable. A good system of daylight back-back projection onto a screen about 80 to 100 cm. square is valuable. Though this can some-some times be improvised, it is often difficult to get the right combination of intensity of light,lit, short short focus focus lens, lens, and and adequate adequate screening screening round round thethe picture,picture, toto givegive satisfactorysatisfactory viewingviewing to aa class.class. A well designed kit of matched projector and screen is a good investment. Film strips, either purchasedpurchased or made locally by the staff,staff, can supplementsupplement slides where a specific shortshort unit ofof instruction can convenientlyconveniently be coveredcovered inin this way. They normally have to be re-photographed fromfrom individualindividual slides,slides, asas itit isis unusual to obtain a series of near perfectperfect shotsshots firstfirst time.time. The task of planning and photographing a seriesseries of slides,slides, or a film strip, as a teaching aid, can inin itselfitself be an importantimportant learninglearning resource. It can stimulate valuable discussion on the preciseprecise pointpoint it is necessarynecessary to illustrateillustrate inin eacheach frameframe and this helps to reinforce correct proceduresprocedures in the operation.operation. 9.10 8mm fifilmslms and film loops Short 8mm8mm filmsfilms areare ofof somesome value inin initialinitial training,training, suchsuch asas demonstratingdemonstrating stepssteps in planting oror tree felling.felling. Unfortunately, the timetime takentaken andand thethe filmfilm consumedconsumed by amateurs to get an acceptable series of shotsshots ofof a task, limitslimits their use. They cancan usually only be justifiedjustified when there are largelarge classesclasses and itit isis difficult to break ~hethese·se into sufficiently small groups for personal demonstrations inin the field. It isis also possible toto purchase film loops illustrating, for instance, maintenance tasks onon vehicles andand machinery,machinery, e.g.e.g. changingchanging aa wheel.wheel. A special type ofof projector,projector, which is inexpensive, is required for projectingprojecting filmfilm loops.loops. 9.11 16mm sound films A 16mm sound projector, of a reliable and robust make, with good local servicingservicing facilities is desirable. The number of films ofof direct teaching value onon any particularparticular topic within aa countrycountry isis likelylikely toto bebe veryvery limitedlimited andand wouldwould barelybarely justifyjustify thethe costcost ofof this equipment. Fortunately, there are usually aa largelarge number of filmsfilms available of general interest which have good educational value and also provideprovide a popular recreational facility in an institution.institution. Some films of specificspecific teaching value can usually be borrowedborrowei - 15 - from UN agencies through the locallocal UNDP Representative. Films of a more general nature can usually be obtained on loanloan fromfrom various embassies oror from culturaloultural agencies. 9.12 Tape recorder A tape recorder may be of value in recording instructions on tasks or field operaopera- tions where the trainingtraining iiss well-established,wellestablished, teachingteaching materialmaterial isis highlyhighly formalized,formalized, and both staff and studentsstudents are sufficientlysufficiently educated to use it properly. Another possiblepossible use is in the initial sstagestages of work-study,workstudy, whenwhen practisingpractising timing.timing. However, the depen-depen dence on aural clues, without visual clues, does not make for particularly accurate measurementmeasurements. s. Tape recorderrecorderss can also be of value to staff for checking their teaching performance and in identifying,identifying, for subsequent correction, disturbing mannerisms in speech. Similarly, they can be used to help students train for publicpublic speaking.speaking. 9.13 Television, video recorderrecorderss and video cameras In areasareas wherewhere therethere iiss aa wellwellestablished-established televisiontelevision network,network, a TV receiver may be of value, at least in aa corrunon-roomcommonroom oror recreationalrecreational area,area, forfor keepingkeeping studentsstudents in touch with current national events.events. Occasional programmes may be of more direct teaching interest, but it is likely to be pure coincidence if these are shown at a time when they can fit in naturally toto aa teachingteaching programme.programme. A video recorder, to tape andand playplay backback such material at a more appropriate time, is of value but this normally requires the ser-ser vices ofof anan assistant to recordrecord andand carecare forfor tapes.tapes. A video camera can produceproduce taped records much more cheaplyCheaply than a conventionalconventional colour film camera, but cutting or editing such tapes is more difficultdifficult thanthan withwith films.films. Closed circuit television may be of value in enabling a large group to view a detailed operation in rather greater detail than ifif they were observing it normally. Regrettably, the cost ofof this equipmentequipment andand skilledskilled operatorsoperators toto useuse andand maintainmaintain it,it, cancan only bebe justified in aa largelarge polytechnic-typepolytechnictype institutioninstitution wherewhere thethe expensesexpenses cancan be shared over several departments and a reasonably high degree of utilization of the equipment can be obtained. These more expensive techniques are unlikely to findfind aa placeplace inin the budget ofof a forestry school operating alone on limited funds.funds. 9.9.1414 Miscellaneous itemsitems An adequate supply of 7 or 10 magnification binoculars,binoculars, a loud hailer, and a supply of portable 2-way2way radiosradios maymay allall findfind aa usefuluseful placeplace inin thethe teachingteaching equipment,equipment, depending upon the needs andand statestate ofof developmentdevelopment ofof anan institution.institution. The use of handouts and training manualsmanuals has been discusseddiscussed inin Section 6.116.11 above.above. 9.15 Library A library iiss an essential feature of an educational institution and in most countries to which this manual will apply,apply, itit willwill have toto departdepart fromfrom thethe acceptedaccepted standardsstandards ofof accommodationaccommodation_and_and facilities which are found in more developed areas. Depending upon the standastandardrd of living accommodation available and the possibilitiespossibilities for studystudy in a student'sstudent's own quarters, a library may have to provide a much higher proportion of study placesplaces than might otherwise be required. It may be the only really suitablesuitable place for quiet study and up to 80% of the students may wish to use it at any particular time. The less com-com fortable the living accommodation, the greater the need for adequate spacespace for study within the library.library. The stockstock of books should also be generous.generous . Students at this level often have neither the funds, nor the opportunities to purchase textbooks locally forfor their own use. Nor is there, in many developing countries, a tradition of students purchasing textbooks,textbooks, using them carefully forfor a periodperiod andand thenthen resellingreselling themthem atat onlyonly aa smallsmall loss,loss, toto theirtheir successors.successors. Students, therefore, tendtend toto bebe totallytotally dependentdependent onon librarylibrary resourcesresources forfor any material to supplement class teaching, or to widen their general knowledge. - 1616- - Conditions inin the librarylibrary andand thethe supplysupply ofof books andand periodicalsperiodicals should be suchsuch as to encourage reading. It isis aa highlyhignly desirabledesirable habithabit duringduring trainingtraining andand itit isis likelylikely toto be the main meansmeans ofof keepingkeeping upup toto datedate withwith newnew developmentsdevelopments afterafter training. Also, itit is a vital skill for interpreting written instructions in their subsequent duties. The library shouldshould be providedprovided withwith easilyeasily accessibleaccessible cardcard indices,indices, by subjectsubject and author, and students shouldshould first be taught, and then encouraged, to use these to seek supplementary informationi nformation on studystudy topics for themselves. If possible, a section of the library should be developed as a resource centre and should be the main repository ofof maps,maps, charts,charts, diagrams,diagrams, etc.,etc. t notnot inin currentcurrent use.use. Tables or frames of a convenient sizesize to hold these items during studystudy should be provided. The library shouldshould alsoalso havehave aa largelarge generalgeneral reading sectionsection to encourageencourage reading ofof non-technical material.material. Only a person who can read sufficiently easily for pleasure is ever likely to tackle more seriousserious reading for self-improvement. A number of inter-inter national cultural agenciesagenci es are usually able to assist in lending books to stock a general reading section.secti on. The importanceimportance ofof aa librarylibrary asas aa learninglearning resourceresource andand thethe highhigh costcost ofof booksbooks andand other material and equipment housed in it justifiesjustifies the employmentemployment of a professional librarian. This person should enjoy the same status and conditions of service as the teaching staff.staff. The librarian'slibrarian's functionfunction should,should, in fact,fact, be regarded more as a teacher than as aa custodiancustodian ofof books.books. In the early stages of the course, the librarianl i brarian shouldshould play an active and signifi-signifi cant part in teaching students how to make the fullest use of the resources available. Later, during individual studystudy projects,projects, the approach shouldshould be different, studentsstudents being encouraged to locate information forfor themselves by showingshowing how it shouldshould be done, rather than directlydirect ly supplyingsupplying informationinformation onon aa topic.topic. The librarianlibrarian cancan alsoalso bebe mademade responsibleresponsible forfor the audio-visualaudio-visual aidsaids andand forfor re-re producing handouts.handouts. A further duty might be, if suitably qualified, to conduct remedial classes in thethe teachingteaching languagelangume ofof thethe institution.institution. 10. DURATION OF TRAINING 10.1 General considerations Briefly, training shouldshould normallynormally bebe asas longlong asas aa countrycountry cancan affordafford inin itsits currentcurrent financial and personnel circumstances, also taking into account the level of technology being practisedpractised inin thethe fieldfield atat thatthat time.time. A vital factor frequently overlooked by educational planners and teachers from moremore developed societies,societies, isis the very limitedlimited cultural base (judged(judged in external terms) from which studentsstudents start.start. 10.2 Level of entry in relation to the local comnunitycorrnmmity studentsStudents in developing countriescountri es are often educationally well inin advance ofof their parents and are, therefore,therefore, unable to receive from them the informal education common in devedevelopedl oped countries.countries. Whilst students may have a considerable amount of local culture or information, which some teachers may not always be fully able to exploit, they tend to lack many aspects of knowledge or experience which are accepted as normal elsewhere. Skills of reading to seekseek outout information, as distinct fromfrom memorizingmemorizing for examina-examina tions, or the use ofof mathematics to solvesolve everydayeveryday problemsproblems oror forfor budgetingbudgeting purposes,purposes, are frequently poorly developed in basic schooling and take time to build up during a course of technical education.education. 10.3 Level of basbasici c education required The durationdurati on of trainingtrai~ing to achieve specificspecific objectives dependsdepends largelylar~ly upon the level of basic educationeducation requiredrequired atat thethe entryentry point.point. However, the levellevel requiredrequired andand the duration ofof training permittedpermitted by the administeringadministering agencies,agencies, tendtend toto dependdepend moremore onon - 17 - general views held aboutabout educationeducation andand comparabilitycomparability withwith otherother disciplines inin a country than on any objectiveobjective assessmentsassessments ofof the requirementsrequirements ofof aa technical postpost inin forestry.forestry. Comparability with technical courses inin otherother fields,fields, suchsuch as agriculture, often limits a forestry coursecourse toto aa specificspecific period,period, ofof whichwhich 22 years seems,seems, at present,present, to be a widely acceptedaccepted limit.limit. Working back fromfrom thethe ultimateultimate objectivesobjectives ofof thethe course,course, itit then becomes necessary to requirerequire aa fairlyfairly high levellevel ofof basic educationeducation initially,initially, to enable candidates to reach the required finalfinal levellevel withinwithin the prescribedprescribed period.period. In many countries, 1212 years ofof basicbasic educationeducation nownow appearsappears to be the acceptedaccepted norm. Lower levels ofof basic education would inin manymany casescases be acceptable, if a longerlonger period of technical training werewere acceptable. The final product might not be so well educated in a generalgeneral sense,sense, butbut mightmight wellwell be moremore technically competentcompetent andand experiencedexperienoed in the student'sstudent's particularparticular field.field. The choice, therefore, depends upon the value placed locally on a fullerfuller generalgeneral education, with possiblypossibly moremore limitedlimited technical abilities,abilities, or more limited general education, but a longerlonger technical course.course. A further factor in-in fluencing this decision isi s the possibilitypossibility ofof trainees wideningwidening their basic educationeducation later, by continuing classes onceonce they have enteredentered full-timefull-time employment.employment. This, un-un fortunately, isi s likely to be moremore difficult inin ruralrural areasareas wherewhere manymany forestryforestry tech-tech niciansnicians will normallynormally bebe stationed.stationed. Hence, it providesprovides a strongstrong argument in favour of high entryentry levellevel initially.initially. 10.4 Dangers of a too high educational threshold Where a country insists on a fullfull basic educational courseoourse up to university entrance standard, as a prerequisite to technical training, the technical course sometimessometimes tends to draw in a proportion of "missed university" applicants lookinglooking forfor someBorne alternative training. This is not necessarilynecessarily a goodgood basis forfor recruitment,recruitment, as studentsstudents may have failed univeruniversitysity entry due to somesome deficiencies inin teaching oror learninglearning overover the last one or two years inin school.school. If thisthis is thethe case, it does not provide a sosolidlid foundation for further study.study. In fact, time is likely to be wasted in the early part of the fores-fores try coursecourse providingproviding aa basic studystudy programmeprogramme toto bringbring themthem upup toto thethe levellevel theythey werewere pre-pre sumed to have reached,r eached, andand on which the rest ofof the coursecourse is to be built.built. It may also tend to draw in a certain proportionproportion ofof candidatescandidates who are not truly technicallytechnically oriented,oriented, but areare anxiousanxious toto proceedproceed laterlater toto somesome formform ofof furtherfurther educationeducation and see the forestry course as a means to an end. They are unlikely to remain in fores-fores try, even ifi f they graduategraduate successfully.successfully. 10.510. 5 ProblemProblemss with a range of academic levels There can alsoa lso be problemsproblems with with aa widerwider rangerange ofof academicacademic levelslevels inin thesethese circumstan-circumstan ces. A few studentsstudents may be atat oror nearnear universityuniversity entranceentrance level,level, whilstwhilst the majoritymajority ofof the class areare below this level.level. Teaching devised to developdevelop the abilitiesabilities in the lower range may causecause boredom toto thethe moremore ableable studentsstudents andand leadlead themthem toto performperform lessless wellwell thanthan they might.might. On the other hand, if encouraged, they cancan provideprovide a stimulusstimulus to the lessless able students. 10.6 Deficiencies ofof aa 2-year2-year coursecourse Technical training followingfollowing a fullfull 12-year12-year basicbasic educationeducation must,must, inin mostmost cases,cases, bebe limitelimitedd to 2 years' duration,duration, both for economic reasons andand inin orderorder to avoidavoid overlappingoverlapping with a 3-year3-year university first degree course.course. Whilst 2 years may, in some cases,cases, bebe adequate for training, a large part of the time mustmust be usedused inin acquiring new informationinformation and experience.experience. Hence, there is a danger ofof aa relatively smallsmall amountamount ofof the time avail-avail able bebeinging devoted to using thithiss information inin situationss ituations closelyclosely resemblingresembling workingworking con-con ditions. Students are, therefore, inclinedinclined toto gogo outout deficientdeficient inin experienceexperience inin applyingapplying all the technical knowledge gained, unless the coursecourse isi s carefullycarefully plannedplanned to includeinclude work experience. This may meanmean that classworkc lasswork shouldshould notnot exceedexceed 55% of the total time avail-avail able. 18 10.7 Additional problems in aCquiringacquiring practical experience Whilst it would be ideal for students to gain practical experience before commencing their training, it is not easy to persuade them to do this. The locallocal conceptconcept ofof thethe benefits ofof educationeducation maymay bebe againstagainst studentsstudents involvinginvolving themselves inin manualmanual work.work. ThereThere- fidre,fore, studentsstudents atat thisthis educationaleducational levellevel areare veryvery likelylikely toto enter fresh from school ~ndand lack any understanding of either the requirements or nature of the course they are about to undertake. There are also distinct practical difficulties in arranging field training in some areas. The living conditions of the local people may make it difficult for trainees to find acceptable living accommodation in areas in which they are posted. Also, the widewide socialsocial gapgap whichwhich sometimessometimes existsexists betweenbetween workersworkers andand educatededucated personspersons maymay be hard toto bridge.bridge. 1010.8.8 Alternative entry levellevel A courseoourse of technical education commencing after 10 years' basic education may have distinct advantages.advantages. This assumes that the organizers have a clear understanding of the educational level of the intake, have formulated specific goalsgoals forfor the training, and are prepared to allowallow sufficientsufficient timetime toto attainattain thesethese goals.goals. In countries where less import-import ance is placedplaced on completing a fullfull academic programme of education,education, a technical institu-institu tion isis likelylikely to attractattract aa largelarge numbernumber ofof suitablesuitable candidatescandidates atat thethe 10-year10-year educationaleducational level. At this stage, it may also be easier for a student to integrate into a programme of pre-school practical work, especially if some care is taken in selecting the location for the work and in arranging satisfactorysatisfactory livingliving conditions. A group of 22 to 4 students living and training together cancan provideprovide mutualmutual supportsupport andand exchangeexchange ofof experience.experience. A year spentspent in this way followed by an extension of the basic course to 33 years is more likely toto equip a candidate to take over the responsibilities of a field appointment thanthan 12 years' education followedfollowed byby 22 yearsyears ofof technicaltechnical training.training. However, it may be necessary to consider the implications inin respect of governmentgovernment salarysalary scales,scales, which are often related to both technical qualifications and the level reached in basic education. Another problem which may also arise ifif entry is allowed at the 10th year level is that of the exceptional studentsstudents whowho areare clearlyclearly capable ofof higher education.education. UnfortuUnfortu- nately, they will not have the requisite educationaleducational levellevel andand maymay be required to under-under take a further periodperiod of 22 years' generalgeneral educationeducation to gaingain entry.entry. In an area wherewhere there are many 12th12th grade studentsstudents available,available, itit may be extremelyextremely hard to obtain sponsor-sponsor ship to undertake these additional studies, no matter how technically competent the candicandi- date hashas been.been. However, this problemproblem isis unlikelyunlikely to arisearise inin moremore than aa smallsmall percent-percent age of the students, say, 5-10% at the most, and therefore the bulk of the students will be correctly located at the technical level.level. Special arrangements shouldshould bebe made,made, ifif possiblepossible, t for the top students,student s, as experience has shown that university graduates with previous technician training can make very valuable contributions to the~he development of forestry. The above proposal could work, providedprovided there isis anan adequateadequate careercareer structurestructure forfor technicians. This mustmust recognizerecognize that aa competentcompetent andand experiencedexperienced techniciantechnician isis oftenoften of greater value than a fresh graduategr:-aduate and the rewards be adjusted accordingly. Other-other wise, the educational level of entry for forestry technicians may have to be comparable with other technical training, in order to gain recognition forfor salarysalary purposes. 10.9 Job requirements The duration of training mustmust alsoalso take intointo account jobjob requirementsrequirements andand anyany firmfirm policy for continued training duringduring service.service. In thethe initialinitial stages of forestry developdevelop- ment within a country, where the main field tasks centre onon demarcation and protection of a forest estate, a relatively short course, of about oneone year, may be adequate. This should concentrate on surveying and the physical protection of forest areas. As the situation develops, simple inventory techniques, logginglogging skillsskills and some silvi-silvi culture must gain prominence inin thethe course.course. Further developments usuallyusually callcall forfor moremore detailed studiesstudies of inventory techniques; a broader fieldfield ofof utilizationutilization and engineering studies, including road-making and simple construction; and a wider range of silvicultural --19-19 - skills and managementmana~ment andand administrativeadministrative techniques.techniques. For this, a course of 2 years is the minimum requirement andand manymany candidatescandidates wouldwould benefit fromfrom an even longerlonger period of study toto absorb the material offered.offered. 10.10.1010 PossibilitiesPossibili ties for specializationspecialization In mastmost countries technicians are,are, atat leastleast initially,initially, expectedexpected toto undertakeundertake aa widewide range of tasks and are unlikely to be able to specialize forfor severalseveral years. Where the employing agency is poorly staffed, it is of consideconsiderablerable importance to have technictechniciansi ans with broadly-based training, who can be posted wherever a need arises. Even where the range of technical tasks may initially be limited, training shouldshould be gearedgeared to widen these limits as quickly as possible,possible, to exploit the full potential of the area. As a country reaches an adequate level of technical staff,staff, more attention can be paid to providing alternative programmesprogrammes ofof studystudy to fit candidates for specificspecific vacancies withwith- in the employing agency.agency. This maymay result inin a reduction inin the length of training for some tasks,tasks, butbut ~nerallygenerally the time saved can bebe better used in improving the level of training inin thethe chosenchosen field.field. A high degree of specialization is, however, undesirable initially, as it m~may deprive candidates of the wider understanding of the full relationship of forestry to the biologibiologi- cal and social factors, which is necessary to pursue their specializationspecialization effectively. It may also condemn a candidatecandidate toto aa veryvery narrownarrow promotionpromotion channel.channel. Specialized skills may best be impartedimparted inin refresher, oror furtherfurther training courses,courses, toto staffstaff whowho have shownshown them-them selves competent over a wide range of tasks, and who have indicated a genuine interest in tackling a more specializedspecialized activity.activity. 11. ENTRANCEENI'RAICE QUALIFICATIONSQUALIFICATION3 11.1 Level of general education As suggested in Section 10.310.3 above, the levellevel ofof generalgeneral educationeducation forfor entry to a technical training course isis moremore likelylikely to be determined byby the entranceentrance requirements of the authorities for similar"Similar technical courses,courses, ratherrather than inin relation to the specificspecific re-re quirements of a forestry course.course. Where substantial progress is being made in the field of secondary education, an entry point at Grade 12 seems to be the accepted level. The actual attainment in the Grade 1212 assessment, however, normallynormally lieslies inin aa band immediatelyimmediately below university entranceentrance level.level. If possible, a procedure for accepting exceptionalexceptional candidates who have not achieved this level,level, but who have shownshown inin somesome otherother way a par-par ticular aptitude for forestryforestry work,work, shouldshould be devised. This, however, may not be acceptaccept- able in certain countries where itit maymay be hard to demonstrate the objectivityobjectivity ofof the choice of a particularparticular candidate.candidate. Other measures may be necessary in areas where the schoolschool systemsystem maymay not be meeting the full requirements of governmentgovernment serviceservice and industryindustry at the GradeGrade 1212 level.level. In such cases, it should be possible to devise a forestry course whichwhich cancan accept candidates at a lower levellevel ofof generalgeneral education,education, say,say, downdown toto GradeGrade 10.10. These courses will be longerlonger than the usual technicians' course,course, inin order that the required levellevel ofof attainment,attainment, at least in technical operations, cancan be reached by the students.students. 11.2 Physical fitness A reasonable standard of physical fitness is required, though this is hard to define in non-medical terms.terms. Candidates should be free of any active disease, or injury, which would impair their ability to carry out any of the necessary physicalphysical tasks involved in the course. A reasonable record ofof resistance to commoncommon illnessesillnesses andand somesome evidenceevidence of stamina, rather than greatgreat strength,strength, isis desirable.desirable. Any prior history of mental or emoemo- tional disturbancesdisturbances shouldshould generallygenerally bebe regardedregarded asas aa seriousserious disadvantagedisadvantage forfor thethe commence-~ommence- ment of a strenuousstrenuous coursecourse ofof training.training. Forestry work however is, in general, so varied that aa widewide variety ofof different degreesdegrees ofof fitnessfitness cancan bebe accommodated,accommodated, andand therethere isis nono particular need to lay down specific height, weight or sizesize attainments,attainments, suchsuch as may be re-re quired for policepolice oror militarymilitary service.service. - 2020- - In areas where female candidates are accepted, the standard of fitness requiredrequired mustmust take intointo accountaccount whetherwhether oror notnot femalesfemales areare goinggoing to be interchangeable with male candi-candi dates in all tasks. It isis possible that they are more likely to gravitategravitate into somesome lessless strenuous tasks associatedassociated withwith silviculture,silviculture, mensurationmensuration oror research.research. They should not be excludedexcluded by anyany attemptattempt to setset unreasonablyunreasonably high standardsstandards ofof fitnessfi tnesB oror strength that only a few could attain.attain. 11.3 Aptitude and integrity of trainees 11.3.1 Assessment of aptitudeaptitude An aptitude forfor the work, and a willingness to persist in it, even in difficult circumstances, may best be judged by a period of pre-service training, rather than byby a contrived 22 oror 3-day3-day testtest coursecourse beforebefore selection.selection. Unless suchsuch a course is devised with considerable skill, and monitored by trained personnel, it may highlight the extrovert type,type t but maymay missmiss the moremore consistentconsistent performerperformer who couldcould ultimately be ofof greater value to an organization.organi zat ion. Any procedureprocedure forfor measuring a candidate's aptitude for training is complicated by the very wide range ofof skills a forestry technician may bebe expectedexpeoted toto demonstrate.demonstrate. Simple tests ofof manipulative Skills,skills, such as may be used to screen candcandidatesidates for machinemachine- operator posts, cover only a very narrow band of the skills required. Complex teststests ofof leaderShipleadership and judgment, usually employed to screen military cadet candidates, are costly and difficult toto applyapply withwith thethe limitedlimited staffstaff available.available. With forestry too, it has to be remembered that devising relevant tests cancan be expensiveexpensive inin relation to the smallsmall number ofof candidatescandidates whichwhich mostmost countriescountries wishwish toto traintrain eacheach year.yeax. Furthermore,FUrthermore, it isis difficult to placeplace a relative value onon the differentdifferent aspectsaspects ofof skillsskills which are shown. 1111.3.2 03. 2 Judgment of integrity Integrity in this sense means not, forfor example, honesty in the handling of fundsfunds or property, which in any case would be very difficult to assess (unless(unless a candidate hahadd a criminal record, andand thisthis isis ratherrather unlikely).unlikely). It refers toto honestyhonesty or genuineness in the candidate'scandidate's desiredesire toto enterenter andand pursuepursue effectivelyeffectively thethe setset coursecourse ofof trainingtraining andand aa ssubsequentubsequent career in forestry.forestry. To attempt to judgejudge a candidate's integrity in seekingseeking training is extremely impor-impor tant, but is by no means easy to achieve. In an economy offering aa relatively lowlow pro-pro portion of the population safe and secure employment, as against self-employment in agriagri- culture or rural crafts, therethere is often a very high desire to commence training for any apparently securesecure post,post, particularlyparticularly inin thethe publicpublic sector.sector. Forestry training institutions may, therefore, receive too many applications, some of which comecome fromfrom candidates who have littlelittle oror nono conceptconcept ofof the requirements of the training or subsequentsubsequent employment, but whowho areare willingwilling to investinvest the cost of a postagepostage stamp in submitting anan application.application. As most candidates may be fresh from school and have had little opportunityopportunity to gathergather any knowledge ofof forestryforestry activities,activities, itit is almost impossible to determine which ones areaxe genuine applicants and which are simply job seekers. Until a forestry organizationorganization isis reachingreaching aa stagestage ofof adequate staffing,staffing, however, it is very difficult to adopta40pt any procedureprocedure otherother thanthan directdirect entryentry toto training, because of the need to build up the staff as quickly as possible.possible. In areasareas whichwhich areare grosslygrossly ununderstaffed,derstaffed, thethe general level of performance ofof fieldfield work may be so low that it will be counter-productivecounter- productive to introduce new candidates to such an unsatisfactory level of performanceperformance oror organization.organization. On the other hand, where an organization has reached, or is closely approaching full staffing, there should be adequate opportunity for placingplacing new candidates in the field to gain work experience. Ideally, experienced staff should be selected to supervise theirtheir work and toto comment objectively on their suitabilitysuitability forfor more formal training. 11.3.3 Pre-service training The lengthlength ofof pre-servicepre-service trainingtraining isi s likelylikely to be affectedaffected by thethe generalgeneral schoolschool programme of the country.country. Candidates are normally selectedselected as soon as the results of - 21 -- the nationalnational scholasticscholastic examinationsexaminations areare known,known, inin competitioncompetition withwith otherother training insti-insti tutions. It isis adminadministrativelyi stratively convenient,convenient, butbut byby nono meansmeans essential,essential, forfor forestryforestry institutions toto followfollow thethe normalnormal academicacademic yearyear ofof thethe country.country. If thisthis is the case, a full year's pre-service experienceexperience isis mostmost likelylikely toto bebe adopted.adopted. If thethe training insti-insti tution draws itsits candidatescandidates entirely fromfrom those with pre-servicepre-service experience,experience, it can com-com mence its academic year at any season, and any length of pre-service training from 3 toto 12 months or more can bebe adopted.adopted. There are many advantages in arranging a course to end during a quiet season of the field operations. This enables thethe graduatesgraduates toto bebe appointed,appointed, toto taketake upup theirtheir duties,duties, and to become reasonably acquainted with their new surroundings and tasks, before having to face aa peakpeak workwork requirement.requirement. If possible, the pre-service experience shouldshould covercover the full range ofof seasons.seasons. This particularly applies ifif class teaching is to be closely linked to, or partly dependent upon,upon, thethe fieldfield experience.experience. Some oandidatescandidates might bene-bene ffitit from a longprlon~r period of experience and should not be ruled out from further consideraconsidera- tion, ifif notnot selectedselected forfor trainingtraining atat thethe firstfirst opportunity.opportunity. 11.3.4 Links with training institution One possible drawback of a period of pre-service training isis that the supervisionsuperv~slon may be weak and the programmeprogramme of workwork inadequately planned.planned. If thisthis is thethe case, the candidates may fail to appreciate the value of the experience, or to make the fullest use of it.it. This can be overcomeovercome by establishing, right fromfrom the start,start, aa direct linklink with the training institutioninstitution whichwhich theythey willwill ultimatelyultimately attend.attend. If possible, thethe candidates should attend a short introductory course in physical and manual skills at the institution. They can then be sent out in groups of 3 or 4, to seselectedlected training locations, possibly moving throughthrougn two or three such locations during the period ofof training.training. The candidates should be required to submitsubmit detailed monthly reports on the workwork they have done and maymay be suppliedsupplied with record sheetssheets to collectcollect data on rates of work and costs ofof operations.operations. They should be encouraged to looklook closelyclosely atat each task performed, and to useuse these sheets as a basis forfor managementmanagement proposalsproposals in their formal training. A "correspondence course" situation, supervisedsupervi sed by a number of instruc-instruc tors at the training institution, can help the candidatescandidates to make the most effective use of their time.time. The instructorsinstructors shouldshould visit the studentsstudents onceonce or twice and accompany them to work.work. This will also enable the institution to weed out unsuitable candidates and should bring inin studentsstudents with relevant practicalpractical experienceexperience onon which furtherfurther training can be based.based. This system,system, however,however, willwill onlyonly workwork ifif thethe generalgeneral standardsstandards ofof performanceperformanoe inin thethe field are sufficiently high. It is an extremely difficult task for instructors in an institution to reotifyrectify bad working techniques picked up in a poorly supervised situation. 12. SCHOOL BUILDINGS 12.1 Size inin relationrelation toto staffstaff requiremeritsrequiremerfts The total establishment of technicians inin a countrycountry mustmust bebe determined by the appli-appli cation of agreed staff ratios to areas of plantation establishment and management; high forest management; industrial requirements; multiple-use forestry and ancillary activities such as are suggested in Appendix 4 dealing with"lith the assessment of trained manpower for forestry and related industries.industries. Where such a study indicates a short-fallshort-fall inin technicaltechnical staff, either at the present or at some future time, a rate of build-upbuild- up towards the target total must be decided, taking intointo accountaccount the annualannual increaseincrease inin resourcesresources likelylikely toto bebe available to absorb qualified candidatescandidates into fieldfield posts, and an optimum size of class for efficient and economiceconomic teaching.teaching. To this must be added an annual allowance for deaths, retirals and reSignationsresignations from the existing staff.staff. Perhaps the greatest problem lies in fluctuationsfluotuations of the economy over the time-scale when trainees are in the "pipeline", i.e. between pre-trainingpre-training practicalpractical experience and qualification. This in some cases maymay bebe 33 oror 44 years.years. Fluctuations in the national economy leading to a reduction in the number ofof new postsposts created annually, or to a defer-defer ment in the filling of vacancies, plays havoc with a plannedplanneJ training programme. At such - 2222 - a time, even the possibility ofof holding candidatescandidates over in lowerlower gradegrade fieldfield postsposts untiluntil vacancies arise at their correct grade,grade, isis limited.limited. During a period of increase in the establishment, the staff of an organization tends to be weighted towards the younger age groups,groups, and a normal patternpattern ofof replacement, based on a percentage retirement andand wastagewastage isis hardhard toto define.define. A certain "frustrationIIfrustration element" is likely to enter into the calculationscalculations afterafter aa fewfew years.years. Some staffstaff may resignres ign in mid-mid career toto seek other opportunities,opportunities , if they find themselves one of a large group competing for relatively fewfew vacanciesvacancies inin higherhigher posts.posts. If a "bonding system"system" applies to new entrants, departures during the period of bonbondingding are likely to be very low, but this may be followed by a surgesurge as soonsoon as the bonding period is aver.over. The surgesurge effect tends to decrease withwith the lengthlength ofof thethe bondingbonding period.period. It would seem that the incentiveincentive to make a change is decreased as length of serviceservice and salarysalary levellevel are increased,increased, unless problems of limitedlimited promotionpromotion prospectsprospects arise.arise. In spite of thesethese difficulties, it is necenecessaryssary toto establiestablishsh some pattern of retireretire- ment and wastage for an organization,organi zation, inin orderorder to planplan the intake for training. Initially, the information on which thisthis isi s based may not always be as accessible or as preciseprecise as one would wish.wish. However, during a periodperiod of growthgrowth of an organization and within a relarela- tively stablestable oror modestlymodestly expandingexpanding economy,economy, aa replacementreplacement factorfactor ofof 10-15%10-15% annuallyannually ofof the existing staff may be considered adequate. During periods of very rapid expansion of the economy, this raterate may double,double , but few countries can sustainsustain suchsuch boom conditions for long. ProviProvidedded that detailed personnel records are maintained, itit shouldshould be possible,possible, at a later stage,stage , regularly to analyze details of staffstaff retirementsretirement s andand wastage, in order to provideprovide more accurateaccurate forecastsforecasts ofof thethe replacementreplacement factor.factor. Nevertheless, even when more accurate information is available, a problem still remains in balancing the staff requirements of the organization with the training con-con siderations of the institution concerned.concerned. From thethe organization's point of view, it is a question of providing sufficientsuffi cient trained technicians over a reasonable periodperiod of time, to meet any plannedplanned increasesincreases andand thethe annualannual replacementreplacement factor.factor. From the training angle,angle r it is a matter of forming classes which are economic, can be handled by the staffstaff available and are likely to be absorbed smoothly into employment onon completion ofof their training. A class of about 20 is the minimum acceptable, if staff costs areare to be kept within reason-reason able limits.limits. Classes of 30 or, in exceptional cases,cases, up to 40 can be taught by an experienced instructor, provided that a number of assistants are available to break the class into groups ofof aboutabout 8 students for practical exercises.exeroises. The largerlarger the class, the less direct contactcontaot between instructor and individual students, and the less possibilitypossibility of giving detailed assistanceassistance toto thosethose whowho mostmost needneed it.it. When the requirements for trained staff are extensive, multiple classes taught in parallel streams areare necessary.neoessary. Large classesolasses ofof 7070 oror 8080 studentsstudents cannotcannot normallynormally enjoyenjoy the closeclose contactcontact between studentstudent andand instructorinstructor desirabledesirable forfor teachingteaching atat thisthis level.level. Up to the sizesize limitlimit ofof a singlesingle streamstream (say,(say, 40 students),students), anyany riserise andand fallfall inin numbers required is a relatively minor matter which cancan be dealt with...lith by smallsmall adjustments in the number of assistants and in the supplysupply of equipment. When the annual requirement exoeedsexceeds the efficient level of one class, the decision to followfollow a doubledouble (or(or even treble) stream pattern of education involves considerably greater expenditure, and the commitment of more experienced staffstaff asas instructors.instructors. It also involves major problems in planning and executingexeouting practical exercises, especially those involvinginvolving travel. This cannot bebe undertaken without some very serious consideration ofof trained manpower requirement fore-fore casts or projections, toto ensure that thethe double or treble streams will be required for a sufficient number of years to justifyjustify thethe cost.cost. The use of lessless highlyhignly trainedtrained staff staff on certain tasktaskss may reduce the need for fullyfully trained technicians. Expansion to doubdoublele or triple streamingstreaming for a limited number of years can onlyonly be justified,justified, ifif there is a long-long term programme of continuingoontinuing education by refresher,refreSher , or upgrading, courses to utilize the surplus capacity when multiple streamsstreams areare nono longerlonger required.required. In large countriescountries with varyingvarying ecological zones, twotwo or more smasmallerller sohools,schools, concon- centratingoentrating onon topics appropriateappropriate toto thethe particularparticular serie,zone, may bebe more efficient than a large central organization trying to cover all variations ofof ecologicalecologioal conditions.oonditions. - 23 - 12.212.2 Purpose-builtPurpose-built schools There is a great needneed forfor properlyproperly designed schoolsschools forfor technical training in fores-fores try but, unfortunately, their requirementsrequirements have seldomseldom been quantified.quantified. Hence, archiarchi- tects usually have little appreciationappreciation of the particularparticular needsneeds ofof this type of establish-establish ment. furthermore,FUrthermore, any suggestionssuggestions which are offered during the design phase may be rere- garded as an instrusion intointo thethe spheresphere ofof theirtheir professionalprofessional competence.competence. They frequent-frequent ly offer a modified secondarysecondary schoolschool conceictconcept ofof building,building, resultingresulting fromfrom famifamiliarityliarity withwith such designs,designs, or scaled-dscaled-downown lecture theatre facilities rratherather than a design based on a thorough study of the particularparticular needsneeds of a technical course.course. The World Bank reoommendsrecommends as suitablesuitable guidelines for space allocations the publica-publica tion "Accommodation Standards for EducationalEliucational Buildings" (revised(revised 11977),977), published by the Building Research Establishment,Establishment, Department of the Environment, London, England, U.K. Some relevant, but slightly modified figures, from the sectionsection "Colleges"Colleges of FurtherF\lrther Educa-Educa tiontion"lt have been quoted in Appendix 5. The modifications are based on world-wide exper-exper ience in teaching atat forestryforestry technicaltechnical level.level. Classrooms are important and must be of such a size that they permit, and encourage, student activity rather than passivepassive learning.learning. Small, individualindividual desksdesks areare ofof limitedlimited value, other than forfor examinations.examinations. Chairs vlwithith a small writing area onon oneone armarm areare eveneven less useful at this levellevel ofof teaching.teaching. Larger tables forfor oneone oror twotwo persons,persons, butbut lightlight enough to forreform intointo setssets ofof twotwo oror moremore toto allowallow groupsgroups toto spread documents,documents, drawings, maps or botanical specimens over a wide area, are the best. As group tasks should be a regular feature of training,training, the design and construction of furniture and the size of room shoulddaould be related. The floor area should be sufficient to permitpermit 8 groups to work simul-s imul taneously on jointjoint tasks, inin reasonable comfort,comfort, withwith sufficientsufficient spacespace between groupsgroups to give some sense of privacy.privacy. A table-top area of O.45m0.45m22 and a floor allowance of 2.5m2-3-22.5m2-3mm2 per person shouldshould meetmeet thesethese requirements.requirements. Classes should be designed, as required forfor planned intake,intake, in'n the range ofof 2020 to 40 students. For laboratories, aa higher spacespace allocationallocation ofof aboutabout 4.5m24.5m2 per person may be necessarynecessary to allow forfor sideside benches and adequate storagestorage space.space. Provision should also be made for preparation rooms and equipmentequipment stores,stores, directlydirectly accessibleaccessible fromfrom the laboratory,laboratory, at a level of aboutabout 15% of the teaching spacespace inin thethe laboratory.laboratory. Space allocations such as these may seem generous atat the beginning, but it is not uncommon for an institution to be pressedpressed to increaseincrease itsits intakeintake atat somesome stagestage inin spite ofof careful forwardforward planning, and these initial allocations maymay makemake itit possiblepo ssible without\-lithout too great inconvenience or disruption of the teaching programme.programme. A "building design based on a repeated reinforced concreteconcrete pillarpillar and beam module, of, saysay,, 3m length aandnd 88-9m- 9m span, is useful in that partition wallsvlalls can be non-load-bearing. This means that they can be moved at intervalsintervals ofof perhapsperhaps Im,1m, ifif the requirements ofof the teaching change.change. In generageneral,l, thethe length of thethe classrooms should not exceed 11.5.5 times the breadth, but there is somesome value inin having moveable partitionspartitions between somesome pairs of roomrooms.s . This allows for the occasional-use of double-sizedouble- size classroomsclassrooms by guestguest lecturers,lecturers, for securing adequate dispersaldisper sal of candidatescandidates during examinations,examinations, oror forfor certaincertain tasks suehsuch as exhibitions, which require unusual amounts ofof space.space. 12.3 Shape and layout of academic and administrative buildings The shapeshape andand layoutlayout ofof anyany particularparticular groupgroup ofof buildingsbuildings isis veryvery muchmuch dependentdependent uponupon the sitesite availableavailable andand onon thethe artisticartistic oror professionalprofessional meritsmerits ofof thethe architectarchitect employed.employed. Architects generally want\vant freedomfreedom of expression and areare notnot over-keenover-keen to accept sugges-sugges tions fromfrom laylay clients;clients; therefore itit isis advisableadvisable toto givegive aa carefullycarefully thought-outthought-out andand de-de tailed brief.brief. Important points to decide at aann early stagestage are whether to favourfavour a single or multi-storey building and aim at a compact layout,layout, oror acceptaccept somesome degree of dis-dis persal to take advantage ofof particularparticular sitesite factors.factors. For a singlesingle streamstream institutioninstitution withwith classesclasses ofof upup toto 4040 students,students, aa single-storeysingle-storey layout is likely to prove to be the cheapest and most efficient.efficient. In this case,case , aa T-shaped layoutlayout providesprovides aa very compactcompact design.design. The classrooms,classrooms, library/herbariumlibrary/herbarium and laboratories can form the top of the T, with the administrative andand storagestorage accommodation located in the base.base. A circulation areaarea isis desirabledesirable atat thethe junctionjunction ofof thethe twotwo areas.areas. - 24 - For a larger institution, still onon a single-storeysingle-storey plan, an H-block layoutlayout or a rect-rect angle enclosing an ornamental courtyard, may prove more suitable. The centre bar of the H cancan contain the library/resourcelibrary/resource centrecentre andand aa herbarium/museum, whilstwhilst oneone sideside can be devoted to classrooms andand the other toto laboratorieslaboratories andand aa smallsmall assemblyassembly hall or auditorium. Office accommodation for staff can be incorporated in one of the ,-;rings.wings. Where high temperatures and humidity areare experienced,experienced, it is most convenient to arrange rooms inin a singlesingle lineline to allowallow ventilation from both sides.sides. In cooler areas,areas, the layout can be made moremore compact by having, say,say, classroomsclassrooms onon oneone sideside and officesoffices and stores on the other side of a central corridor, in either an H or a T format. This, however, involves a wider roof spanspan withwith greatergreater problemsproblems ofof constructionconstruction oror the need for load-bearing partition ''lalls,walls, which limits the possibility of rearrangement later. A double-storey design is probably best for a multi-stream institution, as it enables both teaching and administrativeadministrative accommodation to be kept within a reasonable ground area. Office and storage accommodation andand aa library/resourcelibrary/resource centrecentre cancan be locatedlocated on the groundground floor, and teaching accommodation andand laboratorieslaboratories onon thethe upperupper storey.storey. In this case,case, except for the librarylibrary area, a layoutlayout ofof roomsrooms onon eithereither sideside ofof aa centralcentral corridorcorridor is desirable to avoid an excessively longlong andand narrownarrow format.format. If teaching accommodation is confined to the upper floor, external verandahs oror circulationcirculation spacesspaces between classrooms are necessary to allow relaxation between classes.classes. Staff office accommodationaccommodation "aalwayslways representsrepresents aa problem.problem. Individual offices for allall staff members are costly and result, generally, in smallsmall and cramped cubicles in order to achieve a reasonablereaso~ble levellevel ofof economy.economy. Whilst the princprincipalipal and certain senior staff may warrant individual offices, where they cancan discussdiscuss mattersmatter s withwith assistantsassistants oror studentsstudents in privacy, 2 or 33 assistants sharingshari ng a more spaciousspacious office isis not undesirableundesirable and can be beneficial. In thethe first place, not all are likely to be using it at one and the same time and when they are, some degree of inter-communicationinter-communication and discussion ofof activities can be established. Adequate storage space, suchsuch as cupboards and filing cabinets inin the offices, and small storerooms for easy access to teaching materials are essential. This helps toto minimize delay and disruptiondisruption to classes whenwhen additionaladditional suppliessupplies are required during teaching. The layoutlayout shouldshould alsoalso incorporateincorporate adequateadequate generalgeneral storagestorage space,space, soso that materials can be easily classified and issuedissued withVlith the minimum ofof delay. Office accomoaccomo- dation should also be provided for a storekeeper,storekeeper, inin order that adequate records of stocks, issues and costs cancan bebe maintained.maintained. The buildings shouldshould incorporateincorporate toilettoilet andand washroomwashroom facilitiesfacilities forfor bothboth staffstaff and students, so that a switch from practical workwork to classclass activities cancan easilyeasily be made. 12.4 StudentStudent dormitories and catering facilitiesfacilities Careful consideration should be given to the layout and design of the studentstudent dormi-dormi tories and associated cateringcatering facilities.facilities. As with the academic andand administrativeadministrative accommodation, single or multi-storey buildings can be used, depending upon the sitesite and/or the sizesize ofof thethe institution.institution. Scattered, one-storey buildings are normal for smaller institutions or where there are amenity considerations. For larger institutions, two- oror three-storey blocks are preferable, as they economize in spacespace and reduce maintenancemaintenance costs. The student dormitories andand cateringcatering facilitiesfacilities inin the smallersmaller institutionsinstitutions shouldshould form a block at a convenient distance fromfrom the classrooms and offices. Recreational facilities should also be included in this block andand usually a sick-baysick-bay or first-aidfirst-aid room. This type of layout may not always be possiblepossible withwith the largerlarger institutions.institutions. 12.5 StaffStaff quarters and other buildings The staffstaff quartersquarters shouldshould bebe includedincluded inin thethe layoutlayout ofof schoolschool buildingsbuildings ideallyideally within walking distance of the academic andanQ administrativeadministrative block. DDifferentifferent types of houses will be required to meet the needsneeds ofof both instructionalinst?uctional andand administrativeadministrative staff.staff. Details areare given in Part IIII of the manual. - 25 - Otherother buildings Whichwhich willwill have to be providedprovided includeinclude various categories of workshop, tool stores, and possibly aa smallsmall sawmill.sawmill. When siting these buildings, greatgreat carecare mustmust be taken to ensure that any noise arisingarising will not distract students inin class or adminis-adminis trative staff in their offices.offices. 12.6 Landscaping of school grounds WhenWhsn the layout of the schoolschool buildingebuildings is being considered, careful thought should be given to obtaining maximum educationaleducational benefitsbenefits fromfrom thethe landscapinglandscaping ofof thethe site.site. Possibilities may exist forfor retaining individual trees,tress, or groupsgroups of trees, which canoan be utilized in tsachingteaching suchsuch subjectssubjects as forest botany andand forestforest mensuration. Similarly, outcrops ofof rockrock can be useful, if geology is included in the curriculum,curriculumyand and examples of vegetation types. Space shouldshould also be left for planting specimen trees and for bringingbringdng in logplogs forfor timber measurement.measurement. otherOther features to consider are groups or belts of trees for screeningsoreening buildings, re- ducing noise and actingacting asas dustdust filters.filters. Likewise,LikeWise, amenity areas with trees, shrubs and plants should be plannedplanned toto enhanceenhanoe thethe site.site. The establishment of aa schoolschool gardengarden maymay be another possibility, as this cancan be used to reduce foodfood costs at the institution. It could also have an educational value in showingshOwing students how to produce their own vegevege- tables. Space might also be available forfor fruitfruit andand nutnut trees and,and, inin certain countries, fish farming could be introduced.introduoed. To sumsum up, givengiven spacespace andand time, it shouldshould be possible to obtain a wide range of educational benefits from the schoolschool grounds.grounds. 113. 3. CONTROL OF TRAINING This is more likelylikely to be determineddetermined by thethe policy of a particularpartioular government than by an objective consideration o'fdf training needs and goals.goals. 13.1 Centralized institutionsinetitutions If aa government tendstends toto favour large centralized polytechnic institutions, it is almost impossible for forestry training to hold out as an individual orgpnization.organization. It tends to be absorbed into a large agricultural or biologically based institution.institution. While there may be benefits in having this broad perspectiueperspecti~e ono~ training, numerically the forestry ssctorsector is likely to represent only a minor part of the institution and both staff and students may feel that the specialspeoial needs of their studiesstudies receive limitedlimited attention.attsntion. Though they may gain in some respectsrespeots fromfrom the ability to shareshare common staffstaff and services,services, they may lose inin otherother ways.ways. This isis particularlypartioularly truetrue inin respectrespect ofof providingproviding thethe practicalpractical exercisesexercises whichwhich are required to make students competent performers . in the skills,skills, as distinct fromfrom "knowledge-"knowledge able" in the various forestry subjects.subjects. Even where facilitiesfacilities areare availableavailable inin aa forestforest site a few kilometreskilometres distant, the proportion of time spent in travelling in relation toto the actual practice achieved maym~ be disproportionate. Within such large institutions,institutions, individualindividual departments can rarely control transport ofof theirtheir ownown andand must rely on a pool of vehicles,vehicles, whichwhich makesmakes tripstrips at short notice very difficult to arrange. 13.2 Departmental institutions If thethe emphaemphasissi s in trainingtraining is placeplacedd on an ability to carry out a range of parpar- ticular skills in order to tackle problemsproblems in actual workingworking environments,environments, i.e.i.e. to be adequately prepared to take over a field charge immediatelyimmedi ately on qualification, then there is a strong case for placing the training under the main employing body. Also, the school should bebe located in an area where facilities for realistic practical training are readily available.available. If the trainingtraining is controlled by the forestforest authority, it is likely to be more closely related to the particular requirementsrequirsments ofof the authorityauthority andand to bebe more flexibleflexible to the changing emphasis and needs ofof thethe service.service. On the other hand, shouldshould thethe controlcontrol bebe inin the hands of a central educational organization,organization, oror aa largplar~ inter-disciplinaryinter-disciplinary institution,institution, there will be a tendency to "straight-jacket"II stra1ght-jacket" coursescourses intointo specificspecific timetime units to achieveachieve comparability with other courses.courses. In other words, the requirements ofof tidytidy educationaleducational administration m~may take precedence over the wider needs of the training. - 2266 - Another aspect to be considered is that rna.nymany forestry topics are "weather dependentdependent" n and this does not suit the long-term, pre-planned programmes of the large educational institutions. InIn smaller institutions, some syllabus and programme flexibilityflexibility cancan bebe allowed to ensure that subjects are taught, and experience gained, when weather conditions are most suitablesui table to the task.task. 13.313.3 Control of small institutions One defect of a small institution may be that it is too self-oentred and that the training may go ahead to the satisfaction of the staff, but not necessarily of others. A good "advisory board" of experiencedexperienced field sstaff,taff, well acquaintedacquainted withwith current needsneeds andand probable future trends of operations, and realistic in their assessment of students' and stafflsstaff's capabilities, is therefore desirable toto reviewreview curriculumcurriculum contentcontent andand suggestsuggest modifications. TheirTheir task should be to guide the general direction of thethe course, in order to meet the needs of the employers and to maintain a proper balance between the manymany topics clamouring forfor attention.attention. Their function should not extend to thethe day-to-day running of the institution, whiohwhich canoan only be planned and executed by the staff who are in daily contact with the students.students. In aa situation where the standard of training is stillstill low,low, itit maymay bebe difficultdifficult toto findfind field staff ofof a sufficient degreedegree ofof maturitymaturity andand experience, to formform suchsuch anan advisoryadvisory board.board. Budgets and major equipmentequipment purchases shouldshould be initiated by the institutionalinstitutionsl staff, but screened by the advisory board before being incorporated into the budget of the organization. Day-to-day allocations for expenditure on training needs should be agreed with thethe board,board, onon a "~"221: capita" basis,baSiS, and aa seniorsenior staffstaff committeecommittee leftleft toto decidedecide allocations between sections of the institute and day-to-d~day-to-day purchases. 13.413.4 RelationshipRelationship withwith universityuniversity educationeducation Possibly the least satisfactorysatisfactory solutionsolution isis to have technical training in forestry inoorporatedincorporated inin a university programme.programme. In thethe firstfirst place,place, university staff are trained to a hignhigh professional levellevel and oriented normally to research rather than teaching; in the second,seoond, they usually lack knowledge andand basic experience of the range of technical skills whichwhioh the technician requires. In thisthis environment, experienced forest technicians who could contribute substantiallysubstantially to the training, are usually relegated to a low, non-non academic status and in consequence feel largely undervalued. The overalloverall resultresult isis that the course tends to be aa watered-down version ofof aa degree coursecourse givengiven to candidates below degree entry level and largely ignoring the specific requirements of technical skills. Also, the right of aa techniciantechnician toto valuevalue andand taketake pridepride inin thesethese skillsskills isis ignored.ignored. University andand technical trainingtraining must,must, therefore,therefore, bebe recognizedrecognized asas beingbeing separateseparate entities, with very different staff and training requirements. Nevertheless, they are complementary andand closeclose liaisonliaison shouldshould bebe maintained,maintained, wherewhere possible.possible. Such liaison should have maximwnmaximum use of existing training resources as a primary goal and a general improvement ofof the the star-lc-lards standards of of training training atat all levels.levels. In order to bring about improve-improve ment, it maym~ be advantageousadvantageous to establish aa NationalNational Forestry EducationIDucation Council,Council, at which employers, educators andand trainers, atat allall levels,levele, canoan bebe represented.represented. The forest techtech- nician schools,schools, forfor instance,instance, may be ableable to offeroffer practicalpractical courses,courses, suchsuch asas the use of chainsaws, to univerSityuniversity students during their vacations. SuchSuoh courses,courses, inin the firstfirst instance, could lead to better understanding between professional and technical students. Ultimately, after the studentsstudents graduate,graduate, they couldcould bringbring aboutabout goodgood workingworking relationships in the field.field. 14. LOCATION OF SCHOOLS 14.1 SocialSocial factors The locationlooation of an institution isis normally influencedinfluenced by the generalgeneral development of a& country. Where there is a marked trend towards urbanization andand aa highhigh valuevalue placedplaced uponupon the amenitiesamenit'ies ofof lifelife inin largerlarger centres,centres, itit maymay bebe difficultdi~ficult toto locatelocate anan institutioninstitution inin a rural area, even though this mightmignt provide the best environment and facilities for training. The problemproblem lieslies not solelysolely with the students,students, butbut moremore oftenoften withwith the staffstaff oror -- more correctly - with their wives.wives. In thesethese circumstances, wiveswives areare oftenoften moremore reluctantreluctant toto - 27 - give up the amenities of urban living and can often use the problems of shopping and thethe education of children in rural areas as reasons for staying in the centres of population.popul&~ion. This inevitablyinevitably leadsleads to instabilityinstability andand aa quickquick turnoverturnover ofof staff.staff. Where thethe prooessprocess of urbanization has not yet advanced strongly, it is easier to locate a school in a rural area and provide satisfactory living standards for both stu-stu dents andand staff.staff. Overall, possiblypossibly the best locationlooation forfor aa forestryforestry schoolschool is on the outskirts of a small town which is in close proximity toto large-scalelarge-scale forestryforestry operations.operations. Ideally, the towntown should have most of the facilities which modern living demands, such as supply of electricity and piped water, schools, shops and a hospital. 14.2 Level of develOpmentdevelopment of forestry The general development of forestryforestry within the areaarea oror country isis alsoalso aa releTantrelevant factor. If there is still a largelarge programme of surveying,surveying, inventory, or other field management activities requiring staffstaff to spendspend longlong periodsperiods workingworking inin remote areas,areas, itit is desirable to mirror this inin the students'students' training, soso they knowknow whatwhat toto expectexpect in their work situation.situation. If forestry has progressed towards aa moremore industrialindustrial atmosphere,atmosphere, with plantations feeding industries inin closeclose proximityproximity to manufacturing communities,communities, there may not be the samesame need forfor training inin rural living.living. In thisthis situation, the staff may bebe able toto live in centres of population and travel, as required, to the field.field. 14.3 SourceSource of student intakeintake Another consideration is the factfact that inin many countries there isis likelylikely to be aa preponderance of town-bred studentsstudents inin the forestryforestry institutions.institutions. This arises because the towns provideprovide the best educationaleducational facilities,facilities, andand Ttudentsstudents fromfrom thesethese areasareas tendtend. toto do better in a competitive entranceentranoe process, ifif formalformal educationeducation playsplays aa major rolero~e inin it.it. In thesethese cases,cases, an introduction to rural living and experience of providing onelsone's ownown entertainment and recreation is an essential featurefeature inin training. This cancan bestbest be pro-pro- vided inin relatively smallsmall institutionsinstitutions inin aa ruralrural area.area. 14.4 Constraints on location in rural areas One drawback of a small school in a rural area is that it may lacklack the services ofof good meohanios,mechanics, carpenters, electricians, plumbers, etc.etc. fromfrom the surroundingsurrounding anea.area. In these circumstances,circumstances, thethe institutioninstitution maymay bebe forcedforced toto makemake alternativealternative arrangementsarrangemen,1a fromfrom its own resources, often at considerable cost.cost. A positive feature, however, isis that"that itit brings studentsstudents intointo closercloser contactcontact withwith thethe problemsproblems ofof maintenancemaintenance ofof thesethese servicesservices and this may be of value to them laterlater when postedposted to remote stations.stations. 15. TRAINIMTRAIIlIIll ADAND EMPLOYMENT EMPLOYMENr OFOF TEACHINGTEACHIIll STAFFSTAFF 15.1 Selection Ideally, a candidate for an instructor's post inin a technical institution should have aa minimum of 22 years'years' experienceexperience inin thethe field,field, afteraf'ter qualifyingqualifying fromfrom aa similarsimi..lar course. This may be increasedincreased to 5 years, if the employing organizationorgani zation is wellwe~l developed and can provide a wide range ofof experience forfor a candidatecandidate overover these years.years. In casescases wherewhere crashcrash trainingtraining prograrrmesprogrammes are required, the minimum period of field experienoeexperience may have to bebe waived.waived. It should be rememberedremembered thatthat ifif this this takes takes -place, :place, for thethe first yearyear thethe new instructor will be at a great disadvantage, as it is lifficultdifficult to exercise authority overover aa classclass whowho werewere hishis oror herher contemporariescontemporaries onlyonly one one zrear~ar junior. The firstfirst yearyear ofof serviceservice inin thesethese circumstancescircumstances is,is, therefore,therefore, oftenoften unsatis-unsatis factory to both teacher and employer,employer, andand a direct postingposting fromfrom studentstudent to schoolschool staffstaff should be avoided.avoided. Selection should, wheneverWhenever possible,pOSSible, be made from candidates who have voluuteeredvoluuneered for the work for genuine reasons of interest, not because itit may appearappear to provide easyeasy living conditions, or a short-cutshorl-cut to higher education. This shouldshould not rulerule out0.' thethe selection of certain candidates who m~may appear to their former instructors, or to10 their supervisors, to have some special aptitude or qualities which wouldwould be ofof value inin aa training situation.situation. - 28 - 15.2 Induction A candidate for a teaching post with limited field experience is best engaged as a field-work instructor and shouldshould only be given limited classroomolassroom responsibilities for at least aa year.year. This enables the institution to assess if the person has any aptitude for the task, andand isis willing to acceptaccept the self-disciplineself-discipline ofof regular and consistent work which isis requiredrequired ofof aa teacher.teacher. During this period, the head of section should give the new instructorinstructor "some some tuition inin preparingpreparing andand conductingconducting demonstrationsdemonstrations and inin supervisingsupervising groups of students.students. The criteria for assessing performance in fieldfield work should also be explained and the instructor required to practise on students engaged on practical tasks. A candidate with a longer period of field serviceservice can pass through the stagestage of demonstrator andand fieldfield instructorinstructor moremore quickly.quickly. Just sufficient time to gain somesome con-con fidence in the work and to adjust his or her level of instruction to that of the students should be allowed.allowed. Thereafter, a limited programaeprogramme of class teaching can be undertaken, in a familiar topic, under thethe guidanceguidance ofof anan experiencedexperienced staffstaff member.member. 150315.3 Further development If a candidate shows aptitudeaptitude for teaching, a decision must be reached as to whether his or her basic knowledge isis sufficientsufficient forfor teaching dutiesduties to be undertaken, or Whetherwhether further training isis required. In areasareas where educational programmes areare highlyhighly developed,developed, a teacher may~ not be regarded as qualifiedqualified unless inin possessionpossession ofof a Bachelor's oror even aa Master's degree, though the latterlatter may be ofof very littlelittle relevancerelevance to the workwork of aa teacher at the technical level.level. If such higher qualifications are required, a period of 4 to 5 years may have to be invested in the further education of a staff member required for a teaching post. Sub-Sub sequently, there is likely to be a reluctance to move the instructor out of the training field, because of the investment.investment. This, inevitably, limits the working experience of such staff and builds a degree of obsolescence into the training programme, unless periods ofof sabbaticalsabbatical leave,leave, oror furtherfurther studystudy inin the field,field, cancan be granted.granted. Where education is controlled by the employing authority, and locatedlooated in smaller institutions, it may be acceptedacoepted that a period of work experience, or a shortshort course of study in a country at a more advanced technological level, can provide adequate initial preparation. This involves a muchmuoh shortershorter and lessless costlycostly programme which isis more relevant to field operations, and makesmake~ · a later transfer fromfrom training to field duties less of a lossloss to the organization.organi za.tion. It also allows more time forfor formalformal trainingtraining inin thethe techniques ofof instructioninstruction andand use ofof thethe relatedrelated trainingtraining facilities.facilities. 15.4 Pedagogic training It is most difficult to locate suitablesuitable · educational establishments for training forestry instructors.instructors. A general teacher training programmeprogramme at secondarysecondary schoolschool levellevel isi s of limited value.value. The candidate is "odd man out" inin his class and bubusysy lecturerslecturers can seldomseldom tailor his assignments or programmes to be of any real value to him, other than in some general principlesprinciples ofof teaching.teaching. He must, therefore, take his chance inin the generalgeneral programme and derive Whatwhat benefit he can from it, adapting newly-acquirednewly-acquired knowledge and skills to his fieldfield ofof training. Fortunately, one organization providing specific programmes forfor training instructors in forestry institutions does exist, at the CentreCentre forfor ForestryForestry EducationF}iucation Development, Los Baños,Banos, Philippines. In this centre, which for the time being caters only forfor candi-candi dates from Asia and the Southwest Pacific region, a six-months'six-months' programme provides forfor a period of study in educational science, backed up by furtherfurther training in specializedspecialized pro-pro fessional areas that have been identified forfor individual coursecourse members. Work is also carried out on the preparation of a special teaching programmeprogramme related to aa selectedselected topiC.topic. It is hopedhoped that similar institutions will be established in other regions and that they will gain from the experience acquired fromfrom the pioneer work carried out at Los Baños.Banos. It should alsoalso bebe mentionedmentioned thatthat in some of thethe more advanced countries there are courses for training technical teachers. However, the number ofof places available is limited and, again, the course curriculum maymay not be entirely related to the requirements ofof aa forestryforestry instructor.instructor. -29- 29 - If difficulties are found inin locatinglocating suitablesuitable formalformal coursescourses forfor trainingtraining thethe instructors, a short-term solution is to arrange for a trainingtraining team to visitvisit thethe instiinsti- tution andand givegive coursescourses onon teachingteaching techniques.techniques. The team members should be experienced teachers and can probably be recruited fromfrom aa locallocal teacher training college or a techtech- nicalnioal institute.institute. The coursecourse duration cancan bebe inin the region of two to three weeks, with follow-up visits later,later, onceonce the instructorsinstructors havehave gainedgained somesome teachingteaching experience.experience. Pro-Pro vided that the training t.eamteam members are well-experienced and enthusiaetic,enthusiastic, it is sur-sur prising how muohmuch the new instructorsinstructors cancan bebe motivatedmotivated towardstowards goodgood teachingteaching practices.practices. Later on, this initialinitial training cancan be supplementedsupplemented by longer periods of study, as suit-suit able courses are located oror established,established, andand asas fundsfunds oror fellowshipsfellowships areare mademade available.available. If thethe above measures are notnot possible,possible t therethere remainsremains "on-the-job""on-the-job" training.training. Such a programmeprogramne can serve very well, provided that the workload of the supervisor makes time for training an assistant, andand provided that therethere isis adequate rapport between the senior and junior members. Initial taokstasks oancan involve a review of class teachingteaching on which thethe assistant's pracprac- tical work classesclaeses are based. The assistant can be setset specificspecific taskstasks ofof studyingstudying recentrecent library acquisitions, journalsjournals or internal circulars, to determine if the contentoontent of thethe training programme is fullyfully up-to-date. He may then be givengiven tasks ofof revisingrevising diagramsdiagrams or illustrations used in class teaching and asked to suggest waysw83B in whiohwhich currentourrent ideas oancan be more skilfully presented.presented. At the end of a course, he oancan assist the instruotorinstructor in an overall review of the oontentcontent and method of presentation of the courseoourse in the light of defined objectivesobjeotives andand achievementachievement targets.targets. In this way he oancan build up sufficient familiarity with a course to carry out teachingteaching of a particular sectionseotion himself.himself. He shouldshould be allowed adequate time to draft a schemesoheme of work for the section and prepare a series of outline lesson plans. SpecificSpeoific instruction should also be givengiven inin thethe useuse ofof teachingteaching aidsaids appropriateappropriate toto thethe course.course. As a follow-fo11ow up, he should be encouraged to produceproduce revisedrevised oror additional material forfor overheadoverhead pro-pro jection, or to select a new collection ofof projectorprojector transparencies,transparencies, ifif appropriate.appropriate. In addition, he Shouldshould review the existing facilities and equipment for practicalpractioal exeroisesexercises and suggest ways in which they could be more effectivelyeffeotively used, identifying deficiencies for which further purchasespurohases are required. Another aspectaspeot of the training given Shouldshould be experience of planning campsoamps or field exeroiseexercise programmes to support particular sectionsseotions of the classwork. Having prepared a plan, the assistant should play a prominent part in administrating and supervising the programme to verify the effectivenesseffeotiveness ofof thethe plan.plan. Practice in drafting examinationexamdnation questions, in preparing model answers, and in grading examinationexamdnation scripts, under close scrutiny fromfrom the supervisor, is also an essen-assen ttial ial feature ofof instructorinstructor training.training. Finally, it should be noted that to prepare a newcomer effectivelyeffeotively to acceptaooept full responsibility for a courseoourse may~ take 11 to 22 years, depending upon the depth and range of experience gained in the field before assuming teaching duties. 15.5 Higher level educational training Training in wider-ranging educationaleduoational planning, management, and development may not be relevant to all teachers in technicalteohnioal institutions,institutions, somesome of whom may~ wishwish to return to normal fieldfield duties, or seek promotion inin aa specializedspecialized field,field, afterafter aa period of service as a teacher. This type ofof educationeducation isis normallynormally availableavailable atat aa university offeringoffering a professional programmeprogramme inin education.education. It is best taken after about 5 years' teaching experienoe,experience, by anyone who wishes to continue teaching and aspires to a higher post in the instinstitution. i tut ion. Such courses would be a natural development of interregional centrescentres forfor forestryforestry educational development which could cooperate closely with an established university faculty of education, sincesince the coursecourse wouldwould covercover moremore generalgeneral principlesprinciples ofof planning,planning, management and development, with onlyonly limitedlimited reference to specificspecific forestryforestry problems.problems. - 30-30 - 15.6 Inter-departmental or inter-country cooperation Where cooperative programmes can be established, either between departments within a country employing technical instructors, or between countries with generally similar environmentalenvironmental conditions,conditions, these areare likelylikely to bebe ofof greatgreat valuevalue inin preparingpreparing staffstaff forfor teaching atat thethe technicaltechnical level.level. A reasonable diversitydiversity ofof candidatescandidates isis notnot aa greatgreat drawback, if emphasis isis placedplar.ed onon principlesprinciples andand methods.methods. OneOne ddisadvantagei sadvantage isis that not much attention cancan bebe givengiven to detailed coursecourse content,content, butbut thisthis isis offsetoffset by the experience whichwhich isis gainedgained ofof aa wider variety ofof approachesapproaches toto teaching. 15.7 Build-up of experience A feature which is often insufficientlyinsufficiently rated by administratorsadministrators is the value of the build-up ofof experienceexperience inin thethe staffstaff ofof aa trainingtraining institution.institution. If this can be achieved to a satisfactorysatisfactory level,level, the existing staffstaff cancan contributecontribute greatlygreatly to the training ofof newcomers.newcomers. The amalgamame.lgam of well-tried procedures and the freshfresh ideasideas or experience of the newcomers cancan leadlead to a progressive improvementimprovement inin the contentcontent andand presentation ofof courses.courses. 15.8 Conditions of employment Specific conditions of employment will depend largelylargely onon whether the training institution is a large, semi-independentsemi-independent organization linkedlinked to aa majormajor polytechnicpolytechnic institution, or a small organizationorganization linkedlinked closelyclosely with,with, oror eveneven fullyfully integratedintegrated into,into, the main employingemploying agency.agency. In thethe firstfirst case,case, thethe conditions of service and salary scales are likely to be influenced, if not controlled,controlled, by nationalnational agreementsagreement. oror by aa pattern of remuneration common to all suchsuch institutions inin the country.country. In a smaller departmental institution,institution, wherewhere aa fairlyfairly hieihigh degreedegree ofof mobilitymobility ofof staffstaff betweenbetween training andand fieldfield postsposts isis expected,expected, salarysalary scalesscales andand conditionsconditions ofof serviceservice willwill bebe more closelyolosely linkedlinked to specificspecific ranksranks oror paypay scalesscales inin fieldfield duties.duties. Additional increments,increments, eithereither onon aa temporary oror permanentpermanent basis,basis, maymay bebe requiredrequired to compensate for the fact that most staff at residential institutionsinstitutions havebave certaincertain extra-extra curricular responsibilities oror duties,duties, atat abnormalabnormal times.times. Salary differentials between teaching and fieldfield postsposts mustmust not,not, however,however, bebe soso greatgreat asas toto hamperhamper reasonablereasonable movementmovement between teaching andand practice,practice, andand locklock intointo thethe systemsystem personspersons whosewhose primaryprimary interestinterest is the enhanced reward. Fringe benefits can be useful additions to the standardstandard con-con ditions of employment, asas theythey maymay attractattract somesome goodgood candidatescandidates forfor teachingteaching pouts.posts. These benefits may includeinclude suchsuch itemsitems asas goodgood qualityquality housing,housing, pleasantlypleasantly locatedlocated withinwithin the schoolschool site,site, assistance withwith gardengarden maintenancemaintenance andand reasonablereasonable accessaccess toto transporttransport for studystuiy or recreational purposes.purposes. To retain staffstaff who areare particularlyparticularly valuable toto aa trainingtraining institution,institution, itit isis important that facilities are available to create certainoertain ad personanpersonam postsposts whichwhich have enhanced salarysalary scales.scales. TheThesese may be usedused to securesecure continuitycontinuity ofof serviceservice of a parti-parti cularly well qualifiedqualified staffstaff member,member, oror to retainretain aa personperson withwith aa possiblepossible lossloss ofof careercareer prospects whilst a suitablesuitable replacementreplacement isis beingbeing trained.trained. 15.9 Motivation, incentives andand jobjob satisfactionsatisfaction Assuming the financialfinancial andand domestic aspectsaspects ofof the postpost havehave beenbeen reasonablyreasonably dealtdealt with, personal motivation maymay springspring fromfrom the goodgood relationshipsrelationships betweenbetween thethe staffstaff mem-mem ber and the institution inin general,general, andand withwith hishis supervisorssupervisors andand colleagues.colleagues. In planning courses, within acceptable guidelines, instructorsinstructors should be permitted considerable freedomfreedom ofof expression.expression. They should be permittedpermitted to displaydispl~ initiativeinitiative andand skiskillslls in developing and applying new techniques inin the classroomclassroom oror with\on th fieldfield instruc-instruc tion and shouldshould be encouragedencouraged toto seekseek outout positivepositive newneH approachesapproaches toto identifiedidentified learninglearning problems. Staff members, at all levels, should be givengiven fullfull credit inin reportsreports and such documents for any contributions they have made toto the developmentdevelopment of courses.courses. If theirtheir proposals require further research, or the purchasepurchase of additionaladditional equipment, before they can be fullyfully implemented,implemented, reasonablereasonable supportsupport should be given.given. This may inin- clude allocations of time and resources to test the proposalsproposals andand assistanceassistance inin obtainingobtaining budgetary provision forfor anyany additionaladditional equipmentequipment whichwhich isi s consideredconsidered essential.essential. - 3131 - Staff membersmembers shouldshould bebe enabled,enabled, andand encouraged,encouraged, toto playplay aa constructiveconstructive partpart inin thethe development of educational policy andand practicepractice withinwithin the training programme.programme. They shouldshould be fully consulted on all new proposals andand be invited to submitsubmit alternative oror additionaladditional proposals wherewhere relevant.relevant. They should also be freefree to commentconunent on the administrative pro-pro cedures within the organization andand to playplay aa partpart inin ensuringensuring that these serve,serve, rather than restrict, the main objectivesobjectives ofof education.education. It has been found that monthly staffstaff meetings provide a convenient forumforum forfor discussing new proposalsproposals and administrativeadministrative matters. The overall relationship of the institution to the departmental and national develop-develop ment programmes must be emphasized to allall membersmembers ofof the staff.staff. Channels should be propro- vided forfor directingdirecting anyany staffstaff suggestionssuggestions whichwhich mightmight contributecontribute toto thethe increasedincreased effic-effic iency of the organizationorgani zation to appropriate levelslevels atat which they cancan be properlyproperly studiedstudied andand implemented. The statusstatus ofof thethe institutioninstitution andani personalpersonal pridepride atat beingbeing selectedselected asas oneone ofof itsits staff maymay have a beneficial influence on an instructor's work. Staff members should know that successsuccess achievedachieved in their tasks willwill bebe notednoted atat the highest levelslevels inin the organization and may count favourablyfavourably on their behalf,behalf, ifif theythey wishwish to movemove outout to suitablesuitable field posts at a laterlater date.date. Continuing contact with their former studentsstudents inin the field,field, and feedback on their performances, particularlyparticularly their successes,successes, isis aa valuable elementelement inin job satisfaction.satisfaction. Close contacts of this nature, including facilities to meet former students in their field posts and to discuss any problems of training, should be enoouraged. In general, a staff member should be encouragedencouraged to feelfeel "part"part of"ofu rather than "anItan employee of"ofn the training institution, andand toto regard anyany contributioncontribution hehe makesmakes toto itsits improvement asas a contribution to a group ofof whichwhich he isis anan integralintegral part.part. 15.10 CooperationCooperation with forest service staff Close cooperation with forest serviceservice staff,staff, or otherother potentialpotential employers,employers, isis essen-essen tial forf or aa numbernumber ofof reasons.reasons. In the first place, tr?iningtraining must be regularly adaptedadapted to meet the changing needsneeds ofof the forestryforestry sector.sector. A good flow of information from fielfieldd workers about newnel'l developments is therefore required,required, eveneven beforebefore thethe latestlatest ideasi deas andand pro-pro cedures have been formalizedformali zed into departmentaldepartmental oror companycompany instructions.instructions. The instructorsinstructors must be alert to any policy changesohanges oror emphasisemphasis inin the directiondirection ofof work,work, oror toto anyany prob-prob lems arising, which a modification of the teaching programmeprogramme mightmight helphelp toto solve.solve. They shouldshould havehave aa goodgood understandingunderstanding ofof allall typestypes ofof forestryforestry workwork goinggoing onon through-through out the country and of the potential ofof bothboth thethe currentcurrent workwork techniques andand thethe locallocal staff for assisting in the development of the skills of their students. Recommendations on where studentsstudents might be placed inin relationrelation toto thethe students'students' ownown interestsinterests andand capa-capa bilities, and knowledge ofof the nature andand thethe availabilityavailability ofof suitablesuitable taskstasks andand super-super visors, areare valuablevaluable aidsaids inin makingmaking thethe bestbest useuse ofof newnew recruitsrecruits toto anan organization.organization. This is particularly importantimportant inin buildingbuilding upup thethe confidenceconfidence andand skillsskills ofof thethe lessless ableable students, and in stretching the capabilities of those who are competent but areare unwilling to exertexert themselvesthemselves fully.fully. Good relations withl'lith forestforest serviceservice staffstaff cancan alsoalso assistassist withwith thethe locationlocation ofof fieldfield tasks suitable forfor providing useful training forfor students.students. Similarly, they cancan help to smooth over problems which may arise when a training groupgroup moves intointo aa forestforest andand carriescarries out practical work, initially not alwaysalways ofof thethe highesthighest technicaltechnical standard.standard. In addition, information from field workers on current problems can givegive instructorsinstructors somesome leadsleads forfor personal study,study, or research programmes, whichwhich willwill enrichenrich theirtheir coursescourses andand enhanceenhance theirtheir ststatus atus as teachers. Good relations will also leadlead to objectiveobjective andand honesthonest feedbackfeedback onon thethe qualitiesqualities ofof new graduatesgraduates and help to assessassess the effectivenesseffectiveness ofof thethe trainingtraining theythey havehave received.received. This gives useful verification ofof anan instructor'sinstructor's personalpersonal assessmentassessment ofof thethe students'students' qualities and suitability for certain tasks. Finally, cooperation may also be required for an instructor to pursue his own interests oror to make studiesstudies onon forestforest operations,operations, oror to collect data forfor inclusioninclusion inin the teachingteaching programme.programme. - 32 - 15.11 RelationsRelations with secondary schools and the general public Although a forestry institution shouldehould endeavour to maintain good relations with all secondary schools which approach it for information or assistance,assistanoe, it is normally imprac-imprac ticableticable toto maintainmaintain an even flow of cooperation with all the schools in a country, hence a epeoialspecial relationshiprelationship with certaincertain echoolsschools is likely to develop. There may be schoolsechools which, because of their location, the background of their pupils, or the particular interests of theirtheir staff, have a oloseclose interest in forestry. This link should be fosfos- tered by a supply of information on training opportunities, talks, slideslide oror filmfilm shows,shows, diepla.ysdisplays or assistedassisted vieitsvisits to forest activities, whichever is appropriate. It is from these schools that some of the most committedcommitted candidates forfor entryentry to forestryforestry institutionsinstitutions ID8\Ymay come. The link shouldShould start well down the school, at least 22 or 33 years below the level fromfrom whiohwhich reoruitmentrecruitment isis made.made. ThieThis gives pupils a ohancechance to oonsiderconsider at length thethe idea of forestry as a career, to find out more about it and itsits implications on their lives, andand eithereither toto rulerule it out or to form a strong ambition to undertake it. CrashCraeh recruitingreoruiting compaignsoompaigns inin the dulldull daysdays betweenbetween the mainmain examinationsexaminations andand thethe endend ofof thethe school year are of little value and may even be counterproductive.oounterproductive. It is likelylikely that they will draw in a mass ofof applicantsapplicants whowho maymay have beenbeen impressedimpressed byby thethe skilfulskilful presen-presen tstiontation of the programme, but Whowho have notnot givengiven itit sufficientsufficient considerationconsideration inin relationrelation to their own interests andand inclinations.inclinations. Good relations with the generalgeneral publicpublic shouldehould be fosteredfoetered asas farfar asas academicacademia commit-commit ments allow.allow. Public relations exercises should be used to emphasizeemphasize to studentsstudents that they are training to be publicpublic servants,servants, andand mustmust serveserve thethe publicpublic inin any waywa.y they can,can, especially Whilewhile benefiting fromfrom aa publicly-sponsored andand financedfinanced educationaleducational programme. Participation in community activities suchsuch asae tree plantingplanting areare valuable.valuable. Students must organize themselves to carry outout the workwork efficiently inin thethe publicpublic eyeeye andand thisthis placesplaces them under a useful formform of informalinformal discipline. On the other hand, the public should be given the opportunity to seesee that the studentsstudents areare beingbeing endowedendowed withwith correctcorrect attitudesattitudes to serviceservioe and, if possible, to gaingain somesome minorminor advantagesadvantages fromfrom thethe trainingtraining provided.provided. Participation in agricultural shows,shows , or governmentgovernment publicitypublicity activitiesactivities to explain the services of the government to the people, areare particularlyparticularly helpful. The benefits of participation in such activities are not limitedlimited to the pUblic.public. Preparation ofof clear,clear, concise explanations, presentation ofof demonstrations andand answeringanswering ofof questionsquestions andand generally organizing an interesting andand attractive presentationpresentation cancan involveinvolve hardhard construc-construc tive work and close cooperation amongstamongst class members. The extentextent toto which an institution can participate in such activities must be carefullyoarefully balanced againstagainst anyany disruptiondisruption thatthat they mayma;y cause in the educationaleducational programme.programme. Limitation ofof participationparticipation may,may, however,however, achieve some degree of competition amongst students to participateparticipate andand soso enhanceenhance the value of the experience.experience. 16. TYPES OF COURSE 16.1 Need for different levels Many countries recognizereoognize the need forfor atat leastleast twotwo levelslevels inin theirtheir techniciantechnician grades;grades; a lower level, generally calledcalled aa ForestForest Ranger,Ranger, andand aa higherhigher level,level, generallygenerally calledcalled aa Forester, although inin some60me countriescountries thesethes e titles areare reversed.reversed. The creationcreation ofof separates eparate ranks with particular establishmentsestablishments andand salarysalary scalesscales presupposespresupposes thatthat differentdifferent functionsfunctions and ranges of duties have been defineddefined for for thethe twotwo grades.grades. WhilstWhilet thethesese maymay differdiffer according to the particular needsneeds ofof differentdifferent areasareas oror countries,countries, thethe ForestForest RangerRanger wouldwould normally fulfilfulfil anan executiveexecutive role.role. His duties wouldNould includeinclude supervisingsuperviSing andand executingexecuting particular technicaltechnical tasks involvinginvolving suchsuch skillsskil ls asas surveying,surveying, mensuration,mensuration, basicbasic silvi-silvi cultural techniques,techniques, andand tryingtrying toto securesecure anan acceptableacceptable standardstandard ofof skillskill andand outputoutput amongst the labourlabour force.force. The higher technical level,level, onon thethe otherother hand,hand , wouldwould havehave aa rolerole involvinginvolving moremore plan-plan ning and decision-making inin the technical sphere.sphere. In this case, the duties wouldwould includeinclude selecting areas for specificspecific silviculturalsilvicultural operations;operations ; matchingmatching speciesspecies toto sitesite conditions;conditions; speoifyingspecifying degrees of thinnings and other treatments inin cropscrops ofof certaincertain ages,ages, withinwithin de-de fined limits, and checking andand approvingapproving proposedpropos ed roadroad lineslines andand thethe standardsstandards ofof construc-construc tion. - 3333 - The nature of the two functions would suggestsuggest that training forfor these two levelslevels of work should be progressive, one followingfollowing the other,other, withwith anan intervalinterval ofof perhapsperhaps 3-5 years' . service inin thethe field.field. If the two levels of training areare providedprovided concurrently,concurrently, there must bebe aa distinctdistinct differencedifference inin thethe levellevel ofof educationeducation forfor thethe candidatescandidates onon either course. If bothboth are drawn from a common pool of candidates, with the sanesame number of years of education, it isis doubtful ifif any basic educationaleducational examinationexamination systemsystem oror selection process is sufficiently discriminating to sortBort outout two groupsgroups ofof people intointo excluBiveexclusive levels of training which will affectaffect their entireentire lives.lives. There isiB aa strongstrong argumentargument forfor providingproviding aa basicbasic technicaltechnical trainingtraining programmeprogramme forfor perhapBperhaps 2 yearB,years, and then deferring the selectionselection procedureprocedure forfor training forfor the higher level until candidates have demonstrated by their dailydaily workwork somesome aptitudeaptitude forfor advancementadvancement to aa higher post.post. 16.2 Lower technical courses It is essential, in defining the contents of a lowerlower technical course,course, to decide ob-ob jectivelyjeotively the proper functionsfunctions of this gradegrade ofof staffstaff inin the field,field, andand to designdesign bothboth the course content andand methodsmethods ofof instructioninstruction toto achieveachieve thesethese ends.ends. A detailed study of work undertaken by this grade is likelylikely to indicate the needneed forfor aa high degreedegree ofof skills and knowledge in a wide range ofof basic forestforest operations. A lower grade technitechni- cian should be fully competent to carryoarry out andand demonstratedemonstrate thethe fullfull range ofof skilledskilled taskBtasks that his workersworkerB maymay bebe requiredrequired toto perform.perform. He must be able to recognize a range of ecological conditions in Whichwhich different procedures may bebe calledcalled for.for. He requires basic Skillsakills in surveyingsurveying andand mensurationmensuration toto determinedetermine thethe areaarea andand conditioncondition ofof aa cropcrop and should be able to seleotBeleot from a number ofof standardBtandard alternativesalternatives the procedure most suited to the cropcrop atat thatthat time.time. HisHiB skillsskillB will largelylargely lielie inin the recognitionrecognition oror measurement ofof certaincertain forestforest conditionsconditions andand hishis abilityability toto selectselect andand applyapply appropriateappropriate techniques to achieveachieve the objectsobjects ofof management.management. He also requires the skillsskills andand prac-prac tical experience necessarynecessary toto guideguide competentcompetent workersworkers inin simplesimple buildingbuilding oror roadroad construc-construc tion tasks,tasks , andand toto followfollow accuratelyaccurately plansplanB oror diagramsdiagrams definingdefining suchsuch work.work. He should be thoroughly acquainted with all aspectsaspects ofof recordrecord keeping reauiredrequired ofof him andand bebe competentcompetent at making brief and accurate reports onon achievements,achievements, expendituresexpenditures andand labourlabour issues.issues. Also, he must be able to apply any rules covering the useUBe ofof funds,funds, oror the use aniand carecare of storesstores andand equipmentequipment inin hishis charge.charge. As the technician at this level must havehave a practicalpractical approach, the coursecourse shouldshould be devised to permitpermit studentsstudents toto gaingain asas muchmuch experienceexperience inin exercisingexercising thesethese skillsskills inin thethe training situationsituation asas circumstancescircumstances allow.allow. It should also cover basic supervisorysupervisory skillsskills to enable the trainee toto managemanage aa workwork forceforoe effectively.effectively. After training, the technician should be given an introductory period of serviceservice inin the field.field. During this time, his performanoeperformance can be closely supervised to ensureensure that he hashas achievedachieved thethe rightright levellevel ofof competence, before he is given fullfull chargecharge ofof a specificspecific areaarea oror rangerange ofof duties.duties. 16.3 Higher technical courses Higher technical courses,courses, ifif theythey followfollow aa periodperiod ofof serviceservice inin thethe lowerlower technicaltechnical level, m~may start with a short period ofof verifying oror updating candidates'candidates' technicaltechnical skills,skills, though there shouldshould bebe littlelittle doubtdoubt aboutabout thesethese ifif anan adequateadequate selectionselection procedureprocedure hashaB been employed.employed. The coursecourse shouldshould thenthen focusfocus itsits attention on the supervisory, planning or general management skillsskills required to coordinate thethe activitiesactivities ofof aa numbernumber ofof lowerlower grade technicians. Techniques ofof identifyingidentifying specifics pecific targetstargets fromfrom long-rangelong-range plans,plans, andand of bubudgetingdgeting both inin terms of cash, materialsmaterials andand manpowermanpower toto ensureensure thethe smoothsmooth workingworking of a management programme shouldshould be taught. Where detailed management plans already exist,exist, these shouldshould bebe used asas a a basis forfor exerciexercisess e s in schedulingscheduling futurefuture annualannual workwork programmes.programmes. The costcost ofof labour,labour, materialsmaterials andand uuses e of equipment shouldshould be calculated,calculated, usingusing currentcurrent charges.charges. In addition, monthly schedules of work should be prepared, inin whichwhich thethe resourcesresources availableavailable areare balancedbalanced against the tasktaskss required, within the frameworkframework ofof thethe seasons.seasons. Procedures shouldshould alsoalso be taught for reviewing and cross-checkingcross-checking reportsreports fromfrom lowerlower technicaltechnical staff,staff, andand forfor verifying thetheses e reports against agreedagreed workwork schedulesschedules oror targets.targets. A wide rangrrange of skillsskills in planning harvestingharvesting patterns andand roairoad systems,systems , inin conformityc~nformity withwith thethe terrainterrain andand toto meet specific demands,demands, is alsoalso necessary.necessary. StaffStaff reporting isis another essentiales sential area of - 34 - training and course members shouldshould be shownshown how to evaluate the performanceperformance of subordinate staff and prepareprepare objectiveobjective reports.reports. The reporting procedures taught should include thethe use of job descriptions and associated rating scales to measure specificspecific performancesperformances in the duties which have to be performed.performed. The assessment of personal attributes,attributes, suchBuch as cooperation with colleagues, oral and written skillsskills and approach to work, also requires attention. Some understanding ofof workwork studystudy proceduresprocedures andand the generalgeneral principlesprinciples of worker health and safety must also be acquired by the trainees. In addition, explana-explana tions should be given of any specificspecific regulations on these matters which may have to be observed atat work.work. The duration of suchsuch aa coursecourse isis likelylikely to bebe 11 to ti1-} years.years. In order to widen the experience of the technicians attending the course, it is useful ifif at leastleast part of this time can be spent on a studystudy tour, or work experience, in another country. Whereiihere suchBuch a course reoruitsrecruits candidates direct from schools,schools, or with a minimum of work experience, at least 3 years should be allowed for training. The first two years shouldshould followfollow roughly the pattern of the lower technical training, though more emphasis isis likelylikely to be placed on academic achievement and somewhatsomewhat lessless on acquiringaoquiring a high levellevsl ofof manual skills. The additional year shouldshould concentrateconcentrate onon teachingteaohing thethe supervisorysupervisory andand planningplanning functions.functions. It is doubtful,doubtful, however,however, if suchsuoh a pattern of training, lacking as it does essential work experience against which to judgejudge theoreticaltheoretioal planning and management studies,studies, will initi-initi ally produce such satisfactory supervisory staff as a twosta.getwo-stage programme.programme. 11.17. CONTINUINGCONl'IWING EDUCATIONIDUCA!l'ION 11.117.1 ObObjeotives "ectives Continuing education should have two major objectives. One: to provide technioaltechnical updating ofof staffstaff where procedures havehave developeddeveloped sincesince initialinitial trainingtraining waswas given,given, andand two: to renew the interest andand enthusiasmenthusiasm ofof thethe staffstaff forfor theirtheir work.work. The coursesoourses should be regarded as a major continuing function of a technical training institutioninstitution and not as an "optional extra" to be pursued when there is nothing else to do. They should oovercover the working life span of all technicaltechnioal staffstaff in the organizationorganization and prepareprepare promising members of such staff for promotion. 17.2 Typesypes ofof coursescourses Continuing education courses should be of several different types to meet the needs of the employing agency at various stages of its development. Courses ofof aa specificspecific technical nature are required whenwhen newnew techniquestechniques oror proceduresprocedures areare introduced.introduced. These may include both field and administrative or financialfinancial procedures.procedures. These courses shouldshould be given to staff who will be required to implement the techniques initially.initially. They should cover not only the technical details ofof the proceduresprocedures but also generalgeneral background information on why the changes are necessary and whatwhat benefits areare likelylikely to accrue from them. ElnphasisEmphasis should be given to leadership and instructional techniques, soso that the students can,cant in turn, present the information to their workersworkers and securesecure itsits willing acoeptance.acceptance. . The need to take appropriateappropriate stepssteps toto overcomeovercome thethe generalgeneral apathyapathy toto change,change, at the worker level, should be emphasized. Courses of a more general updating nature should be offered to experiencedexperienced staffstaff who are required toto convertconvert from oneone typetype ofof workwork toto another;another; e.e.g. g. fromfrom man-mademanmade toto naturalnatural forest operations, or from savannah to high forestforest techniques. General refresher courses, covering in part recently introduced techniques, but moremore specificallyspecifically changeschanges in outlook or emphasis in the work of the organization, e.g.e.g_ . a movemove awayawa:y fromfrom direct involvement in major forest operations towards promotingpromoting communitycommunity forestryforestry enterprises,enterprises, should be available onon aa regularregular basis.basis. Shorter courses may also be provided for career development or to prepare staff to introduce andand implementi mplement newnew campaignscampaigns involvinginvolving the general public or other government or privateprivate agencies.agencies. 17.3 Frequency of courses The frequency with whichwhich anyany individualindividual maymay bebe requiredrequired toto taketake partpart inin continuingcontinuing education dependsdepends upon aa numbernumber ofof factors.factors. These include the mobilitymobility ofof the individualindividual between different types of work and the number ofof changeschan~s inin procedures.procedures . However, the - 35 -- attendance of individuals at courses should be regularly monitored by an active personnel group who should try to ensure that every staff member gets an opportunityopportunity to participatepartioipate in thethe continuing education process at least once in every 4-5 years. 17.4 Duration of coursescourses The duration of any course must depend on the objectivesobjectives ofof the course.course. Allowance must also be made for the factfact that staffstaff undertaking continuingcontinuing educationeducation afterafter aa periodperiod of field service will need time to readjust to the learning situation. Very short, in-in tensive courses are, therefore, likelylikely to be lessless effectiveeffective thanthan thosethose wherewhere studentsstudents cancan proceed at a more leisurely pace and devote some time either to private study or the inter-inter change of working experience with their colleagues.colleagues. Bearing inin mind the costcost and disrup-disrup tion to normal work of bringing together the participantsparticipants ofof aa course,course, andand the value ofof aa general broadeningbroadening of interests, a duration of perhaps one month is likely to increase its effectiveness. For conversion or refresher courses, a duration ofof 33 to 66 weeks isis normally adequate, .thougnthough this Shouldshould notnot rulerule outout eithereither shortershorter oror longerlonger courses,courses, ifif thesethese cancan bebe justi-justi fied by specific objectives.objectives. InIn general,general, a period of about 8-10 weeks spentspent onon continu-continu ing education over a 4-5 year cycle, representing an investment of 4-5% of a person'sperson's working time in this vital and usually rewarding activity, doesdoes notnot seemseem unreasonable. 17.17.5 5 Attitude change A major objeotiveobjective of any continuing education programme mustmust be to regenerate a student's interest in his work and to build up his confidence inin the performanceperformance of his duties. NegetiveNegative attitudes towards work may result from personal doubts about one's ability toto oopecope with a task, or about the relevance and importance ofof the work inin the national context.context. Seeking out and rectifying areas in which a personperson is deficient in knowledge requires considerableconsidersble tact.taot. Few people are anxious to highlignthighlight areas in which they are conscious ofof personalpersonal deficiencies.deficienoies. If thesethese can be detected and a sympa-sympa thetic programme devised to overoomeovercome the defioiencies,deficiencies, considerableconsider~ble personal satisfaction and a positive attitude changechange towards workwork normallynormally results.results. The continuing educationeducation programmeprogramme shouldshould bebe presentedpresented atat allall timestimes asas anan opportunityopportunity for self-improvement. It should never be suggestedsuggested asas aa penaltypenalty forfor poorpoor performance.performance. The relevance ofof particularparticular taskstasks inin thethe nationalnational contextcontext maymay bebe clarifiedclarified byby talkstalks andand discussions. Every candidatecandidate leavingleaving aa continuingcontinuing educationeducation programaeprogramme shouldshould feelfeel thatthat his task isis vital, inin somesome way,way, toto thethe overalloverall strategystrategy ofof hishis employersemployers andand thatthat hehe isis now better able to understand this task and contributecontribute moremore effectivelyeffectively toto it.it. 17.6 Promotion courses Promotion courses maymay bebe justified,justified, notnot necessarilynecessarily toto qualifyqualify aa personperson forfor promotion,promotion, but to highlight the differentdifferent scopescope ofof thethe workwork aa technicianteohnician maymay havehave toto undertakeundertake ifif hehe is advanced to a higher level. The requirementsrequirement s of work planningplanning andand budgeting, plusplus the techniques ofof supervision,supervision, includingincluding checkingchecking andand controlcontrol atat aa higherhigher level,level, maymay havehave toto be presentedpresented to technical staffstaff toto ensureensure thatthat whenwhen aa techniciantechnician isis promotedpromoted hehe actuallyactually performs the new functions expected ofof him. Otherwise, there is a danger that he will try to continue with his previousprevious taskstasks andand thisthis maymay interfereinterfere withwith thethe dutiesduties ofof thosethose underunder his charge.cha.rge. Such coursescourses shouldshould bebe availableavailable toto potentialpotential promotionpromotion candidatescandidates beforebefore any firm deoisiondecision on promotion is made. This enables assessments to be made ofof their per-per formance on the course and the effect the training has had onon theirtheir workwork inin thethe fieldfield whilewhile waiting for a promotion opportunity to arise. 17.7 Extension education All students in their initialinitial trainingtraining shouldshould receivereceive aa basicbasic introductionintroduction toto exten-exten sion techniques. These introductory lectureslectures shouldshould concentrateconcentrate onon effectiveeffective communica-communica tions with local communityoommunity groups,groups, thethe definitiondefinition ofof thethe needsneeds ofof targettarget populationspopulations andand how to determine the balance between officialoffioial andand communitycommunity actionaction toto meetmeet thesethese needs.needs. The required training isis sometimessometimes nownow absorbedabsorbed intointo aa widerwider coursecourse onon CommunityConummity Forestry.Forestry. Such a course, whilst providingproviding anan understandingunderstanding andand appreciationappreciation ofof extensionextension workwork andand establishing an attitude favourable to cooperation oror participationparticipation inin it,it, maym~ notnot bebe ade-ade- - 36 - quate to prepare a person to play a major role in extension or community forestryforestry acti-acti vities. Further training may be provided by a period of service as an assistant in an extension branch, but even so, there is a need for more formal training in these techtech- niques to be provided in continuing education. SpecificSpecifio coursescourses inin extensionextension techniques shouldshould be availableavailable to staff,staff, eithereither as they are postedposted to suchsuch duties, oror asas they movemove upup toto aa positionposition ofof responsibilityresponsibility inin which they may have to promote or evaluate suchsuch activities within their territorial charges. A deeper studystudy ofof sociologicalsociological conditionsconditions andand motivations inin locallocal populationspopulations should bebe the basis for more exacting case studiesstudies of previous or ongoing projects. The programme should also provide for participation in current extension activities. 17.8 TimingTiming of continuing education Continuing education shouldshould be, asas itsits namename implies,implies, a continuing processprocess running parallel to the main functions of an educational establishment. It should not be iso- lated from the mainstream of work and confined to periods such as vacations in the normal programme. In thethe first place, vacationsvacations are just as necessary for instructional staff as they are for studentsstudents and itit isis logicallogical toto concentrateconcentrate these inin periodsperiods whenwhen there isis a break inin thethe prograrruneprogramme ofof activity.activity. If therethere isis a heavyheavy commitmentcommitment toto oontinuingcontinuing edu-edu- cation programmes, the staff will start their next main period of teaching without the rest and recuperation that a vacation implies.implies. Vacations for staff are also important forfor checkingohecking and maintaining equipmentequipment and pursuing private studies or fieldfield visits to ensureensure that coursecourse materialmaterial isis updated.updated. There are also such mundane tasks as repaintingrspainting andand repairing teaching andand livingliving accom-accom modation, as well as family needs. Apart fromfrom these human considerations, ifif a pro-pro gramme of continuing educationeducati on is running parallelparallel withwith the mainmain educationalsducational programme,programme, it allows topics which are weather dependent to bebe takentaken atat the mostmost suitablesuitable time ofof year. In addition, staff who are taking coursescourses inin both basic training andand continuing education simultaneously are very likelylikely to be ableable to shareshare experiencesexperiences oror informationinformation wiwith th both groups.groups. Thus, they can bring the bestbest teaching methods oror latestlatest technical advances to the continuingcontinui~ stream,stream, and conversely,conversely, manymany useful fieldfield observationsobservations fromfrom course members of the continuing streamstream cancan bebe passedpassed onon to the inexperiencedinexperienced studentsstudents on the basic course.course. 18.18. STUDENl'STUDENT ACTIVITIES AND MORALEMORALE 18.118.1 Introduction Whereas the primeprims objective of a forestry schoolsohool at technicaltechpical levellevel must be to pro-pro duce first-class technicians, it has to be rememberedremembered that thesethsse techniciansteohnicians cancan playpl~ aa leading role in village and smallsmall town communities.communities. The training programmeprogramme should,should, therefore, provideprovide opportunitiesopportunities forfor themthem toto widenwiden theirthsir knowledgeknowledge onon aa broadbroad front,front, toto dsvelopdevelop the skills of leadership inin a communitycommunity andand to become fullyfully awareaware ofof the role they cancan playplay inin society.society. As part of this process,process, itit is important that highhigh student morale is maintained at the school,school, together withwith aa goodgood sensesense ofof self-discipline.self-discipline. They should feel proud toto be forestry sstudentstudents and be very willing to work hard to achieve high standards.standards. To this end, a number ofof activitiesactivities shouldshould be encouraged.encouraged. These areare discussed below. 18.2 School insignia At an early stage, a school badge and motto shouldshould be adopted. Staff and students should be encouraged to make suggestions and aa vote cancan be taken to decidedecide whichwhich design and motto is most popular.popular. Once approved by the appropriate authority, the insigniainsignia can be used onon notepaper, schoolschool publicationspublications andani forfor signsign boards.boards. It can also be used to produce an official tie which can be soldsold through the studentstudent body,body, anyanY profitsprofits beingbeing used to financefinance studentstudent activities.activities. Similarly, schoolschryol badges cancan bebe mademade forfor use onon blazers and footballfootball shirts.shirts. School T-shirts can also be popular and sometimessometimes a lapellapel badge is in demand. - 37 - 18.3 studentStudent assooiationassociation and societiessocieties IfIT at all possible, the students should be encouraged to form a non-political student association oror union, withwith electedelected leaders.leaders. Positions suchsuch as presidentpresident oror chairman,chairman, secretary, treasurer and sports secretary are quite usualusual and a number ofof committees may be formed.formed. The association shouldshould be required to keep properproper minutes ofof allall itsits meetingsmeetings and usually these should be submittedsubmitted to thethe schoolschool principalprincipal oror director,director, forfor informationinformation purposes. He can, of course,course, raiseraise anyany issuesissues whichwhich mightmight bebe contentiouscontentious andand itit helpshelps ifif regular meetingsmeetinge are held with the studentstudent leaders.leaders. Apart from dealing with generalgeneral studentstudent issues, the associationassociation shouldshould bebe responsible for promoting societiessooieties suchsuch asas anan amateur dramaticdramatic group,group, aa musicmusic circlecircle oror aa photographyphotography club. The school may also givegive assistance to these societies,societies, either byby providingproviding faci-faci lities oror financialfinancial aid.aid. 18.4 sportsSports activitiesaotivities sportsSports activities,aotivities, as detailed inin Part II,II, Section 13,13, shouldshould be givengiven everyevery en-en couragement and it may be necessaryneoessary to provideprovide financialfinancial assistanceassistance forfor thethe purchasepurchase ofof individual items of sports kit, e.g.e.g. footballfootball boots, whichwhich cancan bebe veryvery expensive.expensive. If school teams are formed, they shouldshould be allowedallowed to joinjoin locallocal leaguesleagues andand thethe schoolschool maymay have to assistassist withwith the provisionprovision ofof transporttransport forfor anyany awayaway matches.matches. Benefactors ofof the schoolsohool should be encouragedenoouraged to supportsupport the teams andand toto donatedonate shieldsshields andand cupscups forfor com-com petitions. In somesome schools, it m~may be the official policy to appoint instructors with special responsibilities for sportssports activities.activities. Apart from coaching, they should try to allow the students to organize sportingsporting eventsevents themselves, onlyonly takingtaking directdirect actionaction whenwhen things areare notnot working properly.properly. 18.5 SchoolSohool magazinemagaZine One means of publicizing the activities of an institution isis to publishpublish aa magazine.magazine. Ideally, this should be produced by the students,students, but itit isis quitequite usualusual forfor oneone oror moremore ofof the staffstaff members to take partpart inin anan advisory,advisory, andand sometimessometimes executive,executive, role.role. All members of the staff and students should be encouragedencouraged to submitsubmit non-politicalnon-political articles,articles, eithereither technical oror general.general. An editorial panel is normally appointed to scrutinize the material submitted and select and edit appropriateappropriate articles.articles. The school principalprincipal maymay wishwish to seesee a draft of the magazine before itit isis published,published, inin orderorder to checkcheck forfor anyany itemsitems whichwhich couldcould cause official embarrassment. Local firms can be talked intointo placingplacing advertisementsadvertisements inin the magazine, atat reasonable rates,rates, whichwhich willwill helphelp toto subsidizesubsidize thethe costoo~t ofof production.production. Nowa-Nowa days, with the cost of paper and printing rising, eveneven aa very modestmodest. printedprinted publicationpublication can be expensive. Initially, therefore,therefore, a ssimple,imple, duplicated edition should be produced on the equipment available atat thethe institution.institution. Later, if the magazine is popular, the presentation can be improved by using off-setoff-set printing.printing. It takestakes a great deal ofof efforteffort to produceproduce aa schoolBchool magazinemagazine andand goodgood leadershipleadership andand enthusiasmenthusiasm areare vital.vital. However, even if only one iissuessue is publishedpublished annually,annually, the benefits to the institutioninstitution in terms of pubpub- licity and establishing an identityi dentity are very significant.significant. 18.6 Prizes Most forestryforestry schools,schools, onceonce established,established, provideprovide prizesprizes forfor variousvarious subjectssubjects andand achievements, including the best project work submittedsubmitted andand thethe bestbest all-roundall-round student.student. To encourage studentstudent activitiesactivities andand communitycommunity involvement,involvement, aa usefuluseful prizeprize cancan bebe offeredoffered to the studentstudent who has shownshown thethe greatestgreatest sensesense ofof dutyduty inin thisthis field.field. 18.7 Student counselling Finally, the instructional staffstaff shouldshould closely watchwatch the activitiesactivities ofof allall thethe students and helphelp them,them, if possible, to make a contribution to the life of the institution. Some may only make a limited contribution, but ifif the ethosethos isis rightright thethe messagemessage shouldshould get through.through. If students areare found toto have personal problems, these should be dealt with immediate-immediate ly, otherwise other studentsstudent s may be affected.affected. The staff,staff, inin general,general, shouldshould trytry toto promotepromote the imageimage ofof a caringcaring community.community. Hopefully, thiethis attitude will be carried by the students to the various communitiescommunities inin whichwhich theythey willwill eventuallyeventually live.live. - 38 - 19. ANNUALANNUAL EVENl'SEVENTS 19.1 IntroductionIntroduct ion InIn thisthis finalfinal section of PartPart I, attention is drawn to important events whichwhich will occur annuallyannually in thethe life ofof aa forestryforestry schoolschool andand whichwhich requirerequire aa greatgreat dealdeal ofof preparaprepara- tory work if they areare to bebe carriedcarried outout efficientlyefficiently andand successfully.successfully. 19.2 Budget12114.221LEITEJILLan preparation ThisThis annual financial exercise, on which the next year's work programme will depend, must receive careful attention from all members of the staffstaff concerned. It is, therefore, aa good idea if relevant msmbersmembers of the staff are asked to note down, throughout the year, labour oosts,costs, food prices and any vehicles, tools, items of equipment oror books which are likely toto be required in the following financial year. Heads of sections, or the prin-prin cipal, can thenthen compile a list of requirements, with the likelylikely costs, immediately priorprior to the budget preparation period.period. Once the draft details of the budget have been pre-pre pared, senior members of the staff should form a committee, with the principal,principal, to re- fine and complete the budget proposals. 19.3 ExaminationsExaminations ExaminationsEx:aminations are normally held at the end ofof eacheach termterm to checkcheck thethe individualindividual propro- gress of students. These also provide an opportunityopportunity to train bothboth staffstaff andand studentsstudents in examination.prooedures,examination.procedures, before the finalfinal examination.examination. Each instructor should be re-re quired toto draft his own examination questions and presentpresent them to the head ofof his section,section, or toto thethe principal, forfor approval.approval. Great carecare should bebe taken with the wording of the questions,questions, toto avoidavoid doubledouble meanings,meanings, veryvery complicatedcomplicated mathematicalmathematical questionsquestions andand spellingspelling mistakes which can confuse. The examination rooms shouldshould be preparedprepared inin goodgood time forfor the scheduled examinations, with adequate seating, possibly numbered,numbered, andand aa goodgood supplysupply ofof paper, spare pens and other requisites. A clock should alsoalso bebe provided.provided. It is customary on these occasions to remind the studentsstudents aboutabout thethe examinationexamination rules;rules; thesethese should normally have been postedposted onon the notice-boardnotice-board aa fewfew daysdaye earlier.earlier. Students should be allowed to raise anyany queriesqueries aboutabout thethe questions,questions, beforebefore thethe examinationexamination starts. The examiners should mark the examination paperspapers withoutwithout delaydelay andand thethe resultsresults Shouldshould be posted as soonsoon as possible.possible. One reliable instructor is usually entrusted with the task of compiling the results which should be submitted to thethe principal forfor signasigna- ture before they areare posted.posted. Any unusual results ofof individualindividual studentsstudents shouldshould bebe checked out in case any mistakesmi at ake shave have arisen.ari sen. The final marks should be carefullyoarefully ana-ana lyzed by the instructional staffstaff to seesee whatwhat lessonslessons cancan bebe learnt.learnt. Tidy copies should be filedfiled forfor futurefuture referencereferenoe purposes,purposes, e.g.e.g. finalfinal coursecourse resultsresults oror studentstudent transcripts.transcripts. 19.4 Presentation of diplomas and certificatescertifioates Diplomas andand certificatescertificates willwill normallynormally bebe presentedpresented atat thethe endend ofof thethe academicacademic year. This isis anan occasionoccasion whichwhich cancan bebe treatedtreated asas aa low-keylow-key event,event, oror itit cancan becomebecome aa highlight ofof thethe year.year. Most institutions preferprefer the latterlatter andand trytry toto obtainobtain maximummaximum publicitypublioity from it.it. To be really successful,successful, thethe eventevent callscalls forfor aa greatgreat dealdeal ofof preparation,preparation, particu-particu larly if exhibitions are to be staged.staged. The guestguest speakersspeakers must be givengiven plentyplenty ofof notice aboutabout the eventevent andand remindedreminded nearernearer thethe day.day. Students should be allowed to invite members ofof their familyfamily and friends,friends, butbut aa limitlimit maymay havehave toto bebe placedplaced onon thethe number permitted. The massmass mediamedia shouldshould bebe invitedinvited toto attendattend andand asas manymany nationalnational andand local dignitaries asas possible.possible. The programeprogramme andand invitations invitations shouldshould bebe printed,printed, ifif funds allow. On the day, great care shouldshould be taken withwith thethe seatingseating arrangementsarrangements andand thethe instal-instal lation of a public-address system,system, ifif thisthis isis necessary.necessary. The cateringcatering arrangementsarrangements should also be carefullycarefully thoughtthought out.out. Guest speakers' contributions shouldshould be publiclypublicly acknowledged during the ceremony. The principalprincipal shouldshould followfollow thisthis upup withwith aa personalpersonal letter to each speakerspeaker thethe nextnext day.day. - 39 - OverOVer the years, it is possible forfor the event to assume a national character,character, par-par ticularly in small countries. This cancan have aa very beneficial effecteffect inin respectrespect ofof government support. 19.5 Sporting eventsevent s In some countries, forestry schools stage sporting events which can have great public appeal. These areare usefuluseful occasionsoccasions forfor gaininggaining supportsupport fromfrom bothboth governmentgovernment andand the locallocal communities.communities. However,HO>lever, they should be organizedorganized with,lith care to ensure that they do not cause serious disruption ofof the training programme.programme. --4141 - PART II - -PHYSICALPHYSICAL FACILITIES FACILITIES AND AND EQUIPMENP EQUIPMENr 1. INrRODUCTIONINTRODUCTION This part of the manual deals with the various buildings, workshops,workshops, stores,stores, other physical facilities and associatedassooiated equipment, which are considered necessary to meet training objectives.objeotives. Obviously, not all these facilities will be required by every institution, nor will itit be always possiblepossible to provideprovide everyevery itemitem whichwhich isis consideredconsidered desirable. However, by presenting the completeoomplete range, it isis hoped that the manual will give guidanceguidanoe to any orgenizationorganization facedfaced withwith providingproviding accommodationaccommodation forfor aa forestryforestry school at the technioaltechnical level.level. Existing forestry schools may also benefit, particularly if there are plans to extend their physicalphysical facilities.facilities. 2. CLASSROOMS 2.1 Basic conceptsconcept s Classrooms in a technical institution shouldshould be designeddesigned primarilyprimarily asas workroomsworkrooms inin which formal classes can be held, rather than the reverse. They must also take into account the wide variety of activities which may take placeplace withinwithin them, ofof whichwhich passivepassive listening to lectures and note-taking may be onlyonly ofof minorminor importance.importance. Though the classroom functionfunction maymay bebe ofof somesome importanceimportance atat thethe commencementcommencement ofof thethe course, the possibilities for group activities and jointjoint problem-solvingproblem-solving areare likelylikely to increase during the course.course. The need for students to handle instruments, equipment, and specimens of many different types during the learninglearning process,process, suggestssuggests aa muchmuch moremore flex-flex ible layout than a formalformal lecturelecture situation.situation. A room should be laid out in such a way that a switch to groupgroup activitiesactivities cancan bebe mademade withwith thethe minimumminimum ofof disturbance.disturbance. Working tables are in most casescases muchmuch moremore practicalpractical thanthan traditionaltraditional desks.desks. They shouldshould be sufficiently large to allow students to spreadspread maps, plans,plans, documentsdocuments andand specimensspecimens asas required during their studies.studies. The chairs shouldshould be adult-size,adult-size, notnot secondarysecondary schoolschool size. 2.2 ~Space A space allocation ofof 2.5m22.5m2 perper placeplace (up(up toto 3m23m2 ifif fundsfunds permit)permit) isis adequateadequate forfor the type of teaching envisaged.envisaged. Though the costcost perper studentstudent placeplace forfor buildingsbuildinge ofof generous proportions may seem high initially, itit isis a relativelyrelatively minorminor itemitem inin the overalloverall educational cost, whenwhen the lifelife ofof aa wellwell constructedconstructed buildingbuilding isis 30-5030-50 years.years. Some may,may, in fact, serve considerably longer.longer. 2.3203 Lighting Good natural lightinglighting isis highly desirabledesirable andand shouldshould come,come, ifif possible,possible, fromfrom twotwo sides of a room. The orientation ofof the room isis importantimportant inin relationrelation toto thethe incidenceincidence of the sun'ssun's rays at different seasonsseasons ofof thethe year.year. In some cases, adeauateadequate shadingshading cancan be provided by constructing aa deep verandah onon oneone sideside ofof aa room,room, whichwhich cancan thenthen serveserve as a circulation spacespace for studentsstudents betweenbetween classes.classes. It is notnot usuallyusually necessary, or economic, to provide verandahs onon bothboth sidessides ofof aa room.room. However, "sun"sun spoilers"spoilers" builtbuilt into the walls above the windows, oror sun-screenssun-screens onon thethe windowswindows themselves,themselves, may~ bebe neces-neces sary to avoid direct sunlightsunlight fallingfalling onon thethe workingworking tablestables atat certaincertain timestimes ofof thethe year.year. If thethe building structurestruoture does not permit windows onon two sidessides ofof aa room, highhigh intensityintensity artificial lightinglighting isis necessary.necessary. Windows should not extendextend to the endend ofof the roomroom wherewhere thethe chalkboardchalkboard oror projectionprojection screens are located.located. If thisthis happens,happens, there is usually some degree of reflection from the surface of the board oror screen,screen, whichwhich makesmakes viewingviewing difficult.difficult. The presencepresence of a large area of windows,Windows, inin relation to thethe totaltotal wallwall spacespace available,available, limitslimits thethe possi-p08si- - 42 - bility ofof fixingfixing displaydisplay boardsboards inin thethe room.room. A compromise between goodgood natural lightinglighting and the need forfor suitablesui table displaydisplay spacespace mustmust bebe foundfound duringduring thethe designdesign stage.stage. 2.4 Ventilation Good ventilation,ventilation, by means of louvred or opening casement windows, is necessary. This shouldshould be supplementedsupplemented byby ventilationventilation spacesspaces inin thethe upperupper walls,walls, especiallyespecially inin situations where high winds and heavy rainfall may force the closureclosure of windows at times. It is essential to maintain cool conditions forfor study,study, particularlyparticularly inin the afternoons. Where necessary, largelarge ceilingceiling fansfans cancan bebe usedused toto promotepromote circulationcirculation ofof airair andand 33 oror 44 of these fans,fans, atat aa lowlow speed,speed, cancan maintainmaintain aa satisfactorysatisfactory movement movement ofof air air in in an an average average - size classroom. Air conditioners create a totally foreignforeign environmentenvironment andand shouldshould be dis-dis couraged, unless essentialessential forfor thethe maintenancemaintenanoe oror useuse ofof somesome specialspecial equipment.equipment. 2.5 Furnishings A good teaching table shouldshould bebe providedprovided withwith aupboardscupboards oror drawersdrawers forfor storingstoring allall the equipment an instructorinstructor isis likelylikely toto need,need, e.g.e.g. chalks,chalks, drawingdrawing instruments,instruments, feltfelt boardboard materials, sparespare pencils,pencils, penspens andand paper.paper. In generalgeneral, t toto maintainmaintain thethe "work room" atmos- phere, this table shouldshould bebe onon thethe floorfloor level,level, andand notnot onon aa raisedraised dais.dais. This inhibits the free movement ofof work tables throughoutthroughout thethe room,room, andand causescauses thethe instructorinstructor toto stepstep upup and down unnecessarily asas he circulatescirculates amongstamongst hishis class.class. Adequate storagestorage spacespace forfor students'students' materials,materials, eithereither inin shallowshallow cupboardscupboards withwith sliding doors below the windows, or inin shelvesshelves or racks at oneone endend ofof the room, shouldshould be provided. This enables uncompleted tasks to be setset asideaside andand retrieved easily,easily, asas classclass sessions begin and end.end. Alternatively, a small teaching materials store,store, aocessibleaccessible fromfrom 2 adjoining classrooms, serves the samesame purposepurpose and avoids the losslOBS ofof floorfloor areaarea causedoaused by cupboardscupboards oror shelves.shelves. 2.6 Electrical installations A classroom shouldshould have as manymany electricalelectrical socketssockets asas foundfound practicable.practicable. Sockets are normally required at both endsends ofof thethe roomroom toto provideprovide powerpower forfor audio-visualaudio~isual aidsaids suchsuch as overhead projectorsprojectors oror slideslide projectors.projectors. Additional socketssockets cancan be providedprovided at either side of the room to supply reading lampslamps oror lightlight tables, ifif thesethese areare required.required. (See SectionSeotion 66 below.)below.) 2.7 Safety The main entrance to a classroomclassroom shouldshould bebe ofof sufficientsufficient sizesize toto allowallow thethe roomroom toto bebe evacuated quicklyquiokly in an emergency. The door should open outwardsoutwards fromfrom the room and,and, wher-wher ever the basic design permits a secondsecond door, this shouldshould bebe providedprovided inin thethe diagonallydiagonally opposite corner or side.side. A fire extinguisher should be installed within the room or in an easily accessible locationlocation outsideoutside it.it. 3. TEACHING LABORATORIES 3.1 Needs The need forfor teaching laboratorieslaboratories dependsdepends uponupon thethe scopescope ofof thethe curriculum.curriculum. In some cases the policy requirement isis to provideprovide aa bridging coursecourse inin basicbasic studies,studies, ostensibly to bring all students up to the levellevel atat whichwhich theythey cancan benefitbenefit fromfrom thethe re-re mainder ofof thethe course.course. Too often,often, however,however, thisthis isis simplysimply anan admissionadmission ofof thethe inadequa-inadequa cies of the secondary school standardsstandards and itit imposesimposes onon thethe technicaltechnical curriculumcurriculum mattersmatters which should properly be dealt with atat the pre-entrypre-entry level.level. Such courses areare sometimessometimes of little relevance to subsequent studies.studies. Where they can be modified to serve the needs of the technical subjects, they can be very useful. In thisthis instance, laboratories are required for their proper implementation. 3.2 Combined chemistry/soils laboratory A basic chemistryohemistry laboratory, which can serveserve as aa soilssoils laboratorylaboratory forfor laterlater stagesstages of the course, isis desirable.desirable. This has much inin common withwith aa similarsimilar laboratorylaboratory forfor thethe - 43 - initial stages of an introductoryintroductory university coursecourse inin chemistry.chemistry. In thisthis case, however, space allooationsallocations can be made more generous to permit seniorsenior studentsstudents to carry outout soilsoil studies simultaneously with the junior chemistry course. 3.2.1 Space allocations 2 A space allocation of 4.5m4.5m2 per student should be adequate to covercover routine classes and to leave some bench spacespace availableavailable forfor continuingcontinuing demonstrationsdemonstrations oror experimente.experiments. 3.2.2 Storagestorage andand preparationpreparation facilitiesfacilities An area behind the wall of the instructor'sinstructor's benchbench shouldshould bebe formedformed intointo two rooms, accessible from either sideside ofof the teaching benchbench and,and, ifif possible,possible, connectedconnected byby anan in-in ternal door.door. One room should serveBerve as a preparation room, inin which exercises can be planned and prepared before being attemptedattempted inin class.class. The secondsecond room shouldshould serveserve as aa ready-usereadyuse store,store, holdingholding stocks stocks ofof equipmentequipment inin commoncommon use,use, Whichwhich thethe instructorinstructor maymay notnot wish to leave unattended inin the class. It should also house replacement bottles or packs of all consumableoonsumable materials inin generalgeneral use which,which, ifif replenishedreplenished atat intervals,intervals, willwill ensureensure that classes areare notnot delayeddelayed byby unforeseenunforeseen shortages.shortages. The preparation roomroom shouldshould bebe furnishedfurnished withwith adequateadequate cupboardcupboard space,space, bothboth aboveabove andand below bench level.level. Glass-frontedGlassfronted cupboards,oupboards, aboveabove benchbench level,level, enableenable materials not frefre- quently used to be stored and locatedlocated moremore readily. A central bench shouldshould bebe installed,installed, connected to water suppliessupplies andand providedprovided withwith oneone oror moremore laboratorylaboratory sinks,sinks, plusplus gasgas andand electrical connections suitablysuitably protectedprotected againstagainst water.water. A proper laboratory tool kit,kit, in a locked cabinet, should be provided and aa comprehensive laboratorylaboratory first-aidfirstaid kit.kit. A space allocation of 15%15% of the laboratorylaboratory areaarea shouldshould proveprove adequate.adequate. Depending onon the complexity of studies to be undertaken, fumefume cupboardscupboards oror cupboardscupboards forfor precisionprecision balancesbalances may be locatedlocated onon aa benchbench atat thethe rearrear ofof thethe laboratory.laboratory. 3.2.)3.2.3 LightingLi§hting Though adequateadequate naturalnatural lightinglighting isis desirable,desirable, asas inin classrooms,classrooms, itit isis undesirableundesirable toto have allall the sideside wallwall spacespace givengiven overover toto windows.windows. A reasonable proportion should be solid wall to protect balances, waterwater de-ionisersdeionisers andand otherother itemsitems ofof equipmentequipment whichwhich maymay be in regular use. These walls areare alsoalso aa convenientconvenient locationlocation forfor smallsmall fire~xtinguishfireextinguish- ers which should be of the inertinert chemicalchemical oror gasgas type.type. To compensatecompensate forfor the lossloss ofof window space, a high levellevel ofof intensity ofof artificialartificial lighting,lighting, preferablypreferably usingUSing floures-floures cent tubes, is required. Roof lights are seldom satisfactorysatisfactory inin tropical areas wherewhere the uansun may be directlydireotly overhead forfor partpart ofof the year.year. 3.2.4 Ventilation Good natural ventilation by louvredlouvred windowswindows oror fixedfixed louvreslouvres mountedmounted highhigh inin thethe wallswalls is desirable, but shouldshould be supplementedsupplemented byby extractorextractor fans.fans. The normal typetype ofof roof-fanrooffan mounted as in a classroom isis not suitablesuitable inin aa laboratory,laboratory, wherewhere itit maymay disturbdisturb gasgas flamesflames or the operation ofof balances.balances. 2.3.5 FurnishingeFurnishings Laboratory benches up to 6m6m longlong by 70cm70cm widewide andand 80cm80cm highhign areare suitablesuitable forfor 66 stu-stu dents working inin pairs.pairs. They shouldshould be fitted with laboratorylaboratory sinkssinks andand tops at both ends and in the centre,centre, ifif possible.possible. Each working space should have convenient access to gas taps and electrical socketssockets suitablysuitably shieldedshielded againstagainst water.water. There should be drawer/ cupboard facilities at both endsends andand atat 1 or 2 points along the bench, ifif convenient.convenient. These cupboards should be free-standingfreestanding fromfrom thethe structurestructure ofof thethe bench,bench, asas thisthis allowsallows flexibility ofof location.location. Laboratory stools,stools, of aa type which cancan bebe storedstored convenientlyconveniently under the benches, shouldshould bebe providedprovided forfor students.students. A large teaching bench, 3-4m3-4m long,long, raisedraised onon aa lowlow platform,platform, withwith sinksink facilitiesfacilities atat one or, preferably, bothboth ends,enls, andand atat leastleast 22 twint,.,rin gasga:::> tapstaps andand 22 twintwin electricelectric sockets,sockets, is desirable. It should incorporate both drawers and cupboards forfor storingstoring teadhingteaching equipment in regular use. -44- 3.2.6).2.6 Services In areasareas wherewhere aa mainsmains supply of gas is notnot available,available, liquid petroleum gas piped toto benches . fromfrom a pairpair of largelarge cylinderscylinders mountedmounted outsideoutside the laboratory,laboratory, andand connectedconnected by an automatic switch-overswitch-over valve, isis probablyprobably the best forfor generalgeneral use.use. The gasgas pipespipes shouldshould run in an underfloor channel, covered byby aa concreteconcrete oror woodenwooden slab,slab t dependingdepending uponupon the construction of the building, to twin laboratorylaboratory gasgas taps atat intervalsintervals ofof aboutabout 2m2m along the bench tops. Electrical cablsscables should run through metal conduits to suitable sockets provided against moisture. All waste liquid should discharge first into diluting sinks outside the building, before being discharged into the main drainagedrainage system.system. Large inert powder or foam firefire extinguishers,extinguishers, an asbestos blanket andand a properlyproperly equipped laboratory first-aid kit shouldshould bebe locatedlocated nearnear the instructor'sinstructor's bench,bench, oror in the preparation room if it is accessible at all times. 3.3 BioloicalBiological laboratory laboratory A biological laboratory which may share the samesame storagestorage and preparation room as a chemistry/soils laboratory may be built inin oneone block.block. In addition to basic botany and biological classes, it can also cater forfo~ practicalpractical exercisesexercises inin entomology, pathologypathology and wood utilization, ifif necessary.necessary. In manymany institutions,institutions, itit maymay bebe moremore intensivelyintensively usedused than the combined chemistry/soils laboratory, and therefore it shouldshould be adequatelyadequately equipped for itsits multiple role.role. 3.3.1 Space allocations Space allocations overall can be slightlyslightly lessless than for a chemistry/soils laboratory,laboratory, as it is convenient to uuses e narrower benches. An overall allocation ofof about 4m34m 3 perper stu-st~- dent shouldshould bebe adequate.adequate. 3.).23.3.2 Lighting and ventilation Lighting and ventilation requirementsrequirements areare substantiallysubstantially similarsimilar toto thosethose ofof thethe chemistry/soils laboratory described above. 3.3.3).3.3 FurnishinfsFurnishings Laboratory benches can be of standardstandard tabletable heightheight andand reducedreduced inin widthwidth toto 60cm.60cm. Free-standing drawer/cupboard units can be locatedlocated below the benches. 3.3.4 Services Gas outlets are not normally necessary on all benches. These cancan bebe providedprovided atat limited points on fixedfixed sideside andand rearrear benches.benches. This allows greater flexibilityflsxibility in arranging the benches in the main part of the room. Frequent electrical sockets, connectedconnected byby cablescables inin metalmetal conduits,conduits, areare requiredrequired ifif microscopes or illuminated dissecting stagesstages areare to bebe used.used. The electricalelectrical connectionsconnections to conduits in the floor can be flexibleflexible andand detachabledetachable andand thethe laboratorylaboratory benchesbenches mademade free-standing, so that a certain degree of variation in their locationlocation isis possible.possible. Sinks and water supplies can also be confinedconfined to fixedfixed sideside andand rearrear benchesbenches andand to the instructor'sinstructor's bench.bench. Balances, if required, should also be confined to these benches. The usual provision of fire extinguishersextinguishers andand first-aidfirst-aid kitskits shouldshould bebe mademade forfor thisthis lab-lab oratory. 3.4 Safety Laboratories should always have 22 large,large, outward-openingoutward-opening doors,doors, atat diagonallydiagonally oppo-oppo site corners, to allow quick evacuation of the room in emergencies.emergencies. The "emergency"emergency door"door" - 45 - must be kept free of all obstructions and closed by a bar and leverlever device which will respond to pressure, inin aa hurriedhurried evacuation.evacuation. 4. HERBARIUM A herbariumherbarium for the storage of prepared plant specimens, with facilities for storage of timber specimens and mycological material, is desirable. Preparation of material by studentsstudents cancan bestbest be done inin thethe biologicalbiological laboratory,laboratory, soso the herbarium itself needneed onlyonly provideprovide sufficientsufficient spacespace forfor aa mastermaster collectioncollection ofof plants,plants, plus duplicates of species in common use for class study. There is, of course, the need for a reasonable working area for a herbarium keeper, and possibly an assistant, to pre-pre pare or classify plants asas necessary.necessary. The herbarium keeper is likely to be a member of the teaching staff and to have officeoffice accommodationaccommodation elsewhere.elsewhere. Drying ovensovens forfor preparingpreparing specimensspecimens areare probablyprobably bestbest locatedlocated inin thethe biologicalbiological laboratory where they are more readily accessible to students. On the other hand, faci-faci lities for fumigating or preserving specimens are best locatedlocated inin aa smallsmall workroom or cubicleoubicle attached to the herbarium. In certain climates, one or more dehumidifiers may be required to maintain aa levellevel ofof humidity sufficientsufficient toto preventprevent deteriorationdeterioration ofof thethe collectcollection. ion. 4.1 Timber specimensSpecimens Where collectionscollections of timber specimens are maintained, suitable racks for display are normally required. A set of simple tools for preparing the specimensspecimens isis also necessary. An industrial-type vacuum cleaner,cleaner, to maintainmaintain aa high levellevel ofof cleanliness,cleanliness, isis desirabledesirable if preparation work is carried out within the herbarium. 4.2 Lighting Lighting can be by a limitedlimited area ofof windowswindows high inin the walls,walls, andand byby artificialartificial lights, to avoid direct sunlightsunlight fallingfalling onon toto the collection.collection. 5. DISPLAY/STORAGE AREAS FORFOR OTHEROTHER COLLEX;TIONSCOLLMTIONS Depending upon thethe sizesize ofof thethe institution,institution, aa suitablesuitable roomroom maymay bebe requiredrequired forfor thethe display or storage of other specimensspecimens usedused forfor teaching purposes.purposes. Examples are rock and Boilsoil samples, insect collections, taxidermic or Skull collections and samplessamples of timber defects. 5.1 Lighting and ventilationventilation Lighting and ventilation conditions similarsimilar toto aa herbarium oror aa biologicalbiological laboratorylaboratory are appropriate to this room.room. 5.2 Furnishings Wall cabinetscabinets are required and, ideally, the section below table heigbtheight should be wider than the upper part,part, to provideprovide aa narrownarrow surfacesurface onon whichwhich specimensspecimens cancan bebe laidlaid whilst they are being storedstored or retrieved.retrieved. A card index of the collection, giving de-de tails of the location ofof specimensspecimens inin thethe variousvarious storagestorage spaces,spaces, isis necessary.necessary. One or more centre tables for preparing oror examiningexamining specimensspecimens areare required,required, butbut equipmentequipment forfor handling the materials shouldshould normallynormally bebe keptkept inin thethe appropriateappropriate laboratory.laboratory. 6. DRAWING OFFICE 2 A drawing office requires aa high allocationallocation ofof spacespace perper student (3.7-4.6m2),and(3.7-4.6m ), and therefore in every institutioninstitution the questionquestion mustmust bebe raisedraised asas to whether the utilizationutili zation of this space for drawing tasks alone can justifyjustify the costcost ofof its provision. If a high level of economy is required in the desigrdesign ofof an institution,institution, it may be necessary to use general classroom facilities for this subject.subject. -46 - 6.1 Alternative solutionssolutions If thethe basicbasic layout of classroomsclassrooms provides for 2 adjoining classrooms with a sliding partition between them, this can be opened to allow a class to use the 22 rooms simultan-simultan eously_eously. Class members can congregate in one room to receive instructions, andand then space themselves out over the two rooms for drawing practice, making use of all the table space available. 6.2 Additional equipmentequipment If a classroom is to be used in this way for drawing purposes, wooden drawingdrawing boards raised at an angle on wedge-shapedwedgeshaped blocks,blocks, withwith metalmetal retainingretaining barsbars atat thethe lowerlower edge,edge, should be provided forfor eacheach student.student. These are placedplaced onon thethe standardstandard workwork tables.tables. The cost of individual drafting tables is unlikelyunlikely toto be justified,justified, exceptexcept inin institutionsinstitutions which offer particularparticular optionsoptions inin surveying,surveying, engineeringengineering oror managementmanagement withwith aa substantialsubstantial content of drawingdrawing practice.practice. Portable "light tables" should be available inin reasonable numbers,numbers, but itit isis notnot usually necessarynecessary toto provideprovide sufficientsufficient toto meetmeet thethe needsneeds ofof allall studentsstudents atat once.once. Arrangements may have to be made, however, to permitpermit studentsstudents accessaccess toto thethe roomroom afterafter normal working hours to allow them to make useuse ofof these items.items. ThisThi~ avoidsavoids unnecessary expenditure on items used forfor a shortshort partpart ofof the programme.programme. Chests for storingstoring maps or drawings in progress shouldshould be provided.provided. 6.3 LightinfLighting andand ventilation Good natural lighting should be supplementedsupplemented in roomsrooms used as drawing officesoffices by high intensityintensity overheadoverhead lighting.lighting. There will almost certainly be a need forfor this on dull days, or forfor anyany eveningevening work.work. Whenever possible,possib~e, individual desk lamps should be provided. Good ventilation, by ceiling fans or possibly extractor fans, isis essential to keep workingworking conditions satisfactory for students, and avoidavoid anyany damagedamage toto workwork byby perspiperspi- ration. This is particularly importantimportant wherewhere artificialartificial lightinglighting maymay addadd toto thethe heatheat inin the room.room. 7. LIBRARIES 7.1 Ideal facilities Because ofof spacespace andand costcost restrictions,restrictions, itit isis oftenoften difficultdifficult toto incorporateincorporate inin aa library all the many desirable featuresfeatures one would like.like. The layout should,should, however, include an office for the librarian and a suitablesuitable working spacespace forfor anan assistantassistant behindbehind a counter, located adjacent to the entrance. A zonezone for reference books, with cabinets for both subject and author recordrecord cards,cards, perhapsperhaps aa micro-filmmicrofilm readerreader andand printerprinter shouldshould be located where they can be closely supervisedsupervised by the librarylibrary staff.staff. RaoksRacks forfor the display of current periodicals, before they areare arrangedarranged inin serialserial order,order, shouldshould alsoalso be located in this zone.zone. An exhibition area may be provided,provided, if space permits,permits, to enable both instructionalinstructional staffstaff andand studentsstudents occasionallyoccasionally toto stagestage exhibitsexhibits onon specializedspecialized sub-sub jectjects.s. 7.2 Stack area The stackstack area shouldshould be reasonablyreasonably compact,compact, withwith thethe stacksstacks runningrunning outout atat rightright angles to the walls with windows locatedlocated between the stacks.stacks. There isi s a a temptationtemptation to economize in spacespace by making the area between the stacksstacks ratherrather narrow,narrow, butbut thisthis inhibitsinhibits free movement of users and shouldshould be avoided. A spacespace of at least 1.20m1. 20m betweenbetween stacksstacks should beb. allowed.allowed. 7.3 Reading facilitiesfacilities Sufficient table space should be providedprovided nearnear the stacksstacks toto allowallow readersreaders to samplesample books or to make shortshort extracts fromfrom them. A zone should be reserved for the storagestora~ of maps, plans, charts, diagrams and otherother largelarge items.items. The table space shouldshould be adequate for these to be studied without need ofof foldingfolding andand riskrisk ofof damage.damage. --47-47 - 7.4 Stora52Storage of large flat items Flat mapchests, or preferably, hanging map chests, shouldshould be providedprovided to storestore the large flat items mentioned above and to allow easy location and retrieval. These may have to be locked and under the control ofof the librarylibrary staffstaff to meetmeet securitysecurity require-require mentments s in someBome areas.areas. 7.5 WorkroomWorkroom WhereWhere space permits, a small workroom for the labelling and repair of books is desirable. It keeps the issue and retrieval area of the library free from waste materials, and enables the staff to carry outout the work without disturbancedisturbance to the usersusers of the library.library. 7.6 Study area If thethe librarylibrary is to be used as a study area for students, either a large extension beyond the stackstack areaarea oror aa separateseparate roomroom adjoiningadjoining itit shouldshould bebe provided.provided. Reading desks in thisthis area should be arranged perhapsparhaps in a cruciformcrucifcrm pattern with partitionspartitions between adjoining readers to minimize distraction, and to give the greatestgreatest sensesense ofof privacyprivacy possible, in relatively crowded circumstances.circumstances. 77.7. 7 Exhibition area The exhibition area may simplysimply consistconsist ofof large-sizelarge-size noticeboardsnoticeboards onon whichwhich posters,posters; charts, etc.etc, canoan be displayeddispl~ed fromfrom timetime toto time.time. If space permits,permits , display cabinets and stands can also be provided.provided. 7.8 PhotographPhotoijaph collection If aa collection of colour transparencies or photographs has been assembled,assembled, these should bebe controlled by the librarian, and facilities for viewing sheetssheets of slidesslides andand selecting photographs suitable for teaching purposes should be providedprovided inin the reference area of the library.library. A properproper systemsystem forfor recordingrecording loansloans ofof suchsuch materialmaterial mustmust bebe main-main tained byby thethe librarian.librarian. 7.9 Lighting and ventilation A high intensityintensity ofof lightinglighting isis requiredrequired withinwithin aa library.library. Good ventilation isis also of greatgreat importance.importance. Where humidity is high, a number of dehumidifiers appropriate to the volume ofof spacespace shouldshould bebe locatedlocated inin thethe stackstack andand referencereference areasareas toto reducereduce humid-humid ityi ty to an acceptableacoeptable level at which there isis nono dangerdanger ofof thethe growthgrowth ofof mouldmould onon books.books. Wet and dry bulb thermometers, or aa recording thermo-hydrograph, areare desirabledesirable toto monitor humidity, ifif dehumidifiersdehumidifiers areare used.used. They can also be used to determine the most economical settingssettings ofof the equipment.equipment. 7.10 Seating Library chairs should have paddedpadded seatsseats andand wooden arms.arms. The floor shouldshould be covered with a material which will reduce noise,noise, suchsuch asas thermoplasticthermoplastic tiles.tiles. Also, the legslege of the chairs should be fitted with smoothsmooth studsstuds to limitlimit noisenoise fromfrom chairschairs beingbeing moved by readers.readers. 8. OFFICES FOR TEACHING STAFF 8.1 Principal 2 An office for the principalprincipal oror directordirector shouldshould bebe inin thethe regionregion ofof 20m2,20m , toto provideprovide adequate space for his own requirements and forfor meetingsmeetings withwith staffstaff andand groupsgroups ofof visitors.visitors. For these meetings,meetinge, aa tabletable isis requiredrequired ofof aboutabout 2m2m longlong byby 70cm70cm wide.wide. ThisThis cancan adjoinadjoin the main desk to formform a T-shaped discussiondiscussion area,area, oror cancan bebe setset backback againstagainst aa wallwall whenwhen not inin use.use. A felt-covered noticeboard and aa small,small, goodgood qualityquality chalkboardchalkboard are useful -48 - pieces of equipment whichwhich cancan bebe installed.installed. A safe should also be installedinstalled to provideprovide seoursecurityi ty for cash and for confidential documents suchsuch as examination questionquestion papers.papers. Adequate window spacespace isis needed, but not soso muchmuch asas to detractdetract fromfrom thethe privacyprivacy ofof the room.room. Good overhead lightinglignting and a flexible desk lamplamp are desirable. A desk-top fan may be required to ensure air circulation during meetings. A eignalsignal lignt,lit, locatedlocated outside the door and operatedoperated fromfrom a switchswitch atat thethe desk,desk, isis usefuluseful toto indicateindicate periodsperiods when the occupant does not wishwish to be disturbed.disturbed. Two oror three electricalelectrical socketssockets for the use of portable electricelectric equipmentequipment shouldshould bebe provided.provided. 8.2 InstructorsInstructors Senior instructors, suchsuch as the vice-principal oror assistantassistant directordirector andand headsheads ofof sections, maymay alalsos o requirerequire individualindividual of~ice()Toes,s , inin orderorder thatthat theythey maymay interviewinterview staffstaff or students in private. An area of 15-20m15- 20m will be adequate,adequate, butbut ifif two seniorsenior members of the staff agree to shareshare an office,office, itit shouldshould bebe notnot lessless thanthan 20m2.20m2• In thethe casecase of junior instructors, they can normally share offices of 20-25m2 without much inconvenience. A reasonably full teaching scheduleschedule willwill ensureensure thatthat thethe numbernumber ofof times the two instructors are inin the officeoffice togethertogether isis limited.limited. If therethere are a number of field assistants and spacespace isis limited,limited, three oror fourfour cancan bebe expectedexpected toto shareshare anan officeoffice of aboutabout 20m20m2,2, as their main duties are in the field. In all cases, a felt-covered noticeboard andand aa chalkboardchalkboard areare desirable.desirable. Adequate natural and artificial lightinglighting is necessary andand atat leastleast 22 electricalelectrical socketssockets toto serveserve each desk in the room.room. These shouldshould be soso locatedlocated as to avoid trailingtrailing wireswires onon thethe floor, whichwhich can be particularly dangerousdangprous in a room with multiple occupation. Storage space is alsoalso essential for teaching aids and the desksdesks which are suppliedsupplied shouldshould have adequate drawer space.space. At least one drawer shouldshould bebe lockable,lockable, forfor safeguardingsafeguarding con-con fidential papers. 9. OFFICES FOR ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF 9.1 General principles As far as practicable,practicable, thethe administrativeadministrative staffstaff shouldshould bebe strictlystrictly limited,limited, other-other wise there is a tendency forfor this type ofof staffstaff toto proliferate,proliferate, whichwhich frequentlyfrequently makesmakes administration more cumbersomecumbersome rather than moremore efficient.efficient. FbrFor small institutions, one competent clerk, with a typist/clerical assistantassistant andand aa messengermessenger hashas beenbeen foundfound toto bebe perfectly adequate.adequate. For larger organizations, aa greatergreater sub-divisionsub-division ofof taskstasks andand aa consequent increase inin staffingstaffing maymay be necessary.necessary. 9.2 Layout In general, an open-plan layout, with perhaps glass-walled cubicles forfor certain staffstaff members, permits good supervisionsupervision andand aa smoothsmooth flowflow ofof paperpaper work.work. The seniorsenior member of the administrativead.ministrative staff,staff, whowho may alsoalso performperfo~m thethe functionsfunctions ofof anan accountant,accountant, maymay bebe located iinn a glass-walled gl ass-walled booth ofof aboutabout 12m12m in one corner of the administrative office.office. Desks or tables shouldshould be providedprovided nearby forfor aa filingfiling clerk,clerk, andand aa financialfinancial clerk,clerk, ifif the vovolumel ume of financial work justifiesjustifies this assistance.assistance. Initially, the financial clerk may be able to maintain the storesstores andand equipmentequipment records,records, inin additionaddition toto hishis normalnormal dduties.uties. Later, the record-keepingrecord-keeping maymay havehave toto bebe undertakenundertaken byby thethe storekeeper.storekeeper. In large institutioninstitutions,s , a clerk dealing withHith personnel and students'students' records maymay alsoalso be necessary, but thisthi s work can oftenoften bebe handled byby thethe filingfiling clerk.clerk. A messenger/trainee clerk can often handle many miscellaneousmiscellaneous tasks andand looklook afterafter thethe reproductionreproduction equipment.equipment. A space allocation of about 5m25m2 perper personperson shouldshould bebe adequate.adequate. Desks inin this officeoffice shouldshould bebe locatedlocated sufficientlysufficiently nearnear eacheach otherother toto allowallow goodgood oral communication and the easyeasy transfertransfer ofof filesfiles andand documents.documents. At the same time, itit is important toto allow sufficient space for lowlow book racksracks or cupboardscupboards inin whichwhich eacheach employee can storestore the records oror materialsmateri als relevantrelevant toto hishis oror herher task.task. One or more noticeboardsnoticeboaris shouldshould be providedprovided onon whichwhi ch staffstaff leaveleave rosters,rosters, financialfinancial charts and general noticenoticess can be displayed.di splayed. - 49 - 9.3 Ty2ingTyping and and reproductionreproduction facilitiesfacilities If atat all possible, therethere should be a separate typist's office. In small institu-institu tions, there will normallynormally bebe onlyonly oneone typisttypist whowho will"ill alsoalso actact asas thethe receptionistreceptionist andand telephone operator.operator. Where the volume of work justifiesjustifies two typists, the seniorsenior typist can be entrusted with all important correspondence, includingincluding typing examinationexamination materialmaterial under securesecure conditions.conditions. This will leaveleave the juniorjunior typisttypist toto handle thethe routineroutine typing,typing, enquiries and telephone calls.calls. Their room should have a smallsmall public area with aa lowlow counter. A wood and obscure glass screenscreen cancan be usedused to cut offoff aa sectionsection ofof thethe office,office, to allow the seniorsenior typist toto workwork withwith somesome degreedegree ofof privacy.privaoy. There shouldshould alsoalso be a door providingProviding direct communication to the administrative office.office. A space allocation of 12-15m12-15m22 should bebe adequate.adequate. In smaller institutions, space shouldshould be made available inin the typist's officeoffice forfor either or both Photocopyingphotocopying and duplicating machines,machines, though these may be operatedoperated by anan office messenger, or trainee clerk. There shouldshould be adequate lightinglighting andand naturalnatural ventilation,ventilation, andand sufficientsufficient electricalelectrical sockets to allow a variety of office machinesmachines to bebe locatedlocated andand usedused convenientlyconveniently inin thisthis room. Depending upon the complexitycomplexity ofof thethe organization,organization, anan officeoffice varyingvarying fromfrom 1212 toto 30m30m22 may be needed. 9.4 Print room In larger institutions, it may be desirable to establish aa separateseparate printprint room.room. This could house an offsetoffset printerprinter withwith associatedassociated plate-makingplate-making equipment;equipment; inkink andand spiritspirit dupli-dupli cators; photocopiers and overhead projector transparency makers;makers; collatorscollators andand binders.binders. Such a room shouldshould also provideprovide deskdesk spacespace forfor thethe techniciantechnician inin charge,charge, andand storagestorage spacespace for stocks of materials and chemicals, and forfor printprint ordersorders before distribution.distribution. 110.O. WORKSHOPS 10.1 categories9ategnries of workshop Workshops can be divided into 3 categories: workshopsworkshops used forfor instructionalinstructional purposespurposes in the training programme; those used forfor generalgeneral maintenancemaintenance ofof buildings andand facilities;facilities; and those for vehicles. Though forfor convenienceconvenience they may be located close, or even adjacent, to each other,other, they shouldshould bebe quitequite separate,separate, toto avoidavoid frictionfriction betweenbetween instruc-instruc tors and maintenance staffstaff overover borrowingborrowing ofof toolstools andand equipment.equipment. 10.2 Students'Students' workshop A students'students' workshop shouldshould normallynormally bebe locatedlocated someBorne distancedistance fromfrom thethe mainmain teachingteaching block, preferablypreferably inin aa specialspecial "utilization""utilization" area,area, toto avoidavoid noisenoise disruptingdisrupting otherother classes.classes. It should have all the necessary facilitiesfacilities to provideprovide thethe practicalpractical skillsskills requiredrequired inin courses suchsuch as Forest Utilization and Engineering. It shoushouldl d also provide "hobby"t'hobby" faci-faci- litielitiess for students interestedinterested in wood oror metalwork.metalwork. TheThesese may be made available after normal hours, or atat weekends,weekends, to encourageencourage anan interestinterest inin woodwork,woodwork, oror inin servicingserviCing smallsmall items of mechanical equipment, by selectedselected groupsgroups ofof keenkeen students.students. A reasonable number of grindstones should be available forfor sharpeningsharpening axesaxes andand commoncommon cuttingcutting tools.tools . It isi s often most convenient to locate thesethese outsideouts ide thethe mainmain workshop,workshop, inin aa roofedroofed area,area, withwith aa concrete floor and open or wiremesh walls.walls. A simple water\o/ater su~plYsuRply isis necessary for wet-wet ting stonesstones whenwhen inin use.use. An overall spacespace allocation of 6-8m6-8pla per student placeplace maymay be required. The workshop shouldshould have asas widewide aa spanspan asas aa reasonablyreasonably simplesimple roofroof trusstruss cancan cover,cover, and as long as necessary for the sizesize ofof class,class, andand rangerange ofof work,work, envisaged.envisaged. It should provide a number of cupboards and shelvesshelves aroundaround thethe wallswalls forfor storingstoring tools.tools. Space shouldshould be available for a number ofof wooden,wooden, generalgeneral purposepurpose workwork benches,benches, standingstanding somesome distance from the walls, so that they areare accessibleaccessible toto studentsstudent s fromfrom bothboth sides.sides. These may be uusedsed mainly for manufacturing and fittingfitting tooltool handles,handles, andand forfor hobbyhobby activities.activities. There should be a large, unobstructed areaarea inin thethe centrecentre forfor erectingerecting filingfiling vices,vices, ifif large handsaws areare stillstill inin use.use. Whenvfuen thesethese are replaced by motor-saws, aa numbernumber ofof - 50 - wooden or preferablypreferably metal benches, fittedfitted withwith aa vice andand otherother facilitiesfacilities forfor maintain-maintain ing chains and small motors, shouldshould occupy this space. Storage facilities are desirable underneath the benches forfor toolstools andand parts.parts. A semicircularsemi-circular demonstration demonstration bench,bench, ofof normalnormal tabletable heignt,height, shouldshould bebe locatedlocated atat oneone end of the workshop, for demonstrations by the instructors. The bench shouldshould be fittedfitted with drawers or cupboardsoupboards forfor allall thethe commoncommon tools oror sparesspares thethe instructorinstructor isis likelylikely to require. A chalkboard shouldshould be locatedlocated behind this demonstrationdemonstration bench,bench, andand round the walls boards should be available for displaying diagrams or working instructions. In viewview of thethe large covered area required and the need for wall space for shelves, windows may have to be locatedlocated inin the upper levelslevels ofof thethe walls,walls, thusthus makingmaking thethe workwork largely dependentdependent onon highhin intensityintensity artificialartificial lighting.lighting. The type of fitments for the fluorescent tubestubes should permit easy cleaning in order to avoid dust and cobwebs accumu-accumu lating round the lights,lights, whichwhich isis dangerous.dangerous. During construction, facilities should be provided for 3-phase3phase powerpower atat suitablesuitable voltages forfor bothboth machinesmachines andand handhand tools.tools. In some cases, power outlets or transformers for low voltage portable hand tools may also be provided.provided. Where there are different voltages available, thethe plugsplugs shouldshould bebe distinctive,distinctive, soso thatthat itit isis notnot possiblepossible toto connectconnect tools or equipment toto thethe wrongwrong voltagevoltage supplysupply point.point. 10.3 )~intenanceMaintenance staff workshops A workshop for maintenance staff should provide facilities forfor simplesimple woodwood andand metalmetal- work, for repairing or making itemsitems forfor teaching purposes,purposes, andand forfor carryingcarrying outout routine maintenance of buildings. Space for aa smallsmall band-saw,bandsaw, aa universal wood-workingwoodworking machinemachine and a stand drill areare desirable.desirable. Shielded areasareas shouldshould be providedprovided forfor gasgas oror electricelectric welding, or for grinding tools likelylikely to emit sparks.sparks. Facilities for bending andand shearshear- ing metal may be required and forfor battery charging.charging. These shouldshould be locatedlocated in an area isolated from any activityactivity emittingemitting sparks.sparks. Adequate bench spacespace againstagainst walls,walls, withwith cupboardscupboards belowbelow andand tooltool racksracks above,above, is required. At least one freestandingfree-standing benchbench inin thethe centrecentre ofof the'the roomroom isis desirable.desirable. 10.4 Vehicle maintenance workshops The extent of the facilitiesfacilities whichwhich itit isis prudentprudent toto provideprovide inin aa vehiclevehicle maintenancemaintenance workshop depends upon the accessibility and reliability ofof thethe maintenancemaintenance servicesservices available in commercial workshopsworkshops nearby.nearby. At least a simple workshop with facilities for routine maintenance and repairs shouldshould be considered. The building shouldshould provideprovide working spacesspaces forfor 2-32-3 vehicles, oneone oror moremore ofof themthem withwith anan inspectioninspection pit.pit. A comprehensive kit ofof vehicle workshopworkshop tools, properlyproperly arrangedarranged inin aa securesecure storagestorage cabinet, is a valuable asset.asset. Basic requirements are one oror moremore hydraulic jacks,jacks, somesome axle stands, low trolleys on castors to enable mechanics to slideslide underunder vehiclesvehicles and aa small compressor for operating an oil sprayspray and a tyre pump.pump. A reasonable stock of tyres and tubes, lubricants andand brakebrake fluid,fluid, oiloil andand airair filtersfilters andand otherother commonlycommonly usedused sparesspares is advisable. A working bench with a vice and aa smallsmall enclosedenclosed officeoffice areaarea forfor stockstock control and vehiclevehicle maintenance records are necessary. If the institution is in a remote area, more elaborate equipment, including an overhead beam andand pulleypulley forfor removing heavy components, should be provided.provided. 11. TOOL STORES There are two approaches toto the storagestorage andand useuse ofof toolstools atat aa forestryforestry school.school. The first approach is to supply each student with a completecomplete setset ofof workingworking tools, atat the com-com mencement of training, andand to makemake the studentstudent responsibleresponsible forfor theirtheir carecare duringduring thethe course.course. If this approach is adopted, it is highly desirable to provideprovide eacheach studentstudent withwith a woodenwooden cupboard or box. Hooks or racks can be fixedfixed inside,inside, onon whichwhich thethe toolstools cancan bebe placed.placed. This system, however, does notnot givegive thethe studentstudent anyany experienceexpe~ience ofof thethe dailydaily problemsproblems ofof issue, retrieval and maintenance of tools when they are inin multiplemultiple use.use. The second approach covers this adequatelyadequately asas tools areare issuedissued forfor eacheach operation.operation. In this case, itit - 51 - is usual for the forestryforestry schoolschool to have aa commoncommon stockstock ofof toolstools whichwhich cancan bebe issuedissued asas required. The sizes ize of the storestore willwill depend uponupon thethe methodmethoJ. ofof storagestorage selectedselected andand thethe range ofof tools andand equipmentequipment whichHhich havehave toto bebe heldheld inin stock.stock. 11.1 Layout and furnishingfurnishing A tool storestore shouldshould havehave aa largelarge counter,counter, aboutabout 1m1m high,high, behindbehind whichwhich 22 oror 33 personspersons can workwork easily.easily. The counter shouldshould be situatedsituated somesome distance fromfrom the insideinside ofof the door, soso that issuesissues andand retrievalsretrievals ofof toolstools cancan bebe carriedcarried outout protectedprotected fromfrom thethe weather.weather. A seriesseries ofof racksracks oror framesframes runningrunning outout fromfrom thethe wallswalls andand capablecapable ofof takingtaking aa largelarge numbernumber of similar items, are usually erected.erected. Racks at floor level, on which axes and similars imilar cutting tools cancan bebe stored,stored, areare alsoalso necessary.necessary. A set of free-standing shelves, access-access ible from all sides,Sides, should be available to storestore minorminor items.items. In spite of the desire to economize inin space,space, allall itemsitems shouldshould bebe storedstored atat aa heightheight whichwhich cancan bebe reachedreached byby aa normalnormal adult. The use of blocks or stepssteps to reach itemsitems onon higherhigher shelvesshelves oror racks hindershinders the smooth issue of tools, which isis essential whenwhen aa largelarge workingworking groupgroup has to bebe suppliedsupplied within a shortshort spacespace ofof time.time. Where possible, tools shouldshould be identifiedidentified byby numbers,numbers, whichwhich cancan bebe stampedstamped onon toto metal oror wooden parts,parts, oror paintedpainted on.on. If students are allocated individual numbers on an attendance roll, itit shouldshould bebe possiblepossible toto givegive aa studentstudent thethe samesame tooltool onon eacheach exercise.exercise. Some of the advantages ofof individualindividual issuesissues areare therebythereby gained,gained, plusplus experienceexperience ofof thethe problems encountered with the generalgeneral storagestorage ofof tools.tools. It may also enable responsibility for lost tools to be attributedattributed toto aa particularparticular person.person. For small tools, pegboards with shadow outlines ofof the appropriateappropriate itemsitems allowsallows quickquick verificationverification thatthat allall itemsitems havehave beenbeen returned. 11.2 Maintenance facilitiesfacilities A tool store shouldshould eithereither have maintenancemaintenance facilitiesfacilities forfor commoncommon handtools,handtools, oror easyeasy access to the students'students' workshopworkshop wherewhere thisthis workwork cancan bebe carriedcarried out.out. The storekeeperstorekeeper should check all tools as they areare returned,returned, beforebefore theythey areare placedplaced backback into their stor-etor age place. He should be made responsible forfor anyany maintenancemaintenance oror repairrepair workwork whichwhich isis found necessary and cannot bebe fittedfitted intointo thethe students'students' trainingtraining programme.programme. 12. DARKROOM In most institutions, a small darkroom is of value to encourageencourage staffstaff and studentsstudents to processprocess films,films, oror prepareprepare printsprints andand enlargementsenlargements forfor useuse inin teachingteaching oror studystudy reports.reports. The range of equipment cancan vary fromfrom aa smallsmall "starter"starter set"set" forfor keenkeen amateursamateurs upup toto elabo-elabo rate enlargingenlarging andand copyingcopying facilities,facilities, ifif thethe costcost cancan bebe justifiedjustified byby thethe useuse likelylikely toto be made of these facilities.facilities. In the case of a modestly equippedequipped darkroom, thethe facilitiesfacilities maymay bebe mademade availableavailable toto students, under reasonable supervision,superviSion, asas knowledgeknowledge andand skillsskills inin photographyphotography maymay bebe anan asset to them later in their careers.careers. In more elaborately equippedequipped darkrooms,darkrooms, studentstudent use shouldshould only be allowed under the guidance of a trained technician, in order toto safesafe- guard the equipment. If space permits, thethe darkroom cancan be attached to the library and come under the supervision ofof the librarian.librarian. 13. SPORTS FACILITIES A small reresidentials idential institutioninstitution inin a developingdeveloping countrycountry cancan seldomseldom justifyjustify thethe pro-pro vision ofof aa sportssports pavilion.pavilion. Dormitories andand showershower facilitiesfacilities areare generallygenerally locatedlocated sufficiently close to sports fields toto be usedused convenientlyconveniently byby players.players. Limited storagestorage facilities for balls and otherother equipmentequipment maymay bebe needed,needed, butbut thesethese cancan oftenoften bebe combinedcombined with a general recreation room forfor the students,students, oror inin storeroomsstorerooms attachedattached toto thethe dormi-dormi tories. Sports facilitiesfacilities generallygenerally followfollow thethe wishesHishes ofof thethe students.students. One football pitchpitch is usually considered essential, andand isis normallynormally adequate;adequate; itit isis aa relativelyrelatively inexpensiveinexpensive facility to maintain. Volley-ball and basket-ballbasket-ball courtscourts occupyoccupy limitedlimited areas,areas, areare cheapcheap - 52 - to establish and maintain, and can provideprovide periodsperiods of very energeticenergetic exerciseexercise for reason-reason able numbers of students. For short periods of exercise after classes, they may be more used than a football field, and wherewhere the needneed justifiesjustifies the provisionprovision ofof 22 or more of these courts, this should be arranged. Tennis can provide good relaxation, but at a somewhat higher cost,cost t for a more limited number of participants.participants. The investment in posts and nets, wire mesh fencing for the courts, and the general maintenance of ' the surfacesurface is relatively high, as are the costs ofof racquets and balls. The provision of these facilities will depend upon the level of interest in the gamegame inin thethe particularparticular area.area. Hockey and cricket pitchespitches areare normallynormally onlyonly justifiedjustified inin largprlarger institutions,institutions, inin areas where there is a particular popularity of these games. The relatively highhigh costcost of the equipment must be balanced against the probableprobable interest in these sports.sports. Athletics facilities, particularlyparticularly ifif theythey cancan bebe combinedcombined withwith thethe layoutlayout ofof aa football field, are desirable.desirable. Running tracks and jumping pits are generally most useful and are not unduly expensive to maintain. 14. DORMrrORIESDORMITORIES 14.1 Arrangement of accommodation Where possible, dormitories shouldshould provide room forfor 22 students.students. Single rooms are unduly expensive and may be made very cramped to achieve economy.economy. Rooms for 4 students frequently involveinvolve thethe useuse ofof 2-tier2tier bedsbeds andand createcreate anan institutional,institutional, ratherrather thanthan a domesticdomestic atmosphere. An allocation of about 6m26m 2 per person isis desirable.desirable. A block of 1010 toto 2020 roomsrooms arrangedarranged back-to-baokbacktoback in in pairs, pairs, eacheach facingfacing outout ontoonto aa Coveredcovered verandah,verandah, with toilet and washroom facilities atat eithereither end,end, provideprovide aa reasonablyreasonably convenientconvenient arrange-arrange ment in warm areas. Alternatively, pairs of rooms on either sideside ofof a centralcentral corridor are useful in areas of high rainfall oror lowlow temperatures. In large institutions, there is a oasecase for buildingbuilding 2-2 oror 3storey3-storey blocks, blocks, unless unless there there are,are specialspecial sitesite oror amenityamenity factors in favour of scattered 1-storey1storey buildings.buildings. 14.2 Furnishings Rooms shouldshould be furnishedfurnished withwith beds,beds, desksdesks oror workwork tables,tables, chairschairs andand simplesimple book-book cases. Space isis required forfor aa largel arge cupboardcupboard forfor hanginghanging andand storingstoring clothesclothes forfor eacheach student. Part of the cupboardcupboard shouldshould bebe shelvedshelved forfor storingstoring clothesclothes andand spacespace providedprovided for shoes.shoes. A smallsmall noticeboard forfor pinningpinning remindersreminders oror photographsphotographs avoidsavoids damagedamage toto thethe wall surfaces.surfaces. Floors shouldshould bebe easilyeasily cleaned.cleaned. Heavy dutyduty thermoplastic tiles through-through out the block, except in the toilet/washroomtOilet/Hashroom area,area, areare comfortablecomfortable andand reasonablyreasonably durable.durable. They createcreate a much pleasanterpleasanter atmosphereatmosphere inin thethe roomsrooms thanthan barebare concrete.concrete. 14.3 SanitarySanitary facilities Washbasins, showers and toilets should be provided on a scale of 1 to 8 students, if possible, andand 11 to 12 at a maximum. If thesethese facilities are locatelocatedd at both ends of a residential block, it enables the accommodationaccommodation to bebe splitsplit betweenbetween malemale andand femalefemale stu-stu dents with a greater degree ofof flexibility.flexibility. Near the toilet facilities,facilities, an area for washing and ironing clothes isis useful.useful. There may also be facilitiesfacilities forfor making hot drinks in the latelate evening.evening. If thesethese facilities are not provided, students are liable to improvise them in their ownown rooms, creatingcreating aa firefire hazardhazard andand possiblypossibly overloadingoverloading thethe electrical system.system. 14.4 Storage facilities A dormitory block should provideprovide atat leastleast oneone storestore roomroom inin whichwhich studentsstudents cancan keepkeep empty suitcases anandd trunks durduringing term-time,termtime, toto reducereduce congeationconge ~; tion inin theirtheir rooms.rooms. A small closet for storingiJtoring bbrushPsrushps ani2nd cleaning materials isis necessary,nece:.isary, as isis one oror more dustbinsdustoins forfor the disposaldisposal ofof litter.litter. SpaceSpace may also be providedprovided forfor storingstoring sportssports equip-equijr ment. o - 53 - 14.5 Lighting Dormitories shouldshould be providedprovided with goodgood artificial lightinglighting forfor the studystudy tables and either bedlamps or suitable electrical sockets for lamps. At least oneone plugplug forfor aa radio,radio, or other small electrical appliance, shouldshould be provided in eacheach room. 14.6 Safety Dormitories shouldshould bebe providedprovided withwith largelarge foam-typefoam-type firefire extinguishersextinguishers inin accessibleaccessible places. Central corridors and staircasesstairoases should be sufficientlysufficiently wide to allow quick evacuation ofor the residents inin emergencies.emergencies. In particular, corridors should be kept clearclear of bootsboots andand shoes, or other obstructions, which might cause people to trip and delay evacuation. In multi-storey bUildings,buildings, 2 separate staircases should be provided in spite ofof thethe additional cost involved.involved. 15. CATERING FACILITIES 15.1 GeneralGeneral arrangementsarrangements A students' dining hall or cafeteria should ideally provideprovide spacespace forfor a smallsmall sitting-s itting room in whiohwhich students can assemble before meals. The room shouldshould provide a number of easy chairs or settees, and small tables for magazines oror indoorindoor games.games. Where available,available, a television set, or radio, may be located in this area. The recreation area maymay bebe separated fromfrom thethe mainmain diningdining areaarea byby an open metal grille, or an ornamental screen, which can be folded back to increase the dining area on specialspecial occasions. The assembly of students in such an area before a meal is served is a much more refined procedureprocedure than queueing outside a dining hall.hall. It isis thereforetherefore valuablevaluable in training students in acceptaccept- able social behaviour. The spacespace may also be used forfor quietquiet recreationrecreation afterafter meals.meals • .15.2 Dining hall The main dining hall shouldshould provideprovide tables forfor 88 toto 1010 students,students, to encourageencourage themthem to mix and socializesocialize inin reasonablereasonable numbers.numbers. For economy and goodgood hygiene, tablestables withwith plas-plas tic tops are most desirable.desirable. The floorfloor shouldshould be ofof an easilyeasily cleanedcleaned materialmaterial suchsuch as thermoplastic, or decorative ceramic tiles. Walls should be treated with washablewashable paintpaint and kept clean at allall times.times. Curtains on the windows createcreate a more relaxedrelaxed domesticdomestic atmosphere in the room. Waterwater coolers should bebe providedprovided inin warmwarm climates.climates. 15.3 Serving arrangements A serving counter should be provided at one end, oror alongalong oneone side,side, ofof the diningdining hall and arrangedarranged soso thatthat studentsstudents cancan collectcollect theirtheir mealsmeals asas quicklyquickly asas possible.possible. If this is notnot taken intointo accountaccount inin thethe planningplanning stage,stage, thethe hallhall willwill acquireacquire anan undesirableundesirable institutional atmosphere and those at the end ofof the queuequeue areare likelylikely toto havehave coldcold food.food. In some cases, adequate table space behindbehipd the countercounter isis necessarynecessary forfor layinglaying outout com-com partmented plastic or metal trays which also serveserve asas dishes,dishes, forfor pre-servingpre-serving meals.meals. If this procedure isis not followed,followed, sufficientsufficient spacespace mustmust bebe allowedallowed atat thethe servingserving countercounter for helpers to dispense 3 or 4 itemsitems of the meal ontoonto thethe plates,plates, asas the studentsstudents movemove along. 15.4 Food preparation areas The cooking and foodfood preparationpreparation areasareas shouldshould bebe screenedscreened fromfrom thethe servingserving areaarea byby aa partial wall, which will allow reasonable access between the two, butbut cutcut offoff thethe diningdining hall fromfrom the noise andand activity ofof thethe kitchen.kitchen. A largplarge sculleryscullery shouldshould bebe locatedlocated nearnear the servingserving counter to avoidavoid transporting utensilsutensils withwith left-overleft-over foodfood throughthrough thethe kitchen.kitchen. Access toto this may be by a hatch at one sideside of the servingserving counter.counter. TheThe sculleryscullery re-re quires large sinks and a plentiful supply of hot waterwater forfor washingwashing dishes.dishes. It also requires adequate plate racks soso that dishesdishes oror traystrays cancan drydry inin thethe airair andand notnot requirerequire drying by cloths.cloths. The cookerscookers andand otherother itemsitems ofof equipmentequipment usedused forfor thethe finalfinal preparationpreparation of the food should be inin an areaarea givinggiving easyeasy accessaccess toto thethe servingserving countercounter andand bebe suppliedsupplied with adequate facilities for washing foodfood and utensils. The preliminarypreliminary preparationpreparation ofof food, such as peeling and cleaning raw vegetables, shouldshould be isolatedisolated fromfrom the finalfinal foodfood preparation area. - 54 - 15.5 storageStorage facilitiesfacilities A walk-in cold room may permitpermit meat,meat, breadbread andand certaincertain otherother commoditiescommodities toto bebe pur-pur chased in bulk at intervals of a week or more, and so economizeeconomize inin costcost and transport. In addition to this, one or more catering-tyTecatering-type refrigerators are required and, inin hot climates, waterwater coolers.coolers. Stores forfor vegetables andand dry goodsgoods shouldshould be locatedlocated near the entrance to the kitchen area, to avoid carrying unprepared goodsgoods through the finalfinal foodfood preparation area.area. The kitchen should be providedprovided withrlith toilets and washrooms for the staff, and there should be facilitiesfaoilities for them to change fromfrom normalnormal clothing intointo suit-suit able working clothes, before they commencecommence to handle food.food. 16. RECREATION HALL In most schools, a recreation hall forfor more active pursuits,pursuits, suchsuch as table tennis oror badminton, isis desirable.desirable. This Shouldshould be a largelarge hall withwith aa roofroof freefree ofof obstructions.obstructions. In many institutions, it may also have to serveserve as an assembly hall.hall. In this case itit should have a stage and, if possible, smallsmall rooms or waiting areasareas onon eithereither side,side, withwith easy access toto thethe stage.stage. If it hashas toto serve both as a recreation and an assembly hall, adequate storagestorage spacespace willwill bebe requiredrequired forfor stackingstacking chairs,chairs, tabletable tennistennis tablestables andand other sports equipment, when not in use. If possible, a smallsmall separateseparate room forfor storingstoring a film projector, screen, stand and related equipmentequipment shouldshould be provided.provided. In someBorne cases, it may be possible to adapt it as a film projectionprojection room andand instalinstal aa permanentpermanent screenscreen inin the mainmain hall.-hall.· Toilet facilitiesfacilities of aa standardstandard suitablesuitable forfor guestsguests shouldshould bebe incorporatedincorporated intointo thethe design. 17. 'PARTERSQUARTERS FOR STAFF 17.1 General principles Though the initialinitial costscosts areare high,high, andand rentsrents chargedcharged maymay notnot meetmeet routineroutine upkeepupkeep costs, it isi s desirable that a high proportionproportion ofof the teachingteaching staffstaff ofof aa residentialresidential institution should be housed on the campus.campus. This ensures that they are more freely available to participate in extra-curricular activities.activities. casualCasual social contacts between students and staff sharing common facilities lead to better mutual understandingunder8tanding and generally, a higher standardstandard ofof studentstudent conduct.conduct. 17.2 Grades of accommodation There is a tendency to grade housing accordingaccording to the statusstatus ofof thethe occupant,occupant t rather than his particular family needs,needs, andand thisthis cancan causecause problems.problems. Therefore, there shoshoulduld bebe some flexibility in allocation, or overlap, betweenbetween statusstatus andand house sizesize to make the best use of the housing stock,stock, andand toto meetmeet particularparticular domesticdomestic needs.needs. A numbernumber of three-three- or four-bedrqomedfour-bedrpomed houses are normally required for family groups,groups, and a certain number of two-bedroomed houses for more juniorjunior staffstaff withvii th younger families.families. Staff houses should normally provideprovide aa livingliving roomroom withwith aa diningdining annex,annex, asas wellwell asas thethe customary kitchen and toilet and bathroom facilities. Where appropriate, the kitchen must be designed to accommodate modernmodern equipmentequipment suchsuch asas anan electricelectric ovenoven oror refrigerator.refrigerator. It is beneficial to have a small study, preferably with directdirect accessaccess to the outside.outside. This gives the occupant freedomfreedom to workwork withoutwithout thethe distractiondistraction ofof otherother familyfamily activities.activities. It also permits students or other staffstaff members to paypay aa visitvisit withoutwithout disturbingdisturbing thethe family. Simple car-portsoar-ports or garages areare normallynormally regardedregarded asas essentialessential featuresfeatures inin suchsuch houses. Whether or not accommodation for servants should be provided depends largelylar~ly upon thethe customs of the particular country, and on the possibilitiespossibilities ofof findingfinding accommoda-accommoda tion forfor servantsservants either inin oror nearnear the campus.campus. - 55 -- 17.3 Location of quarters Quarters for staffstaff should, whenever possible, be located within walking distance of the occupants'occupants' main place ofof work.work. This avoids the distractions resulting from staff vehicles circulatingCirculating and parkingparking inin thethe mainmain teaching oror administrativeadministrative area.area. Generally speaking, the use of cars within the campus should be discouraged. ItIt isis customary, but not essential, to locate houses for teaching staff in one area. 17.4 Quarters for non-teaching staff The extent to which administrative, clericalclerical andand ancillaryancillary staffstaff shouldshould bebe housedhoused depends upon the possibility ofof findingfinding suitablesuitable accommodationacoommodation forfor themthem withinwithin aa reason-reason able distance of the school site. Certain persons who may be required to work unusual hours are normally housed withinwithin the school compound.compound. These includeinclude medicalmedical personnel,personnel, storekeepers, cooks, drivers, andand someBorne maintenancemaintenance workers.workers. 17.5 standardsStandards of housing The standards of housing offered willwill normally be influencedinfluenced byby comparablecomparable housinghousing standards outsideoutside the school compound. A househouse sshould,hould; however,however, have a useful life of 30 to 50 years. Consequently, during the initial construction period,period, itit isis necessary to anticipate future trends inin housing improvements,improvements, atat leastleast forfor thethe nextnext 1010 years.years. This will result in a standardstandard whichwhich iiss rather better than normal at the time, but it will probably still bebe acceptable 20 years later. Subsequent refurbishingsrefurbishinge maymay thenthen extendextend itsits useful life for another 2020 yearsyears oror more.more. Unless there isis aa strongstrong feelingfeeling locallylocally forfor eacheach househouse toto havehave itsits ownown gardengarden oror compound,oompound, the residential accommodationaccommodation cancan be developeddeveloped intointo an attractiveattractive open-planopen-plan lay-lay out, whichwhich is bothboth practical and economical to maintain. Housing forfor juniorjunior gradesgrades is often betterbetter located in compact groups, or rows, to reduce the costcost of servicesservices suchsuch as water, electricity and sewage.sewage. 17.6 Bachelors' accommodation andand messmess Depending upon the size of the teachingteaohing andand administrative staff,staff, therethere maymay bebe aa case for a certainoertain number ofof smallsmall bachelor quartersquarters linkedlinked toto aa commoncommon diningdining room/room/ sitting room. A limited number of guest rooms can be incorporatedincorporated intointo thethe layout.layout. Small houseshouses willwill bebe adequate,adequate, eacheach consistingconsisting ofof aa combinedcombined sittingsitting room/study,room/study, oneone bed-bed room, a bathroom and toilet, andand a smallsmall store.store. Facilities for preparingpreparing coffeecoffee oror lightlit snacks snacks may may be be provided, provided, but but main main meals meals can can be be supplied,supplied, onon payment, payment, inin thethe commoncommon dining room.room. 17.7 Furnishings The extent to which furnishings,furnishings, including cookerscookers andand refrigerators,refrigerators, areare suppliedsupplied in staff quarters of the various grades,grades. dependsdepends largelylargely uponupon thethe normalnormal arrangementsarrangements forfor the supplysupply ofof these itemsitems toto publicpublic servantsservants withinwithin aa particularparticular country.country. For more senior staff, there areare often advantagesadvantages inin acquiringacquiring suchsuch itemsitems onon aa personal basis as this may avoid a heavy outlay when retirement comescomes round.round. For juniorjunior staff, at least some assistance with furnishing andand the provisionprovision ofof aa cookercooker andand refri-refri gerator may be necessary for them to achieve a reasonable standardstandard ofof livingliving onon a modest salary. A system of charging a reasonable rent forfor furniturefurniture andand equipmentequipment suppliedsupplied isis often the best arrangement.arrangement. This leavesleaves each personperson freefree to selectselect andand paypay forfor whatwhat hehe considers to be his needs. 18. CLINIC/FIRST-AIDCLINIC/FIRST-AL) ROOr~ROOM Depending upon the sizesize ofof thethe institutioninstitution andand thethe accessibilityaccessibility ofof properproper medicalmedical facilities, a clinic, or at leastleast anan adequatelyadequately equippedequipped first-aidfirst-aid room,room, isis highlyhighly desir-desir able. In remote areas a well-stocked clinic,clinic, staffedstaffed byby aa trainedtrained nursenurse oror para-medicalpara-medical person who can treat everyday complaintscomplaints andand issueissue drugsdrugs inin commoncommon use,use , isis definitedlydefinitedly needed. When thethe availability of proper medical centres nearby makesmakes thisthis unnecessary, at - 56 -- least a first-aid room shouldshould bebe provided.provided. This should be adequately equipped to deal with accidents and otherother emergencies,emergencies, and mannedmanned byby anan employeeemployee trainedtrained inin first-aidfirst-aid procedures.procedures. 19. PRACTICE YARDYARD AND UTILIZATION TRAINING AREAAREA 19.1 Location Depending upon thethe rangerange ofof trainingtraining whichwhich isis provided,provided, aa practicepractice yardyard maymay bebe in-in corporated inin a generalgeneral utilization training area.area. To reduce the amount of timetime lost byby classes moving between this area and the mainmain teachingteaching block,block, these facilitiesfacilities mustmust bebe located reasonably close to eacheach other.other. Noise from the practice yard/utilization area can be reduced by surroundingsurrounding it with aa tall hedge.hedge. Outside the hedge, scatteredscattered trees with dense crowns will further help to screenscreen noise. 19.19.2 2 Facilities In additionaddition to a replaceable selection of logs in both vertical and horizontal posi-posi tions forfor sawingsawing oror axe-workaxe-work demonstrations,demonstrations, thethe yardyard maymay includeinclude anan open-sidedopen-sided workshopworkshop for tool maintenance. This may replace someBome of the facilitiesfacilities suggested inin the students'students' workshop mentioned inin 10.210.2 above.above. A combined practice yard/utilization training area may containcontain a smallsmall circularcircular sawsaw bench. ThiThis s can be used for elementary instruction in sawmilling, butbut anan importantimportant subsub- sidiary function may be to demonstrate to students,students, usingusing materialmaterial fromfrom thethe schoolschool forest,forest, how logslogs cancan bebs damageddamaged throughthrough badbad pruning;pruning; byby mechanicalmechanical damagedamage toto thethe bark,bark, andand byby thethe breaking ofof branches.branches. StudentStudents s can also see the value ofof pruningpruning at different ages by the amount ofof knot-freeknot-free timbertimber available.available. Timber fromfrom the sawsaw benchbench shouldshould dischargedischarge intointo anan openopen dippingdipping tank,tank, beforebefore beingbeing used forfor exercisesexercises inin stacking.stacking. A simple covered stacking shed, with permanent bases for the stacks,stacks, shouldshould bebe locatedlocated sufficientlysufficiently closeclose toto allowallow easyeasy manualmanual handlinghandling ofof thethe timber outputoutput fromfrom thethe sawsaw bench.bsnch. When dried, the timber may be restacked elsewhere prior to sale, after having been used forfor exercisesexercises inin mensuration.mensuration. Where appropriate, the utilization area may contain concrete tanks or steelsteel drums for sap displacement treatment ofof timber, andand forfor hothot andand coldcold impregnationimpregnation treatment.treatment. This treatment area must be carefully screenedscreened toto reducereduce thethe possibilitypossibility ofof accidentalaccidental fire spreading throughoutthroughout thethe yard.yard. 19.3 Charcoal production A steel charcoal kiln may be locatedlocated withinwithin the areaarea ifif spacespace isis sufficientsufficient bothboth forfor the kiln itself and forfor reasonable stocksstocks ofof woodwood duringduring drying.drying. Where permanent brick kilns areare commonlycommonlJ.' used,used, thisthis tyTetype ofof kilnkiln maymay bebe installedinstalled forfor demonstrationdemonstration andand practicepractioe purposes. The resulting charcoal can be supplied to the kitchen forfor cookingcooking purposespurposes and/and/ or sold to the staffstaff members atat concessionary ratas.rates. 19.4 Exhibition/demonstration area Various exhibits of simplesimple joineryjoinery productsproducts suchsuch asas roofroof trussestrusses ,ndQnd doordoor andand windowwindow frames can be maintained inin this area.area. A 1tgrave"grave yard" for tests of treated and untreated timbers cancan bebe useful.useful. The exhibits cancan alsoalso performperform aa generalgeneral publicpublic relationsrelations functionfunction and should be manned by studentstudent guidesguides whenwhen visitorsvisitors comecome toto thethe institution.institution. 19.5 Access Good access by road to this area is required, but the traffic shouldshould be diverted away from the mainmain teaching andand administrativeadministrative areasareas toto avoidavoid noise.noise. Adequate turning spaces for vehicles shouldshould bebe provided.provided. - 57 - 20. SCHOOL FORTPSTFOREST This topic has already been discussed inin PartPart I,I, Section 7.7. It is sufficient to emphasize here that this shouldshould containcontain smallsmall butbut adequateadequate areasareas ofof cropscrops ofof allall ages,ages, for demonstration and ab~ initioinitio training. When an institution isis foundedfounded onon aa "green"green field"field" site,site, itit isis necessarynecessary toto allocateallocate sufficientsuffioient land to achieve this purpose,purpose, overover aa periodperiod of,of, say,say, 3030 toto 4040 years.years. Initially, thisthis may involve relatively large areas of land standing unused forfor forestry purposes. Therefore, to limitlimit criticismcriticism ofof whatwhat maymay appearappear toto bebe aa wastewaste ofof valuablevaluable land, it may be advisable to establish temporarytemporary short-termshortterm cropscrops onon thosethose areasareas whichwhich are not required for tree plantingplanting for,for , say,say, 2020 oror moremore years.years. The forest should have good access roads whichwhich cancan alsoalso serveserve forfor demonstrationdemonstration andand instruction in road maintenance andand culvertculvert construction.construction. 21. FOREST NURSERY 21.1 Size A necessary adjunct to a schoolschool forestforest isis aa forestforest nursery.nursery. Depending onon the number of studentsstudents and the requirements ofof thethe surroundingsurrounding forests,forests, thisthis shouldshould bebe sufficientlyBufficiently large to provide a realistic view ofof nurserynursery production.production. In addition, there mustmust bebe sufficientsufficient spacespace toto allowallow studentsstudents toto havehave individualindividual seedseed bedsbeds andand forfor staff members to carry outout researchresearch work.work. From experience, itit has been foundfound that a nursery of between 0.5ha and 1ha1ha isis normallynormally adequate,adequate, overover 1ha1ha being·bAing tootoo muchmuch toto handle.handle. 21.2 Layout In a nurserynursery used for instructional purposes, all paths and roads shouldshould be wider than normal to accommodate groupsgroups of studentsstudents followingfollowing demonstrations,demonstrations, oror earringcarring outout practical work.work. The layoutlayout ofof water suppliessupplies maymay alsoalso be moremore intensiveintensive thanthan normal,normal, toto provide practice in laying and maintaining waterwater pipes.pipes. Facilities for compost making and soilsoil storagestorage Shouldshould bebe provided.provided. 21.3 Working shedshed Where plants are raised in polythene pots, aa largelarge open-sidedopensided shedshed forfor storingstoring andand mixing soil ingredients and fillingfilling potspots shouldshould bebe provided.provided. A number of large bins, of several cubic metres capacity, shouldshoul d bebe arrangedarranged atat oneone endend toto holdhold thethe ingredientsingredients ofof the soilsoil mixture.mixture. These can be recharged by aa tractortractor andand aa trailertrailer fromfrom outsideoutside thethe shed. Near thiS,this, aa largelargp concreteconcrete m~x~ngmixing floorfloor shouldshould bebe laid,laid, ifif hand-mixinghandmixing isis carriedcarried out. If aa mechanicalmechanical mixermixer is available, the concrete floor area can be reduced. Workers filling pots can be seatedseated onon eithereither sideside ofof aa longlong tabletable runningrunning downdown thethe centrecentre of the shed.shed. A steady supply of soil fromfrom the mixingmixing areae.rea shouldshould bebe arranged.arranged. Filled potspots can be packedpacked intointo boxes and transported onon narrownarrot·l trolleystrolleys toto thethe bedbed spacespace inin thethe nursery. 21.4 NUrseryNursery office and storestore The nursery should incorporate anan officeoffice andand storesstores constructedconstructed inin locallocal materialsmaterials likely to be foundfound nearnear aa fieldfield nursery.nursery. It shoushould,l d, hovlever,however, provide perhaps slightly "idealized" accommodationacoommodation to indicateindicate thethe fullfull rangerange ofof facilitiesfacilities thatthat mightmight bebe requiredrequired in a largplar~ nursery. The office accommodation, forfor instance,instance, shouldshould provideprovide forfor aa nurserynursery officer in overall charge, and forfor aa foremanforeman andand storekeeper.storekeeper. Facilities for maintaining all necessary recordsrecords areare essential.essential. In the tool store, racks and shelves should be erected to hold all the equipmentequipment whichwhich isis inin use,use, andand aa simplesimple workwork benchbench forfor maintainingmaintaining tools isis required.required. A store for holding materials isis also necessary.necessary. This shouldshould bebe divided intointo two unequal sections.sections. In the larger section, all major stocksstocks of polythenepolythene tube and fertilizers,fertilizers, etc.etc. shouldshould bebe held,held, whilstwhilst thethe smallersmaller oneone cancan bebe usedused toto storestore seeds, insecticides andand otherother chemicals.chemicals. Appropriate measures should be taken to secure the stores,stores, particularly the oneone containingcontaining chemicals.chemicals . -58 - A well-drained tool washingwashing areaarea shouldshould bebe providedprovided outsideoutside the tool store,store, to enableenable tools to be cleaned beforebefore theythey areare returnedreturned toto thethe storekeeper.storekeeper. Simple, but adequate,adequate, toilet and washing facilitiesfacilities shouldshould bebe providedprovided forfor staffstaff andand workers,workers, particularlyparticularly ifif any of them spend their lunch break at the nursery. The nursery should have its own first-aid box for treating minor injuries which maym~ not justifyjustify an immediate visit to the clinic or first-aid room.room. Another requirement isis aa selectionselection ofof toolstools forfor thethe routineroutine maintenance ofof wheelbarrows,wheelbarrows, trolleys,trolleys, sprayerssprayers andand pipepipe fittings,fittings, andand thesethese shouldshould bebe kept in the tool store.store. 22. MEl'EOROLOGICALMETEOROLOGICAL STATIONSTATION Ideally, a forestry school should maintain a meteorological station both to maintain current climatologicalolimatological recordsrecords inin supportsupport ofof fieldfield operationsoperations andand toto teachteach appropriateappropriate procedures for reading instruments and recording data. The equipment used should be of the samesame type as isis usedused inin governmentgpvernment meteorologicalmeteorological stationsstations withinwithin thethe country.country. This enables the records to be incorporated in the national climatological data. The layout of thethe instruments should also correspond to the approved locallocal patternpattern and a securitysecurity fence is essential. Initially, the station may start with a few basic instruments, including a standardstandard rain gauge, a Stevenson ScreenScreen containingcontaining maximummaximum andand minimumminimum thermometersthermometers asas wellwell asas wetwet and dry bulb thermometers, a simple evaporimete~evaborimetera a weather-vaneweather-vane andand aa cupcup anemometeranemometer toto enable wind speedsspeeds toto bebe calculated.calculated. Later on,on, asas moremore fundsfunds become availableavailable and the skill of the staff and students in handling instruments increases,increases, more expensive andand intricate items can be purchased.purchased. These might includeinclude aa sunshinesunshine recorder, recordingrecording rain gauge, recording thermo-hydrograph, evaporationevaporation tank,tank, totaltotal radiationradiation integratorintegrator andand soil thermometers. Readings, of course,course, have to be taken throughout the year andand thisthis cancan presentpresent diffidiffi- culties inin the vacations.vacations. As a solution, it is often possible to train one or more of the maintenance staffstaff to bebe permanentpermanent observers.observers. They can be used to train students in taking observations during term-time andand alsoalso bebe responsibleresponsible forfor continuingcontinuing thethe readingsreadings during the holiday periods.periods. 23. EQUIPMENrEQVIPMENT 2).123.1 TeachingTeachinl equipment All classrooms should be equippedequipped withwith aa numbernumber ofof essentialessential itemsitems ofof equipmentequipment suchsuch as a chalkboard forfor writingwriting oror displayingdisplaying notesnotes andand diagrams.diagrams. Ideally, the chalkboard should be of the roller type with a prepared graphgraph section.section. This model enablesenables thethe instructor to refer back to diagramsdiagrams oror notesnotes presentedpresented inin thethe earlyearl y partpart ofof aa teachingt eachi ng session. A screen is also necessary,necessary, ifif filmsfilms andand slidesslides areare toto bebe used.used. The most concon- venient type is a spring-loadedspring-loaded rollerroller screen,screen, installedinstalled aboveabove thethe chalkboard.chalkboard. The screen can quickly be brought intointo positionposition andand thenthen releasedreleased whenwhen itit isis nono longerlonger required.required. Similarly, ifif overhead projectorsprojectors areare used,used, anan angledangled screenscreen willwill bebe required,required, asas mentionedmentioned in Part I, Section 9.8. Finally, a clock is an essential item,item, whichwhich shouldshould be hung at the rear of the classroom forfor the convenienceconvenience ofof thethe instructor.instructor. Some of the equipmentequipment used shouldshould bebe permanentlypermanently allocatedallocated toto eacheach classroom,classroom, e.g. chalkboard. Otherother expensive items,items, likelike aa 16mm16mm filmfilm projector,projector, cancan bebe shared.shared. Appendix 6 gives a list of equipment which shouldshould bebe considered.considered. 23.2 Office equipment 23.2.1 Principal's and instructors'instructors' officesoffices An instructor's office Shouldshould be furnishedfurnished primarilyprimarily asas anan office,office t butbut shouldshould containcontain additional equipment to make it an efficient work-roomwork-room forfor himhim toto copecope withwith hishis particularparti cular duties. In the case of the principal and senior instructors, provisionprovision must alsoalso be made for interviewing staff and students and forfor groupgroup meetings.meetings. The range ofof furniturefurniture andand equipmentequipment suggestedsuggested isis givengiven inin AppendixAppendix 7. -59 - 23.2.2 Administrative office An administrative office should be adequately equipped forfor the numbernumber ofof staffstaff sharingsharing it, with specialized items such as filing cabinets,cabinets, and aa safe,safe, locatedlocated nearnear thethe personperson whowho is responsible forfor theirtheir use.use. In hothot climates, airair conditioningconditioning maymay bebe consideredconsidered necesneces- sary, or otherwise, the use of ceiling fans.fans. A suggestedsuggested listlist ofof furnishingsfurnishings andand equipmentequipment isis givengiven inin AppendixAppendix 7. 23.2.3 Typists'Typi sts' officeoffice An office forfor typists shouldshould containcontain thethe necessarynecessary equipmentequipment forfor thethe mainmain functionfunction of typing. It m~,may, however,however, provide receptionreception facilities for visitors to the main office complex and contain a telephone exchangeexchange oror radioradio telephone.telephone. In addition, it isi s usual forfor any documentdocument reproductionreproduction equipmentequipment toto bebe installedinstalled inin thethe typists'typists' office.office. A suggestedsuggested list ofof furnishingsfurnishings andand equipmentequipment isis givengiven inin AppendixAppendix 7.7. 23.3 Laboratory equipmentequipment A detailed listlist of laboratorylaboratory equipmentequipment cancan onlyonly bebe producedproduced onceonce thethe fullfull scopescope ofof teaching in the physicalphysical andand biological sciencessciences hashas beenbeen decided.decided. There may be con-con siderable differences between countries in the objectivesobjectives and scopeBcope ofof the topics dealt with in the physicalphysical sciences,sciences, butbut there isis moremore likelylikely toto bebe aa closercloser agreementagreement onon thethe requirements ofof the biological sciences.sciences. Some suggestions on suitablesuitable itemsitems areare givengiven inin AppendixAppendix 8, but it is emphasized that detailed "shopping lists"lists" forfor anyany particularparticular institutioninstitution shouldshould onlyonly bebe preparedprepared once the requirements ofof the curriculum areare known.known. It is preferable to bebe shortshort supplied and forced to use some improvisation inin the first year than to orderorder a largelarge quantity of expensive equipment onlyonly toto findfind laterlater thatthat somesome ofof itit isis unnecessary.unnecessary. 23.4 Herbarium The basic equipmentequipment forfor aa herbariumherbarium cancan bebe moremore clearlyclearly defineddefined andand aa suggestedsuggested listlist of standard items is givengiven inin AppendixAppendix 9.9. 23.5 Library The range ofof equipmentequipment requiredrequired forfor aa librarylibrary willwill dependdepend uponupon aa numbernumber ofof factors,factors, including the sizesize of the institution, the importanceimportance ofof the librarylibrary inin itsits teaching role, and the use made of it by staffstaff forfor reference oror researchresearch purposes.purposes. Inevitably, cost factors may prove the greatest constraint in developing a good library and resource centre, but withinwithin reason,reason, thethe fullerfuller thethe equipment,equipment, thethe greatergreater thethe service iitt can provide to both students and staff.staff. Suggested items of equipment forfor aa majormajor librarylibrary areare givengiven inin AppendixAppendix 10.10. These may have to be scaledscaled down, ifif fundsfunds areare limited,limited, oror thethe fullfull rangeran~ cancan bebe acquiredacquired overover a period of years. A list of reference books isis givengiven inin AppendixAppendix 11.11. 23.6 Workshop equipment A list of desirable workshop equipmentequipment couldcould bebe veryvery lengthylengthy andand ifif acquiredacquired withoutwithout careful consideration would involveinvolve considerableconsiderable expenditure.expenditure. It is therefore more realistic to startstart with a limitedlimited rangrrange ofof items,items, suchsuch asas areare indicatedindicated inin AppendixAppendix 12.12. Additional items can then be acquired asas thethe requirementsrequirements ofof thethe variousvarious courses,courses, thethe schedule of practical exercises and the rangyrange of maintenancemaintenance servicesservices required areare de-de fined more precisely.precisely. A more comprehensive listlist ofof appropriate itemsitems cancan bebe foundfound inin the International Labour Organization'sOrgani zation' s "Equipment"Equipment PlanningPlanning GuideGuide forfor VocationalVocational andand Tech-Tech nical Training and Education Programmes NO.17,No.n, ForestryForsstry (1981)".(1981 )". In funding a new institution, it is better to spreadspread the equipment allocationallocation overover the first 22 to 33 yearsyears ofof operation.operation. It is also a goodgoou idea to allow some degree of flexi-flexi bility in the allocation ofof fundsfunds to helphelp relaterelate thethe equipmentequipment supply,supply, bothboth inin thethe rangerange ofof - 60 - equipment and numbers of items, to the emerging needs. ofof the programme.programme. The alternative is to have a lengthy preparatory period for establishing the programme,programme, but even this is unlikely to foresee preciselyprecisely allall thethe needs.needs. 23.7 FieldField equipment A veryvery comprehensive list of suitable field equipment can be found in the ILOILO pub-pub lication mentioned inin paragraphparagraph 23.623.6 above.above. Additional items of importance are outlined in Appendix 13.13. Again, it would be unwise to commit an institution to purchasing a large amount of equipment in the initial stages, as the full range and numbers of items required mB3may only emerge once the training programme is in operation. 23.8 Camp equipmentequipent The definitive list of campcamp equipmentequipment required forfor anyany institutioninstitution willwill dependdepend upon the extent to which camping playsplays a partpart inin the training programme.programme. It will also depend upon the general views of whatwhat a camp shouldshould be. In certaincertain areas, thiBthis is distinctlydistinctly spartan, whilwhilstst in otherothers,s , particularly in the eastern hemisphere, it may be quite luxu-luxu rious. The suggested list of equipment in Appendix 13 aims to fall between these two extremes and to provide a moderately comfortablecomfortable standardstandard ofof camping.oamping. 23.9 Catering equipment Good standards of catering are required at a forestryforestry school,school, asas the studentsstudents are likely to be young, extremelyextremely fit, fi\ and with very healthyhealthy appetites.appetites. The person in charge of the kitchen must, therefore, be encouraged to selectselect the rightright kind ofof equipmentequipment whichwhich will help to produce well-cookedwell~ooked meals and allow them to bebe servedserved properly.properly. The main items requiring closeclose attentionattention areare potspots andand panspans andand thethe cookingcooking stoves.stoves. The former shouldshould be ofof aa heavyheavy dutyduty patternpattern andand sufficientlysufficiently largelarge toto copecope withwith thethe numbers being fed.fed. Similarly, if electric or gas ovens are chosen, they should be large-large size catering models, with not too many gadgets, asas these areare liableliable to gogo wrong. In making the choice of equipment forfor cooking and baking purposes,purposes, itit shouldshould bebe rememberedremembered that although modern ovensovens areare quickquick andand easyeasy toto clean,clean, theythey areare usuallyusually veryvery expensive.expensive. Likewise, the cost of electricityelectricity oror gasgas cancan bebe veryvery hignhigh inin developingdeveloping countries.countries. An alternative iiss to use wood or charcoalcharcoal cooking stoves,stoves, possiblypossibly locatedlocated inin anan outsideoutside kitchen. Although much slowerslower andand moremore messy,messy, theythey makemake useuse ofof locallocal fuelfuel supplies.supplies. Probably a combination ofof thethe twotwo providesprovides thethe bestbest situation,situation, asas thethe charcoalcharcoal stovesstoves can be usedused when there are power cuts or bottled gasgas isis inin shortshort supply.supply. 223.103.10 Fire-fightingFire-fignting equipment A number of items ofof fire-figntingfire-fighting equipment havehave been mentionedmenti0ned earlierearlier inin connec-oonneo tion with somesome ofof the recommendedrecommenued facilities. f acilities. To be safe,safe, itit isi s suggestedsuggested that when the finalf inal plans for a forestry schoolschool have been agreed,agreed, aa reviewreview shouldshould bebe mademade ofof thethe pro-pro visions forfor fire-fightingfire-fighting andani emergencyemergency evacuationevacuation ofof staffstaff andand students.students. Whereas fires can start anywhere, the kitchen, laboratorieslaboratories andand workshopsworkshops areare likelylikely toto bebe thethe mostmost hazardous. Here, large-sizelarge-size inertinert powderpowder oror foamfoam firefire extinguishersextinguishers mustmust bebe providedprovided together withwith an asbestosasbestos blanket.blanket. Extinguishers should also be obtained for the class-class rooms, offices, dormitoriesdormitories andand staffstaff quarters.quarters. ForFor thesethese facilities,facilities, itit maymay bebe possiblepossible to locatelocate the appliances inin centralcentral positionspositions toto serveserve groupsgroups ofof buildings.buildings. All exitsexits fromfrom buildings shouldshould bebe keptkept clearclear ofof obstructionsobstructions andand firefire exitexit doorsdoors must be clearly indicated.indicated. Both staff and students shouldshould bebe trainedtrained toto useuse firo-fightfim-fight- ing equipment.equipment. Such equipmentequipment shouldshould bebe checkedchecked annuallyannually toto makemake suresure itit isis effective.effective. Fire drills shouldshould be heldheld onceonce aa termterm toto ensureensure thatthat everyoneeveryone knowsknows whatwhat toto dodo inin casecase of a fire.fire. If there is an existing firefire service,service, either publicpublic oror private,private, inin thethe neighbourhood,neighbourhood, it will probably be worthwhile contacting the ChiefChief FireFire OfficerOfficer toto seekseek hishis adviceadvice aboutabout the school'sschool's firefire precautions.precautions. He may also be able to arrange forfor his staffstaff to givegive demonstrationsdemonstrations ofof different fire-fightingfire-fighting techniques.techniques. - 6161 - 24. DESIGNDE3IGN ANDAND SUPERVISIONSUPERVISION OFOF BUILDINUBUILDINJ PROJECTSPROJEX:TS It hS-!3has been stated that architects, in general, are not very well informed about the special requirements of buildingpbuildings to be used for technical training in forestry.forestry. ThereThere- fore, assuming that the staff of a new forestry schoolschool have been appointed before the buildings are constructed, itit isis essentialessential thatthat theythey taketake aa greatgreat interestinterest inin thethe buildingbuilding project. If it can be arranged, any staff suggestions should be considered at the design stage and the principal shouldshould try to makemake suresure thatthat aa setset ofof thethe draftdraft plansplans isis sentsent toto himhim forfor scrutiny. With a certain amount of tact, patience and persuasion,persuasion, itit shouldshould be possible to eliminateeliminate thethe worstworst designdesign featuresfeatures andand ensureensure thatthat atat leastleast somesome ofof thethe ideasideas ofof thethe school staff are incorporated into the final design. If thethe staff are aappointedppointed after building construction has commenced, there will still be opportunities to changechange things, particularlyparticularly ifif aa closeclose watchwatch isi s keptkept onon thethe site.site. Normally, a clerk of worksworks will be appointedappointed andand goodgnod relationsrelations shouldshould quicklyquickly bebe established withwith him.him. He can be a very good ally, pointing outout problemsproblems which have arisen and generallygsnerally keeping thethe sohoolschool well-informedwellinformed ofof developmentsdevelopments onon thethe site.site. It may even be worthwhile forfor the principalprincipal to appointappoint aa staffstaff membermember asas thethe "site"site liaisonliaison officer". He should be well-acquaintedwellacquainted withwith thethe plansplans andand bebe freefree to spend a lot of time watchingwatching thethe buildingbuilding operationsoperations andand workingworking withwith thethe sitesite supervisors.supervisors. If thingsthingp are going wrong, e.g. incorrectincorreot sitingsiting ofof buildings,buildings, poorpoor workmanshipworkmanship oror aa needneed toto changechange the design ofof aa room,room, thethe mattermatter shouldshould bebe reportedreported toto thethe principal.principal. He can then try to sortsort things outout locally,locally, butbut ifif thesethese effortsefforts fail,fail, thethe issueissue shouldshould bebe raisedraised immedi-immedi ately withwith higherhigher authority.authority. It may result in unpleasant interviews or enquiries, but the principal has a duty to look after the long-termlongterm interests interests ofof thethe school.school. On com-com pletion of the buildings, no oneone will be interestedinterested oror hamehave anyany sympathysympathy ifif hehe complainscomplains about design faults, whenwhen itit isis known that they mightmight havehave beenbeen eliminatedeliminated throughthrough earlierearlier action. It will be a very satisfying moment when the schoolschool buildingpbuildings areare finallyfinally openedopened and the staff are able to feel that they have mademade significantsignificant contributionsoontributions toto aa designdesign which works.works. - 6363 - APPENDIX 11 ASSESSMMNTASSESSME:NT OFOF KNOWLEDGE/SKILLSKNOWLEOClE/ SKILLS REQUIREDREQUIRED BYBY FORESTFOREST TECHNICIANSTECHNIC lANS TOTO PERFORMPERFORM THEIRTHEm DUTIESDUTIES NAME: ·...... 000000000000000000000000000000000 000000 . AGE: RANK: ·o ...... eeoc,..* 000 00 00 000000.000000000000000 00 0000 . NUMBER OF YEARSYEARS STATION: ·00000006000...... 00000000000 0000000000n00e. 000000 . IN ORGANIZATION: IN ffiESENTPRESENT RANK:RANK: ...... 0.- C1.1 Ust 1-1.-< 1-1.-< 'd'- 1. National language 2.20 InternationalInt ernational language 3. Basic mathematics 4. Biology 5. Forest Botany 6. Geology/Soils 7. Use ofof handhand toolstools 8. Use of chain saws 9. Preparation of land 10. Planting 11. Weeding 12. Pruning/Thinning 13. Felling 14. Extraction ofof timber 15. Measurement of plantations/forest areas 16.16. Measurement of timber 17.17. Nursery work 18. Road construction 18. Road construction . 19. Building construction 20. Waterwater supplies 21. Work study 22. Surveying 23. SuperviSupervisory aory duties 24. Communication and extension 25. Office administration 26.26. Report-writing 27. Bee-keeping 28. Maintenance of vehicles 29. FirstFirst aid 30. Community forestry - 64 - APPENDIX 22 2.0 CORE CURRICULUM The curriculum for any particular schoolschool mustmust bebe deviseddevised toto meetmeet thethe specificspecific needsneeds the school is aiming toto fulfil.fulfil. It is, in fact, dangerous to try to adopt, or even modify, the curriculum ofof anyany otherother institutionsinstitutions withoutwithout firstfirst examiningexamining criticallycritically thethe preciseprecise needs ofof thethe country.country. The suggestions for a corecore curriculumcurriculum are,are, therefore,therefore, givengiven moremore asas anan indicationindication ofof how this might be prepared than for the specificspecific topicstopics mentionedmentiQled within.within. Subjects have been given traditional oror rather generalized titles.titles. Sub-divisionSubdivision ofof thesethese major blocks of workwork can easily be done when the circumstances warrant it.it. The emphasisemphasis within the subject will vary from country to countrycountry oror fromfrom area to areaarea within aa country.country. Educators must, however, be aware of the dangers of a very wide selectionselection of rela-rela tively short topics which may failfail toto formform anyany recognizablerecognizable patternpattern inin theirtheir students'students' minds, and the difficulties studentsstudents maymay havehave inin usingusing knowledgeknowledge gainedgained inin oneone subject,subject, without guidance, to supportsupport workwork inin another.another. The two curricula, basedbased on aa 2-year2year diplomadiploma course,course, havehave obviousobvious limitationslimitations andand concentrate on providing a sound basic education inin technical matters. A suggested curri-curri culum for aa furtherfurther 1-yearIyear coursecourse toto prepareprepare aa candidatecandidate withwith somesome yearsyears ofof fieldfield serviceservice is also given, but this isis ofof value onlyonly asas aa generalgeneral guide.guide. The authorities sponsoring such a course must, in every case, be able to define more specifically what>that theythey require of members in this higher grade. It is only thenthen thatthat thethe trainingtraining institutioninstitution cancan dede vise a coursecourse toto meetmeet thesethese requirements.requirements. No particular systemsystem ofof coursecourse numberingnumbering isis recommended.recorran_ended. This varies considerably from place to place, and it isis mostmost logicallogical toto adoptadopt aa numberingnumbering system,system, shouldshould this be necessary, which correspondscorresponds to those in use in universities or similar technicaltechnical instiinsti- tutions inin thethe country.count~. The alternative 2year2-year curriculumcurriculum hashas beenbeen suggestedsuggested toto meetmeet thethe situation wherewhere thethe authorities require a seriesseries ofof coursescourses inin basicbasic studies,studies, notnot directlydirectly relatedrelated toto forestryforestry , in order to maintain somesome degree ofof uniformity withwith trainingtraining inin otherother disciplines.disciplines. auchSuch courses, where they are required, weighweigh heavilyheavily onon thethe limitedlimited timetime availableavailable and unun- doubtedly affect the technical competencecompetence ofof thethe eventualeventual trainees,trainees, althoughalthough theythey maymay have some general educationeducation benefits. It is desirable to leave a certaincertain numbernumber ofof hourshours teachingteaching oror practicepractice unallocated within eacheach subjectsubject toto allowallow forfor publicpublic holidays,holi~s, andand forfor unforeseenunforeseen disruptionsdisruptions inin thethe teaching programme. 2.1 CORE CURRICULUM: Two-YearTwoYear DiplomaDiploma Course Course (excluding(excluding BasicBasic StudiesStudies Courses)Courses) 6 terms of 10 weeks each with 22 weeks ofof practicalpractical exercisesexercises andand 22 weeksweeks vacationvacation after the first, second, fourth and fifth terms, andand 88 weeksweeks fieldfield workwork andand 66 weeksweeks vacavaca- tion after the third term (or(or anyany alternativealternative distributiondistribution ofof practicalpractical exercises/fieldexerCises/field work to suit locallocal conditions).conditions). - 6565 - (Appendix 2, cont.) YEAR 1 TERM 1.11.1 BarANYBOTANY I 50 hrs. Plant morphology.morphology. SILVICULTURE II 70 hrs.hrs. Seed production; collection; treatment; and nurserynursery practice. UTILIZATIONUTILJZATION I 70 hrs. Care and useuse of carmnoncommon hand-toolshandtools andand workingworking techniquestechniques in forest operations.operations. SURVEYINGSURVEYINll II 70 hrs. Common surveying instrumentsinstruments andand techniques;techniques; preparation of simple pianoplans and calculations ofof area. FOREST SOILSSOILS 60 hrs. Development and structure of forest soils, nutrient status and soilBoil descriptions.desoriptions. FIRST AID/HEALTHAID/HEAIiI'H AND SAFETYSAFE.'l'Y ININ WORK 30 hrs. Simple first-aid procedures;procedures; safe working procedures; diet, etc.etc. Term followed by 22 weeks practicalpractical exercisesexercises mainlymainly inin SilvicultureSilviculture andand UtilizationUtilization but with someBorne practice inin SurveyingSurveying andand Soils.Soils. TERM 1.21.2 BOTANY III! 50 hrs. Plant physiology with specialspecial relations to trees. SILVICULTURE III! 70 hrs. Plantation establishment and maintenance techniques. UTILIZATIONUTILJZATION III! 70 hrs. Forest operations, harvesting and extractionextraction techniques. SURVEYING III! 70 hrs.hrs. Study ofof scales;scales; enlargement and reduction ofof scales;scales; use of topographict opograpbi c maps; simple photogrammetry.phot ogrammetr,y. FOREST MENSURA-MENSURA TION II 60 hrs. Measurement of forest produce andand individualindividual trees.trees. INTRODUCTORYIm'RODUCTORY STATISTICS 30 hrs. Basic introduction to statisticsstatistics forfor foresters.foresters. Term followed by 22 weeks practical exercisesexercises inin Silviculture,Silviculture, MensurationMensuration andand Utili-Utili zation. TERM 1,31,3 DENDROLOGYDENlROLOCY 70 hrs. studyStudy of forest species and forest types. SILVICULTURE III 70 hrs. Silviculture of indigenous forests and regeneration systems. MENSURATION III! 70 hrs. Measurement ofof forests;forests; sampling and inventoryinventory techniques.techniques. UTILIZATIONUTILJZATION IIIII! 7700 hrs. \'loodWood technology;teclmology; requirements and processes of forest industries. POLICY AND LAW 40 hrs.hrs. Review of forest policy inin relationrelation to nationalnational objectivesobjectives and fundamentals of locallocal forestforest lawslaws andand legallegal procedures.procedures. FOREST INFLUENCESINFLUENCES 30 hrs. Effects of trees on climate, water, soil,soil, with referencereference to management of water yields, etc.etc. Term followed by 8 weeks field exercisesexercises inin silviculture,Silviculture, samplingsampling andand inventoryinventory tech-tech niques, tour and visits to forest industries.industries. - 6666 - (Appendix 2,2, cont.)cont.) YEAR 22 TERM 2,12.1 FOREST J;X;OLOGYECOLOGY 70 hrs. Recognition andand classificationclassification ofof plantplant communities;communities; succession; forest structure,structure, etc.etc. SILVICULTURE IV 60 hrs. Silvicultural techniques in arid, semi-arid and moun-mo~ tainous areas.areas. AGROFORESTRY 60 hrs. Management ofof forestsforests inin conjunctionconjunction withwith agriculturalagricultural requirements.requirement s. FOREST ECONOMICSJ;X;ONOMICS 50 hrs. Economics ofof forestforest operations;operations; productproduction, ion, conversion and marketing ofof forestforest products.products. FOREST ENGINEERINGENGINEERIRl 70 hrs. Road alignmentalignment andand construction;construct ion; culverts; bridges, etc.etc. TJ;X;HNICALTECHNICAL REPOR'l'-REPORT- WRITm:lWRITING 40 hrs. Content and format ofof technical reports. Term followed by 22 weeksweeks ofof practicalpractioal exercisesexeroises inin Ecology,Ecology, AgroforestryAgroforestry oror forestryforestry in semi-arid or mountainous areas,andaref'.s, and roadroad alignmentalignment andand construction.construction. TERM 2.2 FOREST ~IANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT 70 hrs.hrs. Forest managementmanagement techniques;techniques; inventory control;control; data collection and presentation techniques.techniques. FOREST EXTENSION"EX'l'ENSICN AND Extension techniques;techniques; investigation, definition and COOMUNITYCOMMUNITY FORESTRY 100 hrs. implementation ofof communitycommunity projects.projects. FOREST ENGINEERING 70 hrs. Simple building constructionconstruction andand waterwater supplies.supplies. FOREST TREE Genetic principles andand implementationimplementation ofof treetree improve-improve IMPROVEMENT 60 hrs. ment programmes. ENTOMOLOGY 50 hrs. Anatomy, physiologyphySiology andand classificationolassification ofof insects;insects; studystu~ of some important ordersorders ofof insects;insects; prevention and control of insectinsect damage.damage. Term followed by 22 weeks ofof practical exercisesexercises inin CommunityCommunity ForestryForest~ andand Engineering.Engineering. TERM 2.32,3 FOREST MANAGEMENT 70 hrs. Collection andand analysisanalysis ofof data;data; application of manage-manage ment systems; preparation ofof managementmanagement plans.plans. ADMINISTRATICNADMINISTRATION 100 hrs. Structure and organization of government and ministries and forest organization;organization; channels and methods of commucommu- nication; stores and financial procedures;procedures; personnel management. SILVICULTURAL Organization andand administrationadministration ofof researchresearch projects;projects; RESEARCH 70 hrs,hrs. arboretum; species trials;trials; crop performance trials;trials; collection and analYSisanalysis of data. PATHOLOGY 50 hrs.hrs. Important tree diseases andand theirtheir causes;causes; recognition; prevention;prevention; treatment. WORK STUDY 50 hrs. Work measurement; day work;work; task work;work; piece work;work; setting and achieving targets. - 6767 - (Appendix 2,2, cont.)cont.) 2.2 CORE CURRICULUM;CURRICULUM: Two-YearTwoYear DiplomaDiploma CourseCourse (including(including BasicBasic StudiesStudies Courses)Courses) 6 terms of 10 weeks each with 22 weeks practical exercisesexercises and 22 weeksweeks vacationvacation afterafter the first, second, fourth andand fifth termsterms andand 88 weeksweeks fieldfield workwork andand 66 weeksweeks vacationvacation af-af ter thethe thirdthird termterm (or(or anyany alternativealternative distributiondistribution ofof practicalpractical exercises/fieldexercises/field workwork toto suit locallocal conditions).conditions). YEAR 11 Tl!RMTERM 1.11,1 BOTANY II 50 hrs.hrs. Plant morphology.morphology. CHEMISTRY 60 hrs. Introduction; measurements and concepts;concepts; weight rela-rela tionships; structure; bonding; gases; solutions; equilibrium; organic chemistry.chemistry. MATHEMATICS 60 hrs. Forest calculations and basic statistics.statistics. SILVICULTURE I 60 hrs. Seed production and collection;colleotion; nursery practice. UTILlZATIONUTILIZATION II 50 hrs. Care and use ofof commoncommon forest toolstools and workingworking techniques. FOREST SOILS 40 hrs. Development and structurestructure ofof forest soils.soils. LANGUAGE STUDIES 30 hrs. Improvement studiesstudies inin use ofof officialofficial language;language; correscorres- pondence. Term followed by 2 weeks of practical exercises in silviculture andand useuse ofof commoncommon forest tools.tools. Tl!RMTERM 1.2 BOTANY IIII 50 hrs. Plant physiology. PHYSICS 60 hrs. Vectors and balances; motion; work; energy; power; gases; angular motion;motion; vibratory motion;moticn; heat; mass; density; light; electro-statics.electro statics. SILVICULTURE II 70 hrs. Plantation establishmentestablishment andand maintenancemaintenance techniques.techniques. UTILIZATIONUTILlZATION IIII 70 hrs. Forest operations,operations, harvestingharvesting andand extractionextracticn techniques.techniques. LANGUAGE STUDIES 30 hrs.hrs. Technical report-writing.reportwriting. FOREST SOILS 40 hrs.hrs. Soil nutrients andand relationsrelations toto plants;plants; field soil des-des criptions.criptiOns. FIRST AID AND HEALTH Simple first-aidfirstaid procedures;procedures; safe working procedures;procedures; AND SAFETY 30 hrs,hrs. diet, etc.etc. Term followed by 22 weeks practical exercisesexercises inin plantationplantation establishmentestablishment andand main-main tenance techniques and harvesting techniques.techniques. TERM 1.3 DENDROLOGYDENrnOLOGY 60 hrs. StuqyStudy of species and compositioncomposition ofof forest types.types. SILVICULTURE IIIIII 60 hrs. Silviculture of indigenous forests and regenerationregeneration systems. UTILIZATIONUTILlZATION IIIIII 60 hrs. Wood technology;technology; requirements and processes ofof forestforest industriindustries. es. -68- (Appendix 2,2, cont.)cont.) (Term 1.3) SURVEYING II 70 hrs. Common surveying instrumentsinstruments andand techniques;techniques; preparation of plans and calculation of area. FOREST ~TIONMENSURATION II 60 hrs. Measurement ofof forestforest produceproduce andand individualindividual trees. POLICY AND LAW 40 hrs. Review ofof forest policy inin relationrelation toto national objectivesobjectives and fundamentals of local forest laws and legal procedures. Term followed by 8 weeksweeks ofof fieldfield exercisesexercises inin silviculturesilviculture andand mensuration,mensuration, andand visits to forest industries.industries. YEAR 22 TMTERM 2.1 2.1 FOREST EXlOLOOYECOLOGY 50 hrs. Recognition and classification of plant communities, sucsuc- cession, forest structure, etc. FOREST INDUSTRIES 30 hrs. Effect of trees onOn climate, water, soil, with referencereferenoe to management ofof waterwater yields.yields. SILVICULTURE IV 50 hrs. Silviculture techniquestechniques inin arid,arid, semi-aridsemiarid and mountainous areas. AGROFORESTRY 40 hrs. Management~lanagement ofof forests inin conjunctionconjunction withwith agriculturala,sricultural requirements. FOREST ECONOMICSEXlONOMICS 40 hrs.hrs. Economics ofof forestforest operations;operations; production, conversion and marketing of forest products. FOREST MENSURA- TION II 70 hrs. Measurement ofof forests;forests; sampling and inventoryinventory techniques.techniques. FOREST ENGINEER- ING I 70 hrs. Road alignmentalignment andand construction;construction; culverts, bridges, etc. Term followfollowed"ed by 2 weeks of practical exercises in ecology, inventory techniquestechniques andand agroforestry or forest~forestry in aridarid andand semi-aridsemiarid areasareas asas appropriate.appropriate. TERMTa?/4 2.2 FOREST MANAGEMENT 70 hrs. Forest management techniques;techniques; inventory control;control; data collection and presentation techniques.techniques. FOREST EXTENSION AND Extension techniques, investigation,investigation, definitiondefinition and im-im COMMUNITY FORESTRY 100 hrs.hrs. plementation of community projects. FOREST ENGINEERING 70 hrs. Simple building constructionconstruction andand waterwater supplies.supplies. FOREST TREE Genetic principlesprinCiples andand implementationimplementation ofof tree improve-improve IMPROVEMMNTIMPROvmENl' 60 hrs. ment programmes. ENTOMOLCGYENTOMOLOGY 50 hrs.hrs. Anatomy, physiologyphysiology andand classificationclassification ofof insects;insects; study of some importantimportant ordersorders ofof insects;insects; prevention and control of insectinsect damage.damage. Term followed by 2 weeks ofof practical exercisesexercises inin CommunityCommunity ForestryForestr,y andand Engineering.Engineering. TERM 2.32.3 FOREST MANAGEMENT 70 hrs. CollectionCollect ion andand analysisanalysiS ofof data;data; application of managemanage- ment systems;systems; preparationpreparation ofof management~~agement plans.plans. - 69 - (Appendix 2,2, cont.)cont.) (Term 2.3)2.3) ADMINISTRATION 100 hrs. Structure and organization of government and ministries and forest organization;organization; channels and methods ofof com-com munication; stores and financial procedures;procedures; personnel management. SILVICULTURAL Organization andand administrationadministration ofof researchresearch projects;projects; RESEARCH 70 hrs. arboretum; species trials;trials; crop performance trials;trials; collection and analysis ofof data.data. PATHOLOOYPATHOLOGY 50 hrs. Important tree diseasesdiseases andand theirtheir causes;causes; recognition; prevention andand treatment.treatment. WORK STUDY 50 hrs. Work measurement;measurement; day work; task work; piece work; setting and achievingaohieving targets.targets. 2.3 CORE CURRICULUM:CURRICULUl>I: One-YearOneYear SeniorSenior Technicians'Technicians t CourseCourse (following(following serviceservice inin thethe field as a Junior Technician)Technician) 3 terms ofof 1010 weeksweeks eacheach withwith 22 week.sweeks ofof tourstours or practical exercises and 22 weeks vacation after the first and secondsecond termsterms andand 66 weeks'-leeks tourtour oror fieldfield studystudy programmeprogranune afterafter tthe he third term. Tl'RI~TERM 11 SILVICULTURE 70 hrs. Review ofof recentrecent developmentsdevelopments inin techniques inin planta-planta tions and natural forestforest silviculture;Silviculture; organization andar.d planning of silvicultural operations;operations; records. UTILIZATICNUTILIZATI Term followed by 22 weeks studystudy tourtour ofof selectedselected forestforest areasareas toto seesee examplesexamples ofof re-re cent developments studiedstudied inin class.class. TERM 22 ADVANCED SILVICUL-SILVICUL Review ofof existingexisting silviculturalsilvicultural techniquestechniques inin certaincertain TURE 70 hrs. selected areas.areas . Evaluation of results in relation to cost and personnelpersonnel requirements;requirements; study of possible variationsvariat ions inin objectivesobjectives oror techniques;techniquesj study ofof pos-pos sible amended )rocedures)rocedures forfor monitoringmonitoring success.success. SILVICULTURE Planning and layoutlay- out ofof experiments;experiments; assessment techtech- R.SSEARCHRESEARCH 70 hrs. niques; checking and verification ofof data;datai maintenance of records;records ; formulationfonnulation ofof proposalsproposals forfor additionaladditional research. -- 70 - (Appendix(Appendix 2, cont.) (Term 2)2) FOREsrFOREST MANAGEMENTMANAGEf4:ENT 7070 hrs Detailed study ofof selectedselected ongoingongoing managementmanagernent plans;plans; review of proposals andand achievementsachievements toto date;date; presentapresenta- tion of data in tabular andand graphicgraphic forms;forms; review of staffstaffing,i ng, financefinance andand equipment in relationrelation toto objecobjec- tives; revision of at leastleast oneone selectedselected plan.plan. ADVANCED UTILIZATION Review of new equipmentequipment available;available; evaluationevaluation of a~any AND ENGINEERING 70 hrs. possible cost benefits inin purchasingpurchasing it.it. Preparation of traini~training programmesprogrames forfor staffstaff inin newnew techniques/tools;techniques/tools; efficiency/productivity teststests toto quantifyquantify benefits.benefits. PRIVATE STUDY 70 hrs. Reading;Reading; field stu~;study; collection of data on a specific topic of relevance to the student's work. TerJUTerm followed by 2 weeks detaileddetailed field studystudy ofof majormajor silviculturallsilvicultural, management,mans,gement, utilization or research area, to gaingain experienceexperience inin newnew techniques.techniques. TERM 3 ADMINIsrRATIONADMINISTRATION.' 100 hrs. Review of processes ofof administrationadministration within the organi-organi zation; review of administrative procedures outside the public sector; critical examinationexamination ofof anyany apparentapparent weaknesses; proposals for improvedimproved procedures.procedures. studyStudy of improved budgeting techniques and expendi-expen OPl'IONAlOPTIONAL COURSES PUBLIC RELATIONS Public relations techniques forfor publicpublic organizations.organizations. OR 40 hrs.hrs. LEGAL PROCEDURES Presentation of documents, etc.etc. for legallegal action.action. MAPPING AND PRESEN-PRESEN Map production; visual presentationpresentation ofof data.data. TATION OF DATA OR 40 hrs.hrs. USE OFOF OLIPICEOFFICE lolAMA- FamiliarizationF~liarization withwith officeoffice machinesmachines inin currentcurrent use.use. CHINES AND EQUIPMENTEQUI PMENT PRIVATE STUDY 70 hrs. Reading, fieldfield study;study; collection ofof datadata onon aa specificspecific topic of relevance to the student'sstudent1s work.work. Continuation of previousprevious term'sterm1s work.work. Continuation ofof previous termlsterm~s work or newnel" topic.t opic. Term followed by 66 weeksweeks fieldfield studystudy programme.programme. 3-43-4 weeksweeks tailoredtailored toto students'students' par-par ticular interestsinterests inin technicaltechnical mattersmatters withwith atat leastleast 22 weeksweeks studystuqy ofof administrativeadministrative pro-pro cedures in regional or central offices.offices. 1 71- 71 - APPENDIX 3 COURSECOURSE: : SILVICULTURE - C.100 SECTION: PLANTATIONS C.111 COURSECOORSE OBJECTIVESON ECT IVES ToPo teach the standardstandard proceduresprocedures adoptedadopted inin establishingestablishing andand tendingtending plantationsplantations ofof softwoods and other fast-growingfastgrowing speciesspecies withinwithin thethe country.country. ACHIEVEMENT TARGETS After completingcompleting thethe coursecourSe aa studentstudent shouldshould bebe ableable to:to: (1) Verify thatthat aa si-tesite isis suitablesuitable forfor thethe species and objectives ofof the plantation; (2) prepare the sitesite forfor planting;planting; (3) carry out the lining-out,liningout, holehole diggingdigging andand plantingplanting operationsoperations required;required; (4) carry out all weeding and tending operations prescribed,prescribed, includingincluding pruning;pruning; (5) calculate the number of trees to be marked at eacheach thinningthinning by the methodmethod prescribed;prescribed; (6) select trees to be thinned on proper silviculturalsilvicultural groundsgrounds andand carrycarry outout thethe thinning.thinning. CLASSWORKCLASSI,ORK Ref. TOPIC Hours 111.0 Plantations 4 Introduction; reasons for establishment.establishment . 1.1 Choice of site;site; objects; available sites;61 tes; transport. 1.2 Choice of species;species; objeobjectscts of plantations; site factors. 2.0 Preparations for Planting 5 2.1 Water control; clearing in grassland, forest,forest, swamps.swamps. 2.2 Preparation of ground; spot and strip hoeing; strip ploughing; clean hoeing;hoeing; complete ploughing; disc harrowing. 2.3 Spacing; silvicultural and economic considerations. 2.4 Lining-outLiningout onon flatflat sites;sites; on steepsteep hills. 3.0 Planting Operations 2 3.1 Lifting, transporting and distributingdi stributing plants;plants; time of planting;planting; methods; stock check;check; survivor count;count; beating up;up; use ofof insecti-insecti cides. 4.0 Weed Control 2 Objects of weed control.control. 4.1 Methods; clean hoeing;hoeing; harrowing; strip and spotspot hoeing;hoeing; slashing and trampling; chemical weed control;control; useUSe ofof covercover crops;crops; climber cutting.cutting. - 72 - (Appendix 3, cont.)cont.) Ref. TOPIC Hours 5.0 Pruning 2 Definition andand objectsobjects ofof pruning.pruning. 5.1 Types of pruning; rodent/climber pruning;pruning; access; 1st and and2nd high prunings; method; season; pruning schedulesschedules forfor softwoods;softwoods; pruning hardwoods. 6.0 Thinning 6 Definition and objects;objects; silvicultural and mechanical thinning.thinning. 6.1 Basic ideas; classification ofof trees;trees; principles; degree ofof thinning;thinning; cycle; dangers of over-over oror underthinning;underthinning; yield. 6.2 Selection ofof thinmingsthinnings inin plantations;plantations; small plot method;method; calculations;oalculations; selection and marking inin thethe field;field; selection forfor 2nd2nd andand 3rd3rd thinnings,thinnings, stock check before 3rd thinning; rate ofof work;work; felling. 7.0 Eucalyptus Pole,Pole. Fuelwood and Timber Plantations 2 Economic considerations.considerations. 7.1 ChoiceChoioe ofof site;site; ground preparation; spacing; weeding; pruning and thinning; eucalyptus timbertimber crops.crops. 8.0B.o Hardwood Plantations 1 Past efforts. Unallocated 3 DEMONSTRATIONSDEMONSTRATIONS AND PRACTICAL EXERCISES Ref. TOPIC Hours 2.1 Clearing before planting 2 2.2 Lining-outLiningout onon flatflat sitessites andand steepsteep slopesslopes 6 4.1 Weed control, methods of weeding 2 5.1 Pruning, demonstration 4 6.2 Selection of thinnings by small plot method 4 FULL-DAYFULLDAY PRACTICALPRACTICAL EXERCISESEXERCISES Ref. TOPIC Days 2.1 Clearing in grasslandgrassland 4 2.2 Preparation of ground, ploughing 2.4 Lining-outLiningout onon flatflat sitessites andand steepsteep slopesslopes 10 3.1 Planting, stock-checkingstockchecking 4.1 Weed control, climber cutting 5.1 All types of pruning 3 66010 1 Thinning selection selection 7.1 Eucalyptus planting - 7373 -- APPENDIX 4 MErHODOLCGYMETHODOLOGY FOR ASSESSINGASSESSn~ TRAINEDTRATNED MANPOWER REQUIREMENTSREQUIREMENTS FOR FOREsrRYFORESTRY AND RELATEDRELATOD INDUSTRIES Manpower planning maymay bebe describeddescribed asas aa systematicsystematic attemptattempt aimedaimed atat maintainingmaintaining andand improving the ability ofof anan organizationorganization toto achieveachieve itsits statedstated objectivesobjectives throughthrough thethe de-de velopment of strategies designeddesigned toto enhanceenhance thethe contributioncontribution ofof manpowermanpower atat allall timestimes andand in the foreseeable future.fUture. It is of vitalvital importance for the formulation of sensible edu-edu cation and training policies. It is also a valuable management tool for careercareer development, promotion, setting forthforth aa realisticrealistic recruitmentrecruitment policypolicy andand establishingestablishing soundsound labourlabour re-re lations. The quantitative aspect ofof manpowermanpower planningplanning hashas threethree mainmain components:components: (1) deterdeter- mination of the numbers ofof trainedtrained peoplepeople actuallyactually employed,employed, (2)(2) assessmentassessment ofof trainedtrained manpower requirements inin thethe lightlight ofof clearlyclearly defineddefined developmentdevelopment targetstargets forfor thethe sectorsector and (3) translation ofof requirementsrequirements intointo educationaleducational andand trainingtraining needs.needs. Determining the demand for trainedtrained manpowermanpower isis thethe mostmost difficultdifficult asas wellwell asas thethe mostmost important step.step. The needs cancan bebe estimatedestimated fairlyfairly accuratelyaccurately overover time,time, givengiven certaincertain basic data.data. However,Bowever, thethe actualactual demand,demand, especiallyespeoially inin thethe publicpublic forestryforestry sector,sector, which,which, in developing countries,countries, isis alwaysalw~s thethe largestlargest employeremployer ofof trainedtrained forestryforestry manpower,manpower, de-de pends also on otherother factors, mainlymainly financialfinancial ones.ones. Ultimately, itit isis financefinance which de-de termines what,"That isis possiblepossible ratherrather thanthan desirabledesirable forfor effectiveeffective operation.operation. The particular characteristicscharaoteristics ofof forestryforestry andand forestforest industriesindustries thatthat influenceinfluenoe man-man power needs ofof this sectorsector havehave beenbeen fullyfully describeddescribed byby ProfessorProfessor S.D.S.D. RichardsonRichardson 1/11 in his originaloriginal workwork inin thisthis field.field. These special features cancan bebe summarizedsummarized asas follows:f ollows: 1. Forestry is involved inin severalseveral sectorssectors ofof thethe economy,econo~, notablynotably thethe industrialindustrial and service sectors, as wellwell asas thethe ruralrural sector.sector. 2. Forestry showsshm'1s a ,"ridewide range of capital/labour ratios,ratios, fromfrom labour-intensivelabourintensive fo-fo rest establishment and management to capital-intensivecapitalintensive industries,industries, suchsuch asas modern paper mills andand automatedautomated fibreboardfibreboard plants.plants. 3. The essential feature ofof forestryforestry isis itsits long-termlongterm nature.nature. This gives itit aa re-re latively poor competitivecompetitive statusstatus forfor financefinance inin thethe absenceabsence ofof quickquick returns.returns. Also, forests are notnot movablemovable assetsassets inin thatthat theirtheir locationlocation isis determineddetermined byby thethe physical and biological environment.environment. These featuresfeatures increaseincrease thethe difficultiesdifficulties of finding and applying any reallyreally universaluniversal normsnorms forfor manpowermanpower requirementsrequirements forfor forest production. 4. In contrast to agriculture, where rising labour-forcelabourforce numbersnumbers frequentlyfrequently limitlimit the production structurestructure adopted,adopted, forestryforestry cancan usuallyusually operateoperate accordingaccording toto economic criteriacriteria and capitalcapit al outputoutput ratios.ratios. In these conditions,conditions, manpowermanpower re-re quirements can be linked to productivity per unit areaarea oror perper forestforest productproduct unit, provided the necessary basicbasic datadata areare available.available. 5. The changing naturenature andand conceptsconcepts ofof forestryforestry productionproduction inin thethe worldworld areare havinghaving significant effects on thethe present~presentday rolerole andand trainingtraining ofof foresters,foresters, asas wellwell as on the structurestructure ofof forestryforestry administrations.administrations. 111/ Richardson, S.D.:S.D.: "Manpower and Training Requirements inin Forestry DevelopmentDevelopment Planning".Plarmingll. FAO, Rome. - 74 - (Appendix 4, cont.)cont.) 6. ForestryForestr,y educationeducation andand trainingtraining coversCOVers manymany aspects,aspects, e.g.e.g. wildlifewildlife management,management, erosion control, inventory and surveying, sawmill engineering,engineering, produce processing, as well as tree cropcrop production.production. This creates a difficulty in attempting to translate numerical manpowermanpower requirementsrequirements intointo aa meaningfulmeaningful occupationaloccupational classi-classi fication, and the need for flexibility inin forestryforestr,y trainingtraining programmes. Classification ofof forestryforestrY Operations9perations Because of the diversity ofof forestryforestry activities,activities, somesome broadbroad classificationclassification isis neces-neces sarys~ as a preliminary stepstep inin makingmaking anan assessmentassessment ofof manpowermanpower requirements.requirements. Details of such a classificationclassification may wellwell vary fromfrom countrycountry toto country,country, dependingdepending onon thethe rangerange ofof their forestry and related operations.operations. A widely usedused classificationclassification isis thatthat evolvedevolved byby H.A.H.A. HilmiHilmi preciselyprecisely forfor thisthis purpose.purpose. This has the following groupings: i) Plantations: covering a) establishment of new forest plantations and related operations; b) management of existing plantations. ii) Natural forests:forests: management for production only.only. It is considered that managemanage- ment costs on extensive areas ofof variable tropicaltropical forestsforests wouldwould notnot be justi-justi fied except for identifiable benefits (see underunder multiple-usemultipleuse forestryforestry below).below). iii) Industrial wood supply:supply: felling, logginglogging andand transport operationsoperations toto supplysupply all major forest industries, but also includingincluding fuelwoodfUelwood productionproductio? andand bamboo production. iV) Forest industries:industries: usually sub-dividedsubdivided intointo a)a) sawmilling;sawmdlling; b) wood-basedwoodbased panel industries; c) wood pulp industry, depending onon what existsexists oror isis planned. y)v) Multiple-useMultipleuse forestry:forestry. including the needs ofof torrent control, soilsoil and water conservation in mountain areas;areas; protection against encroachment,encroachment, fire, pests and diseases; forestry aspectsaspects ofof shiftingshifting cultivationcultivation (agroforestry);(agroforestry); nature reserves, national parks, recreation, gamegame reservesreserves andand wildlifewildlife managementmanagement 1/. vi) Ancillary activities:activities: covering a variety of activities not readily quantifiable in terms ofof manpowermanpower requirements;requirements; e.g. forest administration, servicing and planning; research, development and extension;extension; education and training;training; other operations not coveredcovered above in itemsitems i)i) - v). Having established. a suitablesui table breakdown ofof thethe overalloverall patternpattern ofof forestryforestry operationsoperations in any one country, the next stepstep isis toto quantify,quantify, asas farfar asas possible,possible, eacheach inin appropriateappropriate units ofof area,area, volumevolume oror weight.weight. Essential for this purpose as a means ofof estimatingestimating man-man power requirements isis the existenceexistence ofof aa forestryforestry developmentdevelopment planplan whichwhich shouldshould establishestablish production targets for 15-2015-20 years ahead.ahead. The more realistic and detailed the plan, the more accurate the manpower estimatesestimates areare likelylikely toto be.be. Method for estimating trained manpower requirements forfor forestryforestry Where there is wide diversity and intensity ofof manualmanual operationsoperations toto catercater forfor inin man-man power planning work of this kind, the logicallogical approachapproach isis toto determinedetermine firstfirst thethe workforceworkforce requirements - or labour norms - for eacheach forestry operation,operation, andand then toto applyapply practicablepracticable supervision ratios to assessasseSs thethe numbers ofof trainedtrained personnelpersonnel neededneeded atat eacheach level.level. This, together with the inclusion ofof labourlabour productivityproductivity factors,factors, waswaS thethe basisbasis ofof thethe forestryforestry manpower methodology evolvedevolved by Richardson. Unfortunately, few countries have yet accumu-accumu lated the time series of statistical datadata needed,needed, soso simplersimpler methodsmethods havehave hadhad toto bebe em-em ployed meantime. 1/11 A new methodology isis nownow beingbeing developeddeveloped forfor assessingasseSSing trainedtrained manpowermanpower requirementsrequirements for wildlife and national parks management. - 757<; - (Appendix 4, cont.) To fill the gap, Hilmi devised a series of empirical normsnorms forfor technical-leveltechnicallevel per-per sonnel, based on forest area or forest products. The numbers of professional personnel were estimated by applying empiricalempirical ratiosratios toto thethe numbersnumbers ofof technicaltechnical personnel.personnel. These norms and supervision ratios are reproducedreproduced inin fullfull below.below. They are based largely on data drawn from countriesoountries ofof the Asian regionregion andand consideredconsidered toto bebe workableworkable averagesaverages forfor broadbroad manpowerm~power planning purposes. In thethe present context, however, their use is mainly illus-illus trative, so80 that the figures given shouldshould bebe revisedrevised wherewhere necessarynecessary byby andand forfor eacheach in-in dividual countrycountry in the lightlight ofof experienceexperience andand toto accommodateaccorrunodate technologicalteclmological advancesadvances andand changing Geoio-economicsocioeconomic conditions.cendi tiona. "" Proposed work norms forf or forestry f orestry techniciansteelm lClans j} a) Plantations i) Establishment of new plantations (including relatedrelated operations):operations)s 1 teclmiciantechnician per 200200 ha.ha. ii) Management ofof existingexisting plantations:plantations: 1 teclmiciantechnician per 1,0001 ,000 ha.ha. b) Natural forestsforests Take the total number ofof technicians estimatedestimated forfor allall fivefive normsnorms ofof itemitem c)c) below (industrial(industrial woodwood supply)supply) andand multiplymultiply thisthis numbernumber byby thethe percentagepercentage ofof industrial wood production fromfrom natural forests.forests. This proportion is taken asas indicating the level of management intensityintensity required,required, asas wellwell asas beingbeing thethe factor from which to derive the numbers ofof techniciansteohnicians needed.needed. c) Industrial wood supplysupply (felling,(felling, logging and transport)transport) i)0 For loglog productionproduction (sawlogs,(sawlogs, logslogs forfor plywood,plywood, veneer,veneer, sleepers):sleepers): 1 technician per 10,000 mim5 of roundwood removals per annum.annum. £I2/ ii) For produotionproduction of other industrial woodwood (pulpwood,(pulpwood, poles,poles, pitprops,pitprops, forfor pro-pro- duction of boards, etc.)'3 1 technician per 30,000 mm3 of roundwood removals per annum. iii) Fuelwood production:production, 3 'l/ 1 technician per 100,000 mm3 per year of industrial fuelwood.2/fuelwood •.v 3 1 teohnioiantechnician per 1,000,000 mm3 per year 0fof non-industrialnonindustrial fuelwood.fuelwood. year33 (The figure may be as low as 500,000 m in some localities.) A/&I 1/j} "Needs and Problems of Forestry Education in Asia". FAO/APFG,FAO/APFC, 8th Session,Session, Seoul,Seoul, Republic ofof Korea.Korea. 3 g(2/ A higher figure of 15,000 m3m per technician was adopted, for example, inin the casecase of MalaysiaMalaYSia and the Philippines becausebecause ofof considerablyconsiderably higherhigher stockingstocking perper unitunit areaarea of forests as well as higher volume outturnQutturn perper tree.tree. J!,1/ Industrial fuelwood consists ofof fuelwoodfuelwood used inin industriesindustries ofof allall kinds,kinds, steamboats,steamboats, railwayrailw~ locomotives,locomotives, factories,factories, powerpower stations,stations, charcoalcharcoal kilns,kilns, etc.etc. and,and, generally,generally, fuelwood usedused for urbanurban consumption oorr disposed ofof commercially - and requiring stricter supervision and controlcontrol - as opposed toto A/AI below. A/4/ Non-industrialNonindustrial fuelwood,fuelwQod, generallygenerally ofof noncommercialnon-commercial nature nature or or for for ruralrural consumption.consumption. For example,example, villages situatedsituated closeclose toto forests,forests, whetherwhether classifiedclassified asas reservereserve oror unclassed public forests, have direct and free access to local forest products,products, parpar- ticularly fuelwood, to which thethe villagersvillagers helphelp themselves.themselves. This nownow requiresrequires littlelittle or no supervision and control,control, but suchsuch controlcontrol isis expectedexpected toto increaseincrease considerablyconsiderably in the future.future. -- 76 - (Appendix 4, cant.)cont.) iViv)) Bamboo production 11 1 technician per 30,000 metric tons per annum. 1 d)a) Forest industries i) Sawmilling: 3 1 technician per 25,00025,000 m3m annual input.input. ii) ~'lood-basedWoodbased panelpanel industries:industries: 1 technician per 12,50012,500 m3m3 annualannual input.input. iii) Pulp industry:industry: 1 teolmiciantechnician per 3,500 metric tons annual output. e) Multiple-use forestry SUbjectiveSubjective estimates based on the importance to the country of the fields indicated in the classification ofof forestry operations,operations, itemitem v). In a later manpower stuqystudy of the same region, Lantican g/2/ used a ratioratio ofof 11 pro-pro fessional + 3 technicians for every 40,000 ha. of multiple-use forest. tfhereWhere agroforestry is a significant feature, specialspecial provisionprovision may be needed for forestry extension manpower onon a populationpopulation basisbasis similarsimilar to thatthat used for agricultural extension work. f) Ancillary activities Add 15 percentpercent ofof thethe estimatedestimated totaltotal personnelpersonnel employedemployed underunder a)a) toto e)e) forfor development and extension, research, educationeducation andand training. Table 1.-1.- Forestry PersonnelPersonnel -- SummarySummary ofof SupervisionSupervision RatiosRatios Ratio Activity Professional/TechnicalProfessi~Teohnical a) PlantationsPlan:tations Establishment Establishment 1 : 7 iii~~ Managementl.w.nagement 1 : 6 b) Natural forestsforests Management for productionproduct ion 1 : 8 0)c) Industrial and wood sU2121;:(supply All types 1 : 8 d) Forest industries Sawmilling : i) Sa'rmi lling 1 5 ii) Wood-based panelpanel industriesindustries 1 : 3 i~~~iii) Pulp industryindustry 1 : 3 e) Multiple-use forestry 1 4 f) Ancillary activities 1 : 3 111/ Bamboos are managed bothboth inin plantationsplantations andand naturalnatural forests.forests. In view of theirtheir increasincreas- ing importance inin thethe ruralrural economyeconomy andand asas rawraw materialmaterial forfor pulppulp andand paperpaper millsmi lIs inin the region, moremore andand moremore skilledskilled personnelpersonnel willHill bebe required.required. 2/£! Lantican,Lant i can , D.M.D.M. (1978): "Reappraisal"Reappraisal of Forestry Education andand Training Needs inin Selected CountriesCotL'I1tries inin AsiaAsia andand thethe FarFar East".East". FAO, Rome.Rome. - 77 -- (Appendix 4, cont.) Forestry manpower training levelslevels Planning of trained personnel for forestryforest~ development is concernedconcerned mainly with three levels in the operational field of forestryforest~ and forest industries: vocational, technical and professional. A wide diversity of employee nomenclature is used which, because it often relates more to duties and rank, may confuseconfuse the issues forfor the manpowermanpower planner.planner. Richardson, therefore, in giving the following definitions,definitions, makes itit clearclear thatthat thethe termsterms refer primarily to levels of training rather than to types ofof training oror kinds ofof employ-employ ment, as recommended by the FAOFAD AdvisoryAdvisory CommitteeCommittee onon ForestryForestry Education.Education. Vocational: PersonnelPersonnel concerned mainly withwith thethe directiondirection ofof manualmanual labour;labour; they may have received a formalformal training ofof lessless thanthan sixsix months,months, oror maymay havehave beenbeen promotedpromoted from the · lablabourour force and given ~ad ~hoc short-courseshort-course training.training. Such personnel hold a vava- riety of ranks and designations in forestry services.services. Technical: Formal full-timefUll-time trainingtraining isis usuallyusually forfor twotwo years,years, butbut maymay rangerange fromfrom one to three years, in a recognized technical institutioninstitution at belowbelow university level.level. Technicians shouldshould be capablecapable ofof organizingorganizing andand supervisingsuperviSing workwork inin forestsforests andand industrialindustrial plantsplants and carrying out the instructions ofof professional foresters,foresters, administrators, plant overseers and research officers. They carrycarry a widewide rangerange ofof designationsdesignations andand duties.duties. DepiDepite te these differences inin thethe extentextent andand depthdepth ofof trainingtraining andand inin thethe varietyvariety ofof workwork performed, the usual practice inin manpowermanpower planningplanning workwork isis toto treattreat technicianstechnicians asas aa singlesingle category. In some countries, however, there are two distinct technical training levels.levels. For broad planning purposes inin suchsuch cases,cases, thethe totaltotal estimatesestimates ofof technicianstechnicians requiredrequired can bebe split accordingaccordingto to tli,t1-1 ratio ofof 25% "senior" and 75% "junior" levels. This, ofof course, should be modified to meet the actual availability andand utilization patternspatterns foundfound in any one country. Professional: UniverSityUniversity graduates who have completedcompleted aa minimumminimum ofof three years' full-full time study, or itsits equivalent,equivalent, inin forestryforestry oror relatedrelated disciplines.disciplines. This includes holders of degrees inin pure sciencescience and inin specialistspecialist fields,fields, whowho maymay bebe employedemployed inin forestryforestry andand its industries, e.g.e.g. zoologists,zoologists, botanists,botanists, chemists,chemists, economists,economists, civilcivil engineers,engineers, etc.etc. The denominations ofof professionals inin thethe forestforest servicesservices areare asas variedvaried asas thosethose forfor tech-tech nical personnel.personnel. They characterize personnel that shouldshould be capablecapable ofof policy-makingpolicy-making oror planning, as a whole oror inin part, thethe workingworking ofof aa forestforest areaarea and,and, atat thethe highesthighest level,level, of the national forests ofof a countrycountry oror ofof aa specificspecific forestforest oror wood-usingwood-using industry;industry; andand after proper specializationspecialization ifif necessary,necessary, planningplanning andand researchresearch ofof allall kindskinds forfor thethe pro-pro motion ofof forestryforestry andand onon methodsmethods employedemployed byby thethe lumberlumber andand wood-usingwood-using industries.industries. Forestry s.a_tang,ffistaffing ratios ratios As will be seenseen fromfrom the supervisionsupervision ratiosratios quoted,quoted, HilmiHilmi coverscovers onlyonly thethe professio-professio nal and technical categories.categories. Lantican,Lant i can, inin his laterlater studystu~ ofof thethe samesame region,region, includesincludes a vocational group (forest(forest guards)guards) inin hishis datadata forfor actualactual forestryforestry manpowermanpower employedemployed inin 1977, and a fourth group, skilled labourers,labourers, inin hishis estimatedestimated requirements.requirements. The compara-compara tive staffingstaffing ratios calculatedcalculated fromfrom thethe figuresfigures givengiven inin hishis paper,paper, forfor eacheach ofof thethe sixsix countries involved, are shown in the followingfollowing table.table. Table 2 -- ASia/PacificAsia Pacific Region:Region: Comparative forestry staffing ratios inin 1977 11 a) Actual Ratios b) Estimated RatiosRatios Categories Fp T'" V P T'" Vv SkSk. Lab,Lab. Burma 1 1.98 2.55 1 2.33 6.376.37 6.626. 62 Indonesia 1 1.91.955 2.83 1 22.96.96 5.055.05 7.417.41 MalaYSiaMalaysia 1 6.846. 84 99.43. 43 1 2.56 3.763.76 6.416.41 Philippines 1 1.761.76 1.1.2626 1 3.10 2.772. 77 7.74 Sri Lanka 1 7.097. 09 113.223.22 1 1.93 2.87 4.82 Thailand 1 3.25 0.13 -1I 2.78 3.62 6.946.94 1 22.43. 43 1.1.9494 1 2.84 4.61 7.09 1/11 Derived fromfrom D.4.D.M. Lantican,Lantican. a) refers toto actualactual manpowermanpower employed,employed, b)b) refersrefers toto estimatedestimated manpowermanpower employed.employed. -78-78 (Appendix 4, cont.) Such national or sectoral ratios, eveneven those derived from estimatedestimated requirements, are only a reflection of the trained forestry manpowermanpower situationsituation andand structurestructure in eacheach country andand provideprovide no explanation of the wide variations shown. The ratios in b) above are particularly useful as general guidelines for the manpowermanpower planner,planner, but obviouslyobviously none should be used without thorough preliminary investigation asas toto theirtheir suitability.suitability. To illustrate the more detailed breakdownbreakdown ofof suchsuch country-widecountrywide ratios,ratios, anan analysisanalysis of the estimated manpower requirements for forestry developmentdevelopment inin NigeriaNigeria 111/ in 1985 shows the following staffing ratios for the various groups ofof forestryforestr.y operations.operations. These compare with an overall ratio in the forestryforestr.y public sectorsector forfor 1975 of: 1 professional: 0,84 senior technical, 2.05 junior technical, 6.72 vocational personnel actually employed.employed. Table 3 Nigeria: ForeRtiffingForestry staffing ratios ratios from from estimated estimated requirements requirements forfor 1985 SubsectorSub-sector Prof. Sen. Techn. Jr. Techn. Voc. _ Forest management 1 1.86 5.29 11.31 Logging (low(low variant) 1 1.00 3.03 6.12 Plantations (low(low variant)variant) 1 0.77 2.32 13.03 Forest industries 1 4.67 14.00 4.67 Wildlife 1 0.60 1.00 10.00 Research, training 1 1.50 1.00 1.00 Planning, coordination 1 1.50 2.00 2.00 Overall 1 1.43 3.27 8.11 Forest industries personnel.personnel. An important point for thethe manpowermanpower plannerplanner toto bear in mind andand check when considering the needs of forest industriesindustries isis that onlyonly a fraction of the professional and technical personnel employedemployed maymay bebe graduatesgraduates ofof forestryforestry train-train ing institutions as such. Much of the work is more related to mechanicalmechanical engineeringengineering and industrial processing thanthan to forestry.forestry. Accordingly,Accordingly, inin thethe NigerianNigerian CountryCountry ProfileProfile Study, for example, it was assumedassumed thatthat onlyonly 10-1510-15 percentpercent ofof thethe estimatedestimated manpowermanpower needs in forest industries would requirerequire anyany formalformal forestryforestry training.training. The bulk ofof the trained personnel would comecome fromfrom EngineeringEngineering Faculties andand tradetrade schools.schools. Forestry extensionextension personnel.personnel. In many developing countries, agrisilviculture is a feature of the tropical forest areas.areas. Where these operations are fullyfUlly controlled by forestry departments, the systemsystem hashas provedproved economicallyeconomically andand sociallysocially beneficialbeneficial becausebecause of thethe betterbetter rates of return and the employment creationcreation effects.effects. Where agrisilvicul-agrisilvicul ture is important, special extensionextension personnelpersonnel shouldshould bebe providedprovided toto traintrain andand assistassist farmers/workers in the purpose and methods ofof agrisilvicultureagrisilviculture oror agroforestry.agroforestry. Trained manpower needs for this typetype ofof forestryforestry extensionextension workwork cancan bebe estimatedestimated using similar criteriacriteria and ratiosratios toto thosethose forfor agriculturalagricultural extensionextension workwork inin thethe samesame country. In the case of Nigeria 1/, the basis adoptedadopted waswas oneone technicaltechnical (agroforestry)(agroforeetry) assistant to 1,000 agroforestry farmers, and an overall staffingstaffing ratioratio ofof 11 professional: 2 senior technicians, 5 junior technicians, 66 vocational personnel.personnel. The location of such forestry extension personnel within thethe organizationalorganizational structurestructure ofof extensionextension servicesservices is a matter for careful consideration if the most effectiveeffective impactimpact isis to be achieved. 1/11 Nigeria: Country Profile StudyStu~ - Agricultural ManpowerManpower Planning,Planning, .TrainingTraining andand Utilization. - Technical Report. UNDP/FAO (AG:DP/NIR/73/001). FAD,FAO, Rome, 1978. - 79 - (Appendix 4, cont.) Forestry personnel wastage ratesrates In manpower planning an essentialessential factor toto bebe measuredmeasured isis thethe annualannual staffstaff wastage rate. This coverscovers losseslosses fromfrom deaths,deaths, retirementsretirements andand transfers.transfers. In addition, allowanceallowance must be made for staffstaff turnoverturnover duedue toto factorsfactors suchsuch asas unsatisfactoryunsatisfactory conditionsconditions ofof ser-ser vice,-v-ice, lack lack of of career career opportunities opportunities withinwithin thethe service,service, andand attractiveattractive employment oppor-oppor tunities elsewhere. Where full employment exists, particularlyparticularly for highly trained per-per sonnel during the earlyearly years ofof development,development, forestryforestry oftenoften faresfares badlybadly inin competitioncompetition with many other occupationsoccupations offeringoffering higherhigher salariessalaries andand betterbetter amenities.amenities. In the absence of locally discernible time trends,trends, thethe followingfollowing graduatedgraduated seriesseries ofof wastagewastage factorsfactors maymay be used as percentages ofof projectedprojected annualannual employmentemployment intakeintake toto allowallow forfor replacements.replacements. Table 4 - Staff wastage: rate of annual replacementreplacement neededneeded (percentages)(percentages) Level/Period First 5 years Second 5 years Third/fourth 5 years Professional 25 20 15 Technical 20 20 15 Vocational 15 10 10 Special wastage factors may applyapply ·toto femalefemale personnel.personnel. In general, wastage rates amongaMong women will tend to bebe higherhigher thanthan forfor men.men. Much will depend on attitudes to unun- married women occupyingoccupying certaincertain posts,posts, andand onon conditionsconditions ofof serviceservice forfor marriedmarried women,women, such as transfers with the husband,husband, maternitymaternity leave,leave, andand so60 on.on. To avoid high unit training costs,costs, itit isis essentialessential toto monitormonitor thethe situationsituation closelyclosely and to obtain accurate data onon thethe nature andand extentextent ofof annualannual losseslosses ofof trainedtrained per-per sonnel in the forestry sector.sector. Technological changechange inin forestryforestrY Where trained manpower requirements areare basedbased primarilyprimarily onon productionproduction criteria,criteria, asas in the casecase ofof forestry andand itsits industries,industries, thethe effectseffects of technological changeschanges onon training needs are likelylikely toto bebe muchmuch greatergreater thanthan wherewhere manpowermanpower isis directlydirectly relatedrelated toto rural populationpopUlation oror humanhuman factors.factors. This isis somethingsomething whichwhich bothboth thethe manpowermanpower andand educa-ednca tional planners haveh~e to trytry toto foresee.foresee. For example,example, manymaqy governmentsgovernments areare puttingputting moremore " emphasis on total rural development, on reforestation ofof denudeddenuded lands,lands, especiallyespecially water-wate~ sheds, on wildlife managementmanagement andand onon locallocal processingprocessing ofof timbertimber intointo finishedfinished products.products. TheseandThese and many relatrelated ed changes are being reflectedreflected inin forestryforestry educationeducati on andand trainingtraining programmes, particularly inin suchsuch fieldsfields asas forestforest economics,economics, extension,extension, engineering,engineering, andand development planning, asas wellwell asas inin thethe broadeningbroadening rangerange ofof trainedtrained manpowermanpower nownow neededneeded in the forestry sector.sector. - 80 - APPENDIX 5 Accommodation StandardsStandards forfor EducationalEducational BuildingsBuildings (Revised Edition, April 1977) Building ResearchResearch Establishment,Establishment, Department of the Environment, London, England STANDARDS FORFOR COLLEX:lESCOLLEGES OF ruRTHERFURTHER EDUCATION Usable area per working space 2 Teaching rooms with demonstration 2.50 m2m 2 Drawing officesoffices (asing(using AlA1 oror smallersmaller boards)boards) 3.70 m2m 2 Drawing officesoffices (using(using AOAO oror largerlarger boards)boards) 4.60 m2m 2 Laboratories: non-advanoednon-advanced sciencescience andand engineeringengineering 4.60 m2m Workshops: oraftscrafts requiring work benches and smaller-scale 2 machines and equipmentequipment 5.60 m2m Storage and ServiceService Rooms:Rooms. Drawing offices 10% addition Non-advanced sciencescience lab.lab. 15% " Workshops 15% " A more detaileddetailed set ofof WorldWorld Bank "Guidelines on the Construction of EducationalEducational Buildings", issuedissued inin February 1967,1967, maymay stillstill bebe availableavailable inin somesome countries.countries. This gives extremelyextremely precise suggestionssuggestions andand layoutslayouts forfor useuse atat thethe detaileddetailed designdesign stagestage of buildings. The cost estimates,estimates, however,however, areare nownow onlyonly ofof historichistoric interest.interest. --8181 - APFENDIXAPPENDIX 66 6.0 TEACHING EQUIPMENT A classroom should normallynormally bebe equippedequipped withwith asas manymany ofof thethe followingfollowing itemsitems asas cir-cir cumstances, space and finance allow: A CHALKBOARD with aa sets.et ofof suitablesui table drawingdrawing instrumentsinstruments CHALKBOARD CLEANERSCLEANmS andand DUSTERSDUSTDlS A FELT-BOARDYELTBOARD and/orand/or aa MAGNETICMAGNETIC BOARD,BOARD, asas preferred.preferred. (Tbis(This should, if possible, be suspended from an overheadoverhead tracktrack to allowallow itit toto bebe movedmoved toto differentdifferent pointspoints along the wall asas required.)required.) HOOKS forfor hanginghanging flip-chartflipcharts s A PROJECTORPROJroTOR SCREEN:SCREEN: eitherei ther a "pull down" screen fixed centrally or a rigid screen running on an overhead tracktrack sharedshared withwith thethe felt-board/magneticfeltboard/magnetic board WALLBOARDSWALL-BOARDS oror NOTICEBOARDS,NOTICE-BOARDS, feltcovered,felt-covered, at at convenient convenient placesplaces aroundarcund thethe room A WALL CLOCK WASTE PAPERPAPDl BINS,BINE, oneone oror moremore STUDENTS' TABLES andand CHAIRS.CHAIRS. Depending on available funds andand the degreedegree ofof utilization,utilization, thethe followingfollowing itemsitems maymay be sharedshared between twotwo oror moremore classrooms:classrooms: An OVERHEAD PROJECTOR A SLIDE PROTECTORPROJECTOR with, if possible,possible, back projection facilities A 1616 nunmm SOUND PROJECTOR An EPmIASCOPE.EPIDIASCOPE. Where these items are installedinstalled onon mobilemobile trolleys,trolleys, theythey cancan bebe movedmoved reasonablyreasonably conveniently between classroomsclassrooms onon thethe sanesame floorfloor asas required.required. Items whichwhioh may be locatedlocated inin aa specificspecific roomroom butbut usedused onon loanloan inin otherother rooms,rooms, ifif required, are:are: SCIENTIFIC CALCULATORS PRINTING/ADDING/LISTING MACHINES INTERVAL TIMERS STOP WATCHES. The teaching desk inin eacheach classroomclassroom shouldshould bebe equippedequipped withwith drawersdrawers oror aupboardscupboards holding: WHITE and COLOURED CHALKSCHALKS WRITING PAPERS of various types and sizes SPARE PENCILS, PENS, ERASERS,mASERS, PENCIL SHARPENERS,SHARPENERS, etc.etc. FILES for teaching notesnotes andand hand-outshandouts inin currentcurrent use.use. -82-82 (Appendix 616, cont.)cont.) A classroomclassroom which alsoalso servesserves asas aa drawingdrawing officeoffice shouldshould havehave facilitiesfacilities forfor storing:storing: DRAWING BOARDS and STANDS for each student Sets of DRAWING INSTRUMENTS and SCALES LIGHTLIGBT TABLES and adjustable DESK LAMPS. - 83 - APPENDIX 77 7.0 OFFICE EQUIPMENT 7.1 INSTRUCTOR'S OFFICE OFFICE DESK, standard,steniard, with cupboardcupboard and drawers DESK CHAIR, preferably onon castorscastors VISITORS' CHAIRS, two or more TELEPHONE EXTENSION and/or an EgTERCOMINTERCOM TERMINAL asas appropriateappropriate DESK FURNISHINGS, suchsuch asas letterletter trays,trays, penpen trays,trays, paperpaper punch,punch, stapler,stapler, pencilpencil sharpener, desk lamp,lamp, etc.etc. BLOTTING PAD WASTE PAPER BIN WALL CLOCK SIDE TABLE, suitablesui table for extendingextending the deskdesk duringduring meetingsmeetings FILING CABINET, of an appropriate size BOOK SHELVESSBELVES CUPBOARD for stationery ROOF or DESK FAN, ifif climaticclimatic conditionsconditions warrantwarrant itit TAPE WRITER CALCULATOR and/or an ADDING LISTING MACHINE, asas appropriateappropriate PORTABLE TYPEWRITER. A senior instructor's officeoffice mightmight alsoalso havehave thethe followingfollowing itemsitems ifif spacespace andand fundsfunds permit:permit: COFFEE TABLE ARMCHAIRS, 2 or 3. 7.7.22 PRINCIPAL'S OFFICE The principal'sprinoipal's officeoffice shauldshould containcontain thethe equipmentequipment setset outout inin 7.17.1 Instructor'sInstructor's office, but a larger desk may be required,required, withwith moremore drawers.drawers. Additional equipmentequi pment might include the following items ifif spacespace permits:permits: LARGE TABLE, 4-6 persons, forfor holdingholding staffstaff meetingsmeetings CHAIRS, 4-6 COFFEE TABLE, for entertainingentertaining visitorsvisitors ARMCHAIRS, 2 or 3 SAFE, for the secure storage of important documents. - 8~ - (Appendix 7,7, cont.)cont.) 7.3 ADMINISTRATIVE OFFICE DESKS, standard,standard, withwith cupboardscupboards andand drawersdrawers forfor staff,staff, asas requiredrequired DESK CHAIRS, preferably on castors, for each desk VISITORS' CHAIRS, one or more per desk ACCESS TO aa TELEPHONETELEPHONE EXTENSION,EXTENSION, usuallyusually shared,shared, and/orand/or anan INTERCOMINTERCOM TERMINALTERMINAL DESK FURNISHINGS, asas inin 7.17.1 BLOTTING PADS WASTE PAPER BINS, as required WALL CLOCK SIDE TABLES, possibly linking desksdesks to permit thethe easyeasy flowflow ofof documents CUPBOARDS, shared, for stationery and documentsdocuments FILING CABINETS, shared BOOK SHELVES, as required FANS, roof oror desk,desk, ifif conditionsconditions warrantwarrant itit CALCULATORS or ADDING-LISTINGADDINGLISTING MACHINESMACHINES asas appropriateappropriate SAFE, at least one, for cashcash and/orand/or documents.documents. 7.4 TYPISTS' OFFICE TYPIST'S DESK, for eacheach typist,typist, oror aa combinedcombined receptionist/typist'sreceptionist/typist's deskdesk TYPISTS' CHAIRS TYPEWRITERS, as required (at(at leastleast oneone with aa longlong carriage)carriage) TELEPHONE EXTENSION oror INTERCOMINTERCOM TERMINAL (It(It isis probableprobable thatthat thethe telephonetelephone ex-ex change orcr intercom control unit will be locatedlocated inin thisthis room.) PAPER RACKSHACKS CUPBOARDS, for stationerystationery andand documentsdocuments DESK FURNISHINGS, asas inin 7.17.1 WASTE PAPER BINS HALLWALL CLOCK FANS, roof oror desk,desk, ifif conditionsconditions warrantwarrant itit WAX STENCIL DUPLICATOR SPIRIT WPLICATORDUPLICATOR (for(for somesome teaching requirements)requir ement s) PHOTOCOPIER (preferably(preferably with facilities toto produceproduce overheadoverhead projector transparencies).transparencies). In largelarge institutions, these reproductionreproduction facilitiesfacilities maymay bebe locatedlocated inin aa separateseparate Print RoomRoom andand bebe augmentedaugmented byby anan OFFSE1!OFFSET PRINTING MACHINE and equipmentequipment toto produceproduce alu-alu minium plates,plates, ifif substantialsUbstantial amountsamounts ofof teachingteaching materialmaterial areare requiredrequired toto bebe producednroduced locally. - 85 - APPENDIX 8 8.0 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT 8.1 BCTANIcAL/BIOLOGICALBarANICAL(BIOLOOICAL EQVIPMENTEQUIPMENT MICROSCOPES forfor studentsstudents MICROSCOFEMICROSCOPE SLIDES covmCOVER SLIPS HAND MICROTOMESMICRarC!olES STAINS DISSECTING STANDSSTANDS HAND LENSES DISSECTINGDISSECTOO INSTRUMENTS, setBet ofof MICRo-PROJMICROPROJEOTOR ECTOR and SCREENSCREE:N PREPARED SLIDES, set ofof SLIDE BOXES PLANTPLANl' PRESSES PITH PETRIPEERI DISHES.DISHES, 8.2 SOIL EQUIPMENTEQUIPMENT SOIL SIEVES, sets of PESTLES andand MORTARS MORTARS GAS JARSJARS GLASS TUBIIDTUBING pH TESTOOTESTING KITS pH METERSMEPERS SOIL TEST KITS SOIL MOISTUREMOISTURE METERSMETERS TENSIOMNl'ERSTENSIOMETERS BALANCES IRYINODR/ING OVEN SOILSOIL AUGERSAUGERS WATER DEl-IONISERS DEIONISERS.. - 86 - (Appendix 8, cont.) 8.3 CHEMISTRYCJIDlISTRY (BASIC(BASIC STUDIESSTUDIES COURSE)COURSE) BALANCES (direct(direct reading)reading) BUNSEN BURNERSBllRIDRS TRIPOD STANDSffi'ANDS GAUZES PIPE CLAYClAY TRIANGLES TONGS REAGENT BOTTLESBOTTIES (various(various sizessizes andand types)types) GlASSGLASS RODS GLASS TUBES (various(various bores) GLASS TUBE CUTTERS FILES BEAKERS (Soda(Soda andand hardhard glass)glass) FLASKS (VarioUS(various types)types) PIPETTESPlPEl'TES and RACKS BURETTES and STANDS TEffi'TEST TUBES and STANDS TESTTEffi' TUBE HOLDERS FILTERFIDPER FUNNELS and STANDSffi'ANDS FIDDERFILTER PAPERSPAIIDlli GAS JARSJARS and COVERS EVAPORATING BASINS CRUCIBLES and LEDSLIDS STANDARD REAGENTS RUBBER TUBING CLIPS THERMOMETERSTHERMOMEll'ERS CLEANINGCLEANING CLOTHS FIRST-AID BOX FIRE EXTINGUISHERS FIRE BLANKET.BLANKElr. - 87 - APPENDIX 9 9.0 HERBARIUM EQUIPMENTEQUIPMENl' A smallsmall herbarium for teaching and reference purposes in aa training institutionsinstitutions shouldshould have the following furniture and equipment:equipment: WORK TABLES for examining and preparing specimensspecimens CHAIRS, as required for the work tablestables providedprovided SHELVES or CUPBOARDS for storing specimensspecimens FUMIGATING FACILITIES forfor specimensspecimens HAND LENSES LENSES onon flexibleflexible standsstands oror dissectingdissecting standsstands Sets of BOTANICAL INSTRUMENTSINSTRUMENTS (SCISSORS,(SCISSORS, SCALPELS,SCALPELS, NEEDLES,NEEDLES, TWEEZERS,TWEEZERS, etc.)etc.) MOUNTING SHEETSSHEETS GLUE SPECIMEN LABELS SPECIMEN FILE JACKETS, with labelslabels HAND PRESSES DRYING OVENS (either(either inin thethe herbariumherbarium oror inin anan adjacentadjacent lab.)lab.) DESKS and CHAIRS for staff CUPBOARDS for storing materials andand equipmentequipment DEHUMIDIFIERS (if(if necessary)necessary) CLEANING EQUIPMENT (e.g.(e.g. an industrialindustrial vacuum cleaner).cleaner). If timber specimens are to be preparedprepared andand examinedexamined inin thethe room,room, thethe followingfollOwing itemsitems may be required: WORK BENCH SAWS, KNIVES, CHISELSCHISELS,' PLANES, RASPS, etc.etc. - 88 -- APPENDIX 10 10.0 LIBRARY EQUIPMENT 10.1 LIBRARIAN'S ObliICEOFFICE ANDAND ISSUE DESKDESK DESKS as required DESK CHAIRS VISITORS' CHAIRS TELEPHONE EXTENSIONEXTENSION and/orand/or INTERCOMINTERCOM TERMINALTERMINAL asas appropriateappropriate DESK FURNISHINGS/FURNISHINGS, asas atat 7.17.1 BLOTTING PADS WASTE PAPER BIN WALL CLOCK FILING CABINET BOOK SHELVES for reference books and cataloguescatalogues FAN, roofroof oror desk,desk, ifif climaticclimatic conditionsconditions warrantwarrant itit ISSUE DESK or countercount er RACKS for storing borrower'sborrowerls cardscards PHOTOCOPIER (in(in a largelarge library).library). 10.2 REFERENCEREFERENCE AREAAREA FILING CABINETS for subject and authors' index cards SHELVES for reference books RACKSHACKS for displaying recentrecent publicationspublications READING TABLES CHAIRS MICRO-FILMMICROFILM READERREADER andand COPIERCOPIER (if(if required)required) MICRO-FILMMICROFILM STORAGESTOHAGE CABINETCABINET CABINETS for storing colouredcoloured transparenciestransparencies andand photographsphotographs suitablysuitably indexedindexed VIEWERS for reviewing sheetssheets ofof colouredcoloured transparencies.transparencies. 10.3 .§T!QKSTACK BOOK SHELVES,SHELVES, preferablypreferably withwith shelvesshelves ofof adjustableadjustable heightheight READING TABLES CHAIRS CHESTS forfor mapsmaps oror postersposters TABLES or SLOPING RACKS forfor studyingstudying mapsmaps oror postersposters DEHUMIDIFIERDEHUIHDIFIER (if(if conditionsconditions requiredrequired this)this) HUMIDITY RECORDER. - 89 - (Appendix 10,10, cont.)cont.) 10.4 GENERAL READING AREA READING DESKS CHAIRS READING LAMPS. 10.5 EXHIBITION AREA NOTICEBOARDS, large size DISPLAY CABINETSCABINEI'S STANDS. 10.6 WORK ROOM WORK TABLE CHAIRS or STOOLS STOOLS CUPBOARD for storing materials SCISSORS, KNIVES, etc.etc. TAPE, INKS,INKS, etc.etc. forfor labellinglabelling booksbooks REGISTER OF ACQUISITIONS LABELS and STAMP for identifying ownershipownership POCKETS PORFOR CARDS TYPEMRITER.TYPEWRITER • - 9090 - APPENDIX 1111 BOOKS FOR TECHNICAL FORESTRY SCHOOL LIBRARIES The function of a librarylibrary inin a technical trainingtraining institutioninstitution is,is, firstly,firstly, toto supportsupport the courses offeredoffered and, secondly,secondly, toto provideprovide wider"rider referencereference materialmaterial forfor teachingteaching staffstaff or for students who have the interest and aptitude to exploreexplore beyond the strictstrict limitslimits of their course.course. A choice of books must be closelyclosely relatedrelated toto thethe coursescourses offeredoffered andand toto theirtheir content.content. Firm recommendations are,are, therefore,therefore, extremelyextremely difficultdifficult toto make,make, asas thethe rangerange ofof coursescourSes will vary considerablyconsiderably fromfrom institutioninstitution toto institution.instituti on. Moreover, there are very few texts specifically aimed at technical-level students. They tend to fall between the levell evel of higher secondary education texts, which are very general, andand academicacademic textstexts forfor university-university level courses, which often are strong on theory andand scientificscientific discussions,discussions, but cannotcannot dealdeal withwi th specific techniques which'rlhich areare ofof greatergreater interestinterest toto aa technician.technician. Texts, especially at the university level, are now extremelyextremely expensiveexpensive andand a librarylibrary cancan absorbabsorb aa very con-con siderable part of the equipment/supplies budget, ifif not managed withwith greatgreat care.care. Initially, what may be ofof the greatest valuevalue areare multiplemultiple copiescopies ofof aa fewfew textstexts onon whichwhich instructorsinstructors can base parts of their courses. A listlist of books which may be ofof use asas referencesreferences toto staff,andstaf~ and inin sonsome e casescases forfor rearea- ding by students,isstudents, is given below. A range ofof publishers' cataloguescatalogues cancan usually be con-con sulted in a major university oror public library~~brary toto obtainobtain informationinformation onon supplementarysupplementary ma-ma terial. AA selection selection of of standard standard periodiodls periodiQals may'may alsoalso proveprove aa usefuluseful guideguide toto literature,literature , as lists of texts cited in some of the articles maymay indicateindicate materialmaterial itit mightmight bebe useful to acquire. 11.1 ADMINISTRATION AND MANAGEMENT Anon. Business management for sawmillsawmill operators.operators. Proceedings of the Business Manage- 1979 ment Clinic for Sawmill Operators, Portland,Portland, Oregon,Oregon, U.S.A.U.S.A. Miller Freeman Publications Inc., San Francisco, CA,CA, U.S.A. Adeyoju, K.S.K. S. A studystudy onon forestforest administrationadministration problemsproblems inin sixsix selectedselected AfricanAfrican coun-coun 1976 tries. FO:MISC/76/21. FAO, Rome.Rome. Betts, P.W.P.W. Supervisory studies.studies. MacDonald & Evans Ltd.,Ltd. , London.London. 1980 Currie, R.M. Work Study. Pitman & Sons Ltd., London.London . 1964 FAO Report of the FAOFAO/SIDA SIDA ConsultationConsultation onon ForestForest AdministrationAdministration forfor Development.Development. 1983 FO:GCP/INT/295Fa: GCP/INT/295/SWE. SWE. Rome. Flippo, E.B.E.B. Principles of personnelpersonnel management.management. McGraw-Hill Kogakusha Ltd.,Ltd., Tokyo.TOkyo. 1979 Fraser, J.M. Psychology: General/industrial/social. Pitman Paperbacks,Paperbacks, London.London. 1967 Graham, H.T.H.T. Human resources management. MacDonald && EvansEvans Ltd.,Ltd., London.London . 1980 Macklin, R.R.R.R. The logginglogging businessbusi ness managementmanagement handbook.handbook. Miller Freeman Publications 1983 Inc., San Francisco,FranCiSCO, CA,GA, U.S.A.U.S.A. 91- 91 - Palin, D.D. Management ofof developmentdevelopment forestryforestr,y - A comparativecomparative studystu~ of public forestry 1980 administrations in thethe Asia-PacificAsiaPacific region.region. GCP/RAS 4646 (SWE).(SWE). FAO, Rome.Rome. Prats Llaurad6, J. andand Speidel,Speidel, G.G. Public forestry administrationsadministrations inin LatinLatin America.America. 1981 FAO Forestry PaperPaper No.No. 25.25. FAO, Rome.Rome. SchmithUsen,Schmit hUsen , F.F. Forest utilization contractscontracts onon publicpublic land.land. FAOFAD Forestry Paper No.No.1, 1, 1977 FAO, Rome.Rome. SOdahl,Sj1ldahl, L.L. Elementary industrialindustrial psychology.psychology. Logmans, GreenGreen andand Co.Co. Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1966 UN Strengthening publicpublic administrationadministration andand financefinance forfor developmentdevelopment inin thethe 1980s:1980s: 1978 Issues and approaches.approaches. ST/ESA/SER.ST/ESA/ SER. E/13. DepartmentDepartment ofof InternationalInternational EconomicEconomic and Social Affairs, NewNew York.York. UN Handbook on the improvementimprovement ofof administrativeadministrative managementmanagement inin publicpublic administration.administration. 1979 ST/ESA/SER. E/19.E/19. UN Department of Technical CooperationCooperation forfor Development,Development, NewNew York. van Horne, I.C.I.C. Financial management and policy. Prentice Hall,Hall, EnglewoodEnglewood Cliffs,Cliffs, 1980 NJ, U.S.A. Worrell, A.C.A.C. Principles ofof forestforest policy.policy. McGrawHill,McGraw-Hill, Maidenhead,Maidenhead, Berks.,Berks., U.K.U.K. 11970970 1111.2 .2 AGROFORESTRYACROFORESTRY Davies, J.W.J .W. Mulching effectseffects onon plant climateclimate andand yield.yield. WMO Report No.No. 388.388. 1975 Eckholm, E.P.E.P. Losing ground. Environmental stress and world food prospects. W.Vl.W.W. Norton, 1976 New York. FAO China: FForestryorestry support forfor agriculture. FAO Forestry Paper No. 12.12. Rome. 19719788 FAO Village forestry development in the Republic ofof Korea. A case study.study. FAO Forestry 19198282 for Local Community Development Programme. GCP/INT/347/SI-IE.GCP/INT/347/SWE. Rome. FAO FruitbearingFruit- bearing forestforest trees.trees. FAO Forestry Paper No.No. 34.34. Rome. 19821982 Felker, P. et ~al. Screening prosopis (mesquite)(me squite) species for biofuel production on semi-semi 1981 arid lands.lands. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C. FiliUS,Filius, A.M. Economic aspects of agroforestry. In: Wiersum, K.F. (ed.) "Viewpoints"Viewpoints on 11981981 agroforestry".agroforestry". AgriculAgriculturaltural UniUniversity versi ty rlageningen,Wageningen, Netherlands. HouerHouerou,ou , Le H.N. AnatomyAnatomy and physiology of a browsingbrm"sing trial: A methodological appr:achappr -,ach 11982982 to fodder shrub evaluation. FAO, Rome. Howes, K.M.W. and Rummery, R.A. (eds.)(eds.) IntegratingIntegrating agriculture and forestry. CSIRO, 1982 DivisionDivision of Land Resource Management, Perth, Australia. Klee, G.A.G.A. (ed.)(ed.) WorWorldld systems of traditional resource management. Edward Arnold 19198080 Publishers Ltd., London. Maghembe, J.A.J.A. and Redhead, J.F. Agroforestry: preliminarypreliminary resultsresults ofof intercroppingintercropping 1980 acacia,Acacia, LUcalyptusEucalyptus andand LeucaenaLeucaena with\-, ith maizemaize andand beans.beans. Division ofof Forestry,Forestry, University of Dar eses Salaam,Salaam, Morogoro,Morogoro, Tanzania.Tanzania. - 92 - (Appendix 11, cont.)oont.) (11.2) Nair, P.K.R. Agroforest~Agroforestry species:species: A crop sheetssheets manual.manual. ICRAF, Nairobi, Kenya. 19801980 National Academy ofof Sciences.Sciences. Leucaena. Promising forage and tree crop for the tropics. 1977 NAS, Washington, D.C.D.C. National Academy ofof Sciences.Scienoes. FirewFirewoodood crops:crops: shrub and tree species for energy pro- 1980 ductauction. ion. NAS, Washington, D.C. Phillip_,Phillips, J. The development of agriculture and forestry in the tropics.tropios. Patterns, 1961 problems and promise. Faber & Faber Ltd., London. Prothero, R.M. People and landland in Africa southsouth ofof thethe Sahara.Sahara. Readings inin SocialSocial 1972 Geography. Oxford University Press, NewNew York.York. Ruthenberg, H.H. Farming systemssystems in the tropicstropios (3rd(3rd ed.).ed.). Clarendon Press, Oxford.Oxford. 1980 Unesco Management ofof natural resourcesresources inin Africa: Traditional strategies and modern 11978978 decision making. MAB,MAE, Technical NotesNotes No.No.9.9, Paris.Paris, Vergara, N.T. Economic evaluation ofof agroforestry.agroforestry. Working GroupGroup onon Agroforestry,Agroforestry, 1982 Environment and PolioyPolicy Institute, East-WesEastWestt Centre,Centre, Hawaii.Hawaii. Watters, R.F. Shifting cultivation inin LatinLatin America.Amerioa. FAO Forestry Development Paper 1971 No. 17.17. Wiersum, K.F. (ed.)(ed.) Viewpoints onon agroforestry:agroforestry: A syllabus ofof a lecturelecture series on 1981 agroforestry. Department of Forest Management, Agricultural University Wage-Wage ningen, Netherlands. 111.3 1.3 ARBORICULTPREARBORICULTURE Arnold, H.F. Trees in urbanur.ban design.design. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd.,Ltd., Wokingham,Wokingham, 1980 Berks., U.K. Bridgeman, P.P. Trees for town and country.country. AA practicalpractical guideguide toto plantingplanting andand care.care. 19791979 David && Charles,Charles, NewtonNewton Abbot, U.K.U.K. Clouston, B. and Stansfield, K. (eds.)(eds.) Trees inin towns:towns: Maintenance and management.management. 19198181 ArchitecturalArohiteotural Press,Press, London.London. Hudak, J. Trees for everyevery purpose. McGrawHillMcGraw-Hill BookBook Co.,Co., London.London. 1980 James, N.D.G.N.D.G. The arboriculturalist's companion.oompanion. Basil Blackwell,Blaokwell, Oxford,Oxford, U.K. 1982 11.4 BOTANY Bower, F.O.F.D. Botany ofof thethe livingliving plant.plant. Hafner Publications,Publioations, NewNew York.York. 19691969 Brimble, L.J.F.L.J .F. Intermediate botany.bot~y. MacMillan PressPress Ltd.,Ltd., Tokyo.TOkyo. 19801980 Burnett, J.H.J .H. Fundamentals of mycology.myoology. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1P71971> - 93 - (Appendix 11, cont.)cont.) (i14) Cramer, J. The taxono~taxonomy ofof flowering plants. The Century Company,Company, NewNew York.York. 1976 CUtting,Cutting, C.V. and Luckwill,Luckwill, C.C.C.C. Physiology of treetree crops.crops. Academic Press Ltd.,Ltd., 19701970 London. Davis, P.H. and Cullen,CUllen, J. Identification ofof flowering plantplant families.families. Cambridge 1979 University Press, London.London. FAO Plant collection and herbarium development.development. FAO Plant ProductionProduction and Protection 1981 Paper No. 33.33. Rome. Fogg, G.E. Photosynthesis. Hodder & Stoughton, London. 1979 Hall, M.A. (ed.)(ed.) Plant structure, function and adaptation. MacMillan Press Ltd., 1978 London. Harley, JJ.L. .L. MYcorrhiza.Mycorrhiza. Oxford University Press,Press, London.London. 1971 Heywood, V.H. Plant taxonomy.taxono~. Edward Arnold PUblishersPublishers Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1976 Heaker,Hcoker, H.W., Jr. Introduction to forest biology.biology. John Wiley & Sons,Sons, Inc.,Inc., New York. 1979 Jamieson, B.G.M. Tropical plant types. Pergamon Press, Oxford.Oxford. 1979 Kramer, P.J. and Kozlowski, T.T.T.T. Physiology ofof woodywo ody plants. Academic PressPress Ltd.,Ltd., 1979 London. Macura, P. Elsevier's dictionary ofof botany. 1.-I. PlantPlant names.names. Elsevier ScientificScientific 1979 Publishing Company, Amsterdam,Amsterdam. Meyer, B. ~.et al. Introduction to plant psychology. Van Nostrand ReinholdReinhold Co.Co. Ltd.,Ltd., 1973 Wokingham, Berks., U.K. Peel, A.J. Transport ofof nutrientsnutrients inin plants.plants. ButterworthButterworth Group,Group, London.London . 1974 Pryor, L.D. Biology of eucalypts.eucalypts. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1979 Rendle, A.B. The classification of floweringflovlering plants. Vols.Valse II andand II.II. Cambridge 1976 University Press, London,London. Skellem,Skellern, C. and Rogers, P. Basic botany. MacDonald & EvansEvans Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1977 Simon, E.W.E.W. et~ al.al. Textbook ofof botany. UniversityUniverSity Tutorial Press,Press, London,London. 1980 Swartz, D.D. CollegiateCollegiate dictionary ofof botany.botany. RonaldRonald PressPress Co.,Co., NewNew York.York. 1971 - 94 - (Appendix 11, cont.)cont.) (11.4) Talbot, F.H.B.P.H.B. Principles ofof fungal taxonomy.taxonomy. MacMillan PressPress Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1976 Thomas, M. etet al.ale Plant physiology (5th(5th edition).edition). Longman Group Ltd., London.London. 1973 Wareing, P.F. and Phillips, I.D.J. The control of growth and differentiation in plants. 1978 Pergamon Press,Press, New York. Weier, T.E. £iet al.21. Botany. John Wiley & Sons,Sons, Inc.,Inc., NewNew York,York. 1974 Willis, JJ.C. .C. A dictionary of flowering plants and ferns.ferns. Cambridge UniversityUniversity Press, 1973 London. Wilson, C.L.G.L. Botany. Holt, Reinhart & Winston,l-linston, New York. 1971 11.5 CLIMATOLOGY Flohn, H. General climatology.climatology. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., Amsterdam. 1969 Griffiths, JJ.F. .F. Applied climatology.climatology. Oxford University Press,Press, London.London. 1976 Money, D.C. Climate, soils and vegetation. University Tutorial Press, London. 1978 Nieuwolt, S.s. Tropical climatology.climatology. JJohnohn WileyWiley && Sons,Sons, Inc.,Inc., New York,York. 1977 Stringer, E.T.E.T. Foundations ofof climatology.climatology. W.H.li.R. Freeman &&: Co., San Francisco, U.S.A. 1972 Trewartha, G.T. and Horn, L.H. An introduction to climate. McGrawHillMcGraw-Hill BookBook Co.,Co., 1980 TOkyo.Tokyo. 11.611..6 COMMUNITY FQlEm'RYFCRESTRY Anon. CommuniCommunity ty trees andand shrubs:shrubs: Selection, use andand care.care. USA ExtensionExtenSion Service,Service, 1982 University ofof Vermont,Vermont, Burlington,Burlington, VT,VT, U.S.A.U.S.A. Digby, M. and Edwardson, T.E.T.E. The organization ofof forestry co-operatives.co-operatives. Plunkett 1976 Foundation forfor Co-operativeCo-operative Studies,Studies, London.London. Esman, M.J. and Uphof, T.M.T.M. Local organizationorganization andand ruralrural development:development: Rural Develop- 1982 ment Committee, Cornell University, Ithaca,Ithaca, NewNew York.York. FAO Forestry forfor ruralrural communities.communities. Rome. 1978 FAO Forestry forfor locallocal communitycommunity development.development. FAO Forestry PaperPaper No.No.7.7, Rome. 1978 FAO Report ofof thethe FAO/SIDAFAO/SIDA SeminarSeminar onon ForestryForestry Extension,Extension, Semarang,Semarang, Indonesia,Indonesia, 18-30 1982 January 1982. Rome. - 9595 - (Appendix 11,11, cont.)cont.) (11.6) Lele, U. The designdesign ofof ruralrural development:development: Lessons fromfrom Africa. John HopkinsHopkins University 1975 Press, Baltimore, U.S.A. Montalembert, M.R. dede and Clément,Cl6ment, J. Fuelwood suppliessupplies inin the developingdeveloping countries.countries. 1983 FAO Forestry PaperPaper No.No. 42.42. Rome. Savile, A.H. Extension inin ruralrural communities.communities. A manual for agricultural and homehome exten- 1978 sion workers. Oxford University Press,Press, London.London. 11.7 CONSERVATION Allen, R.R. How to savesave thethe world:world: Strat$gyStrategy for world conservation.conservation. Kogan Page,Page, London.London. 1980 Bradshaw, A.D. and Chadwick, M.J.M.J. The restoration ofof land:land. The ecology and reclamation 1980 of derelict and degradeddegraded land.land. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford. CUrry-Lindahl,Curry-Lindahl, K.K. Conservation for survival.survival. Victor Gollancz Ltd., London.London. 1973 Davis, K.P.K.F. Land use. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Co., New York.York. 1976 Duffey, E.E. andand Watt,Watt, A.S. The scientificsoientific management ofof animal and plant communitiescommunities 1972 for conservation.conservation. British Ecological SocietySOCiety SymposiumSymposium No. 11.11. Blackwell Scien-Scien tific Publications, Oxford.Oxford. FAO Hydrological techniques for upstream conservation.oonservation. FAOFAD Conservation GuideGuide No.No.2. 2. 1976 Rome. FAO Guidelines for watershed management. FAO Conservation GuideGuide No.No.1. 1. Rome. 1977 PAOFAO Conservation in arid and semi-aridsemi-arid zones.zonee. FADFAO Conservation Guide No.No.3.3. Rome. 1977 FAOFAD Special readings in conservation. FADFAO Conservation Guide No,No.4.4. Rome. 1977 FAO Forest influences,influences, FAO Forestry SeriesSeries No.No.9.9. Forestry and Forest Products 1978 Studies No. 15. Rome. FAO Torrent control terminology. FAO Conservation GuideGuide No.No.6.6. Rome. 1981 FAO Environmental impact onon forestry. FAO Conservation Guide No.No.7.7. Rome. 1982 FAO Management of upland watersheds:watersheds. Par~icipationParticipation of the mountain communities. 1983 FAO Conservation GuideGuide No.No.8.8. Rome. Green, B. Countryside conservation: The protection andand management ofof amenityamenity eco-eco 1981 systems. George Allen && Unwin, London.London. Haw, R.C. The conservation of natural resources. Faber & Faber Ltd., London.London. 1980 Hedberg, IngeInga andand Olav.Olav. Conservation ofof vegetation inin AfricaAfrica southsouth ofof thethe Sahara.Sahara. Almquist & Wiksells BoktrychenBoktrychen AB,AB, Uppsala,Uppsala, Sweden.Sweden. - 9696 - (Appendix 11, cont.)cont.) (11.7) Lee, R. Forest hydrology.hydrology. Columbia University Press, NewNew York.York. 19801980 Logginov, B.I. Principles of fieldf i el d protective forestation.forestat ion. rI.P.S.T.,.p.S.T., Jerusalem.Jerusalem, 1964 Pereira, H.C. Land use andand waterwater resourcesresources inin temperatetemperate and and tropical tropical clima-tes. climates. 1973 CambrCambridgei dge University Press, London. PetPeterken, erken , G.F.G.F. Woodland conservation and management. Chapman & Hall Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1981 Poore, D. andand Gryn-Ambroes,GrynAmbroes, P.P. Nature conservation in northern and western Europe. 1980 International Union for the ConservationConservation ofof NatureNature andand NaturalNatural Resources,Resources, Gland, Switzerland.Switzerland. 11.8 ECOLOGY Ashby, M. Introduction to plant ecology (3rd(3rd ed.). MacMillan Press Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1971 Bannister, P.P. IntroduotionIntroduction to physiological plant ecology.eoology. Blackwell Scientific 1976 Publishers Ltd., Oxford. Batten, M.M. The tropical forestsforests (ants,(ants, animalsanimals andand plants).plants). Faber & Faber Ltd.,Ltd. , 1976 London. Clare, R. Tropical forests.forests. Edward Arnold Publishers, Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1978 Colinvaux, P.A. Introduction toto ecology.ecolOgy. John WileyWiley && Sons,Sons, Inc.,Inc., NewNew York. 1976 Collinson,Colli nson, A.S. Introduction to world vegetation. George Allen & UnwUnwin,i n, London.London. 1978 Cousens, J. An introduction to woodlandwoodland ecology.ecology. Oliver & Boyd, Glasgow, U.K.U.K. 1974 Daubenmire,llaubenmire, R.R. Plant communities:cOll1lllW1itiesl A textbook of plant synecology.syneoology. Harper and Row 1968 Publications, New York.York, Duffey, E. The forestforest world. The ecology of the temperate woodlands. Orbis Publish- 19bO19460 ing, London. Duffey, E.E. et~ al.Al,.. Grassland ecologyecology andand wildlife management.management. Chapman & Hall Ltd., 1974 London. Ewusie, J.Y. Elements of tropical ecology,ecology, with referencereference toto thethe African,African, Asian,Asian, 1980 Pacific and New WorldWorld Tropics.Tropics. Heinemann Educational BooksBooks Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. :&'yre,Eyre, S.R.S.R. Vegetation and soils.soils. E. Arnold Publishers Ltd.,Ltd., London.London . 1975 -- 9797 - (Appendix(Appendix 11, cont.) ((11.8) 11.8) FADFAO Forest influences:influences: An introductionint~oduction to ecological forestry. Rome. 19781978 Graham,Graham, V. The ecology of rain forests. ~.F. Watts, London. 1976 Hall, JJ.B. .B. and Swaine,Swaine, M.D. DistributionDistribution and ecology ofof vascular plantsplants inin -a~ tropicaltropical 1981 rain forest. Forest vegetation inin Ghana. Dr. W. Junk Publishers, The Hague,Hague, Netherlands. Holdridge, L.R. Life zone ecology (revised edition). Tropical Science Center, San 19671967 Jos~,Josg, Costa Rica. Holdridge, L.R. et al. Forest environments in tropical lifelife zones.zones, Pergamon Press, 1971 Oxford.Oxford, Hopkins, B. Forest and savanna.savanna. Heinemann Educational Books Ltd.,Ltd" London. 19791979 Howard, J.A. Aerial photo-ecology,photoecology. Faber & Faber Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 19701970 Janzen, D.H. Ecology ofof plants inin the tropics.tropics. Edward Arnold PublishersPublishers Ltd.,Ltd., London,London. 1975 Lind, E.M. and Morrison, M.E.S. East African vegetation.vegetation. Longman Group,Group, London,London. 1974 Longman, K.A.K.A. and JJenik, enik, J. Tropical forestforest andand itsits environment.environment. Longman Group,Group, 1974 London. Monteith, J.L.J .L. Vegetation and the atmosphere.atmosphere. AcademicAoademio PressPress Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1975 Poore, D.D. Ecological guidelines forfor developmentdevelopment inin tropicaltropical rainrain forests.forests. IUCNmCN Books, 1976 Marges,Morges, Switzerland. Richards, P.W.P.W. The tropicaltropioal rainrain forest.forest. Cambridge University Press,Press, London.London. 1979 Southwiok,Southwick, · C.H. Ecology and quality of our environment.environment. Van Nostrand Reinhold 1976 Co. Ltd., NewNew York.York. Spurr, S.H. and Barnes, B.V.B.V. Forest ecology.ecolOgy. John WileyWiley & Sons Inc..Inc., New York. 1980 UnescoUnesoo International classificationolassification andand mappingmapping ofof vegetation.vegetation. Ecology and Conserva-Conserva 1973 tion No.No.6.6. Paris,Paris. Walter, H. Ecology of tropical andand sub-tropicalsubtropical vegetation.vegetation. OliverOliver c%& Boyd,Boyd, Edinburgh,Edinburgh, 1971 U.K. Whitmore, T.C.T.O. TropicalTropioal rainrain forestforest ofof thethe FarFar East,East. Oxford University Press,Press, London.London. 1975 - 9898 - (Appendix 11, cont.)cont.) 1111.9 .9 ECONOMICS Duerr, W.A.W.A. Fundamentals ofof forestryforestry economics.economics. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Co., NewNew York.York. 19601960 Earl, D.E. Forest energyenergy andand economiceconomic development.development. Clarendon Press, Oxford. 19751975 Gray, J.A.J .A. Forest revenue systemssystems inin developingdeveloping countries:countries: Their role inin incomeincome 19831983 generation and forest managementmanagement strategies.strategies. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome. Gregerson, H.M. andand Contreras,Contreras, A.H.A.H. Economic analysisanalysis ofof forestryforestr,y projects.projects. 1979 FAO Forestry Paper No.No. 17. Sup. 11 - Economic analysisanalysis ofof forestryforestry projects:projects: case studies, 1979; SUp.Sup. 22 --EconomicEconomio analysisanalysis ofof forestryforestry projects:projects: readings, 1980. Samuelson, P.A. Economics. McGraw-Hill BookBook Co.,Co., Tokyo.Tokyo. 1980 Schumacher, E.F. Small is beautiful. Blond & Briggs Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1978 11.10 FOREST ENGINEEllINGENGINEERING Brady, G.S. and Clauser, H.R. Materials handhand book.book. McGraw-Hill BookBook Co.,Co., NewNew York.York. 1972 Cranfield, E.F. Design,Design,construction construction and maintenancemaintenance ofof earthearth damsdams andand excavatedexcavated ponds.ponds. 19711971 Forestry Commission, ForestForest RecordRecord No.No. 75. H.M.S.O., London. Dolan, JJ.A. .A. Motor vehicle technology and practical work. Heinemann Educational Books 19711971 Ltd., London. FAO Cable logginglogging systems.systems. FAO Forestry Paper No.No. 24. Rome. 1981 Heinrich, R. (ed.)(ed.) Logging ofof mountainmountain forests.forests. FAO Forestry PaperPa.per No.No. 33033. Rome. 1982 Hudson, N.W. Field engineering for agricultural development.development. Clarendon Press,Press, 1975 Oxford. Iliston,Illston, J.M. !1et ~al. Concrete, timber andand metals.metals. The nature and behaviour of struc- 1979 tural materials. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd., Wokingham, Berks. U.K. Nagy, M.M., Trebett, JJ.T. .T. and Wellburn,Well burn, G.V.G. V. Log bridge constructionconstruction handbook.handbook. FERIC, 1980 201 W. Broadway,Broadway, Vancouver, Vancouver, B.C., Canada. B.C., Canada. Nash, F.C. Automotive fundamentals. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Co., NewNew York.York. 19691969 1111.11 • 11 FOREST MANAGEMENl'MANAGEMENT Davis, K.P. Forest management. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Co., NewNew York.York. 1966 Erfurth, T. andand Rusche,Rusche, H.H. The marketing of tropical wood. FAO, Rome.Rome. 1976 - 99 -- (Appendix 11, cont.) (11.11) FAaFAO An introduction toto planningplanning forestryforestry development.development. Rome. 19741974 FAaFAO Management and utilizationutilization ofof mangroves inin AsiaAsia andand thethe Pacific.Pacific. FAO Environment 19821982 Paper No.No.3. 3. Rome.Rome. Guise, C.H. TheThe management of farm woodlands.woodlandS. McGraw-HillMcGraw-Hill BookBook Co.,Co., NewNew York.York. 19601960 Johnston, D.R. etet al.~ Forest planning. Faber & Faber Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 19671967 Meyer, H.A. etet al.~ Forest management. John WileyWiley && SonsSons Inc.,Inc., NewNew York,York. 1961 Watt, G.R.G.R. The planning and evaluationevaluation ofof forestryforestry projects.projects. Commonwealth Forestry 1973 Institute, Oxford. Williams, M.R.W.M. R.W. Decision-making in forestry management. Research StudiesStudies Press,Press, 1981 Letchworth, U.K. 1111.12 • 1 2 FORrnTFOREST TREE IMPROVEMENT Allard, R.W. PrinciplesPrinciples of plant breeding. John Wiley, New York.York. 1960 Burley, J. and Nickles, D.G.D.O. SeleotionSelection and breeding to improveimprove somesome tropical conifers. 1973 Commonwealth ForestryForestry Institute,Institute, Oxford,Oxford, andand OxfordOxford UniversityUniversity Press,Press, London,London. Burley, J. and Nickles,Nickles, D.GD.G.. Tropical provenance and progeny research and international 1979 co-operation. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford. Burley, J. and Styles, BB.T..T. Tropical trees (variation,(variation, breedingbreeding andand conservation).conservation). 1976 Academic Press Ltd., London,London. Burley, J. and Wood, P.J. A manual onon speciesspeCies andand provenanceprovenance research,research, withwith particularparticular 1976 reference toto thethe tropics.tropics. Tropical ForestryForeBt~ PaperPaper No.No. 10.10. Commonwealth Fores-Fores try Institute,Institute, Oxford.Oxford. Cannel, M.G.R. and Last, F.T. Tree physiology and yield improvement.improvement. Academic Press 1976 Ltd., London.London. FAO The methodologymethodology ofof conservationconservation ofof forestforest geneticgenetic resources.resources. Rome. 1974 FAOFAD Forest tree andand seedseed directory.directory. Rome. 1975 Faulkner, R.R. (ed.)(ed. ) Seed orchards.orchards. Forestry CommissionCommission BulletinBulletin 54. H.M.S.O.,H.M.S.C., London. 1975 Gerhold, H.D.H.D. etet al.~ BreedingBreeding pestpest resistantresistant trees.trees. Pergamon Press,Press, Oxford.Oxford. 1966 Herbert, R.B.R.B . Development ofof glassglass househouse techniquestechniques forfor earlyearly progenyprogeny testtest proceduresprocedures 1971 in forest treetree breeding.breeding. H.M.S.O., London.London. Lawrence, W.J.C.W.J.C. Plant breeding.breedi ng. Forest RecordRecord No.No. 74, Forestry Commission.Commission. Edward 1977 Arnold PublishersPubliBhers Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. - 100100- - (Appendix 11, cont.) (11.12) Sinnott, E.W. and Dunn, L.C. Principles ofof genetics.genetics. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Co., Tokyo.TOkyo. 1958 Sinnott, E.W., Dunn, L.C. and Dobzhansky, T. Principles of Genetics.Genetics. >lcGraw-HillMcGraw-Hill BookBook 19581958 Co. Inc., New York, London,London, and McGraw-HillMcGraw-Hill KogakushaKogakusha Ltd.,Ltd., Tokyo.TOkyo. Stern, K. and Roche,Roche, L.L. Genetics of forest ecosystems.ecosystems. Ecological Studies No.No.6.6. 19741974 Chapman and Hall Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. Wright, J.W. Introduction to forest genetics. Academic Press, NewNew York.York. 19761976 Yeatman, C.W. and Nieman, T.e.T.C. Safe tree climbingclimbing inin forestforest management.management. Forestry 19781978 TechnioalTechnical Report No,No . 24.24 . Petawa Forest Experiment Station, ChalkChalk River,River, Ontario, Canada. 11.13 FOREST UTILIZATION Anon. Nomenclature of commercial ' timbersincludingtimbers including sourcessources ofof supply.supply. British Standards 1974 Institute, London. Bachrich,Baohrich, J.L.J .L. Dry kiln handbook.handbook. H.A. Simons (International)(International) Ltd., Vancouver,Vanoouver, Canada,Cenada. 19801980 Baldwin, R.F. Plywood manufacturing practices.practices. World Wood, SanSan Francisco, U.S.A. 1981 Brown, T.D. (ed.)(ed.) Quality control inin lumberlumber manufacturing.manufacturing. Miller Freeman Publica- 11982'982 tionations Inc., San Francisoo,Francisco, U.S.A. Cartwright, K.S.G. and Findlay, W.P.K. Dec~Decay of timber andand itsits prevention.prevention. H.M.S.a.,H.M.S.O., 1958 London. Conway, Steve Timber cutting practices. World Wood, SanSan Francisco,FranciSCO, U.S.A.U.S.A. 1978 Conway, Steve Logging practices:practices, PrinciplesPrinoiples ofof timbertimber harvestingharvesting systems.systems. Miller 1982 Freeman Publications Inc., San Francisco, U.S.A. Core, H. etet al.-al.- Wood structure and identification. Syracuse University Press,Press, 1979 -SY;;-cuse,Syracuse, NY, U.S.A. Crowther, R.E. and Toulmin-Rothe, I.I. Felling and convertingconverting thinningsthinnings byby hand.hand. 1963 Forestry Commission Booklet No.No.9.9. H.M.S.O., London. Desch, H.E. and Dinwoodie, J.M. Timber: itsits structure,structure, propertiesproperties andand utilisation.utilisation. 1981 MacMillan Press Ltd., London. Dinwoodie, J.M.J.M. Timber, itsits naturenature andand behaviour.behaviour. Van Nostrand ReinholdReinhold Co.Co. Ltd.,Ltd., 1981 New York, London,London. FAOFAD Heat stress inin forestforest work.work. Rome. 1974 FAOFAD A manual onon logginglogging andand transporttransport inin eucalyptuseucalyptus plantations.plantations. Rome. 1974 FAOFAD Logging and transport inin tropicaltropical highhigh forest.forest. Rome. 1974 - 101101 - (Appendix 11, cont.) (11.13)(11.13) FAOFAO Harvesting man-mademanmade forestsforests inin developingdeveloping countries.countries. Rome. 19761976 FADFAO Planning forest roads and harvesting systems. Rome. 19771977 FAOFAO GuideGuide for planning pulp and paper enterprises. Rome. 19771977 FAGFAO Mountain forest roads andand harvesting. Rome. 1979 FAO Pulp and paper-makingpapermaking propertiesproperties ofof fastgrowingfast-gro1ring plantationplantation wood1;Qod species.species. 1980 Vols. I andand II.II. Rome. FAO Frame saw manual. FAO Forestry PaperPaper No.No. 39. Rome. 1982 FAO Appropriate technologytechnology inin forestry.forestry. FAO Forestry Paper No.No. 31.31. Rome. 1982 FAO Basic technology in forest operations.operations. FAO Forestry Paper No.No. 36. Rome. 1983 FAO Simple technologies for charcoalcharcoal making.making. FAO Forestry PaperPaper No.No. 41.41. Rome. 1983 FAOFAG Circular saw manual. FAGFAO Forestry PaperPaper No.No. 40.40. Rome. 1983 FAO/ILO Chainsaws in tropical forests. FAGFAO Training Series No.No.2. 2. Rome.Roroo. 1980 Farmer, R.H. Handbook ofof hardwoods.hard1"lOods. H.M.S.O.,H.l~. S.O., London.London. 1972 Findlay, W.P.K. Timber: properties and uses. Granada Publishing Ltd.,Ltd., St.St. Albans,Albans, 1975 Herts., U.K. Gislerud, OlavClay and Wibstad, Kjell. Integrating forestforest operationsoperations withwith small-scalesmallscale 1981 industrial activities, including energy conversion. Norwegian Forest Research Institute/FAO. Hampton, Charles M. Dry landland loglog handlinghandling andand sorting.sorting. MillerMiller FreemannFreemann PublicationsPublications 1981 Inc., San FranciSCO,Francisco, U.S.A. Hardie, A.D.K. An elementaryelementary manualmanual ofof timbertimber utilization.utilization. InternationalInternational ForestForest 1980 Science Consultancy.Consultancy. Penicaik,Penic~ik, U.1:. Harris, P.P. Mechanics ofof sawing.sawing. H.M.S.O.,H.1-1.S.0., London.London. 1973 Hickin, N.E.N.E. Wood"'ood preservation.preservation. Hutchinson & Co.Co. Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1973 Hoadley,Hoadley, R.B.R.B. Understanding wood:wood: A craftman'scraftman's guide toto woodwood technology.technolOgy. TheThe TauntonTaunton 1980 Press Inc.,Inc., New York. -- 102-102 - (Appendix 11, cont.)cont.) (11.13) Kollman, F.F.P. Principles of wood science and technology. Springer Verlag, Berlin. 19681968 Maloney, Thomas M.M. Modern particleboard and dry-process fiberboard manufacturing. 1977 Miller Freeman Publications Inc., SanSan Francisco, U.S.A. Nilsson, M. The farm tractor inin thethe forest.forest. The National Board of Forestry, J\ln1c\lping,Jbnkbping, 1982 Sweden. Oldeman, R.A.A. Tropical hardwood utilfzationlutilization: Practice and prospects. Martinus 19821982 Nijhoff/Dr.Nijhoff/nr. W.w. Junk Publications, TheThe Hague,Hague, Netherlands.Netherlands. Panshin, A.J. et al. Forest products.products, McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Co" New York. 1962 Panshin, A.J. and Zeeuw, D.E.C. Textbook ofof woodwood technology.technology. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Co., 1964 New YYork.ork. Pearce, J.K.J.K. anaan~ Stenzel, G. Logging and pulpwoodpulpwood production.production. Ronald Press Co., New 1972 York. Rendle, B.J. The growth and structure ofof wood. Forest Products Research Bulletin 1971 No. 56, H.M.S.O.,H.M.S.O., London. Sutton, A.A. and Sawyer, T.R. Loading and unloading timber lorries.lorries. Forest Record No. 78, 19711971 Forestry Commission.Commission. H.M.S.O., London. Tillman, D.A.D.A. Wood as an energyenergy source.source. Academic Press Inc.,Inc., New York. 1978 Titmuss, F.H.F.H. Commercial timberstimbers ofof thethe world..world. Technical Press, London.London. 1971 Williston, E.M. Lumber manufacturing. World Wood, San Francisco, U.S.A. 1976 Williston, E.M.E.M. Saws: Design,DeSign, selection,selection, operation,operation, maintenance.maintenance. Worldliorld Wood,Wood, SanSan 1978 Francisco, U.S.A.U.S.A. Williston,Wi lliston, E.M. Small log sawmills.sawmills. World Wood, SanSan Francisco,Francisco, U.S.A.U.S.A. 1981 Wittering, W.O. Hydrostatic skidder.skidder. Forestry Commission Leaflet No. 59. H.M.S.O., 1974 London. 11.14 MENSURATION AND ENVENPORYINVENTORY Chapman, H.H. and Meyer, W.H. Forest mensuration.mensuration. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Co., NewNew York.York. 1949 Everard, J.E. Metric conversion tables and factors for forestry. Forestry CommissionCommission 1971 Booklet No. 30.30. H.M.S.O., London. - 103 - (Appendix 11, cont.) (11.14) FAO Manual of forest inventory. Rome. 11973973 FAO Second FAO/SmAFAO/SIDA Training Course onon Forest Inventory.Inventory. Rome. 1975 FAO Forest volume estimation and yield prediction.prediction. Rome. 1980 Freese,Freese, F. Elementary forest sampling. USDAUSDA AgricultureAgriculture Handbook 232. USDA Forest 1976 Service,Servioe, Washington, D.C. Hamilton, G.J. Forest mensuration handbook.handbook. ForestryForestry CommissionCommission BookletBooklet No.No. 39. 1975 H.M.S.O., London. Husch,Rusch, B. Planning forest inventory. FAO, Rome. 1971 Husoh,Husch, B., Miller, C.I. andand Beers,Beers, T.W.T.W. Forest mensuration.mensuraticn. JaMJohn Wiley && SonsSons Inc.,Inc., 1972 New York.York. Loetsch,Loetsch, F. and Haller, K.E. Forest inventory,inventory, Vol. 1.1. BLVBLV Verlagsgesellschaft 1964 MI1nchenMUnchen,'Basel, - "Basel - Wien Laetsch,Loetsch, F.,F., Z~hrer,Tarer, F.F. andand Haller,Haller, K.E. Forest inventory,inventory, Vol.Vol. 2. BLV Verlagsgesell- 1973 schaft MI1nchenMUnchen - Basel - \o/ien.Wien. Wiant, H.V.,R.V., Jr. Elementary timbertimber measurements.measurements. Vandalia Press, Morgantown, wv,WV, 1979 U.S.A. 11.15 PRDrECTIONPROTECTION (incl. ENTOMOLOOYENTOMOLOGY and PATHOLOGY)PATHOLOOY) Anderson, R.F.R.F. Forest and shade tree entomology.entomology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,Inc., New York. 1960 Askew, R.R.R.R. Parasitic insects.insects. Heinemann EducationalEducational BooksBooks Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1971 Bach, P. De Biological control by natural enemies.enemies. Cambridge University Press,Press, London,London. 1974 Boyce, J.S.J.3. Forest pathology. McGraw-HillMcGrawHill BookBook Co.,Co., NewNew York,York. 11961961 Brown, A.A. andand Davis, K.P.K.F. Forest fire controlcontrol and use. McGrawHillMcGral'l-Hill BookBook Co.,Co., 1973 New York.York. Browne, F.G.F.G. Pests andand diseasesdiseases ofof forestforest plantationplantation trees.trees. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Oxford. 19661961) Clark, L.R. et~ al.al. The ecologyecology ofof insectinsect populationspopulations inin theorytheory andand practice.practice. 19781978 Methuen & Co. Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. Comstock, JJ.H. .H. An introductionintroduction toto entomology.entomology. Comstock PUblishingPublishing Co.,Co., London.London. 1972 Cooper, J.I. Virus diseases ofof trees andand shrubs.shrubs. InstituteInstitute ofof TerrestrialTerrestrial Ecology,Ecology, 19197979 Oxford. - 104 - (Appendix 11,11, cont.)cont.) (11.15) Davidson, G.G. Gene-ticGenetic controlcontrol ofof insectinsect pests. Academic Press Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1974 Emden, R.F.H.F. van Pest control and itsits ecology.ecology. Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London. 1974 FADFAO Fire protection inin industrialindustrial plantations.plantations. Forest IndustriesIndustries FeasibilityFeasibility Study.Study. 1971 Rome. Florida Division ofof Forestry.Forestry. Forest fire suppressionsuppression tactics.tactics. Florida Division ofof 1973 Forestry, U.S.A. Florida Division of Forestry. Fire fighter's guide.guide. Florida DivisionDivision ofof Forestry,Forestry, 1973 U.S.A. Ghani, M.A. andand Cheema,Cheema, M.A.! Gibson, I.A.S.I.A.S.'' Diseases of forest trees widely planted asas exoticsexotics inin the tropicstropics and 1962 southern hemisphere (2nd(2nd edition).edition). Government Printer,Printer, Nairobi.Nairobi. Hawley, R.O.R.C. Forest protection (2nd(2nd edition).edition). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York. 1953 Hickin, N.E. The insectinsect factorfactor inin woodwood decay.decay. Hutchinson & Co.Co. Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1975 lnuns,Imms, A.D. General text book ofof entomology.entomology. Chapman & Hall Ltd., London.London. 1977 Khan, A.H.A.H. Pathology ofof trees,trees, Vol.Vol. I.I. University ofof Agriculture,Agriculture, Faisalabad,Faisalabad, PakiPaki- - 1980 stan. Luke, R.H.H.R. and MacArthur, A.G. Bush fires inin Australia. Australian Government 1978 PublishingPdblishing Service, Canberra. Manion, P.D. Tree diseasedisease conceptsconcepts inin relationrelation toto forestforest andand urbanurban treetree managementmanagement 1981 practice. Prentice-Hall Inc.,Inc., EnglewoodEnglewood Cliffs,Cliffs, 137,NJ, U.S.A. Ministry of Agriculture andand NaturalNatural Resources.Resources. Forest firefire fighting.fighting. Nicosia, Cyprus,Cyprus. 1968 Newton, M. and Knight, F.B.F.B. Handbook of weed and insect controlcontrol chemicals for forest 1981 resource managers. Timber Prees,Press, Forest Grove, OR, U.S.A. Oldroyd, H. Collecting, preserving and studying insects.insects. Hutchinson &&: Co:Co. Ltd.,Ltd., 1958 London,London. Partridge, A.D. et~ al.~ ForestForeet pathologypathology outline.outline. Forest, Wildlife and Range Experi- 1977 ment Station Contribution No. 49, University of Idaho,Idaho, Moscow,Moscoli, ID, U.S.A. Pepper, H.W. and Tee,Tee, L.A.L.A. Forest fencing. Forestry Commission,Commission, ForestForest RecordRecord No.No. 80. 1972 H.M.S.G.,H.M.S.O., London. Peterson, A. A manual ofof entomologicalentomological techniquestechniques (8th(8th ed.).ed.). Ohio State University, 1955 Columbus, U.S.A. Pinkey, E.E. Introduction to insect studystu~ in Africa. Oxford University Press, Oxford.Oxford. 1968 - 105 - (Appendix 11,11, cont.)cont.) (11.15) Pyenson, L.L.L.L. andand Harvey,Harvey, E.B.E.B. Laboratory manual for entomologyentcmology andand plantplant pathology.pathology. 1978 West Port, Cr,CT, U.S.A.U.S.A. Roberts, H. Forest insectsinsects ofof Nigeria.Nigeria. Commonwealth Forestry InstituteInstitute PaperPaper No.No. 44,44, 1969 Oxford. Ross, H.H.H.. H. Text book of entomology. John Wiley && SonsSons Inc.,Inc., New York.York. 1965 Rudinsky, J.A.J .A. (ed.)(ed.) Forest insect survey and control.control. 050OSU Book Stores Inc., Corvallis, 1979 U.S.A. Scopes, N. and Ledieu,Ledieu, M.M. (eds.)(eds.) Pest and diseasedisease controlcontrol handbook.handbook. BCPC Publications, 1979 Croydon, U.K. Shaw, S.B.S.E. andand Clarke,Clarke, B.B. Forest fire control.control. FAG,FAO, Rome. 1973 Sweeney, R.C.H.R.C .H. Insect life in East andand CentralCentral Africa.Africa. Longman Group, London.London. 1976 Wheeler, B.E.J.B.E.J. Control of plant diseases.diseases. Oxford University Press,Press, London.London. 1975 Wheeler, B.E.J. An introduction to plantplant diseases.diseases. John WileyWiley && SonsSons Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1976 Wigglesworth, V.B. The principles of tnsectinsect physiology. Chapman & Hall Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1972 Worthing, C.R. and Martin, H. Insecticide and fungicide hand book of crop protection 1976 (5th ed.). Blackwell Scientific Publications Ltd.,Ltd., Oxford.Oxford. 11.16 SILVICULTURE Aldhous, J.R. Weed control in forest nurseries. Forest~Forestry Commission Research Branch 1968 Paper No. 24.24. H.M.S.O., London.London. Aldhous, J.R. Nuree~Nursery practicé.practic~. Forestry CommissionCOmrrUBsion Bulletin No. 43. H.M.S.O., 1972 London. Ayensu, E.S.E.S. andand Schultes,Schultes, R.E.R.E. Under-exploited tropicaltropical plantsplants withwith promisingpromising eco-eco- 1975 nomic value. N.A.S., Washington, D.C.D.C. Baker, F.S.F.S. Principles of silviculture. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 19501950 Black, M. Control processes inin germinationgermination andand dormancy.dormancy. Oxford University Press,Press, 1972 London. Boland, D.J.D.J. et~ al.!!:h. Eucalyptus seed.seed. CSIRO, Canberra,Canberra, Australia,Australia. 1980 BroWl'l,Brown, G.E. The pruning of trees, shrubsshrubs andand conifers.conifers. Faber & Faber Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1977 Brown, R.M. Cold storage of forest plants.plants. Forest Record No. 88,88, ForestryForestry Commission.Commission. 1973 H.M.S.O., London. - 106-106 - (Appendix 11, cont.)cont.) (11.16) Brown, R.M. Chemical controlcontrol ofof weedsweeds inin thethe forest.forest. Forestry CommissionCommission Booklet 1975 No. 40. H.M.S.O., London. Chapman,Chapman, A.G. and Wray, R.D.R.D. Christmas trees for pleasure andand profit.profit. Rutgers Uni- 1979 versity Press, New Brunswick,Brunswick, NJ,NJ, U.S.A. Chapman,Chapman, G.W. and Allan, T.G. Establishment techniques forfor forestforest plantations.plantations. FAO 1978 Forestry Paper No.No.8.8. Rome. Collins, B.M. and White, F.M. Elementary forestry.forestry. Reston Publishing CoCo.,. , VA, U.S.A.U.S.A. 1981 Crowther, R.E.R.E. Guide lines to forest weedweed control.control. Forestry CommissionCOmnUssion LeafletLeaflet No.No. 66. 1976 H.M.S.O., London. Dale, I.R. and Greenway, P.J. Kenya trees andand shrubs.shrubs. Hatchards,Hat chards , London.London . 1961 Douglas, JJ.S. .S. and Hart, R.A. De J.J . Forest farming: Towards a solution to problems of 1980 world hunger and conservation. Watkins and RobinsonRobinson BooksBooks Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. Evans,Evans, J. Plantation forestry inin the tropics. Clarendon Press, Oxford.Oxford. 1982 Everett, T.H.T.H. Living trees ofof the world. Doubleday & Co. Inc.,Inc., NewNew York.York. FAO Poplars in forestry and landland use. Rome. 1965 FAO Savanna afforestation inin Africa.Africa. FAO Forestry PaperPaper No.No . 11.11 . Rome. 1978 FAO Poplars and willows.willows. Rome 1979 Fryer, J.D. and Makepeace, R.J. Weed control handbook, Vol. I.I. Blackwell Scientific 1977 Publications Ltd.,Ltd. , Oxford.Oxford. Ghosh, R.C. Handbook onon afforestationafforestation techniques.techniques. Controller ofof Publications,Publications, Delhi,Delhi, 1977 India. Goor, A.Y. and Barney,Barne,y, C.W.C.W. Forest tree planting in arid zones.zones. Ronald Press Co.,Co., 19197676 New York. Hamilton, G.J.G.J. Aspects ofof thinning.thinning. Forestry CommissionCommission BulletinBulletin No,No. 55. H.M.S.O.,H.M.S.O., 1976 London. Hartmann, H.T. and Kester, D.E. Plant propagation. PrinciplesPrinciple s andand practices.practices. Prentice- 1976 Hall Inc., Englewood Cliffs,Cliffs, Nj,NJ, U.S.A.U.S.A. Hora, F.B. et~ al.~ (eds.)(eds.) The OxfordOxford Encyclopaedia ofof Trees inin thethe World.World. Oxford 1981 University Press, Oxford.Oxford. Jacobe,Jacobs, M.R. Eucalypts forfor planting.planting. FAO ForestryForestry SeriesSeries No.No. 11.11. FAO, Rome.Rome. 1979 James, N.D.G. The foresterforest er companion. Basil Blackwell, Oxford.Oxford •. 1982 Kelly, S.S • .tlet al.ill. Eucalypts, Vols. II andand II.II. ThomasThomas Nelson,Nelson, Melbourne,Melbourne, Australia.Australia. 1977 - .107107 - (Appendix 11, cont.) (11.16) Kozlowski, T.T. Tree growth. Ronald Press Co. Ltd.,Ltd., NewNew York.York. 19621962 Lamb, A.F.A. and Ntima, 0.0.0.0. TerminaliaTerminalia ivorensis. Fast growing timber trees of the 1971 lowland tropics No.No.5.5. CommonwealthCommonwealth Forestry Institute,Institute, Oxford.Oxford. Lamb,Lamb, JJ.G.D. .G.D. tlet al.~ Nursery stock manual. GrowerGrower Books, London. 19751975 Low,Low, A.J.A.J. and Oakley, J.S. TUbedTubed seedlings. Forestry CommissionCommission LeafletLeaflet No.No. 61. 1975 H.M.S.O., London. McMillan Browse, P.D.A. Hardy wood plants fromfrom seed.seed. Grower Books, London. 1979 Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries andand Food.Food. Water for irrigation. H.M.S.O., London.London. 1977 Morey, P.R. How trees grow. Institute of Biology. Studies in Biology No. 39. 1973 Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., London.London. National Academy ofof Sciences.Sciences. Tropical legumes:legumes: Resources for the future. N.A.S., 1979 Washington,Washington, D.C. National AcademyAcade~ ofof Sciences. Firewood crops;crops; shrub and tree species for energy 1980 production.production. N.A.S., Washington, D.C. Paul, D.K. A handbookhandbook ofof nurserynursery practicepractice forfor PinusPinus caribaeacaribaea var.var. hondnrensishmdurensis andand 1975 other conifers inin WestWest Malaysia.Malaysia. FAO,FAO, Rome.Rome. Pillsbury, A.F. Sprinkler irrigation.irrigation. FAC,FAO, Rome. 19151975 Pione, P.P. Tree maintenance. Oxford University Press, London.London. 1979 Richards, P.W.P.W. The tropical rainrain forest:forest: Ecological study.study. Cambridge UniversityUniverSity 1952 Pr~ss,Pross, Cambridge. Rogers, E.V. Ultra lowlow volume herbicideherbicide spraying.spraying. Forestry CommissionCommission LeafletLeaflet No. 62. 1975 H.M.S.O., London. Sharpe, G.W.G.W. etet al.l!b. Introduction to forestry.forestry. 4th ed.ed. McGraw-Hill BookBook Co.,Co., NewNew York.York. 1976 Smith, D.M.D.M. The practicepractice ofof silviculture.silviculture. John WileyWiley && Sons, Sons, Inc.,Inc., London.London. 1962 Sutton,sutton, R.F. Form and developmentdevelopment ofof coniferconifer rootroot systems.systems. CommonwealthCommonwealth AgriculturalAgricultural 1969 Bureau, Farnham Royal,Royal, Bucks.,Bucks., U.K.U.K. Taylor, C.J.c..r. Tropical forestry. Oxford University Press,Press, London.London. 1962 Teskey, B.J.E. andand Shoemaker,Shoemaker, J.S.J.S. Tree fruitfruit production.production. 3rd ed. Avi PublishingPublishing 1978 Co., Westport, Connecticut,Connecticut, U.S.A. - 108 - (Appendix 11, cont.)oont.) (11.16) Tomlinson, P.B. and Zimmermann, M.H. (eds.)(ede.) Tropical trees as livingliving systems.systems. Cambridge 1978 UniversityUniversity Press, Cambridge. Troup,Troup, R.S. Silvicultural systems (2nd(2nd edition).edition). Clarendon Press, Oxford.Oxford. 19519522 Viart, M. (ed.)(ed.) Poplars and willows in wood production and landland use. FAO Forestry 1979 Series No. 12.12. Rome. Weber,Weber, F.R. Reforestation in arid lands.lands. Volunteers inin Technical AssistanceAssistance (VITA)(VITA) 1977 Publications, Mt. Rainier, MD, U.S.A. Williams, C.N.C.N. etet al.ale Tree and field cropscrops ofof thethe wetterwetter regionsregions ofof thethe tropics.tropics. 1980 Longman Group, London.London. Withers, B. and Vipond, S. Irrigation: Design andand practice.practice. B.T. BatsfordBatsford Ltd.,Ltd., 1974 London. Wittering, W.O. vleedingWeeding in the forest. Forestry Commission BulletinBulletin No,No. 48. 1974 H.M.S.O., London. Wormald, G.J. Pinus patula. Tropical Forestry Papers No.No.7.7. Commonwealth Forestry 1975 Institute, Oxford. Wright, R.C.M. Handbook of plant propagation. l~ardWard Lock Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1973 11.1711 • 17 .§.Qll2SOILS Brady, N.C. The nature andand propertiesproperties ofof soils.soils. MacMillan PressPress Ltd.,Ltd., NewNew York. 1974 Bridges, E.M.E.l~. World soils. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Cambridge. 1979 Buringh, P.P. Introduction to the study of soils in tropicaltropical andand sub-tropicalsubtropical regions.regions. Wageningen Centre for Agricultural Publishing and Documentation,Documentation, Netherlands 'rutler,'3utler, B.E. Soil classification forfor soilsoil survey.survey. Clarendon Press,Press, London.London. 980 Clarke, G.R,G.R. The study of the soilsoil inin thethe field.field. Clarendon Press,Press, Oxford.Oxford. 1971 Cooke, G.W.G.W. The controlcontrol ofof soilsoil fertility.fertility. EnglishEnglish LanguageLanguage BookBook Soc.Soc. && Crosby, Crosby, 1974 London. Eden, T.T. Elements of tropical soilsoil science.science. MacMillan PressPress Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 19791 979 FAO Shifting cultivation and soilsoil conservationconservation inin Africa. Rome. 1973 FAO Soil conservation for developing countries.countries. Soils BulletingBulleting No.No. 30.30. Rome. 1977 FAO Soil conservationconservation andand managementmanagement inin developingdeveloping countries.countries. Soils Bulletin No.No. 33.33. 1977 RomeRome,o - 109109 - (Appendix 11, cont.) (11.17)(11.17) FADFAO Organic recycling inin Asia. Rome. 1978 FAO Effects of intensive fertilizer use on the humanhuman environment.environment. Rome. 19781978 FAO Improved use ofof plantplant nutrients.nutrients. Rome. 1978 FADFAO Impact on soils of fast-growingfastgrowing speciesspecies inin woodlandwoodland andand humidhumid tropics.tropics. Rome. 1980 FADFAO Keeping the landland alive:alive: Soil erosion - its causes andand cures.cures. FADFAO Soils Bulletin 19831983 No. 50. Rome. FAO/Unesco Soil map ofof thethe world.world. Rome. 1977 Fitzpatrick, E.A.E.A. An introduction to soilsoil science.science. Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, U.K. 1975 Foster, A.B. Approved practices inin soilsoil conservation.conservation. Interstate Printers and Publi- 1973 shers, Inc., Danville, IL,IL, U.S.A. Foth, H.D. Fundamentals ofof soilsoil science.science. John Wiley &4 Sons,Sons, Inc.,Ince, New York. 1978 Golley,Galley, F.B. et£t al.21. Mineral cycling in a tropical moist forestforest ecosystem.ecosystem. University 1975 of Georgia Press, Athens, U.S.A. Gray, T.R.G. andand Williams,Williams, S.T.S.T. Soil micro organisms. Longman Group, London.London. 1975 Greenland, D.J. and Lal,Lal, R.R. Soil conservation and management in the humidhumid tropics. 1975 John Wiley & Sons L±d.,L'd., London.London. Kohnke, H. and Bertrand, A.R.A.R. Soil Conservation. McGraw-HillMcGrawHill BookBook Co.,Co., NewNew York.York. 1959 Lambe, T.W. and Whitman, R.V.R.V. Soil mechanics. John Wiley && SonsSons Inc.,Inc., New York.York. 1979 Lundgren, B.B. Soil conditions and nutrientnutrient cyclingcycling underunder naturalnatural andand plantationplantation forestsforeets 1978 in TanzanianTanzanian highlands.highlands. Department of Soils, SwedishSwedish University ofof AgriculturalAgricultural SciSciences. ences TJppsala.Uppsala. Pearl, R.M.R.M. How to know mineralsminerals andand rocks.rocks. McGraw-HillMcGrawHill BookBook Co.,Co., NewNew York.York. 1955 Pritchett, W.L. Properties and management ofof forestforest soils.soils. John WileyWiley && SonsSons Inc.,Inc., 1979 New York.York. Richards, B.N.B.lI. TlitroductionT~ troduction toto thethe soil ecosystem. Longman, London.London. 1974 Russell, E.W.E.W. Soil conditionsconditions andand plant growth. t.ongmanI·ongman Group,Group, London. 1973 Sanchez, P.A. Properties andand management ofof soilssoils 7.-i laebe tropicstropics John WileyWiley && Sons,Sons, 1976 IncInc,,., New York.York. - 110 - (Appendix 11, cont.) (11.17)(11.17) Smith, M.J. Soil mechanics. macDonaldMacDonald & Evans Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 19781978 Townsend, W.N. An introduction to the scientific studystu~ of the soil. Edward Arnold 19771977 Publishers Ltd., London,London. White, R.E. Introduction toto thethe principlesprinciples and practices of soil science. Blackwell 1979 Scientific PublicationsPublications.Ltd.,. Ltd., Oxford. Young, A. Tropical soilBoil and soilBoil survey.survey. Oxford University Press, London.London. 1976 11.18 STATISTICS ANDAm) COMPUTF1tSCOMPUTERS Anderson, D.M. Computer ProgrammingPrograllllling FORTRANFOR'lRAN IV,IV. PrenticeHall,Prentice-Hall, EnglewoodEnglewood Cliffs,Cliffs, NJ,NJ, 1966 U.S.A. Chacko, V.J. A manualmanual onon samplingsampling techniquestechniques forfor forestforest surveys.surveys. Manager of Publica- 1965 tions,tions Government of India,India, NewNew Delhi.Delhi. Cochran.Cochran, W.G.W.G. Sampling techniques (3rd()l'.d. edition).edition). John WileyWiley'" & Sons,Sons, Inc.,Inc., NewNew York. 1977 Dawkins, H.C. STATFORMS - Formats for elementaryelementary statisticalstatistical aalculation.calculation. Institute 1968 Paper No. 41.41. Commonwealth Forestry Institute, Oxford.Oxford, Draper, N.R. andand Smith,Smith, H.H. Applied regressionregression analysis.analysiS. John WileyWiley &&: Sons,Sons, Inc.,Inc., 1980 New York,York. FAOFAD Forest inventory,inventor,y, data processing system:system: Programmer's guide. Rome. 1983 FAOFAa Forest inventory,inventory, datadata processingprocessing system:system: Introductory guide.guide. Rome.Rome. 1983 Fisher, R.A. and Yates, F. Statistical tables forfor biological,biological, agriculturalagricultural andand medi- 1978 cal research. Longman Group Ltd., London.London. Frayer,Prayer, E., Wilson, W., Peters,reters, R. andand Bickford,Bickford, C.A.C.A. "FINSYS", an efficient data 1968 processing system for largelarge forest inventories.inventories. Journal ofof Forestry,Forestry, Vol.Vol. 66, No. 12.12. Freese, F. Linear regression methods for forest research. USDA Forest ServiceService Re-He- 1964 search Paper, FPL 17, Washington, D.C.D.C. Freese, F. Elementary statistical methods for foresters. USDA ForestForest Service,Service, 1967 Washington, D.C. Grundy, A.A. An introductionintroduction toto managementmanagement statistics.statistics. English University Press.Press. Hansen, M.H. etet al.ale Sample uurveysurvey methods and theory.theory. Vol. II - Methods and applica- 1953 tions;--Vol.tions; Vol. IIII - Theory. John Wiley & Sons Inc.,Inc., New York.York. Hayslett, H.T. Statistics mademade simple.simple. W.H.W.H. Allen && Co. Co. Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1978 Mather, K.K. Statistical analysis inin biology.biology. Chapman && HallHall Ltd.,Ltd., London.London. 1972 - 111 - (Appendix(Appendix 11, cont.) (11.18) ~lcCracken,McCracken, D.D. Digital computer programming. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,Inc., New York/ 19631963 London. Prodan, M. Forest biometrics (English(English translationtranslation byby S.S. GardinerGardiner ofof "Forstliche"Forstliche Bio-Bie- 19681968 metrie"). Pergamon Press, Oxford,Oxford. Schumacher, F.X. and Chapman, R.A. Sampling methods inin forestryforestry andand rangerange managementmanagement 1954 (revised). Bulletin No.No.7,7, DukeDúke University, Durham, NC,NC, U.S.A. Sukhatme, P.V. and Sukhatme, B.V. Sampling theory ofof surveyssurveys withwith application.application. 1970 Iowa State College Press, Ames, Iowa,Iowa, U.S.A. Yates, F. Sampling methodsmethods for censuses and surveys. Griffin, London. 1981 11.19 SURVEYING AND REMOTE SENSINGSENSING Anon. Manual of Remote SensingSenSing (2nd(2nd ed.).ed. ). American Society ofof Photogrammetry, Falls 1983 Church, VA, U.S.A. Avery, T.E. Forester's guide to aerialaerial photointerpretation.photointerpretation. USDA Agriculture Hand- 1966 book No. 308,308. USDA Forest Service, Washington, D.C. Clendinning, J. and 011iver,Olliver, JJ.G. .G. Principles and use ofof surveyingsurveying instruments.instruments. Van 19721972 Nostrand Reinhold Co. Ltd.,Ltd., London,London. Cl9ndinning,Clendinning, J. and 011iver,Olliver, J.OJ.G.. Principles ofof surveying.surveying. Van Nostrand Reinhold 19781978 Co. Ltd., London,London. Davis, J.A.J .A. Elementary surveysurvey analysis.analysis. Prentice-Hall,Prentice-Hall, Englewood~lewood Cliffs,Cliffs, NJ,NJ, U.S.A.U.S .A. 1971 Davis, R.E. and Kelly, J.W. Elementary plane surveying.surveying. McGrawHillMcGraw-Hill BookBook Co.,Co., NewNew 1967 York. Davis, R.E. IIet al.~ Surveying: Theory and practice. McGraw-HillMcGrawHill BookBook Co.,Co., NewNew York.York. 1981 Dickinson, G.C.G.C. Maps and air photographs. Edward Arnold PublishersPublishers Ltd.,Ltd. , London,London. 1979 FAOFAD Manual of forest inventory.inventory. FAOFAD Forestry PaperPaper No.No. 27.27. Rome. 1981 FAO Training coursecourse onon applicationapplication ofof newnew remoteremote sensingsensing techniquestechniques toto forestforest re-re- 1982 source surveys. Rome. Hart, K.M. Practical surveying.surveying. Technical Press Ltd., London. 1973 Higgins, A.L.A.Loc Elementary surveying.surveying. Longman Group, London.London. 1970 Kilford, W.K.W.K. Elementary air survey.survey. Pitman PublishingPublishing Ltd.,Ltd., London,London. 1979 Kissam, P.P. Surveying: instruments andand methods.methods. McGrawHillMcGraw-Hill BoOkBook Co.,Co., NewNew YorkYork 1956 - 112112- - (Appendix 11, cont.)cont.) (11.19)(11.19) Kissam, P. Surveying practice. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Co., NewNew York.York. 1978 Lillesand, T.M. and Kiefer, R.W. HernoieRemote sensing andand imageimage interpretation.interpretation. John Wiley 1979 & Sons Inc., New York.York. Malcolm, J.J. ElementaryElementary surveying. University Tutorial Press, London .• 1976 Mueller-Dombois, D. and Ellenberg, H. Aims and methodsmethods ofof vegetationvegetation ecology.ecology. John 1975 Wiley & Sons, Chichester, U.K. Murchison, D.E.D.E. SUrveyingSurveying and photogrammetry. Newnes-Butterworths, London.London. 19771977 Namboodiri, K. (ed.)(ed.) Survey, sampling and measurement. Academic Press Inc., New 1978 York. Richason, B.F., Jr. Introduction to remote sensing of the environment.environment. Kendall/HuntKendall/Runt 1978 Publishing Company,Company, Dubuque,Dubuque, IA,IA, U.S.A. Richie, W.W. et~ al.~ Mapping for fieldfield scientists:scientists: A problem solvingsolving approach.approach. David 1977 & Charles, Newton Abbot, U.K. Ripa, L.C.L.O. Surveying manual. McGraw-Hill Book Co.,Co., NewNew York.York. 19681968 Slama, C.C.C.C. etet al.al. (eds.)(eds.) Manual of photogrammetry (Ath(4th ed.).ed.). American Society of 1980 Photogrammetry, Falls Church, VA,VA, U.S.A. Spurr, S.H.S.R. Photogrammetry and photointerpretationphotointerpretation (with(with aa sectionsection onon applicationapplication toto 1960 forestry)(2nd ed.).ed.). The RonaldRonald PressPress Co.Co. Ltd.,Ltd., NewNew York.York. Stellingwerf, D.A.D.A. Practical applications ofof aerial photographyphotography inin forestryforestry andand otherother 1968 vegetation studies.studies. International Training CentreCentre forfor AerialAerial Survey.Survey. I.T.C. Publications, SeriesSeries B, Nos. 36,36, 37, 37, 38, 38, 46,46, 47,47, 48.48. 1111.20 .20 WILDLIFEWILDL1Fh AND NATIONAL PARKS MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENX Burger, G.V.a.v. Practical wildlife management. Winchester Press,Press, Pulsa,Tulsa, OK,OK, U.S.A.,U.S.A. 1973 Crandall, L.S.L.S. The management of wild mammals inin captivity.captivity. University ofof ChicagoChicago 1964 Press, Chicago, USA.USA. Dasmann, R.F.R.F. Wildlife biology. Wiley, Chichester,Chichester, U.K.U.K. 1981 IUCN Proceedings of the SecondSecond World ConferenceConference onon NationalNational Parks,Parks, YellowstoneYellowstone andand 1974 Grand TetenTeton National Parks, USA, 18-2718-27 SeptemberSeptember 1972,1972. International Union for the Conservation ofof Nature andand NaturalNatural Resources,Resources, Morges,Morges, Switzerland.Switzerland. roCNIUCN The Convention of InternationalInternational TradeTrade ofof EndangeredEndangered SpeciesSpecies ofof WildlifeWildlife andand 1974 Fauna. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resour-Resour ces, Morges, Switzerland.Switzerland. IUCNroCN The IUCNIUCN MammalMammal RedRed DataData Book,Book, PartPart 1.1. International Union for the Conservation 1981 of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland,Gland, Switzerland.Switzerland. - 113'In - (Appendix 11, cont.)cont.) (11.20) IUCN/UNEP/WWFrOCN/UNTP/WWF World conservation strategy.strategy. International UnionUnion for the Conservation 1980 of Nature and Natural Resources, Gland,Gland, Switzerland. Miller, K.R. Planning national parks forfor ecodevelopmentecodevelopment - methodsmethods andand casescases fromfrom 19781978 Latin America, Vols. II and II.II. Instituto de lala Caza FotográficaFotogrdfica yy CienciasCiencias dede la Natura!eza,Naturaleza, Centro Iberoamericano de Cooperación,Cooperaci6n, Madrid, Spain.Spain. Moseley, J., Thelen, K. and Miller, K. National parks planning.planning. A manual with anno- 1976 tated examples. FAO Forestry PaperPaper No.No.6.6. Rome,Rome. Schemnitz, S.D. Wildlife management techniques manualmanual (4th(4th ed.).ed.). Wildlife Society,Society, 19801980 Washington. Trefethen, J.B.J .B. Wildlife management andand conservation.conservation. D.C. Heath & Co. 1111.21 .21 GENERAL Darrow, K. Appropriate technology sourcesource book,book, Vols.Vols. II andand II.II. APpropriateAppropriate Technolo- 19781978 gy Project, Volunteers inin Asia, Stanford.Stanford. U.S.A.U.S.A. FAOFAD Forests, foodfood andand people.people, Rome. 19681968 FAO AGRIS Forestry: Catalogue ofof informationinformation andand documentationdocumentation services.services. FAOFAO ForesFores- - 19791979 try Paper No.No. 15.15. Rome. FAO World List List of Forestry Schools.Schools. FAO Forestry Forestry Paper Paper No.3, No, 3, Rev. 1, Rome. 1981 FAO Plant collection and herbarium development.development. FAO Plant Production and Protection 1981 Paper No. 33. Rome. Fuglesang, A. About understanding. nagDag HammerskjbldHammerskj~ld Foundation, Uppsala, Sweden.Sweden. 1982 Morrish, I.I. Aspects of educational change.clwnge. George Allen & Unwin Ltd., London.London. 1976 - 114 - APPENDIX 1212 12.0 WORKSHOP EQUIPMENT 12.1 STUDENTS'STUDENTSI WORKSHOP 112.1.1 2.1 .1 FORFCR MAKINGMA.KING AND FITTINGFlTT np TOOLTOOL HANDLES WORK BENCHES, preferablypreferably wooden,wooden, fittedfitted withwith carpenters'carpenters' vicesvices RIP SAWS CROSs-ctlTCROSSCUT SAWSSAWS TENON SAWS SPOKESHAVES RASPS or SURFORMSURFORM PLANES CARPENTER'S CHISELSCHISELS (Various(Various sizes)sizes) CARPENTER'S MALLETS CLAW HAMMERS WOOD and METAL WEDGES, small.small. 12.112.1.2 .2 FOR MAINTENANCEMAINl'ENANCE OFOF HANDHAND SAWSSAWS FILING VICES FILES, flat, singlesingle cutcut DEPTH GAUGES!RAJCERGAUGES/RAKER GAUGES SEl'l'INGSETTING GAUGES SEl'l'INGSETTING ANVIL and HAMMER WIRE BRUSH SEl'l'INGSETTING PLIERS for bow saws and hand saws.saws. 12.1.312.1.3 FOR . MAINTENANCE OF POWER SAWS MECHANICS TOOLS, setset of,of, forfor servicingservicing motorsmotors FILING CLAMPS FILING GUIDES FILES, roundround andand flatflat RIVETING SETSEi CENTRE PUNCH BALLPEIN HAMMER. - 115115- - (Appendix 12, cont.)cont.) 12.1.4 FOR SHARPENING CUTTINGCU'I'l'ING TOOLS GRIND STONESsrONES WHET STONES AXE GAUGES FILES. 12.1.5 FOR WATER SUPPLIES PIPE FITTING VICE PIPE FITTING DIES PIPE lfflENCHESWRENCHES HACKSAWS FILES. 12.212.2 MAINTENANCE WORKSHOPWORKSHOP 12.2.1 FOR WOODWORK,WOODWORK. etc.etc. WORK BENCHES with carpenter'scarpenter'e vicesvices CARPENTER'SaARPENTER'S TOOL KIT BANDSAW, small UNIVERSAL WOODWORKING MACHINE TURNING LATHE,LATHE, smallsmall DISC SANDER, portable GLUEGWE POT and HEATER CLAMPS PAINT BRUSHES. 12.2.2 FOR METAL WORK METAL WORK BENCHES with engineer'sengine er' s vivices ces MEX:HANIC'SMECBANIC'S TOOL KIT inin lockablelockable cabinetcabinet HACKSAWS METAL SHEARS PIPE BENDER WELDING EQUIPKE:NT,EQUIPMENT, gas and electric SAFETY EQUIPMENTEQUIPMEllT (GLOVES:(GLOVES: EYESHIELDS, etc.)etc.) PORTABLE mILLDRILL and srANDSTAND ·SMALLSMALL TURNING LATHELATEE GRIND STONESsrONES (electric).(electric). -116-- 116 - (Appendix 12, cont.)cont.) 112.2.32.2.3 FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION MASON'SMASON Is LINESLINES PLUMB BOBS MASON'S LEVELS MASON'S AXE STEEL TROWELS STEEL FLOATS MORTAR PANS. 12.3 VEHICLE WORKSHOP WORK BENCHES as required ENGINEERS'ENGINEERS ' VICES VEHICLE MAINTENANCE TOOLS, comprehensivecomprehensive setset of,of, inin aa securesecure metalmetal cabinetcabinet ELECTRIC GRINDER PORTABLE ELECTRIC DRILL with vertivertical cal stand DRILLS, sets of DIE STOCK SET SCREW EXTRACTORS PUNCH SETSEI' JACK (screw(screw or hydraulic type)type) TROLLEY JACK PARTS TRAYTRAY COMPRESSORCOMPHESSOR SPRAY GUNS (for(for oil;oil; air; paint) TIRETYRE PUMP with pressure gauge WELDING PLANT, electric (if(if not available inin maintenance workshop) WELDING PLANT, gas ( - do. - ) BATTERY CHARGER ACID CARBOYS HYGROMETERHYGROMEl'ER SPARK PLUGPLUG CLEANERCUANER ELECTRONIC ENGINE TUNER. - 117117 - APPENDIX 1313 13.0 FIELD EQUIPMENT 13.113.1 NURSERYNURSERY EOUIPKEmEQUIPMENT PICKS SPADES DIGGING FORKS SHOVELS (round and square mouthed) GARDEN LINE CARPENTER'S TOOLS for making frames and shadesshades WATERING CANS (fine and coarse roses) WATER HOSE JETS FOR HOSE, variable SPRINKLERS SPRAYERS,SPRAYERS, hand or backpack (insecticide(insecticide and herbicide)herbicide) HAND FORKS TROWELS SECATEURSSEX:!ATEURS HEDGE TRIMMERS KNIVES SIEVES SPRING BALANCE for weighing insecticidesinsecticides andand herbicides)herbicides) CONCRETECONCRErE (SOIL)(SOIL) MIXERMIXffi SOIL SHREDDER WHEEL BARROWS TROLLEYS PLANT BOXES,BOXES. 13.2 IfELLINGFELLING ANDAND CLEARINGCLEARING EOUIPMENTEQUIPMENT FELLINGIIELLING AXESAXES SPLITTING AXES CROSSCUT SAWSSAWS (Raker(Raker tooth/Pegtooth/Peg tooth)tooth) BOW SAWS with sparespare bladesblades POWER SAWS POCKET WEDGES COMPOSITE WEDGES BREAKING BARS TREE PUSHERS - 118118 - (Appendix(Appendix 13, cont.) (13.2) PORTABLEPORTABLE WINCHES BUSHBUSH KNIVES (Machetes).(Machet es) . SHARPENINGSHARPENING STONES,STONES, HandHand LOOG:rn'LOGGER'S STAPES TAPES DIAMET:rnDIAMETER TAPES CALIPERSCALIPERS EXTRACTIONEXTRACT ION SULKIESSULKIES HANG-UP SULKIES SAFETY HELMETS withIdth visors and earear protectors,protectors, ifif appropriateappropriate FffiST-AIDFIRST-AID KITS. 13.3 PLANTATION AND SILVICULTURALSILVICUL'IDRAL OPERATIONS PICK AXESAXES HOES MATTOCKS (various(various types)types) WEEDING HOOKS SLASH:rnSSLASHERS SPRAYERS, BackpaokBackpack PLANTING TROWELS PLANT BOXES PRUNING SAWS LADDERSLADD:rnS (rope(rope andand aluminium)aluminium) HATCHETS. 13.4 FIRE I'REVENTIONPREVENTION EOOIPMENTEQUIPMENT BACK-PACK PUMPS WATER TRAILERS MOTOR PUMPS with hoses and jetsjets FIRE BEATERSBEAT:rnS FIRE SHOVELSSHOVELS FIRE RAKES FIRE BRUSHES FIRE AXES FIRE MATTCCKSMATTOCKS (Polaskis)(Polaskis) WATER CARRIERS DRAG TORCHES FIRST-AD)FIRST-AID KIT.KIT. - 119119 - (Appendix(Appendix 13,13, cont.) 13.5 SURVEY/MENSURATIONSURVEY/MENSURATION EQUIPMENT PRISMATIC COMPASSES and TRIPODS HAND COMPASSES (various types) STEEL MEASURINGMEASURING ROPES THEODOLITESTHEODOLITES PLANE TABLES (with(with alidadesalidades andand plumbplumb bobs)bobs) STEEL MEASURINGMEASURING TAPES FIBREllLASSFIBREGLASS oror PLAsrrcPLASTIC TAPES RANGING RODS SURVEYOR'SURVEYOR'S S ARROWSARROWS OPTICAL SQUARES CLINOMErERSCLINOMETERS (degree(degree andand percent)percent) ABNEY LEVELS and TARGETSTARGEll'S ALTIMETERSALTIMErERS (Barometric)(Barometric) PRECISE LEVELS LEVELLING srAFFSSTAFFS FIELD BOOKS HYPSOMETERSHYPSOMErERS HAGARAGA ALTIMErERSALTIMETERS and TARGEl'STARGETS BLUME LEISS ALTIMErERSALTIMETERS and TARGEl'STARGEPS RELASCOPES (simple)(simple) RELASCOPES (Spiegel)(Spiegel) DIAMErERDIAMETER TAPES CALIPERS BARK GAUGES INCREKE:NTINCREMNT BORERSBORERS CLIP BOARDS. 13.6 ENGINEERING EQUIPMENT SURVEY and FELLING EQUIPMENT fromfrom appropriateappropriate listslists PICKS SHOVELSSHOVELS CROWBARS GRUBBING AXES WHEELWHE:E!L BARROWS MASON'S LEVELS HAND WINCH. - 120 - (Appendix 13, cont.)oont.) 13.113.7 IRAWINGDRAWING OFFICE EQUIPMENT DRAWINGIRAWING andand TRACINGTRAcrm PAPERSPAPERS ofof various typestypes andand sizessizes LEAD HOLDERS andand LEADSLEADS ERASERSlllAs:El!S DRAWING INSTRUMENTS, sets of, in boxes SCALE RULES CIRCULAR PROTRACTORSPRO'ffiACTORS 0 ShiSET SQUARESS~ARES (45(4500 and 60°)60 ) PARALLEL RULESHULES PROPORTIONAL DIVIDERS PANTOGRA.PIISPANTOGRAPHS PRICKERS AREA GRIDS DOT COUNTERS PLANIMElI'ERSPLANIMETERS DRAWING BOARDS IRAWINGDRAWING BOARD CLIPS T-S~ARES.TSQUARES. 13.8 CAMPING EWIPMENTEQUIPMENT TENTS, Staff, completecomplete with groundsheets TENTS, Students, completeoomplete with groundsheets COOK'S and STORESl'OHE TENTS MESS TENT CAMP BEDS CAMP BEDBEM MATRESSES SLEEPING BAGS MOSQUITO NETSNEl'S HOLDALLS LAMPS (kerosene(kerosene oror L.P.G.)L.P.G.) WATER CARRIERS WATER FILTERS MErALMETAL GRILL for cookingCOOking fire or camp stove COOK'S BOX containingoontaining POTS,POTS, PANS,PANS, COOKINGCOOKING UTENSILS,UTENSILS, KNIVES,KNIVES, SPOONS,SPOONS, etc.etc. BASINS/BUCKETS for washing up PLASTICPLASl'IC PLATES and MUGS CUTLERY BOXES for transporting plates, autlery,cutlery, etc.etc. BATH SCREENS PORTABLE TOILETS - 121 -- (Appendix 13, cont.)cont.) (13.8) PICKS/HOES SPATIFSSPADES FIRS2FIRST-AID -AID KIT MEDICINE CHEST.CHEST. 13.913 .9 TRANSPORl'TRANSPORT 4-WHEEL DRIVE BAGGAGE LORRY 4-WHEEL DRIVE LORRY convertedoonverted forfor passenger-carryingpassengeI'-carrying BUS 4-WHEEL DRIVEWIVE STATION WAGON 4-WHEEL DRIVEWIVE PICK-UPPICK-llP LIGHT TRUCK, for food suppliessupplies andand generalgeneral dutiesduties STATION WAGONS for staff use MOTOR-CYCLESMOTOR-<:YCLES forfor use within campus.campus.