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EmmausA JOURNAL OF PHILOSOPHICAL, THEOLOGICAL, AND HUMANISTIC STUDIES

Una Chiesa sinodale: un modo d’essere ecclesiale e una profezia per il terzo millennio 3

Christian and Homosexual A dichotomy or a harmonious possibility? 13

Mariophanies in the life of the Church 41

Social Media and Youth Leaders within the Catholic Church 55

Salmi 1 u 2: Kuntest u interpretazzjoni 93

Sacred Heart Seminary Gozo - Malta

Academic Year 2019 - 2020

Emmaus 20 (2019 - 2020) • 1 Emmausa journal of philosophical, theological, and humanistic studies published by the Sacred Heart Seminary - Gozo - Malta. Founded 1999

No. 20 (Academic Year 2019-2020) ISSN 1563-0137

Editorial Board: Major Seminary Academic Council (Anton Borg, Daniel Grech, Matthew Bajada, Noel Debono, Trevor Sultana, Richard-Nazzareno Farrugia)

All correspondence to be addressed to:

The Editor Emmaus Sacred Heart Seminary Victoria–Gozo VCT 2042 MALTA.

Printed by Gozo Press • Gozo–Malta © Sacred Heart Seminary, Gozo–Malta 2020

2 Mario Grech *

UNA CHIESA SINODALE:

UN MODO D’ESSERE ECCLESIALE E UNA PROFEZIA PER IL TERZO MILLENNIO

La pandemia come krisis e come chairós Ormai da molti mesi la pandemia scuote l’umanità da un capo all’altro del pianeta, facendoci toccare con mano un aspetto a dir poco inquietante della globalizzazione: grazie all’accresciuta mobilità internazionale, circolano con incredibile rapidità non soltanto informazioni, merci e stili di vita, ma anche i virus.

Non c’è dubbio che ci troviamo di fronte a una crisi: molti addirittura sostengono che si tratti della crisi mondiale più grave dall’ultimo dopoguerra a questa parte. Mi sembra tuttavia importante evidenziare che la parola krisis, nel suo significato originario, non assume necessariamenteun’ accezione funesta, come avviene invece presso molte lingue moderne. Nel greco antico

* His Eminence Cardinal Mario Grech, born in Qala, Gozo, ordained priest in 1984, holds a doctorate in Canon Law from the Pontifical University of St Thomas in Rome (1997) and served as Vicar Judicial for the diocese of Gozo. In 2006 he was ordained bishop and served as the eight bishop of the diocese of Gozo until 2019. He was appointed Pro-Secretary General of the Synod of Bishops in October 2019 until he became Secretary General in September 2020 and was created Cardinal in November of the same year.

Emmaus 20 (2019 - 2020) • 3 il sostantivo krisis – dal verbo krino – richiama l’idea di separare, discernere, giudicare. Il termine possiede in tal modo una sfumatura positiva, nel senso che la crisi può diventare un’occasione di riflessione, di valutazione, di discernimento, trasformandosi nel presupposto necessario per un miglioramento, una rinascita, un nuovo inizio.

Volendo utilizzare un linguaggio più vicino alla Sacra Scrittura, si potrebbe sostenere che ogni krisis porti con sé anche un chairós, cioè un’opportunità, un tempo prezioso misteriosamente attraversato da Dio, una stagione propizia che interrompe il ciclo sempre identico dei giorni e degli anni (il kronos) e che ci chiede di assumere un atteggiamento diverso, cioè di vivere una conversione.

Si possono comprendere in quest’orizzonte le parole con cui Papa Francesco ha concluso la sua omelia di Pentecoste il 31 maggio scorso: «Peggio di questa crisi, c’è solo il dramma di sprecarla». Il Santo Padre ha ribadito con u n’e spressione di efficacia immediata una convinzione da lui espressa più volte in questi mesi e ben radicata nella dottrina cristiana: la convinzione che il tempo della croce sia anche il tempo della grazia, che anche nella notte più oscura Dio non faccia mancare la sua stella, e che allora spetti agli uomini saper trarre dal male il bene possibile.

La teologa italiana Stella Morra ha paragonato la stagione che stiamo vivendo a un tempo di bassa marea.1 La bassa marea lascia emergere, da un lato, le straordinarie bellezze dei fondali: pensiamo, in quest’ultimo periodo, alla preghiera più intensa in tante famiglie, al riavvicinamento di tanti alla spiritualità, alla ricerca di modalità nuove di espressione della fede, alla fantasia pastorale di molti ministri e laici impegnati, alla carità più generosa verso i “vecchi” e i “nuovi” poveri, alla nascita di nuove relazioni fraterne e all’approfondimento di conoscenze prima superficiali e affrettate. Ma la

1 Cfr il saggio raccolto in Centro Fede e Cultura «Alberto Hurtado», «Vedo la notte che accende le stelle». Sentieri in tempo di pandemia, Bologna 2020.

4 bassa marea, al tempo stesso, porta a galla anche i detriti, depositandoli sulle spiagge, come vetri rotti, bottiglie di plastica, rifiuti di ogni sorta: mi riferisco qui, fuori di metafora, alla fragilità dei rapporti coniugali e familiari, alla debolezza dei nostri percorsi di catechesi, alla perdita del senso dell’Eucaristia domenicale, al disorientamento interiore di tanti che pure si sono sempre ritenuti credenti, non esclusi alcuni pastori.

Se gli aspetti positivi debbono convincerci che non possiamo ritornare alle modalità pastorali che impiegavamo prima della pandemia, quelli negativi rivelano tra alcuni cristiani, consacrati e laici che siano, un’impostazione profondamente clericalista.2 Ci rendiamo conto che, nonostante i ripetuti inviti di Papa Francesco a promuovere una “Chiesa in uscita” in grado di farsi carico degli uomini e delle donne di questo tempo come un “ospedale da campo”, la nostra è spesso ancora una “Chiesa della sagrestia”, ritirata dalle strade o tentata di proiettare la sagrestia nella strada.

La sinodalità come risorsa per andare oltre la pandemia Non è esagerato sostenere che proprio il tempo della pandemia, lungi dal distogliere l’attenzione dall’agenda delle riforme ecclesiali, stia rilanciando con forza il tema della sinodalità come “stile” della Chiesa. Il teologo francese Christoph Théobald è noto per aver parlato, tra molte altre cose, del cristianesimo come stile.3 Con ques t’e spressione egli intende affermare, richiamandosi contemporaneamente al Vangelo e al Concilio Vaticano II, che il cristianesimo non si rivolge solo ad alcuni aspetti della vita umana, bensì tocca l’e sistenza nella sua integralità. Lo stile cristiano, si potrebbe dire, è un modo di abitare il mondo, un modo specifico che prende spunto dall’e sempio offerto da Gesù e imitato dai suoi discepoli lungo la storia della Chiesa.

2 Cfr “La Chiesa sulla frontiera” intervista a mons Mario Grech, A. Spadaro sj - S. Sereni. in La Civiltà Cattolica, 3/17 ottobre 2020, 82-91. 3 Cfr Christoph Théobald, Il cristianesimo come stile. Un modo di fare teologia nella postmodernità, 2 voll., Bologna 2009. 5 Papa Francesco, fin dall’inizio del suo pontificato, ci sta appunto aiutando a riscoprire che lo stile cristiano è, irrinunciabilmente, uno stile sinodale. La sinodalità non è affatto un’invenzione di questo Pontefice. Al contrario, essa è antica quanto la Chiesa stessa, visto che già il Nuovo Testamento e l’epoca dei Padri ci mostrano il volto di una Chiesa pluriministeriale, attenta a valorizzare i doni e i carismi distribuiti a ciascuno dallo Spirito Santo, e pronta a risolvere le questioni più complesse con il concorso di tutti, come nel “Sinodo” paradigmatico di Gerusalemme descritto nel capitolo 15 degli Atti degli Apostoli. Ci troviamo dunque in presenza di un “ritorno alle fonti” (un ressourcement), anche se nuovi possono apparire taluni accenti, soprattutto se messi a confronto con i modelli di Chiesa predominanti negli ultimi secoli, innegabilmente caratterizzati dalla prevalenza di un assetto piramidale.

Se è vero, come ha affermato il Papa nell’importante discorso per il 50° anniversario del Sinodo dei Vescovi, che «il cammino sinodale è il cammino che Dio si aspetta dalla Chiesa del terzo millennio» (Discorso 17 ottobre 2015), la sinodalità si rivela un dono prezioso anche per il tempo eccezionale che stiamo vivendo, nel quale il “problema comune” della pandemia potrà essere affrontato e superato solo attraverso un “cammino comune”.

Come sappiamo, Sinodo significa proprio “camminare insieme” (Syn-hodos): in esso si fondono l’idea del cammino – cioè di una Chiesa non immobile, ma dinamica e protesa sui sentieri della storia – e l’idea dello stare insieme – cioè del sostenersi reciprocamente, sperimentando di essere un unico Popolo di Dio. È quanto spiega molto bene la Commissione Teologica Internazionale in un documento pubblicato due anni or sono:

La sinodalità esprime l’e ssere soggetto di tutta la Chiesa e di tutti nella Chiesa. I credenti sono synodoi, compagni di cammino, chiamati a essere soggetti attivi in quanto partecipi dell’unico sacerdozio di Cristo e destinatari dei diversi carismi elargiti dallo Spirito Santo in vista del bene comune. La vita sinodale testimonia una Chiesa costituita da soggetti liberi e diversi, tra loro uniti in comunione, che si manifesta in forma dinamica come un solo soggetto comunitario il quale, poggiando sulla pietra angolare che è Cristo e sulle colonne che sono gli Apostoli,

6 viene edificato come tante pietre vive in una “casa spirituale” (cfr. 1Pt 2,5), “dimora di Dio nello Spirito” (Ef 2,22).4

Lo stile sinodale come proposta per la società civile Parlare di sinodalità, nel contesto della pandemia attuale, non significa trincerarsi dietro una parola per addetti ai lavori. Infatti, pur essendo un termine che appartiene al lessico ecclesiastico, la sinodalità può diventare una vera e propria proposta fatta alla società civile. È, del resto, quanto anche il Santo Padre ha lasciato intendere nelle parole conclusive del citato discorso per il 50° del Sinodo:

Il nostro sguardo si allarga anche all’umanità. Una Chiesa sinodale è come vessillo innalzato tra le nazioni (cfr. Is 11,12) in un mondo che – pur invocando partecipazione, solidarietà e trasparenza nell’amministrazione della cosa pubblica – consegna spesso il destino di intere popolazioni nelle mani avide di ristretti gruppi di potere. Come Chiesa che “cammina insieme” agli uomini, partecipe dei travagli della storia, coltiviamo il sogno che la riscoperta della dignità inviolabile dei popoli e della funzione di servizio dell’autorità potranno aiutare anche la società civile a edificarsi nella giustizia e nella fraternità, generando un mondo più bello e più degno dell’uomo per le generazioni che verranno dopo di noi.

Non ci è difficile riconoscere in queste espressioni lo “spirito” della Gaudium et spes, che fin dal suo proemio traccia il volto di una Chiesa solidale con l’umanità, partecipe delle gioie e dei travagli del mondo, immersa nelle pieghe della storia in fedeltà al mistero dell’incarnazione del Verbo di Dio.

Adottata come principio operativo dal mondo laico, la sinodalità potrebbe essere uno stile che corrobora i rapporti interpersonali e la fratellanza umana, coniugandosi con i principi di partecipazione, solidarietà, sussidiarietà,

4 CTI, La sinodalità nella vita e nella missione della Chiesa, 2 marzo 2018, n.a 55.

7 ai quali si richiamano i documenti costituzionali di molte democrazie contemporanee. La sinodalità è un antidoto contro la chiusura egoistica dei piccoli gruppi e delle grandi nazioni e ci aiuta ad apprezzare il bello di essere comunità capace di integrare creativamente le differenze. Non ci dobbiamo però illudere: camminare insieme non è un’impresa facile, nella Chiesa come nella società civile, e tutti abbiamo bisogno di allenarci in questo esercizio così vitale per il futuro.

A tal proposito, la sinodalità può aiutarci a ripensare lo stesso concetto di “bene comune”, caro alla dottrina sociale della Chiesa e oggi, in tempo di pandemia, richiamato da più parti, nella consapevolezza da tutti avvertita che la battaglia contro il virus potrà essere vinta solo insieme, grazie a un’alleanza fra attori diversi. Spesso questo concetto è stato frainteso in senso utilitaristico: infatti, secondo un’accezione molto diffusa, il Common Good consiste nella condivisione di beni e di interessi da parte da una pluralità di individui. Esiste però anche un’altra accezione, non limitata alla dimensione economica, un’accezione secondo la quale il bene comune nasce piuttosto dall’accordo su quali valori e obiettivi siano degni della persona umana, contribuendo al suo “buon vivere”, e pertanto vadano garantiti a tutti i membri della collettività. Come osserva puntualmente il filosofo Michael Sandel:

[...] in this non-economistic conception of common good, it is not just a question of summing up individual preferences, it is deliberating about what preferences, what aims, are worthy of us. It allows for elevating - if all goes well - our preferences or educating our aims and purposes and recognising the sense in which we depend on one another to realise them.5

Il bene comune, visto in quest’ottica, non ha a che fare solo con i “beni”, ma anzitutto con il “bene” integrale della persona, cioè con ciò che permette ai membri di una società di raggiungere la piena realizzazione di sé.

5 M. Sandel, The Tyranny of Merit. What’s Become of the Common Good?, London 2020.

8 Queste riflessioni ci conducono in modo naturale all’ultima enciclica di Papa Francesco, dal titolo estremamente evocativo: Fratelli tutti, nella quale egli ha raccolto e organizzato in forma sistematica alcuni temi ricorrenti del suo magistero. In un certo senso, sinodalità “fa rima” con fraternità, cioè rappresenta il presupposto dottrinale e la traduzione giuridica di un concetto – quello appunto di fraternità – originariamente appartenente all’ambito della riflessione morale.

Nell’e nciclica il Pontefice afferma a chiare lettere che, di fronte all’irruzione della pandemia da Covid-19, «è apparsa evidente l’incapacità di agire insieme. Malgrado si sia iper-connessi, si è verificata una frammentazione che ha reso più difficile risolvere i problemi che ci toccano tutti» (n. 7). Questa constatazione, prosegue il Santo Padre, «ha effettivamente suscitato per un certo tempo la consapevolezza di essere una comunità mondiale che naviga sulla stessa barca, dove il male di uno va a danno di tutti. Ci siamo ricordati che nessuno si salva da solo, che ci si può salvare unicamente insieme» (n. 32). Salvarsi insieme: non è questa, a ben guardare, l’essenza e la meta della sinodalità? «Voglia il Cielo – aggiunge ancora il Papa – che alla fine [della crisi sanitaria] non ci siano più “gli altri”, ma solo un “noi”» (n. 35).

Verso il prossimo Sinodo Sotto alcuni aspetti, lo scoppio della pandemia ha rallentato i lavori preparatori della prossima Assemblea Generale Ordinaria del Sinodo dei Vescovi, indetta da Papa Francesco il 7 marzo scorso sul tema: «Per una Chiesa sinodale: comunione, partecipazione e missione». Per altri versi, invece, l’attuale situazione planetaria può offrire spunti importanti per affrontare un tema così vasto e complesso nel modo più giusto, evitando un “ripiegamento” della Chiesa su se stessa e sui suoi problemi, e propiziando invece una riflessione a tutto campo sui rapporti tra Chiesa e società contemporanea. Utili, in tal senso, possono rivelarsi gli studi che si vanno moltiplicando sulle relazioni

9 tra sinodalità ecclesiale e democrazia civile, pur nella consapevolezza della differenza fondamentale che intercorre tra di esse.6

L’a genda del Sinodo andrà meglio definendosi nei mesi a venire. Un tema così ampio richiede, anzitutto, un’attenta delimitazione. Naturalmente, a orientare la fase preparatoria saranno le sollecitazioni che arriveranno dalle Chiese particolari, dalle Conferenze Episcopali e dai Sinodi delle Chiese orientali cattoliche, senza che nulla sia stabilito con rigidità in anticipo. Una sicura bussola è comunque rappresentata dal titolo scelto dal Santo Padre per il Sinodo: il riferimento alla comunione permette di radicare la sinodalità nel mistero della Trinità, eterna comunione delle Tre Persone divine, facendoci comprendere che l’ecclesiologia sinodale è un coerente sviluppo dell’ecclesiologia della communio sviluppata dal magistero postconciliare; l’invito alla partecipazione postula l’impegno a superare il clericalismo, riscoprendo la soggettualità ecclesiale di tutti i battezzati, donne comprese, pur nella diversità dei ministeri e dei doni ricevuti; il richiamo alla missione conferma la convinzione che un Sinodo sulla sinodalità non sarà un esercizio di “introversione”, ma dovrà per la sua parte favorire lo sviluppo di una Chiesa sempre più estroversa, cioè aperta al mondo, laddove Cristo la invia a portare l’Evangelii gaudium, la gioia del Vangelo.

Per poter raggiungere questi obiettivi, sarà necessario intraprendere da subito un attento ascolto di tutte le voci ecclesiali, come del resto è avvenuto nei Sinodi più recenti, compreso il Sinodo Speciale per l’A mazzonia, preceduto sul vasto territorio amazzonico da una mobilitazione del Popolo di Dio senza precedenti. La condizione forzata di distanziamento sociale, che il virus impone, ci sta impegnando a escogitare forme inedite di incontro e di scambio, chiedendoci di mettere a frutto quello speciale dono dello Spirito

6 Cfr a titolo di esempio, G. Tangorra, «Verso un nuovo stile di Chiesa: sinodalità», in Theologica leoniana 7 (2018) 153-168. Utile, per una panoramica degli studi recenti sulla sinodalità, R. Repole, «Quale sinodalità per quale Chiesa. Rassegna bibliografica su un tema nato in sordina e oggi centrale nel magistero di Francesco», in Il Regno – Attualità 63 (2018) 14, 411-415.

10 Santo che è la “fantasia” e di sfruttare al meglio le tecnologie digitali, che mai come ora possono aiutarci ad “accorciare le distanze”.

Solo in questo modo, del resto, la preparazione al Sinodo sarà già essa stessa esercizio di sinodalità. Per chiarire meglio quest’idea, desidero richiamare in conclusione uno dei passaggi chiave del discorso per il 50° del Sinodo, quello in cui il Santo Padre delinea con sguardo profetico il profilo di una «Chiesa dell’ascolto»:

Una Chiesa sinodale è una Chiesa dell’ascolto, nella consapevolezza che ascoltare “è più che sentire”. È un ascolto reciproco in cui ciascuno ha qualcosa da imparare. Popolo fedele, collegio episcopale, vescovo di Roma: l’uno in ascolto degli altri; e tutti in ascolto dello Spirito Santo, lo “Spirito della verità” (Gv 14,17), per conoscere ciò che Egli “dice alle Chiese” (Ap 2,7).

11 12 Joseph Anthony Hili *

CHRISTIAN AND HOMOSEXUAL A DICHOTOMY OR A HARMONIOUS POSSIBILITY?

Introduction The Church provides a badly needed context for the care of the human person when she refuses to consider the person as a “heterosexual” or a “homosexual” and insists that every person has a fundamental identity: the creature of God, and by grace, his child and heir to eternal life.1

Homosexual and Christian: are they compatible realities? We are facing one of the most controversial issues of the past decade in the field of moral theology. This is not only generating debates and passionate reactions, but also the positions adopted are often radicalised and there is no apparent solution. Homosexuality in recent years has evolved from taboo and a hidden reality to an increasingly pressing issue in political, social and religious fora.

* Rev. Joseph Anthony Hili, a priest of the diocese of Gozo, Malta, is a post-graduate student at the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore – Milano and the Facoltà Teologica dell’Italia Settentrionale – Milano. During his stay in Milan he is also present at the ARC Centre for the Anthropology of Religion and Cultural Change, one of the research centres of the Department of Sociology in the Università Cattolica, directed by Prof. Mauro Magatti. His interests are focused on the relationship between social ethics & moral theology. At the moment he exercises his pastoral work as part of the pastoral community of St. Paul VI in San Giuliano Milanese.

1 Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the pastoral care of homosexual persons (1 October 1986) 16: (on-line): http://www. vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19861001_ homosexual-persons_en.html.

Emmaus 20 (2019 - 2020) • 13 Persistent news about gay rights, gay marriage and adoption of children by homosexuals is resulting in an ever-present social media debate. This is leading people to take a stand on a complex reality. But there is such a lack of knowledge that we tend to generalize all pertaining issues: the person, their sexual relationships, and social and cultural events which are actually giving rise to homosexuality as a phenomenon.

When a Christian presents himself as homosexual and asks to be guided to integrate his sexual orientation with his Christian faith, a great difficulty arises. The Church’s message is generally perceived as negative within society. The personal experience of the homosexual as a believer may be confronted with several difficulties.

In this study I analyse how homosexuals who are sincerely seeking their identity have a place in the world and in the Church. This stems from evangelical evidence that leads us to discover that gay people are also “sons of God”. The Church is not an “enemy of homosexuality”. The Church, as Pope Francis tells us, is called to be “a teacher of humanity” that reaches out to men of any condition, including homosexuals.2

1. Biblical References Biblical texts play a fundamental role as the primary referent of Christian theological interpretation of reality.3 In respect to homosexuality, it can be considered as a fact by all the exegetes and theologians that the Bible does not bring up homosexuality as an orientation but refers to homosexual acts. We can find episodes of this type in both the Old and New Testaments andthese appear with a negative valuation.4 Some of the most significant texts are

2 Pope Francis, Angelus (6 April 2014) (on-line): http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/ en/angelus/2014/ documents/papa-francesco_angelus_20140406.html. 3 Cfr Dogmatic Constitution Dei Verbum 21, “Therefore, like the Christian religion itself, all the preaching of the Church must be nourished and regulated by Sacred Scripture.” 4 Marciano Vidal, Orientaciones Éticas para tiempos inciertos, Bilbao 2007, 278.

14 found in the story of Sodom and Gomorrah (Gen 19, 1-18)5; the laws found in the book of Leviticus (18, 22; 20, 13); the Letter of Paul to the Romans (Rm 1, 26-27); the First Letter of Paul to the Corinthians (1 Co 6, 9-10); and the First Letter of Paul to Timothy (1 Tim 1, 9-11).

One can conclude that in the passages of the Old Testament, homosexual acts are explicitly condemned as contrary to the function of procreation in sexuality; it is a sin against conjugal union and against the family, which contradicts the will of the Creator, who created us male and female and commanded us to have an offspring.

On the other hand, it can be argued that homosexuality is not one of the central concerns of the New Testament. Allusions to it are really few compared to other topics.

Up to the 19th century, moralists referred to the story of Sodom to condemn homosexual acts. Recourse to other passages gained strength as homosexuality became more visible and the need arose to find increasingly solid biblical arguments against homosexuality.

Some theologians conclude that the Church unproportionally exaggerated its interpretation of Bible passages on homosexuality (even in quantitative terms) and that the Bible points out other more serious and reprehensible sins.6

2. The Magisterium in regards to homosexuality For centuries, the issue of homosexuality only appeared in moral treaties as one of the sins against the sixth commandment. In the last 40 years, it has been appearing in many documents, declarations and Papal speeches.

5 Cfr also Jude 7 and 2 Pt 2, 7. 6 Gregorio Ruiz, La homosexualidad en la Biblia, in Homosexualidad: Ciencia y Conciencia, Santander 1981, 110-111. 15 2.1. Main documents and their argumentation The declaration Persona Humana, issued by the Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith (CDF)7 in 1975, can be classified as the first document that specifically addresses the theme of homosexuality. This document bases its argumentation on natural law. The declaration mainly distinguishes between two types of homosexuals: those whose tendency comes from a false education, and those who are definitively such. As noted in the declaration, the first form of homosexuality is “not incurable”, while the second type is “judged to be incurable.” Considering the psychiatric posture of that time, it was normal to use such verbs and look at homosexuality as a pathology. This rigid moral evaluation is softened pastorally especially in respect of what was regarded as the first type of homosexuality. Although “no pastoral method can be employed which would give moral justification to these acts on the grounds that they would be consonant with the condition of such people”, the declaration affirms that “homosexuals must certainly be treated with understanding and sustained in the hope of overcoming their personal difficulties and their inability to fit into society. Their culpability will be judged with prudence” (PH VIII).8

In response to the discussion generated by the declaration Persona Humana, the CDF felt the need to issue another document. The Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the Pastoral Care of Homosexual Persons affirms the 1975 doctrine, but shows some signs of openness in terms of pastoral experiences. Its arguments are more predominantly based on biblical theology and, while it condemns the homosexual act, the letter states that this condemnation in no way justifies the discrimination of homosexuals. In fact, this document affirms that “such treatment deserves condemnation

7 Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, Persona Humana. Declaration on certain question concerning sexual ethics (29 December 1975) 8: (on- line): http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/cfaith /documents/ rc_con_cfaith_doc_19751229_persona-humana_en.html. 8 Cfr Marciano Vidal, 291-292.

16 from the Church’s pastors wherever it occurs” (10). To answer the question; “what should the attitude of a homosexual person seeking to follow the Lord be?” the document stresses that “Christians who are homosexuals are called, as all of us are, to a chaste life” (12). Although the document insists on the immorality of homosexual acts, there is evidently a more nuanced treatment of homosexuality since specific and diverse aspects of this sexual orientation are taken into account.9

In 1992, following a United States bill on the non-discrimination of homosexuals, the CDF published the document: Some considerations concerning the response to legislative proposals on the non-discrimination of homosexual persons. As expected, the ethical criteria forming the basis of preceding documents are re-emphasized. Starting from the affirmation that a “homosexual orientation is an objective disorder and evokes moral concern”, relevant applications are made for the legal system. Some criteria are proposed, such as that “there are areas in which it is not unjust discrimination to take sexual orientation into account”, for example, in child adoptions or foster care and in military recruitment (11). Some rights “can be legitimately limited for objectively disordered external conduct.” The document notes that this is sometimes not only licit, but obligatory, in order to protect the common good (12). The 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights contains no right to homosexuality; therefore these should not form the basis for judicial claims with the purpose of promoting homosexuality (13). Pope John Paul II also referred to this document in response to a similar law proposed by the European Union in 1994 and the Gay Manifestation that took place in Rome on the occasion of the Great Jubilee in 2000. The biggest concern of the Church in the face of these events was that it had seen the danger of extrapolation of individual morality against social ethics.10

9 Ibid., 293-294. 10 Ibid., 295-296

17 On June 3, 2003 the CDF published the document Considerations regarding proposals to give legal recognition to unions between homosexual persons. As declared by the congregation, such considerations:

[...] do not contain new doctrinal elements; they seek rather to reiterate the essential points on this question and provide arguments drawn from reason which could be used by Bishops in preparing more specific interventions, appropriate to the different situations throughout the world, aimed at protecting and promoting the dignity of marriage, the foundation of the family, and the stability of society, of which this institution is a constitutive element.11

In 1992, the Catechism of the Catholic Church dedicated three numbers to the issue of homosexuality (2357-2359). In presenting a moral evaluation, and using the ideal of chastity and pastoral attention as main arguments, it is noteworthy that homosexuality was not included in the section “offenses against chastity”, but analysed in an autonomous section entitled “chastity and homosexuality”.

There are other documents by various pontifical councils that deal with homosexuality, such as: The Truth and Meaning of Human Sexuality(1995) and Family, Marriage and “De Facto” Unions (2000) issued by the Pontifical Council for the Family. Other documents are: Educational Guidance in Human Love (1983) and Instruction Concerning the Criteria for the Discernment of Vocations with regard to Persons with Homosexual Tendencies in view of their Admission to the Seminary and to Holy Orders (2005) issued by the Congregation for Catholic Education.

11 Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, Considerations regarding proposals to give legal recognition to unions between homosexual persons (3 June 2003) 1: (on-line) : http://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/congregations/ cfaith/documents/ rc_con_cfaith_doc_20030731_homosexual-unions_en.html.

18 2.2. The profile of the homosexual that emerges from the documents The evolution of Church documents establishes a differentiation between homosexual acts and homosexual orientation or condition. I will now try to trace the profile of the homosexual as depicted in the various documents of the Church addressing homosexuality.

Homosexual acts Basing itself on Sacred Scripture, which presents homosexual acts as acts of grave depravity, tradition has always declared that “homosexual acts are intrinsically disordered”: that they are contrary to natural law; they deprive the sexual act from the gift of life; they do not proceed from a genuine affective and sexual complementarity; and that under no circumstances can they be approved.12

The homosexual orientation Homosexuality refers to relations between men or between women who experience an exclusive or predominant sexual attraction towards persons of the same sex. Reactions to homosexuality have been diverse – both in terms of time and culture. Its psychological genesis remains largely unexplained. The number of men and women who have deep-seated homosexual tendencies is not negligible. For most homosexuals, this inclination constitutes a trial.13 “A distinction is drawn, and it seems with some reason, between homosexuals whose tendency is transitory or at least not incurable; and homosexuals who are definitively such because of some kind of innate instinct or a pathological constitution judged to be incurable.”14

12 Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2357. 13 Ibid., 2357-2358. 14 Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, Persona Humana. Declaration on certain question concerning sexual ethics, 8.

19 Sexual orientation does not constitute a quality comparable to race, ethnic background, etc. in respect to non-discrimination. Unlike these, homosexual orientation is an objective disorder and evokes moral concern.15 Although the particular inclination of the homosexual person is not a sin, it is a more or less strong tendency ordered toward an intrinsic moral evil; and thus the inclination itself must be seen as an objective disorder.16 Including “homosexual orientation” among the considerations on the basis of which it is illegal to discriminate can easily lead to regarding homosexuality as a positive source of human rights.17

The homosexual person It is essential that the fundamental liberty which characterizes the human person and gives him his dignity is recognized as belonging to the homosexual person, as well. The human person, made in the image and likeness of God, can hardly be adequately described by a reductionist reference to his or her sexual orientation. Every person has a fundamental identity: a creature of God, and by grace, his child and heir to eternal life.18

Homosexuals are called to fulfil God‘s will in their lives and, if they are Christians, to unite to the sacrifice of the Lord’s Cross the difficulties they may encounter in their living. Homosexual persons are called to chastity. By the virtues of self-mastery that teach them inner freedom, at times through the support of disinterested friendship, by prayer and sacramental grace, they can and should gradually and resolutely approach Christian perfection.19

15 Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, Some Considerations concerning the response to legislative proposals on the non-discrimination of homosexual persons (24 July 1992) 10: (on-line) : http://www.vatican.va/roman _curia/congregations/cfaith / documents/rc_con_cfaith_doc_19920724_homosexual-persons_en.html. 16 Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the pastoral care of homosexual persons, 3. 17 Some Considerations concerning the response to legislative proposals on the non- discrimination of homosexual persons, 13. 18 Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the pastoral care of homosexual persons, 11, 16. 19 Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2358-2359.

20 An individual’s sexual orientation is generally not known to others unless he publicly identifies as such or unless some overt behaviour manifests it. The majority of homosexuals who seek to lead chaste lives do not publicize their sexual orientation. Homosexual persons who assert their homosexuality regard homosexual behaviour or lifestyle as “either completely harmless, if not an entirely good thing”, and hence worthy of public approval.20

Christian attitude towards homosexuals Homosexuals must be accepted with respect, compassion, and sensitivity. Every sign of unjust discrimination in their regard should be avoided, however there are areas in which it is not unjust discrimination to take sexual orientation into account, for example, in the placement of children for adoption or foster care, in the employment of teachers or athletic coaches, and in military recruitment.21

3. Theological-Moral debate While ecclesial reflection has focused primarily on the moral judgment of homosexual acts and by extension, the orientation itself, the so called “gay theology” has sought to make sense of homosexuality within the whole of the divine plan of salvation.

3.1. “Gay Theology” Starting from Stonewall,22 the increasing visibility of homosexuals and the development of new theories on homosexual identity prompted gay

20 Some considerations concerning the response to legislative proposals on the non-discrimination of homosexual persons, 14. 21 Ibid., 11. 22 Stonewall is the name of the bar in New York where it is said that the political gay and lesbian movement started. Cfr David Cordoba – Javier Sáez – Paco Vidarte, Teoría queer. Políticas Bolleras, Maricas, Trans, Mestizas, Madrid 2005, 39-40. 21 Christians to seek meaning in their homosexual condition within the framework of faith. A process of theological reflection, leaning against the criteria and methodology of various contemporary theologies and arising from various kinds of minorities, took place. These paths can be compared to those of other contemporary thought, such as feminist theology, liberation theology or progressive theology.23

“Liberal gay theology” “Liberal gay theology” is built on the claim that there is a real gay identity. This approach views homosexuals as a different category of people. Theologians who support this theory presume that gay is good because love is the point of contact between God and the human self and that gay wisdom and spiritual gifts frequently embody Gospel values more effectively than heterosexual relationships. What characterizes the gay, they say, are the qualities of freedom, mutuality, and equality. These elements constitute true Christian love. Liberal theology allowed gay theology the possibility to sidestep the authority of the Christian tradition, claiming that its heterosexual theologians did not possess the necessary tools to properly understand gay sexuality.24

North American Jesuit John J. McNeill is an exponent of this theology. Although he writes, “I remind my readers once again that I am not the Magisterium; nor do I have the authority to speak in the name of it”,25 he ignored several orders from the Society of Jesus and the CDF regarding his teachings about homosexuality. This resulted in his expulsion from the Society of Jesus and denial to exercise his priesthood.26

23 Cfr Elizabeth Stuart, Teologías gay y lesbiana. Repeticiones con diferencia crítica, Barcelona 2005, 24. 24 See Ibid., 41-43. 25 John J. McNeill, The Church and the Homosexual, Boston 19934, 13. 26 Cfr Ibid., 217-241. 22 He states that a person does not choose to be gay, being so is part of the order established by God. It is therefore necessary that gay people try to live their reality in the best way possible. Gays and lesbians must learn to “discern the spirits”, listening to their own hearts, where there is God. He proposed a distinction between two kinds of faith: immature faith, which confuses God with external authorities and leading to a standstill; and mature faith, which is built from personal experience based on personal prayer, in direct and immediate contact with God, and that brings us closer to others. He calls on gays and lesbians to go inwards and seek the law and the alliance in the heart itself. The Holy Spirit is not inside authorities (Scripture, tradition and ecclesiastical hierarchies), but in the freedom of conscience.27

“Gay liberation theology” “Liberal gay theology” led way to other types of approaches with a much more active dynamic. Theologians in this approach start from the experience of oppression. Hence, they base their thinking on theological assumptions which are similar to those of the liberation theology. Following the “see, judge and act” method, they believe that seeing involves active participation in the gay liberation movement and the understanding of the mechanics of oppression, judging includes a commitment to Christian tradition from the perspective of the oppressed, and acting means the return to the gay liberation movement with a certain strategy to enhance the transformation of the world.28

In turn, gay liberation theology has been greatly influenced by the “process theology” which briefly states that the universe is in continuous process and consists of bipolar entities: the physical and the mental aspect. God is one of those entities and is also in the process, just like humans. God is, therefore, a fellow sufferer; not someone who is beyond or above people, but someone in the experience of the community, in the actual experience of an oppressed group.

27 Cfr Ibid., 156-183. 28 Cfr Elizabeth Stuart, Teologías gay y lesbiana. Repeticiones con diferencia crítica, 63-70.

23 Following this reflection, Catholic liberationists suggest that the Christian faith is built around the exodus and the resurrection. Christians are not people who carry the pain, but ones who transform it. Christian life is based on building a community where all voices are valued. For Richard Cleaver, author of the book: Know My Name: A Gay Liberation Theology, salvation is never an individual matter; the exodus and resurrection reveal the divine as that which saves by creating new types of peoples.29

“Queer theology” Based on the principles of the queer theory, this theological approach starts, like the theory does, from a deconstruction of gender and sexuality. According to them, a male’s desire towards people of the same sex is purely a cultural phenomenon, practiced and interpreted in different ways in different cultural contexts. The wide variety in “queer theologians’” developments and conclusions, hardly allows us to establish common criteria. Their starting point lies in the essence of queer theory which questions the very notion of sexual identity.30

These theologians reject any category that divides (homosexual-heterosexual; men-women), following the Christian call to set God’s people without distinctions nor discriminatory differentiations. Christians do not need the gay or heterosexual categories, but only the fact that through baptism they become new people. Although the Church, influenced by the construction of gender that has developed since the 19th century affirms the difference, they say that in Christ there is neither male nor female. Everything we do or think reflects that we are part of the body of Christ and what holds Christians together is the being of God, revealed in us through our Christian participation.31

29 Cfr Ibid., 72-92. 30 Cfr David Cordoba – JavIer Sáez – Paco Vidarte, Teoría queer. Políticas Bolleras, Maricas, Trans, Mestizas, 23-26. 31 Cfr Elizabeth Stuart, Christianity is a queer thing. The development of queer theology (on-line) : http://www.theway.org.uk/Back/39Stuart.pdf.

24 These theologians believe that the “choice” of the Church in classifying the family model as heterosexual, determined what role each person must take, both in terms of personality and even in the family. Gay Christians become imitators of heterosexual families, without considering other ways and other means of organizing social relations. They complain that the emphasis on the heterosexual relationship and gender difference as the Christian ideal leads to a rebuttal of other forms of Christian relationships, such as celibacy, singleness or community life.32

Unlike the previous two theological approaches, queer theologians do not urge their followers to leave the Church. Moreover, several suggest that gay people can play an important role within Christianity, reminding and calling the Church to a different kind of relationship that is not based on sexuality or gender, but friendship. For queer theologians, Christianity itself is queer.

The attempt to get closer to an authentic Christian life and experience among queer theologians is evident. Feeling linked to the Church, they try to put forward a new reflection that transcends the theoretical rationality of gay liberal theology and the call to the revolutionary action of gay liberation theology. Through their awareness of being members of ecclesial communion, these theologians want to bridge the gap between gays and the Church in general.

However, it should be noted that these common positions are somewhat general and do not exhaust the whole discourse of these theologians. All need to conduct a thorough reflection to respond to other dimensions, such as the erotic, that obviously tends to manifest spontaneously in sexual intercourse. There arises the unavoidable question of gender and sex. The answer to the question of morality in homosexual acts and, more importantly, the meaning and justification that can be given to these acts in the reflections of each of these theologians, has so far been unsuccessful in integrating these reflections into full ecclesial union.

32 Cfr Ibid. 25 3.2. Different approaches by Catholic Theologians33 In this section I will try to highlight some reflections by contemporary theologians who develop the issue of sexuality and try to find solutions within the Church for people of this orientation. I will refer in detail to Javier Gafo, Giannino Piana and Marciano Vidal but certainly there are other authors whose thorough writings on homosexuality deserve attention, such as Xavier Thévenot, Michel Demaison and Xavier Lacroix.34

Javier Gafo Javier Gafo makes it clear that homosexuality and heterosexuality cannot be put on the same level. He believes that homosexuality can represent an obstacle in the process of human maturity, which prevents the person from accepting the other as a source of gratification and complementation. All this represents a major limitation of the homosexual condition. This does not mean that homosexuals are not real people and “sons of God”. They have not chosen their condition and want to live a personal project of life. He keeps open the possibility of ethical acceptance of homosexuality in the context of stable and faithful relationships, but recognizes that this is difficult. In this regard, he considers it important that Church documents include references to friendship between homosexuals.35

Gafo not only admits the possibility of a deep friendship but goes further. He forms the possibility of a real relationship based on mutual love, fidelity and loyalty between homosexuals. Therefore, he believes that there can be

33 The term “Catholic” is used for these theologians since they seek to resolve this matter within the Catholic Church. Sometimes their works have been subject to correction by the CDF, however they have not been separated from the Church. 34 Cfr Xavier Lacroix, L’amour du semblable: questions sur l’homosexualité, Paris 2001. (The author tackles the issue of homosexuality from the point of view of different human sciences ending with theology and invites for dialogue especially in the theological approach). https://books.google.com.mt/books/about/L_amour_du_semblable.html. 35 Cfr Javier Gafo, La homosexualidad. Un debate abierto, Billbao 2004, 189-202.

26 an emotional relationship between equals. According to this theologian, the theme of sexuality is a pending issue in Catholic theological reflection. He also points out the great contrast between the biblical approach to sexuality and the doctrine of the Church’s tradition. According to him, there have been factors outside the Bible and Christianity that have contributed to promoting a negative view of sexuality. He notes that in the history of the Church, positions on sexuality changed thanks to the contribution of human science. According to Gafo, there is no straightforward answer to the ethical acceptability of homosexuality.36

Gafo addresses the controversial issue of the moral evaluation of homosexual acts. In answering this question, he seeks support in Catholic moralists. Among the various positions available, he opts for the route taken by Philip Keane and Charles Curran.

Keane believes that in homosexual acts where the persons act responsibly and strong values are shared between the couple, there is an ontological evil (due to their lack of openness to procreation and the complementary relationship male-woman), but not a moral evil.37 According to Keane, while admittedly homosexual acts do not reach the fullness of possibilities of action as those between heterosexuals, gay people are no less moral or worthy in the eyes of God. Keane argues that homosexual conduct cannot be understood as “absolutely immoral”. He warns, however, that his approach applies in the case of a homosexual person who lacks freedom to be different or live chastely, and is trying to live through such relationships a responsible friendship that helps his personal growth.

Meanwhile, Curran considers that marital heterosexual sex is the ideal. But there are cases where the homosexual is not responsible for their orientation.

36 Cfr Ibid., 204-206. 37 Other authors speak of pre-moral evil. This approach is condemned by the Church. Cfr Veritatis Splendor 75.

27 In cases where one cannot live as a celibate, stable homosexual relationships which provide fulfilment and satisfaction are better than sexual promiscuity. Curran considers that homosexual acts in the context of a loving relationship that strives for permanency can in a certain sense be objectively morally acceptable.38

In his reflection, Gafo goes one step further and expresses the idea of the homosexual as a “son of God”. His reflections can be seen in some way as borderline with the teachings of the Church, especially regarding homosexual acts. That said, it must be highlighted that he tackles this issue while relying on other theologians, and does not solve the argument of a love relationship between homosexual partners or the morality of the act that is carried out.

Giannino Piana Piana’s proposal does not revolve around homosexual acts, but the homosexual condition. In this regard, Piana makes it clear from the very beginning that we should differentiate between homosexual orientation and homosexual behaviour. Behaviour is not always an indication of orientation and orientation does not always result in actual behaviour. For Piana, homosexuality, rather than a perversion or a neurotic sexuality, is a way of being. Therefore, when homosexuality appears, it should be admitted. Homosexuality has to be seen as a particular way of living relationships with others, in a natural manner and with a particular perspective on the assumption of one’s sexual dimension.39

For Piana, the criterion of moral evaluation is “interpersonality”. The homosexual presents aspects of precariousness that make communication and mutual gift difficult (although not impossible). Despite the major

38 Cfr Javier Gafo, La homosexualidad. Un debate abierto, 211-212. 39 Cfr Giannino Piana, Homosexualidad y transexualidad, in Nuevo diccionario de Teología Moral, Madrid 1992, 852-854.

28 difficulty to leave the narcissistic self-consciousness behind (which can also occur in heterosexuals), the homosexual can be realised in a real human relationship, and be able to live reciprocity in particular conditions. Piana tries to offer the gay individual suitable parameters to critically evaluate the communicative meaning of his behaviour. He seeks to lead the homosexual to understand that his own choices do not have to be ultimate and there is a possibility to modify homosexual behaviour. According to him, chastity is one of those ways. Piana recalls the value of sexuality and the possibility of mature relationships. The homosexual has to live under the sign of a friendship that favours the development of human relationships.40

With regards to homosexual behaviour, Piana warns against the temptation of creating an awareness of full adaptation to the situation and absolution, a priori, of any homosexual behaviour. Without going into specific detail, he warns that in the case of homosexual sin, more sensitive issues have to be addressed and that this sin is obviously more difficult to solve than sins in heterosexual acts. This approach requires attention and competence to assess which aspects constitutively belong to their inner state and which depend on free will. This assumes that the pastoral agent dealing with these matters has to have substantial competence to guide the homosexual individual. “Only a mature and seriously weighted approach to such states of life allows us to formulate definitely a correct moral judgment on subjects (homosexuals) who have such tendencies and provide them with concrete support to accept their condition and express from it, positive prospects of growth”.41

His proposal has quite a positive tone. He offers the homosexual person possibilities of realisation generated from their own way of being. He does not avoid the question of homosexual acts but softens their

40 Cfr Ibid., 855-856. 41 Ibid., 861.

29 importance and puts emphasis on the possibility of an interpersonal relationship.

Marciano Vidal Vidal speaks of the genuine possibility of a homosexual person’s realisation, both within society and within the plan of salvation. For Vidal, homosexual refers to someone who is so constitutively not only behaviourally, someone who experiences the peculiarity of his real condition, and aims to find suitable ways for his realisation as homosexual. Vidal’s consideration of homosexuality is an anthropological condition of a personal being with a perfectly humanizing destination.42

For this theologian, the moral evaluation of homosexuality is incorporated into the global ethical project about human sexuality. But in this area of sexuality,​​ things are definitely not black and white. Ethics, which is tasked with introducing criticism and justice in personal and social attitudes, must free the moral judgment on homosexuality from false understandings about sexuality and unjust socio-legal regulations. Therefore, Vidal considers it necessary to adopt a posture of provisional nature in current approaches regarding homosexuality, as anthropological data on it are not definitive. That provisional nature avoids closed ethical judgments, much more if we consider that a moral assessment must be made with an attitude of quest and openness.43

He stresses that Christian morality is sufficiently creative and has the salvific nature to propose integrational channels - these being personal, interpersonal, and social - to the human being who, under the gaze of God’s love, finds himself living the homosexual condition.44

42 Cfr Marciano Vidal, Moral de actitudes II, 2ª parte, Madrid, 19918, 258-260. 43 Ibid., 261 44 Ibid., 283.

30 This approach towards homosexuality, contemplated within the salvific plan of God, urges the Church to deepen her theological reflection. But in Vidal’s reflection, the Church is somehow “released” from the serious criticism habitually attributed to her. This is because Vidal’s approach allows us to state that it is not true that the Church is an enemy of the homosexual person. The Church is that example of human understanding and salvific liberation, which gives the person his true dignity and shows him the real sense of his condition.45

In the process of theological and moral reflection, the homosexual has gone from being an incapacitated person to having a relationship with and becoming closer to God; like every other human being, a son of God. As such, the homosexual is a member of the ecclesial community and is part of God’s salvific plan. The process also shows how the Church is able to give homosexuals a sense that transcends dimensions unlike the biological, social, moral and so on. It gives the dignity of a child of God and with it, the possibility of a more authentic personal fulfilment in God’s plan. Hence the integration of gay Christians in the community as the space where they can live their reality and their Christian mission becomes an imperative challenge for the Church.

4. The realisation as Christian and homosexual In his experience as a believer, the gay Christian can find the meaning of his orientation and realise himself in the vocation to which God has called him: I would like to clarify that as a homosexual I do not feel that my condition is due to a malfunction, failure or condition that must be avoided or corrected. Certainly, it was not me who has chosen to be homosexual. However, I think it was my Lord who decided to create me as I am and I firmly believe that

45 Cfr Marciano Vidal, Orientaciones Éticas para tiempos inciertos, 312-313

31 He did not commit any mistake. I think He chose to create me as I am with a purpose, a vocation. He had already designed a project for me to express myself in the world, as I am. I think the Lord uses the gay community as many other groups even more excluded, poor and humiliated, to let us know his face and express his love for the world.46

The CDF invites homosexuals to understand the nature of God’s personal call to them, and therefore to discover their specificity within the community.47 The realisation of the Christian takes place within the Church, where the life of Christ is communicated to believers.48 This is the proper sphere of realisation and recognition, regardless of the human condition. If the homosexual person is entitled to be recognized and valued in civil society, much more so in the community of the “children of God”. “We shall grow completely into Christ, who is the head by whom the whole Body is fitted and joined together, every joint adding its own strength, for each individual part to work according to its function. So the body grows until it has built itself up in love” (Ep 4, 15-16). The Church must therefore be a privileged place of integration and impetus for the realisation of the homosexual Christian in the midst of the world, and the place where he can discover his true raison d’être. It must be the place where one feels wanted and loved and, therefore, the place from where the homosexual Christian is driven to transform the world.

4.1. Pastoral ministry with homosexual persons After decades feeling distant from the Church, more and more gays and lesbians change their relationship with her (Church) and claim their membership in the Body of Christ. They are also God’s people. Like the presentation of the Catholic Ministry with Gay and Lesbian Persons of the

46 A. Ellices, Sobre orientación sexual y espiritualidad, (on-line) : http://www.crismhom. com/?q=node/326. 47 Letter to the Bishops of the Catholic Church on the pastoral care of homosexual persons, 12. 48 Cfr Dogmatic Constitution Lumen Gentium (21 November 1946), 7.

32 Diocese of Memphis states: all the baptized, in the diversity of their sexual orientation, are called to full participation in the life, worship and mission of the church.49 We can divide the proposals and areas of integration into two blocks: Pastoral Initiatives and Gay Christian Groups.

Pastoral Initiatives In the United States there are numerous dioceses that have a delegation or at least a pastoral service to gays and lesbians.50 Unfortunately, Catholic Europe lacks pastoral channels for homosexuals. The effort of various bishops and communities to reconcile the rules of the Catholic Church with the daily reality of people with this orientation is worthy of admiration. Regardless of the sexuality dilemma, communities and parishes are still creating links of intercommunication between believers, as well as a number of initiatives with very positive results.

We can divide these pastoral initiatives in three groups:

1. Diocesan Ministries: In addition to the documents on homosexuality published by the American Episcopal Conference and various bishops, several dioceses also have services and delegations engaged in pastoral work among homosexuals.51 These services involve not only individual attention to the people, but also a complete pastoral approach that ranges from avenues and celebrations of gay character to pastoral letters on the topic. The Diocese of San Jose in California has even published Guidelines for the Catholic LGBT Ministry Council, which allow the unification of diocesan criteria and serve as a guide towards common pastoral action.52

49 Catholic Diocese of Memphis (on-line) : http://www.cdom.org/CatholicDiocese. php?op=CMGLP. 50 Some of the dioceses are Baltimore, Cleveland, Los Angeles, Memphis and Chicago. 51 Cfr United States Conference of Catholic Bishops, Homosexuality (on-line) : http:// www.usccb.org/issues-and-action/human-life-and-dignity/homosexuality/index.cfm. 52 Cfr Diocese of San Jose, California, Guidelines for the Catholic LGBT Ministry Council

33 2. Parishes: The proposals of the various diocesan ministries are specified in parish life and activity. Thus, throughout North American dioceses, there is a map with a number of parishes that offer celebrative and pastoral spaces for Christian integration and realisation. They also offer care programs in an atmosphere of acceptance and support.53

3. Associations: I would like to refer especially to the “CALGM” (Catholic Association for Lesbian and Gay Ministry). This national association is built on the claim that every baptized person is called to full participation in the life, worship and mission of the Church. CALGM is presented on its website as a resource and a network of communication and information, designed to encourage the pastoral care of homosexual persons and their families. The association declares itself inspired by the Gospel of Jesus Christ and is based on the moral and social tradition of the Church. The goals of this association are, among others to: serve as a network of communication regarding Catholic LGBT ministry; provide educational resources and conscience- formation materials; provide models of ministry and training; encourage the participation of lesbian and gay Catholics within the Church.54

Gay Christian groups In the context of the Christian life of homosexuals, lesbian and gay Christian groups are becoming increasingly important. Despite the progress noted, marginalization still prevails. These groups encounter difficulties in making themselves visible and suffer rejection from most other Christian groups and communities. This situation has led these believers to create spaces where they share and celebrate their faith normally and spontaneously. Their need

(on-line) : http://www.dsj.org /wp-content/uploads/2013/06/Catholic-LGBT-Ministry- Council-Guidelines.pdf.pdf. 53 Cfr New ways Ministry (on-line) : http://www.newwaysministry.org/gfp.html ; All- inclusive Ministry (on-line) : http://www.allinclusiveministries.org/. 54 Cfr Catholic Association for Lesbian and Gay Ministry (on-line) : http://www. calgm.org/.

34 to live the Christian belief has led to the creation of these living spaces where they can share prayer, communicate their experiences, hear the Word applied to their reality, and indeed, receive pastoral care in the case of those seeking accompaniment.

In the presentation by the Christian homosexual group CRISMHOM, we read:

We want to be a link between two realities, homosexuality and Christianity. We believe we are a necessity for both realities, as an example of integration and identity living testimony between faith and sexual identity.

To the Christian people who come to these pages we will try to provide a testimony of faith in the midst of a social and ecclesial reality not always sympathetic to our experience.

To the people of the LGBT+ community, we offer an integrated vision of the Christian message with this LGBT reality. We hope to be a useful tool that will help iron out misunderstandings or suspicions before the evangelical message of liberation and our experience.55

Gay Christian groups have very different origins, although they usually form part of a section within the gay and lesbian movement. Others come from reflection groups, groups of prayer with a gay background, and Christians sensible to this type of pastoral area such as the Drachma group. This diversity of origin means the mood and dynamics of each group are also very different.56 Today, these groups are one of the most important means for a believer’s reflection through meetings, retreats, lectures, blogs and forums on their websites.

55 Cristianas y Cristianos de Madrid LGBT+ (on-line) : http://www.crismhom. com/?q=node/184. 56 Cfr Drachma (on-line) : http://drachmalgbt.blogspot.com.mt/p/about-us_22.html.

35 4.2. The interpersonal relationship Everyone is called to be realised in and through love. The ability to love constitutes the primary value. In fact, to love God and thy neighbour is the first and greatest commandment (Jn 15, 12).

Friendship and living as a couple “Love is the fundamental and innate vocation of every human being”.57 The capacity to love develops in a particular way throughout the relationship of a couple. This comprises several aspects: free choice; sharing of the gift of self in love; the union of all personal body dimensions, affection and spirit; fidelity and stability; the biological and social fertility; procreation and education of children.58

TheCatechism of the Catholic Church invites friendship between homosexuals. “Whether it develops between persons of the same or opposite sex, friendship represents a great good for all. It leads to spiritual communion.”59 The issue is whether there is the possibility of a relationship as a homosexual couple which includes the facets just listed. On the difficulties of living otherness and a stable and faithful relationship, Piana states that despite the difficulties they carry, and the precariousness of certain aspects of homosexual orientation, communication and mutual gift are possible. These can be lived through a range of intermediate states between friendship and a love experience.60

Père de Raynal, in addressing the difficult subject of realisation in procreation sustains that in love, whatever kind it may be, these two aspects must be considered: First, look at one another, discovering oneself, fall in love, listen ... Second, look outwards and both look in the same direction in a common

57 Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2392. 58 Cfr Ibid., 2360-2372. 59 Ibid., 2347. 60 Cfr G. Piana, Homosexualidad y transexualidad, 856-857.

36 project. ‘Project’ does not necessarily imply offspring. If the direction of the couple only consisted of procreation, there would be no true marriage in the case of couples who cannot have children. Fertility is not only a biological matter; it can also be realised through a different order of things.61

The friendship between two people is founded, amongst others, in an ideal. It is not just company and caring for each other – this is not enough. Love should transcend itself. In the case of Christians, friendship leads us to Christ who drives us to grow in love, in mutual love, in love just as He has taught us. This ideal friendship continues, however, to assume human reality, our history, our own personal lives, our difficulties and joys. We can therefore conclude that friendship and love in a stable gay couple, lived well as indicated by the Catechism of the Catholic Church, may lead to the realisation of each of its members as individuals and as Christians.

Homosexual acts Here comes the stumbling block for the majority of those trying to give meaning to the homosexual orientation. Many authors make this the core of the Christian debate. Usually, the issue of homosexual relationships is analysed as a problem in itself. However, we must not fall into the trap of continuously seeking an answer to the question: are homosexual acts allowed or not? Homosexual relationships should be analysed in the overall context of sexuality. When addressing the issue from the perspective of the Catholic Church’s doctrine, it is important not to lose sight of the whole context in which the Church considers and articulates her teaching about all sexuality. Otherwise, we would be running the risk of making a purely anthropological or sociological assessment.

61 Cfr Pere de Raynal, Love and do what you want, Solesmes 2004 (on-line) : http://www. devenirunenchrist.net/articles/articlesasso/aimeetfaiscequetuveux.htm.

37 According to the official doctrine of the Church, “…the use of the sexual function has its true meaning and moral rectitude only in true marriage.”62 Thus, the scope of the exercise of sexuality has to do with the sacramental marriage and for procreative purpose. Any act performed outside of these parameters is disordered.63 If sexual intercourse is truly to respond to the requirements of its own finality and to those of human dignity, love must find its safeguard in the stability of marriage.64 “Homosexual acts” as seen previously are defined as “intrinsically disordered and contrary to the natural law. They close the sexual act to the gift of life, and do not proceed from a genuine affective and sexual complementarity”.65

However, in today’s Christian reflection we “hear voices” which do not understand the relationship with the other, focusing on the sexual differences rather than the person. They consider that relationships can be fertile on other levels such as human, social and spiritual, not only biologically. To that end, I mention some considerations by Michel Salamolard that, although difficult to sustain, represent a search for an answer to this difficult question.

First, Salamolard notes, the Catechism of the Catholic Church does not define homosexual acts as “sin” but as “disordered acts”. He says that this is because they are acts that do not allow the normal ideal of human sexuality, as just considered. But, he claims, those same acts, performed in a context of genuine love, do not prevent one’s orientation towards the biblical ideal. So, according to him, for homosexual acts are qualified as sin, if they fail that personal and relational context of realisation.66

62 Persona Humana. Declaration on certain question concerning sexual ethics, 5. 63 Cfr A. Autiero, Sexualidad, in Nuevo diccionario de Teología Moral, 1687-1688. 64 Persona Humana. Declaration on certain question concerning sexual ethics, 7. 65 Catechism of the Catholic Church, 2357. 66 Cfr Michel Salamolard, Can one be both Catholic and homosexual? A Catholic perspective on homosexuality, Sion 2001, (on-line) : http://www.devenirunenchrist.net/ articles/textesinteressants/etrecathohomo.htm.

38 Secondly, it tries to make way for a progressive moral and dynamic perspective. Point 2359 of the Catechism of the Catholic Church, speaks of a gradual and determined approach to Christian perfection; also Familiaris Consortio refers to conversion as a continuous and permanent reality: “Thus a dynamic process develops, one which advances gradually with the progressive integration of the gifts of God and the demands of His definitive and absolute love in the entire personal and social life of man.”67

To Salamolard, ethics guided by the principle of graduality and growth would not mean neglecting the radical Christian message, but a path to the evangelical ideal that begins from humility and the real capabilities of each person.68

These well-intentioned proposals are difficult to maintain and do not fit into the current teaching of the Church. However, they constitute proof that there is an increasing need to deepen reflection in this field. It is clear that the matter of interpersonal relationships between cohabiting homosexuals presents a big challenge for the Church, which is always guided by the Holy Spirit who “speaks” consistently. In any case, it is essential that we do not lose sight of the fundamental experience of the believer: the condition of being God’s beloved child, also in the case of homosexuals.

Conclusion As Basil Hume says: “The human person, made in the image and likeness of God, can hardly be adequately described by a reductional reference to his or

67 Pope John Paul II, Post-Synodal Apostolic Exhortation Familiaris Consortio (22 November 1981) 7 : (on-line) : http://w2.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/apost_ exhortations/documents/hf_jp-ii_exh_19811122_familiaris-consortio.html. 68 Cfr Michel Salamolard, Can one be both Catholic and homosexual? A Catholic perspective on homosexuality.

39 her sexual orientation.”69 So every person has an intrinsic dignity because he has been created in the image of God. Far from being an “enemy” of homosexuals, the Church is called to be that enclosure that guarantees their dignity and fulfilment as persons and “sons of God”.

Based on this work, I can conclude that, despite being considered the “black beast” of homosexuality, Christianity is by far the religion that is reflecting the most and the one which is trying to progress in the field of understanding and integrating homosexuality in God’s salvific plan. The hope is that some of the perspectives of the theologians outlined here can bring some light to people – homosexuals or not, believers and non-believers – interested in this issue. This also serves as evidence that the resounding affirmation that the Church is hostile to homosexuals does not fit. On the contrary, the Catholic Church can positively help guide homosexuals on their way to self-discovery and accomplishment.

That said, the issue of homosexuality will remain a complicated matter both inside and outside the Church, but I would like to close this work with the words of the theologian Javier Gafo that caught my attention:

I lack competence and, of course, authority to give a clear answer to this difficult subject. But I do not lack the love for the ecclesial community nor faith in the assistance of the Spirit, to wish that a frank, loyal and understandable debate is opened towards a problem that affects the core of many human beings of flesh and bone created by the good God of love and life.70

69 Basil Hume, A note on the teaching of the Catholic Church concerning homosexuality (April 1997) 4: (on-line): http://www.dioceseofcleveland.org/gayandlesbianfamilyministry/ Hume1997.pdf. 70 Javier Gafo, La homosexualidad. Un debate abierto, 222.

40 Samuel Grech *

MARIOPHANIES IN THE LIFE OF THE CHURCH

Introduction It is a well-known fact that during the course of history there were occasions where our Lady, Mother of God and ours, presented herself in the human sphere through revelations of various kinds. The precise term used to refer to the revelations of Mary is mariophany (phaïnô – “manifest”, preceded by the name of Mary). The aim of this article is to understand the reality of private revelations, which in many cases are mariophanies, and explain what is their purpose in our human and spiritual reality.

Forms of Marian revelations To begin with, the term “apparition” is the most used term to describe the revelations of Our Lady. This term refers to those interventions of Our Lady where she appears and enters in contact with the person or persons she appears to. During apparitions, the distinctive element is represented by

* Rev. Samuel Grech is a priest of the Diocese of Gozo since 2011. After finishing his philosophical and theological studies at the Sacred Heart Seminary in Victoria, he went to Rome to pursue his theological studies, with specialisation in Mariology, at the Pontifical Faculty of Theology, “Marianum”. Under the guidance of P. Salvatore Perrella OSM, he obtained the Licentiate in 2014 and the Doctorate in 2019, defending his thesis entitled The National Shrine of Our Lady of Ta’ Pinu in the island of Gozo (Malta). History, Theology and Devotions.

Emmaus 20 (2019 - 2020) • 41 the sensible revelation of a person or being, whose presence, in the precise circumstances in which it is produced, cannot be explained according to the ordinary course of nature. Furthermore, an apparition could happen with ecstasy (e.g. Saint Bernadette Subirous – Lourdes) or without it (e.g. The young shepherds – La Salette and Juan Diego – Guadalupe).1

Another term used to describe these phenomena is the term “vision”, referring to the supernatural perception of an object which is naturally invisible to a human being. A vision does not imply necessarily the real experience, that is, the actual presence of the object. On the contrary, this is necessary in an apparition because it pertains to its notion the fact that the object manifests itself to the external senses. The person who is favoured by an apparition, generally conserves the normal perception of the space in which he or she is found, without experiencing the sensation of a spatial change or a lack of consciousness, even if sometimes, as noted above, an apparition can happen during an ecstasy or a dream. Furthermore, an apparition has more of a public character, because it involves not only the person who receives it, but also the community in which the revelation takes place, where a particular message is communicated by the person or being who appears. For example, in Lourdes, Fatima, La Salette, Guadalupe etc., the Marian apparitions encourage a renewal of faith in God and a perfect communion with the Church. On the other hand, a vision is more of a “private” experience because to a certain extent it involves only the person who receives it (e.g. Bl. Anna Katharina Emmerick). Finally, while a vision has a symbolic character, an apparition is an interpersonal encounter.

It may happen that these distinctions are not found in all the authors who write on this matter. In fact, the classical authors usually refer to all these

1 Ecstasy is a profound experience of communion with God. Cfr Aa. Vv., L’estasi, LEV, Vatican City 2003.

42 revelations as visions and group them in three types: 1. External or corporal visions (apparitions); 2. Iconic or imaginary visions: perceived not through the external senses but by the internal senses of the imagination; 3. Intellectual visions: supernatural flashes that are received through the intelligence of the receiver and not through internal or external senses. They can occur with or without ecstasy but rarely during the sleep. As an example, one can refer to Saint Teresa of Avila.2

Apart from apparitions and visions, another type of revelation that can happen is described by the term “locution”. It is the articulated language perceived through hearing. They can be organized in three types: 1. Auricular locution: perceived through external hearing, where the words seem to come for example from a holy image, like in the case of the Locutions of Our Lady of Ta’ Pinu; 2. Imaginary locutions: perceived through imagination, both during wake and sleep; 3. Intellectual locutions: perceived in the intellect, without the role of external and internal senses.

Finally, it may happen that Our Lady manifests her presence through other mariophanic signs that are different from those presented above, for example, the lacrimation of blood or normal tears (e.g. Our Lady of Siracusa), the smell of fragrance etc.

Nature and Purpose Having described the various forms through which the Mother of God manifests herself in the human sphere, we now proceed by asking: Why does God use these kinds of revelations to send us his message? Aren’t the Bible and the teaching of the Church enough to sustain us in our spiritual journey?

2 Cfr François-Marie Dermine, Mistici, veggenti e medium, Esperienze dell’aldilà a confronto, LEV, Vatican City 2003, 307-308.

43 Let’s make it clear. We’re talking about a subject which is not easy to discern. In a good number of occasions, the Church finds herself in difficulty regarding accounts of presumed revelations that are transmitted according to the subjective experience of the concerned person/s. On their part, the faithful find it difficult to understand the authenticity or not of these phenomena which sometimes, unfortunately, are transmitted without the necessary prudence and discernment. Presumed Marian revelations have always been present in the history of the Church, particularly in the past two centuries. In these cases, the Catholic Church has always assumed an attitude of prudent reflection. While it approved some of them, much more have been declared false.

It has to be noted that these revelations are called private revelations for the fact that they do not pertain to the public revelation, realized by the incarnation of the Son of God and concluded with the demise of the last remaining apostle. To this public revelation, a catholic is obliged to adhere with his faith, because in revealing himself through his Son Jesus Christ, God said all that he had to say. Therefore he has nothing else to add regarding our salvation in heaven. On the other hand, it is also true that salvation history continues after the conclusion of the public revelation. Therefore God can still intervene in human history through private revelations, usually having as messenger the Mother of Jesus, “servant of the Lord” (Lc 1, 38). But these revelations do not announce new doctrines. Their purpose is to help us go back to the message announced to us by the public revelation, in easier terms, go back to the heart of the Gospel!3

The answer of the faithful How should the faithful react in front of similar events? There are two extreme positions that are commonly taken which are both unwise. On one hand the

3 Cfr Catechism of the Catholic Church, 67.

44 total negation of the possibility of these revelations, while on the other hand, an immediate adherence to them. It has to be noted that when the Church approves a private revelation, after a thorough discernment, it does not oblige the faithful to believe in them, as it does in the case of the public revelation. On the other hand, as we pointed above, authentic private revelations have the noble task to enlighten our way of living in the light of the Word of God. In this regard they should be considered as charisms, that is, gifts from God and therefore acclaimed with gratitude and thanks.4 Instead, when the Church judges as false a presumed revelation, it would not be wise not to follow the judgment of the Church, especially when the presumed revelations present contradictions with the genuine faith of the Church.5

Criteria for judgment When dealing with presumed revelations, the Bible already offers us an important advice. Saint Paul states: “Do not quench the Spirit. Do not despise prophetic utterances. Test everything; retain what is good.” (1 Ts 5, 19-21). On a similar note, Saint John the Evangelist: “Beloved, do not trust every spirit but test the spirits to see whether they belong to God, because many false prophets have gone out into the world” (1 Jn 4, 1).

On the 25th February 1978, the Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith issued a document entitled “Norms regarding the manner of proceeding in the discernment of presumed apparitions or revelations”. At first it was published in latin and intented only for the private use of the ecclesiastical authority. But in 2012, the text has been made public and translated in other languages. This important document proposes seven criteria that can help in the discernment of presumed revelations. Two of them are listed as “Positive Criteria”, while the others as “Negative Criteria”:

4 Cfr CCC 799-800. 5 Cfr Salvatore M. Perrella, Impronte di Dio nella storia, Apparizioni e mariofanie, Messaggero, Padova 2011, 194. 203. 45 Positive Criteria: a) Moral certitude, or at least great probability of the existence of the fact, acquired by means of a serious investigation; b) Particular circumstances relative to the existence and to the nature of the fact, that is to say: 1. Personal qualities of the subject or of the subjects (in particular, psychological equilibrium, honesty and rectitude of moral life, sincerity and habitual docility towards Ecclesiastical Authority, the capacity to return to a normal regimen of a life of faith, etc.); 2. As regards revelation: true theological and spiritual doctrine and immune from error; 3. Healthy devotion and abundant and constant spiritual fruit (for example, spirit of prayer, conversion, testimonies of charity, etc.).

Negative Criteria: a) Manifest error concerning the fact. b) Doctrinal errors attributed to God himself, or to the Blessed Virgin Mary, or to some saint in their revelations, taking into account however the possibility that the subject might have added, even unconsciously, purely human elements or some error of the natural order to an authentic supernatural revelation.6 c) Evidence of a search for profit or gain strictly connected to the fact. d) Gravely immoral acts committed by the subject or his or her followers when the fact occurred or in connection with it. e) Psychological disorder or psychopathic tendencies in the subject, that with certainty influenced on the presumed supernatural fact, or psychosis, collective hysteria or other things of this kind.

6 Cfr Saint Ignatius, Exercises, 336 46 Having exposed the criteria for judging a presumed revelation, we can now make a brief analysis of what they intend. In the first place, we note that private revelations are judged by moral certitude, which is the middle way between absolute certitude and almost certitude. In positive terms, it excludes any reasonable doubt against the authenticity of a presumed revelation, while in negative terms, it does not eliminate the absolute possibility of the lack of authenticity.7

In regard to the visionaries, i.e. person/s to whom the revelation is directed, the criteria safegaurd from any deceptions that they may try to spread. It may happen in fact that these people try to fabricate a private revelation for personal gain. But the criteria do not exclude the fact that visionaries who act in good faith may be misled beacuase of excessive devotion. Infact, sometimes, it could happen that without any malicious intention, they mix together divine elements with personal elements. The ability to return to a normal regimen of a life of faith indicates that a profound experience of supernatural origin leaves a mark on thevisionary but does not lead to denaturalisation of the self or disturb his/her life of faith. If a visionary, after a revelation, remains humble and obedient, this is a good sign, but if he or she becomes superb and disobedient to ecclesiastical authority, this sheds a negative light on the authenticity of a presumed revelation. In fact the person who receives from God a gift of grace, feels humble and unworthy and therefore does not possess the presumption of feeling privileged.8 Here it has to be said that altough it is important, the holiness of the visionary does not guarantee the authenticity of a presumed revelation, since a private revelation is not relative to the sanctification of a person but to the service of the whole Church. This means that God can choose anyone to receive these kind of experiences.9

7 Cfr Pius XII, Allocuzione, in AAS 34 (1942), 340. 8 Cfr Francesco Asti, Maria Vergine nella vita mistica del credente, LEV, Vatican City 2017, 309-310. 9 Cfr Augustinus Suh, Le rivelazioni private nella vita della Chiesa, Edizioni Studio Domenicano, Bologna 2000, 108.

47 Regarding the revelation, for it to be authentic it has to evolve with dignity and respect for the majesty of God, while pointing out the difference between the human and the divine. So if a presumed revelation transmits a poor and trivial message, or if it presents elements that are grotesque and without any utility to the life of faith, all this points to inauthenticity. This would be clear if a presumed revelation presents elements which are contrary to the life of faith as transmitted by the Catholic Church. Finally, there can be elements that are not supernatural at all, like the presence and influence of the devil, who can manifest himself in the sembiance of others, or the influence of some form of mediumship.10 Moreover, there can be the influence of mental illness that can render a presumed revelation a pure allucination. Pathologies can influence a lot in the camp of private revelations. For this reason the contribution of psychologists and doctors is very important in the process of discernment.

Regarding the fruits that occur after a presumed revelation (eg. miracles, conversions etc.), these are important factors for the cause of authenticity of a revelation. It is important though that they are explicitly connected to the revelation. It has to be made clear also that the cause of the fruits are the sacraments celebrated in faith. The revelations constitute an occasion to receive the fruits. For example, a pilgrimage to a shrine, motivated by an authentic revelation, consitutes an occasion for the faithful to receive the sacraments.11

When news of a presumed revelation arrives to the Church authorities, the criteria exposed above are a valuable tool for reaching a definite judgment. Here the principle “Bonum ex integra causa: malum ex quocumque defectu” must be recalled, that is “An action is good when good in every respect; it is wrong when wrong in any respect”.12 So in the case of private revelations, if

10 For more information on this topic, cfr François-Marie Dermine, Mistici, veggenti e medium, cit. 11 Cfr Charles J. Scicluna, Criteri e norme della Congregazione per la Dottrina della Fede nel discernimento delle apparizioni mariane, in Marianum 74 (2012), 250. 12 Cfr Pseudo Dionigi, De divinis nominibus, cap. 4, par. 30-31, in Jacques P. Migne (a

48 one of the above-mentioned criteria is lacking, it’s enough to compromise the whole story.

After the examination of the facts in the light of these criteria, and if the conclusions are in favour of authenticity, the Church can allow forms of public cult, but always with prudence. Then if the case requires it, the Church can freely give its judgment on the supernaturality of the facts. The judgment of the Church in cases of private revelations can be one of the following:

1. Affirmative:constat de supernaturalitate. Declaration of authenticity. 2. Negative: constat de non supernaturalitate. Declaration of falsehood. 3. Attendist: non constat de supernaturalitate. The Church states that the presumed revelation remains confined to normal, ordinary and human phenomenon, although evolution towards supernaturality can occur.13

The competent authorities to judge According to the regulations of the Councils of Lateran V (1512-1517) and Trent (1545-1563), the authorities who had the competence to discern the authenticity or not of private revelations were the diocesan bishop, the metropolitan archbishop (today, the Episcopal Conference) and the bishop of Rome or the Apostolic See through one of its institutions (today, the Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith).

The Norms of 1978 assert that the competence to judge rests primarily on the Ordinary of the diocese were the private revelation presumably happened (normally the diocesan bishop). On his part he has to set up a commission

cura di), Patrologiae cursus completus. Series graeca, Migne, Paris 1857-1866, vol. 3, coll. 730-731. 13 The Norms of 1978 consider only the first two judgments. The third one was utilised by the Episcopal Conference of Ex-Jugoslavia in the 1991 “Declaration of Zara” regarding the presumed revelations of Medjugorje.

49 of experts to help him in the discernment. If after his investigation, the Ordinary requires more certitude, he can ask the intervention of the Episcopal Conference, which on her part, after consulting the Ordinary, can intervene if the phenomenon spreads in other territories outside of the diocese of the Ordinary. Even in this case, the final judgment is the responsibility of the Ordinary. The Apostolic See, through the Congregation for the Doctrine of Faith, can intervene if required by the Ordinary, or even directly because of its participation in the universal jurisdiction of the Roman Pontiff.14

Finally, in the ecclesiastical process to judge the authenticity of a presumed revelation, the competent authorities must give importance to the sensus fidelium, i.e., the voice and the faith of the people of God. In the light of Vatican II, it is necessary to revalue the responsibility of the faithful, making them participate in the process of discernment of private revelations and help them understand the motives that lead to the final decision.15

Some examples of mariophanies i. Guadalupe (Mexico): In 1531, after the discovery of the Americas and in the light of tensions between the conquerors and the local indios population, native S. Juan Diego († 1548), shortly after he was baptised, while passing by a nearby hill, heard the beautiful melody of some birds that sounded like celestial music. Astonished by this lovely “choir” he then heard a voice calling him: “Juanito, Juan Dieguito”. Then he saw a beautiful lady who began to dialogue with him. Juan Diego referred this event to the local bishop who was unwilling to believe. As a sign of authenticity, Juan Diego collected some beautiful roses which grew by Our Lady’s intervention, despite the fact that it was not their season. Juan Diego put them in his cloak (tilma) to take

14 Cfr Norms, 22-23. 15 Stefano De Fiores, Apparizioni, in René Laurentin-Patrick Sbalchiero (Edd.), Dizionario delle «apparizioni», Edizioni Art, Rome 2017, 544-547.

50 them to the bishop. When Juan Diego opened his tilma in front of the bishop, there miraculously appeared the image of Our Lady on the tilma which is still venerated in the shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe. The events of Our Lady of Guadalupe have contributed to the “baptism” of the Americas and have left a major impact on the spiritual and social life of the people of Latin America. ii. Lourdes (France): this small town in southern France has been blessed by the apparitions of Our Lady to S. Bernadette Soubirous († 1879) which occurred from 11th February to 16th July 1858, in which period the Virgin Mary appeared 18 times. In these apparitions Our Lady presents herself as the Immaculate Conception, four years after the solemn dogmatic definition of the Immaculate Conception by Pope Pius IX in 1854. The message of these Marian apparitions highlights four evangelical themes: penance, conversion, prayer and the beatitude of poverty.16 iii. Ta’ Pinu (Gozo-Malta): in June 1883, a local maiden named Karmni Grima († 1922) was returning home while passing near the chapel dedicated to the Assumption of Our Lady, where an image representing this glorious event in Mary’s life is venerated. All of a sudden, Karmni heard a voice coming from the chapel, asking her to go there. Once inside the chapel, she again heard the voice, apparently coming from the image of Our Lady, asking her to recite three Hail Mary in honour of the three days her body spent in the tomb before her assumption. This apocryphal detail relates to the mystery of Our Lady’s assumption in heaven, highlighting the spiritual identity of the Christian who is called for eternal life in heaven. To another man named Franġisk Portelli († 1926), whom Karmni knew very well, Our Lady also told him from the chapel to kindle a devotion to the wound Jesus had on his shoulder as he carried the cross to Calvary. The events of Ta’ Pinu left an important mark on the people of Gozo and Malta who treasure Our Lady of Ta’ Pinu as part of their identity.

16 Cfr René Laurentin, Lourdes, in Stefano De Fiores-Salvatore Meo (Edd.), Nuovo Dizionario di Mariologia, Paoline, Cinisello Balsamo 1986, 800-801.

51 iv. Fatima (Portugal): The apparitions of Our Lady at Fatima occurred from 13th May to 13th October 1917, in the context of political tension and hostility towards the Church, and in the framework of the First World War. Here our Lady appeared to three young shepherds: S. Francisco Marto († 1919), S. Giacinta Marto († 1920) and Lucia dos Santos († 2005). During the timeframe of the apparitions Our Lady is said to have appeared six times. The third apparition, which occured on 13th July, was the one that had most repercussions, even in the political spectrum, because it tackled the issue of comunism. At Fatima Our Lady offers as a remedy for the salvation of sinners the devotion to her Immaculate heart. She also highlights the necessity of prayer, penance and conversion.17 v. Akita (Japan): on 6th July 1973, Japanese Sister Agnes Katsuko Sasagawa of the Servants of the Holy Eucharist heard a voice coming out of a statue of the Virgin Mary, asking her to pray for the Pope, bishops and priests. She also asked her to pray in reparation for the evil present in the world. The same statue from which Sister Agnes heard the voice was found weeping on various occasions from 1975 to 1981. vi. Kibeho (Rwanda): From 28th November 1981, to the same date in 1989, few years before the Rwandan genocide of 1994, Our Lady appeared to three students: Nathalie Mukamazimpaka, Marie Claire Mukangango and Alphonsine Mumureke, asking them to help humanity in re-discovering the Gospel which it has forgotten. Furthermore, Our Lady foretold what would happen in 1994, while asking for prayers to overcome evil. In the end the people did not give heed to the appeals of Our Lady but the events of Kibeho have certainly helped the Rwandan people re-discover the mystery of resurrection after the horrible genocide and the genuine faith of many Rwandans today knows its growth thanks to Our Lady of Kibeho.

17 Cfr Salvatore M. Perrella, Le mariofanie di Fatima cent’anni dopo (1917-2017). Alcune considerazioni teologiche, in Ephemerides Mariologicae 67 (2017), 99-137.

52 Conclusion The purpose of this article was to help the reader to locate the private revelations in their proper place in the life of the Church. Private revelations remain helpful for the faithful, in that they are charisms (gifts) through which God reminds us that he is always present in our lives and that he loves us, encouraging us to engage all our efforts for the construction of his Kingdom.

In this sense, it’s very significant that most private revelations are mariophanies, where Mary enters in contact with the human sphere, in her present condition of Assumption and glorification. We don’t have to wonder why, because the Virgin Mary is mother and disciple. Through the mariophanies, the Holy Spirit offers us a sign of her maternal presence in the heart of the Church.18 At the same time, the Spirit helps us to acclaim Mary as the prototype of the Church, the Church in its purest form, the Church as it should be.19

If Mary of Nazareth is the prototype of the Church, it’s because she’s the perfect justified and redeemed by the Grace and in the Grace, in virtue of her association and cooperation in the mysteries of salvation, and with her being a primary member of the Church and in as much as she is the “Mother of the Church”, celebrated and venerated by the people of God. This is a reality which the Church experiences in its liturgy, as stated by the conciliar liturgical constitution Sacrosanctum Concilium:

In celebrating this annual cycle of Christ’s mysteries, holy Church honours with special love the Blessed Mary, Mother of God, who is joined by an inseparable bond to the saving work of her Son. In her the Church holds up and admires the most excellent fruit of the redemption, and joyfully contemplates, as in a faultless image, that which she herself desires and hopes wholly to be.20

18 Salvatore M. Perrella, Impronte di Dio nella storia, cit., 303-312. 354-368; Salvatore M. Perrella-Gian Matteo Roggio, Apparizioni e Mariofanie. Teologia Storia Verifica ecclesiale, San Paolo, Cinisello Balsamo 2012, 95-109. 19 Hans U. Von Balthasar, Aprite i cuori all’Immacolata, ecco appare la Madre di Dio, in Il Sabato, 3-9 December 1983, 19. 20 Vatican Council II, Sacrosanctum Concilium, 103. 53 54 Mario Xerri *

SOCIAL MEDIA AND YOUTH LEADERS WITHIN THE CATHOLIC CHURCH

1. Introduction In this study, I will be looking at what the literature says about the implications of electronic revolution with particular emphasis on social media, the view of the Catholic Church view on the subject and the implications of all this on youth ministry.

After giving an outline of the history and implications of the electronic revolution on society in general, I will explore its impact on youth by referring to international as well as local studies on media consumption. I will examine what literature has to say with regards to cultural shifts, new ways of thinking and behaving, new ways of establishing online/offline relationships brought out by the Googling culture. Media effects theories as well as recent trends in integrating social media within educational institutions will be examined.

* Mario Xerri was born in Xewkija Gozo in 1975. He pursued his studies at the University of Malta where he obtained a Bachelor Degree in Business and Computing and later in Management. After obtaining his PGCE in 2001, he started his teaching career. In 2016 he obtained a Master’s degree in Youth Ministry. Presently he works as a Head of Department with the Directorate of Digital Literacy & Transversal Skills and teaches ICT in Gozo College Middle School. He is a member of the Society of Christian Doctrine (MUSEUM) where presently he is giving his services in Għajnsielem/Qala branches.

Emmaus 20 (2019 - 2020) • 55 Afterwards, I will be looking at the position of the magisterium on social media, its present use and the challenges encountered particularly in youth ministry.

2. From the printing to the electronic revolution Nature and nurture, destiny and design shape the way we approach God and the way we live our faith. This revolution is also continuously shaping us and the culture we live in. In fact, the theory of neuroplasticity argues that the structure of the human brain is somehow shaped by our experiences, technologies and culture.1 Over the last centuries, two communication revolutions have brought with them considerable change in the way we communicate.

Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press in the fifteenth century unknowingly set off a path that characterised centuries to come. The Reformation launched by the Augustinian monk Martin Luther owes more than little of its success to the printing press. Gutenberg’s ability to print books on a mass scale impacted the world including the Christian world on a much wider scale. It characterised a strong emphasis on individualism, objectivity, abstraction and reason in contrast to the medieval worldview characterised by an emphasis on tribal, mystical, and sacramental experiences.2

More recently, we have experienced the graphic and electronic revolutions. These were the primary agents in bringing about postmodernity, demolishing our concentration on abstract doctrine and changing our beliefs about truth. Shane Hipps states that electronic culture borrows from both the oral and print

1 Leonard Sweet, VIRAL How Social Networking Is Poised to Ignite Revival (New York: WaterBrook Press, 2012), 2. 2 Shane Hipps, The Hidden Power of Electronic Culture: How Media Shapes Faith, the Gospel and Church (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2006), 51.

56 eras. It creates a paradoxical hybrid out of the oral era which was primarily tribal or communal in nature and of the print era which was individualistic. The result is a tribe of individuals.3 In this culture that Delicata coined tribal-I, everybody is part of this tribe, and all seem equal, and yet all try to create their individual differences to stand out.4 The Google culture as it is sometimes called, has rewritten the rules of forming networks, connections and relationships. In the hands of Googlers, technology has been bent to the purposes of core human longings: knowing, being known, belonging and perception.

These revolutions brought in with them drastic cultural changes. They influenced the way society as a whole thinks and behaves. Shane Hipps agrees with Marshall McLuhan that “the medium is the message” and that “we shape our tools and afterward our tools shape us.”5 The meaning of a message is unavoidably shaped, altered, biased and “massaged” by the delivery system – the medium.6

Whenever methods of communication or media change, the message automatically changes along with them. Thus, it is of utmost importance to realize that our forms of media and technology are primary forces that cause changes in our philosophy, theology, culture and ultimately the way we do church.

3 Hipps, 105. 4 Nadia Delicata, “On Becoming a Christian: Towards a Renewal of Contemporary Christian Formation,” (Unpublished PhD Diss., University of St. Michael’s College Toronto, 2011). 5 Marshall Mc Luhan, Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1994), xxi. 6 Marshall Mc Luhan and Qentin Fiore, The Medium Is the Massage: An Inventory of Effects, 9th ed. (Califonia: Gingko Press Inc., 2001), 26.

57 3. The e-Revolution In a couple of years, the transformation of Internet from a purely military network to a commercial one revolutionised the planet. Furthermore, as bandwidth improved and more and more got connected to this international network, there was a drastic shift from one-way communication to an interactive and networked form of communication. This realised its peak during the explosion of social networking sites. This section will focus on this evolution, the potential and characteristics of social media as well as how media theories perceive social media.

3.1 Social Media Boom By mid-2014, over 3 billion people were connected worldwide.7 The Internet, now accessible from pocket-sized devices and integrated within our daily lives, can no longer be considered separate from the real world. Over a couple of years, the WWW evolved from simple broadcast characterised with static, read-only content to a more interactive and engaging type with user- generated content. Such development that includes social networking tools is commonly referred to as Web 2.0. More recently, the term Web 3.0 has emerged but still there is still no clear-cut definition of what it entails. Quite often, the term Web 3.0 refers to the portable personalized content and search functions provided by mobile websites and smartphone applications.

The growth of social media and other Web 2.0 technologies is unprecedented.8 Social media is a catalyst for popular uprisings, political movements, the unseating of tyrants, mass demonstrations calling for civil liberties and

7 Michael Kende, “Internet Society Global Inernet Report 2014,” 9 June 2014, (accessed 1 May 2015). 8 Amanda Lenhart, “Teen, Social Media and Technology Overview 2015,” Pew Research Center, April 2015, (accessed 30 April 2015).

58 democracy.9 Social media was fundamental in recent political revolutions taking place around the world such as the “Jasmine Revolution” and the Arab Spring of 2011. Likewise, it was also an essential part in helping relief efforts in the midst of natural disasters such as the earthquake and tsunami that hit Japan in 2011. Often, social media gets all hands on deck long before governments, large relief organisations and the news media know what’s going on. The social media impact on the way we communicate, interact, entertain, define relationships and overall the educational system is not to be ignored.

The power of social media is also well perceived by dictators. Their response to keep control changed in light of social media. Many modern dictators have begun to censor Internet in hopes of reducing the effectiveness of social media. North Korea, Burma, Cuba, Saudi Arabia, Iran, China, Syria and other countries have at one point or another censored Internet access.10

Such social media growth and impact is reflected in academia. Over nearly a decade, there has been a remarkable increase in papers, books, and job titles all related to social media. It was the publication of Donath Boyd’s paper on social networking sites that marked the birth of and provided the initial impetus for this novel research and practitioner domain. Since then, the term social media has become rapidly incorporated into the new lexicon of academia, industry and government institutions.11

9 Leonard Sweet, “The Tweeting Disciple,” June 2013, , (accessed 30 April 2015). 10 USA Today, “News,” 5 February 2014, (accessed 30 April 2015). 11 Wietske van Osch and Constantinos K. Coursaris, “Social Media Research: An Assessment of the Domain’s Productivity and Intellectual Evolution,” Communication Monographs 81, no.3 (2014): 286.

59 3.2 Media Effects Theories Considering such a drastic impact over a relatively short time, it is worth looking at what some of the most important media effects theories have to say particularly on how social media is affecting audience behaviour. The following should not be taken as an exhaustive theory framework, however it should shed important light that would help youth leaders understand the impact social media can have on youth and how the leaders can use such an impact to positively influence youth.

3.2.1 Magic Bullet Theory The first dominant historical narrative of communication effects research points to the ‘magic bullet’ theory or alternatively the hypodermic needle effects theory. According to this simple paradigm that emerged in the 1930 (way ahead of the emergence of social media), if the message reached its target, it would have typically persuasive effects, which would be immediate and evident. The notion was frequently attributed to Harold Lasswell. However, this theory soon proved inadequate and the Two-Step Flow Theory took over.12

3.2.2 Two-Step Flow Theory In the 1940’s, American sociologist Paul F. Lazarsfeld along with Elihu Katz, published the book ‘Personal Influence’, where they showed that people are more likely to be influenced by other people than the mass media. Lazarsfeld called these people ‘opinion leaders’. This theory, which became known as the Two-Step Flow Theory, suggests that opinion leaders pay close attention to the mass media and pass on their interpretation of media messages to others. Unlike the Hypodermic Needle Theory, the Two-Step Flow Theory maintains that audiences are active participants in the communication process. This

12 Lessonbucket, “The Two Step Flow Theory,” (accessed 20 April 2015).

60 theory still has credibility today. Indeed, in a paper presented at the 20th Annual World Wide Web Conference in 2011, researchers looking at the flow of information on the social networking site Twitter, revealed that they had found significant evidence to support the Two-Step Flow Theory.13 After analysing the flow of information, the researchers discovered that news finds its way to people through a number of prominent and influential opinion leaders. Lazarsfeld defined opinion leaders as being respected individuals in the community, who weren’t part of the media but were the type of people that others interacted with every day. It is to be remarked, however, that in the age of social networking, prominent opinion leaders often talk with us directly.

3.2.3 Uses and Gratification (U&G) Theory The U&G Theory which originated from the functionalist perspective on mass media communication, studies the gratifications or benefits that attract and hold audiences to various types of media and the types of content that satisfy their social and psychological needs. The theory has been applied to a variety of mass media and media contents. Recent studies have applied the U&G Theory to provide an explanation on what makes the new form of media so enticing, what motivated users to join social networks and the gratifications received from ongoing use.14

Scholars make a distinction between gratifications obtained and gratifications sought. Gratifications obtained refer to those gratifications that the audience actually experience through the use of a particular medium. By contrast,

13 Cristian Danescu-Niculescu-Mizil, Michael Gamon and Susan Dumais, “Mark my words!: linguistic style accommodation in social media,” < http://msr-waypoint.com/en-us/um/ people/sdumais/fr862-danescu-niculescu-mizil.pdf > (accessed 28 November 2014). 14 Augustin Gallion J., Applying the Uses and Gratifications Theory to Social Networking Sites: A Review of Related Literature. 2010. (accessed 29 May 2013).

61 gratifications sought refer to those gratifications that audience members expect to obtain from a medium before they have actually come into contact with it. Research shows that gratifications obtained are a better predictor of media use than gratifications sought and that if a medium meets or exceeds the gratifications sought by a user, recurrent use will occur.15

The most remarkable factors of the U&G Theory in relation to social networking were found by Ancu & Cozma,16 LaRose & Eastin17 and Park, Kee, and Valenzuela.18 They found the four major uses and gratification factors of social networking services (SNS) users to be: socializing, entertainment, self-status seeking and information.19 Additional gratifications obtained from Facebook usage besides sociability and social information include: killing time, affection, fashion and problem-sharing.20

3.3 Defining Social Media Having briefly outlined the overall impact of social media on society in general and some of the theories related to how it influences people, in the following section I will take a closer look at the properties characterizing it.

15 Philip Palmgreen and J.D Rayburn, “Uses and gratifications and exposure to public television: A discrepancy approach”, Communication Research, no. 6 (1979) 155-180. 16 Monica Ancu and Raluca Cozma, “Myspace politics: Uses and gratifications of befriending candidates,” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 53, no. 4 (2009), 567-583. 17 Robert LaRose and Matthew S Eastin, “A social cognitive theory of internet uses and gratifications: Toward a new model of media attendance,” Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 48, no. 3 (2004): 358-377. 18 Namsu Park, Kerk F Kee, and Sebastián Valenzuela, “Being immersed in social networking environment: Facebook groups, uses and gratifications, and social outcomes,” CyberPsychology & Behavior 12, no. 6 (2009): 729-733. 19 Leila Karimi, Rouhollah Khodabandelou, Maryam Ehsani, Payame Noor, Muhammad Ahmad. “Applying the Uses and Gratifications Theory to Compare Higher Education Students’ Motivation for Using Social Networking Sites: Experiences from Iran, Malaysia, United Kingdom, and South Africa,” Contemporary Educational Technology 5, no. 1, (2014): 57. 20 Anabel Quan-Haase and Alyson Leigh Young, “Social media: A comparison of Facebook and instant messaging,” Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society 30, no. 5 (2010): 351.

62 I will come up with a definition of what I understand with the term social media as used in my study.

Defining social media is challenging mainly because it is constantly evolving. New or enhanced features are continuously developed to meet the demands of users. However, broadly speaking, social media describes any number of technological systems related to collaboration and community.21 In literature, the term ‘social media’ is often used interchangeably with Web 2.0 tools and social networking software. Social media can be categorized into the following groups according to the main tools offered: social networking; social publishing or sharing; social bookmarking or tagging; photo or video sharing; collaborative office or brainstorming; social and content management as well as virtual worlds and gaming environments.22

In this study, though I will use terms interchangingly, the main focus would be social networking sites. Social media has four major potential strengths: collaboration, participation, empowerment and time. Social media is collaborative and participatory by its very nature as it is defined by social interaction. It provides the ability for users to connect with each other and form communities to socialize, share information or to achieve common goals. Social media can be empowering to its users as it gives them a platform to inexpensively publish or broadcast information, effectively democratizing media.23 In terms of time, social media technologies allow users to immediately publish information in near-real time. Danah Boyds identifies four properties relevant to social network sites: persistence, searchability, replicability and

21 Tania Joosten, Social media for educators: Strategies and best practices (Hoboken, NJ: Jossey-Bass, 2012). 22 Jin Mao, “Social media for learning: A mixed methods study on high school students’ technology affordances and perspectives.” Computers in Human Behavior 33, (2014): 213-223. 23 John Bertot, Paul T. Jaeger and Justin M. Grimes, “Using ICTs to create a culture of transparency: E-government and social media as openness and anti-corruption tools for societies.” Government information quarterly 27, no. 3 (2010): 266.

63 scalability and three dynamics: invisible audiences, collapsed contexts and the blurring of public and private.24

Unlike the ephemeral quality of speech in unmediated publics, social media enables conversations that persist past the time of their initial posts. Thus, communication can have consequences long past the initial posts. Besides being permanent, content in networked publics can be accessed through a matter of keystrokes with a high potential of wide visibility of such content. Social media expressions are also easily replicable. As Boyd says, “hearsay can be deflected as misinterpretation, but networked public expressions can be copied from one place to another in such a way that there is no way to distinguish the ‘original’ from the ‘copy’.”25

Due to the mentioned properties, when social media is used, one also has to keep in mind that not all audiences are visible and at times confidential information can easily become public. Furthermore, the lack of spatial, social and temporal boundaries makes it difficult to maintain distinct social contexts leading to an infinite number of contexts collapsing upon one another.

4. Social Media Usage

This section attempts to give a clearer picture of the social media phenomenon through reference to latest and always evolving figures on social media consumption. It also explores the different SNS and identifies demographic trends in social media usage. Furthermore, the link between social media

24 Danah Boyd, “Taken out of context American Teen Sociality in Networked Publics” (PhD diss., University of California, 2008), 2. 25 Danah Boyd, “Why youth (heart) social network sites: The role of networked publics in teenage social life.” MacArthur foundation series on digital learning–Youth, identity, and digital media volume (2007): 119-142.

64 and education is investigated as presently, a continuous debate is going on the integration of social media within educational systems. The outcomes of such a debate can shed light on possible and effective ways of how social media can also be incorporated in youth ministry.

4.1 Social Media Consumption Coming up with definite figures in the fluid and dynamic social media scenario is not easy. However, a snapshot of the overall picture shows that in January 2015, there were 2.078 billion active social media users equivalent to 29% of the world population.26 The Maltese penetration in social media is one of the highest in Europe. In February 2014, it reached 58%.27 This is identical to the percentage of US adult population that use social networks.28 Within the EU, in 2014, the percentage of individuals aged 16 to 74 using the Internet for participating in social networks was 46%. Besides, on average, users are spending 2.4 hours daily on social media.29

Facebook is the world’s largest social network with 1.44 billion monthly active users.30 It is also the most popular platform among adults in the US: it is worth noting that out of those having Internet access, 74% have a Facebook profile with an average of 155 friends each. However, other platforms like Twitter (23%), Instagram (26), Pinterest (28%) and LinkedIn (28%) are also on the

26 Simon Kemp, “Digital, Social and Mobile in 2015,” (accessed 12 June 2015). 27 Simon Kemp, “Social, Digital & Mobile in Europe in 2014,” February 2014, (accessed 12 June 2015). 28 Maeve Duggan et al, “Social Media Update 2014,” Pew Research Center, 9 January 2015, < http://www.pewinternet.org/files/2015/01/PI_SocialMediaUpdate20144.pdf> (accessed 30 April 2015). 29 Simon Kemp, “Digital, Social and Mobile in 2015,” (accessed 12 June 2015). 30 Facebook, “Stats,” (accessed 12 June 2015).

65 increase as is the use of multiple platforms.31 Facebook is also the leading social networking site in Europe, according to European Technographics Online Benchmark survey.32 In Malta, Facebook places second as the most popular overall website.33

Despite the popularity of Facebook across a diverse mix of demographic groups, some platforms have developed their own unique demographic user profiles. For instance, Pinterest holds particular appeal to female users with 42% of online women using it compared to 12% of men. LinkedIn is especially popular among college graduates. Twitter and Instagram have particular appeal to younger adults, with roughly half of Internet-using young adults aged 18 to 29 (53%) having an Instagram profile.34

4.2 Social Media and Youth An emerging set of research that documents and quantifies young people’s use of social network sites is available.35 Some of this research has focused on young people whose social media use has led to anxiety or estrangement from family and friends,36 while other research highlighted those teens for

31 Maeve Duggan et al., “Social Media Update 2014,” Pew Research Center, 9 January 2015, < http://www.pewinternet.org/files/2015/01/PI_SocialMediaUpdate20144.pdf> (accessed 30 April 2015). 32 Emily Smart, “Facebook is top social networking site in Europe,” 23 May 2014 (accessed 19 May 2015). 33 “Top Sites in Malta,” (25 May 2015). 34 Maeve Duggan et al, “Social Media Update 2014,” Pew Research Center, 9 January 2015, < http://www.pewinternet.org/files/2015/01/PI_SocialMediaUpdate20144.pdf> (accessed 30 April 2015). 35 Amanda Lenhart et. al., “Teens, kindness and cruelty on social network sites,” Pew Internet and American life project website, 9 November 2011, < http://www.pewinternet.org/ 2011/11/09/teens-kindness-and-cruelty-on-social-network-sites/> (accessed 19 April 2015). 36 Sherry Turkle, Alone Together: Why We Expect More From Technology and Less From Each Other (New York: Basic Books, 2011).

66 whom social media use has facilitated important connections and amazing accomplishments.37

All studies indicate that social media has found fertile land in the younger generation. Such a generation feels disconnected and cut off from the world if one’s smartphone is missing or no Internet service is available. This is particularly true for many young people in the developed world, who never experienced a world without instant communication and connectivity. Social media is their social glue. The Generation Z is the first to have gone through their entire teen years with SNS at their fingertips. It is the generation directly linked to the mobile screen. ‘Teens, Social Media and Technology 2015’ reports that 88% of US teens possess or is able to access a mobile phone, 73% of which are smartphones. Mobile access to the Internet is on the increase. The same study reveals that 91% of teens are accessing Internet on cell phones, tablets and other mobile devices at least occasionally.38

Social media forms part of the daily teenager’s life. According to ‘Social Media, Social Life: How Teens View Their Digital Lives’ nationwide survey carried out amongst 13 to 17 teens in the US, 90% of teens use social media. Nearly one in three visit their social networking profile several times a day; 51% visit SNS daily and 23% are “heavy” social media users - they use at least two different types of social media each and every day. The same survey shows that 75% of teenagers currently have a profile on a social networking site.

37 Ito Muzuko, Sonja Baumer, et al. Hanging out, messing around, and geeking out: Kids living and learning with new media. 2009. 38 Amanda Lenhart, “Teen, Social Media and Technology Overview 2015,” Pew Research Center, April 2015, (accessed 30 April 2015).

67 As with adults, Facebook dominates social networking use among US teens with 68% of all teens using it as their main SNS, followed by Twitter (6%) and Google+ (1%).39 A recent study reveals that while Facebook kept its pace with 71%, other SNS gained popularity among 13 to 17 US teens. In fact, Instagram ranks second with 52% followed by Snapchat (41%). Meanwhile, both Twitter and Google+ rank afterwards at 33%.40 The same study shows that teenage girls use visually-oriented SNS more than their male counterparts.

Australian youths are also active on social media. Asked whether they have used a SNS in the previous four weeks, 67% of 12 to 13-year-olds did so as did 85% of those aged 14 to 15. The percentage increased to 92% when respondents were 16 to 17-year-olds. Facebook was the most popular social network service for 12 to 17-year-olds with the majority of its users using it at least daily and in some cases, more often.41

The picture in Europe is not so different. Social networking sites are also popular among European youths with 75% of 15 to 24-year-olds using social networks daily or almost daily compared to 50% of the 25 to 39-year-olds and 27% of 40 to 54-year-olds.42 Another European report, ‘Risks and safety on the Internet, the perspective of European children’ carried out by EU Kids Online Network43 amongst 25,142 randomly selected children aged 9 to 16,

39 Common Sense Media, “Social Media, Social Life: How Teens View Their Digital Lives,” Summer 2012, (accessed 14 March 2015). 40 Amanda Lenhart, “Teen, Social Media and Technology Overview 2015,” Pew Research Center, April 2015, (accessed 30 April 2015). 41 Australian Communications and Media Authority, “Like, post, share: Young Australians’ experience of social media,” (accessed 20 April 2015). 42 European Commission, “Media use in the European Union,” Standard Eurobarometer 82, , p. 18 (accessed 27 April 2015). 43 Livingstone, Sonia, Leslie Haddon, Anke Görzig, and Kjartan Ólafsson.” Risks and safety on the Internet.” EU Kids Online website. 13 January 2011.

68 across twenty-five European countries, shows that 93% of them go online at least weekly with 60% going online every day or almost. Furthermore 59% of 9 to 16-year-olds have a social networking profile. A breakdown shows that 26% of those having a social networking profile are aged 9-10, 49% are 11-12 years old, 73% 13-14 years old and 82% are 15-16 years old.

Though Malta was not included in the 2010 EU Kids Online Network study, local studies show similar trends. The ‘Children’s Internet Use and Parents’ Perceptions of their Children’s Online Experience’ shows that the vast majority of Maltese households (97.5%) having children between 8 and 15 years, have Internet access. Out of these, 59% access Internet daily, 43.5% of them using it between 30 minutes to 2 hours daily during week days. 43.2% of children use social networking with Facebook being the most popular social networking site amongst Maltese kids. There are a number of discrepancies between what children actually do and their parents’ perception of what their children do when online.44

The 2014 ‘Mobile Data Usage Survey’ published by the Malta Communication Authority shows that 79% of 11 to 24-year-olds owned a smartphone, a percentage quite similar to the 77% of those aged 25 to 34.45 Above all, it indicates socializing and communication as the main activities on their mobile phone. This is also reflected in the mostly accessed applications. Indeed, 41% of the mostly accessed applications were social media applications followed by messaging (40%).

p. 9-16 (accessed 12 March 2015). 44 Mary Anne Lauri, Joseph Borg and Lorleen Farrugia, “Children’s Internet Use and Parents’ Perceptions of their Children’s Online Experience Report 2015,” (accessed 20 May 2015). 45 Malta Communications Authority, “Mobile Data Usage Survey 2014,” April 2014, (accessed 26 February 2015).

69 High social media use amongst Maltese kids also emerged in another local survey, carried out in 2012 amongst school children. It confirms that 72% of Form 1 and Form 2 students as well as 90% of Form 3 and Form 4 students have a Facebook profile. When asked for the main reason why using Internet, more than 85% of Form 3 and 4 students put social networking ahead of playing games on Internet, research and chatting.46

Literature shows that a typical teen Facebook user has 300 friends, while the typical teen Twitter user has 79 followers. Girls and older teens tend to have substantially larger Facebook friend networks compared with boys and younger teens. Teens Facebook friendship networks largely mirror their offline networks.47 It is however to be noted that though data clearly shows an enmeshment by millennials in social media, literature also points out that the digital natives48are not a homogeneous group; there exist a digital divide among millennials themselves49. Hargittai agrees that it might be counterproductive to assume that so-called digital natives are equally versed in technology.50

4.3 Social Media in Millennials’ Education Being raised in the “always-on” world of interactive media, students today have different expectations and learning styles than previous generations.51

46 Malta Communications Authority, “ICT among minors,” September 2012, (accessed 30 November 2014). 47 Pew Research Centre, “Teens, Social Media, and Privacy,” 21 May 2013, (accessed 22 January 2015). 48 Dubbed so by Mark Prensky 49 Diane Hansford and Rachael Adlington, “Digital spaces and young people’s online authoring: Challenges for teachers,” Australian Journal of Language & Literacy 32, no. 11 (2009):56. 50 Eszter Hargittai, “Digital na(t)ives? Variation in internet skills and uses among members of the ‘Net generation’,” Sociological Inquiry 80, no. 1 (2010): 92-113. 51 Linda Fogg Phillips, Derek Baird, and B. J. Fogg. “Facebook for educators,” p.3

70 Hence, educators must think generationally and give careful attention to the learning styles of those involved.

Millennial students have never known a world without cell phones or the Internet. They have fast-paced expectations in terms of communication, feedback and interaction. They have an insatiable appetite for technology. They also thrive in a collaborative, team-oriented environment and place a great deal of emphasis on being socially connected.

Taking into account such characteristics, educators around the world are seriously considering the integration of Web 2.0, including social networking in student learning. Educators are working on ways to incorporate social media into their educational system. The ‘2010 U.S. National Technology Education Plan’, emphasizes the importance of applying the advanced technologies used in daily personal and professional lives to the entire education system as a way to improve student learning. Creation of engaging relevant and personalized learning experiences for all learners that mirror students’ daily lives and the reality of their futures are encouraged.52 In contrast to traditional classroom instruction, students are to be put at the centre and empowered to take control of their own learning, with technology providing access to a much wider and more flexible set of learning resources than is available in classrooms.53

Online and offline social networks can affect learning engagement and outcomes. This view is consistent with a number of well-established theories. Social constructivism asserts that learning happens via learners’ interactions enabling negotiation of meanings.54 The social learning theory asserts that individuals learn by observing others (models) and by copying behaviours

www.laspdg.org/files/Facebook%20for%20Educators.pdf> (accessed 27 November 2014). 52 U.S. Department of Education, Transforming American Education: Learning Powered by Technology, (Washington, D.C.: ED Pubs, 2010), vi. 53 Transforming American Education, 12. 54 Lev S Vygotsky, Mind in Society: The development of higher psychological processes, (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University press, 1978).

71 perceived to lead to desirable outcomes.55 The theory of planned behaviour suggests that an individual’s behaviour is affected by subjective norm - the perceived beliefs of the individual’s peers.56

The application of social networks in education is split into several polarizing topics. Proponents and opponents of SNS use in education propose different arguments to sustain their points. Existing research offers mixed results. Cho et al. found that better-connected distance learners achieved better outcomes in an online learning environment. Yu et al. found that learners more involved in social networking using Facebook, performed better academically.57 In contrast, Junco found that the use of Facebook resulted in diminished student engagement.58 Irrespective of the position taken, the introduction of social networks has the potential of changing teacher-student relationships. Social media in education may pose a risk of “fraternizing”.59 On the other hand, it could strengthen the learning community and bring students and instructors closer in their quest for knowledge.60

After looking at the ever-increasing role that social media is playing in youth lives including its integration in education, the following section will explore the position of the Catholic Church vis-à-vis new technologies particularly on social media.

55 Albert Bandura, “Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change,” Psychological review, no. 84/2 (1977), 191. 56 Linda Fogg Phillips, Derek Baird, and B. J. Fogg. “Facebook for educators,” p.13 (accessed 27 November 2014). 57 Angela Yan Yu, Stella Wen Tian, Douglas Vogel and Ron Chi-Wai Kwok, “Can learning be virtually boosted? An investigation of online social networking impacts,” Computers & Education 55, no. 4 (2010): 1494. 58 Reynol Junco, “The relationship between frequency of Facebook use, participation in Facebook activities, and student engagement,” Computers & Education 58, no. 1 (2012): 162. 59 Sara Lipka, “For professors, ‘friending’ can be fraught.” Chronicle of Higher Education 54, no. 15 (2007): A1. 60 Joseph P. Mazer, Richard E. Murphy and Cherie J. Simonds, “The effects of teacher self- disclosure via Facebook on teacher credibility,” Learning, Media, & Technology 34, no. 2 (2009):179.

72 5. The Catholic Church vis-à-vis New Technology In ‘Apostolicam Actuositatem’, the Second Vatican Council’s decree on the Apostolate of the Laity, the Council exhorted lay people “to be more diligent in doing what they can to explain, defend, and properly apply Christian principles to the problems of our era in accordance with the mind of the Church.”61 Though the circumstances of the mentioned era are not the same, the appeal in the decree is still valid in today’s electronic era. One may ask what are Christians doing online in reply to this exhortation and what is the position of the Church regards all this.

The Pastoral Instruction on Social Communication, ‘Aetatis Novae’ (“At the Dawn of a New Era”), acknowledges that in the past, the church has neglected and underestimated mass media and its powerful influence on society and culture.62 However, a more inclusive and receptive approach was taken over the past years particularly starting from the pontificate of John Paul II which coincided with the emergence of Internet.

Over the years, the Catholic Church has issued a number of documents addressing new means of communication. Quoting Pope Pius XII’s 1957 encyclical letter ‘Miranda Prorsus’, the Pontifical Council for Social Communication underlined that: “The Church sees these media as ‘gifts of God’, which in accordance with his providential design, unite men in brotherhood and so help them to cooperate with his plan for their salvation.”63

61 Paul VI, Apostolicam Actuositatem, Vatican Website, 18 November 1965, par. 6 (accessed 12 January 2015). 62 Pontifical Council for Social Communication, Aetatis Novae, Pastoral Instruction on Social Communications, Vatican Website, 22 February 1992, sec. 20 (accessed 7 December 2014). 63 Pontifical Council for Social Communication, Communio et Progressio, Pastoral Instruction on the Means of Social Communication, Vatican website, 23 May 1971, sec 2. (accessed 7 December 2014).

73 Pope Paul VI pointed out that the Church “would feel guilty before the Lord” if it failed to use the media for evangelization.64 Similar views were expressed in the document ‘The Church and Internet’, where the Internet was under scrutiny.65 The Church feels that it is necessary to integrate the Gospel message into the ‘new culture’ created by modern communication, since not only do the media strongly influence what people think about life but also to a great extent human experience itself is an experience of media.66 However, the Church did also air its issues, doubts and challenges with regards to new technology. These will be dealt with later on.

The following sections will thus outline the position of the Catholic Church vis-à-vis the ‘areopagus of the modern age’.67 The Church’s use of new technologies, the challenges and opportunites faced by the Church will be analysed with particular focus on social media.

5.1 The Catholic Church enmeshment in Social Media The explosion of social media coincided with Benedict XVI election as Pope. Benedict XVI followed his predecessor’s footsteps when it comes to the Church’s overall view on digital technology. His messages for World Communications Day between 2009 and 2013 express the same core welcoming views of Pope John Paul II. Though each year he targeted a specific group, Internet and social media were common themes along the years. For

64 Paul VI, Evangelii Nuntiandi, Apostolic Exhortation, 8 December 1975, sec. 45 (accessed 25 March 2015). 65 Pontifical Council for Social Communication, The Church and Internet, 22 February 2002, sec 2. (accessed 22 April 2015). 66 The Church and Internet, sec 4. 67 John Paul II, Redemptoris Missio, Encyclical letter on the permanent validity of the Church’s missionary mandate, Vatican Website, 7 December, 1990, sec. 37 (accessed 20 May 2015).

74 instance, the 2009 message targeted youth and the Internet whereas that of 2010 focused on priests and the Internet. The message for 2011 specifically focused on engagement in social networks. Social media was again dealt with in the 2013 message.

Pope Benedict XVI made it clear that the digital environment is not a parallel or purely virtual world but is part of the daily experience of many people, especially the young.68 He described social media as the new “agora”, in which people share ideas, information and opinions and in which new relationships and forms of community can come into being. Social networks are the result of human interaction, but for their part they also reshape the dynamics of communication which builds relationships.69 Hence, the Church wants to be present in such a relationship building reality.

In ‘New Technologies, New Relationships’ message, the Pope offered some guidance to those using new media, emphasizing several ways new media affect human relationships. He celebrated the idea that new media not only allow people to connect with one another but that these connections “facilitate forms of co-operation between people from different geographical and cultural contexts that enable them to deepen their common humanity.”70 Besides writing about social media, Pope Benedict XVI was the first Pope in history to engage directly in social media. Indeed, on the 12th December 2012, Pope Benedict XVI was on Twitter for the first time using @Pontifex username. By February 2015, the Pope’s account which was then continued by Pope Francis reached nineteen million followers in different languages.

68 Benedict XVI, 47th World Communications Day Message, Vatican Website, 12 May 2013, par. 5 (accessed 25 May 2015). 69 47th World Communications Day Message, par. 5. 70 Benedict XVI, 43rd World Communications Day Message, Vatican Website, 24 May 2009, par. 8 (accessed 20 November 2014).

75 Social media use was also one of the propositions of the Synod on the New Evangelization. Proposition eighteen clearly states that “Education in the wise and constructive use of social media is an important means to be utilized in the New Evangelization.”71 The Church believes that pastoral operators must be familiar with the languages and the instruments of today for communicating in the global village.

5.2 Online Religion versus Religion online Throughout its documents, the Catholic Church, quite often promotes and encourages religion online but is very cautious towards online religion. Religion online promotes the organization and provides organizational information, including information related to community outreach. It refers to the use of the Internet as a broadcast medium. It is the transposition of offline aspects to an online setting without much alteration in attitude and with maintenance of traditional hierarchies.72

In contrast, online religion refers to new ways of engaging in spiritual activity via the Internet-online community, participative worship, virtual church and peer-to-peer contact. In the case of online religion, people are living their religion on and through the Internet medium. For those individuals who participate in online religious activity, there is no separation between their offline life and experiences and their online life and experiences; their religious activities and worldview permeate both environments. Institutional religious organizations often do not support online religion most probably due to their perception of the Internet as a tool for communicating rather than an extension of our social world. Most likely, they do not view the

71 Holy See Press Office, Synodus Episcoporum Bulletin, Vatican Website, 27 October 2012, (accessed 3 May 2015). 72 Christopher Helland, “Online-religion/religion-online and virtual communities” in Religion on the Internet: Research prospects and promises, eds. J.K. Hadden and D.E. Cowan, (New York: Elsevier Science Inc., 2000), 205-223.

76 Internet as an environment where people “do” religion. They may believe that it is an acceptable medium for providing information but any actual religious activity should be undertaken offline.

The Church sees religion online as an acceptable and practical way of using the Internet. Religious information that is posted online serves as a road sign that can point individuals in the Church’s direction. The Church willingly employs these media to furnish information about itself and to expand the boundaries of evangelization, catechesis and formation.73 The Catholic Church merely looks at new technology as a means, not an end in itself. Without any doubt, one of these means is the proclamation of the Gospel.

However, the continuous development of Internet as a social space, very probable will lead even the Catholic Church to develop some environments for online religion. That said, the type of participation and communication that will occur will however be limited.74

5.3 Using Media to Proclaim Christ and the Gospel The mission of the Church is first and foremost the proclamation of the Gospel. Since apostolic times, it sent missionaries around the world to accomplish this mission. Over the centuries, the Church’s work of evangelization overcame not only geographical distance but also crossed technological thresholds. Hence, the advent of another opportunity brought out by Internet has been seen by the Church as providentially given by God to intensify communion and to render more penetrating the proclamation of His word. Pope John Paul II’s message for 2000 World Communications Day clearly foreshadows

73 John Paul II, The Rapid Development, Apostolic Letter, Vatican website, 24 January 2005, par. 7 (accessed 20 May 2015). 74 Christopher Helland, “Online Religion as Lived Religion. Methodological Issues in the Study of Religious Participation on the Internet,” Heidelberg Journal of Religions on the Internet, no. 1.1 (2005): 13.

77 such an opportunity in the communications and information revolution. He envisaged the proclamation of Christ as part of this experience and encouraged the Church to make the best use of the opportunities found in secular media.75 Two years later, he referred to the Internet as a new forum for proclaiming the Gospel.76 The same attitudes were expressed in the Apostolic letter ‘The Rapid Development’, where Pope John Paul II explicitly stated that the Church looks at communications media as “precious aid for spreading the Gospel and religious values” and that the media provide a providential opportunity to overcome barriers of time, space and language.77

Pope Benedict XVI describes social networks as new spaces for evangelisation and continues that unless the Good News is made known also in the digital world, it may be absent in the experience of many people for whom this existential space is important.78 Pope Francis looks at social networks as another way to experience the missionary call to discover the beauty of faith, the beauty of encountering Christ.79

75 John Paul II, 34th World Communications Day Message, Vatican Website, 4 June 2000, par. 12 (accessed 20 November 2014). 76 John Paul II, 36th World Communications Day Message, Vatican Website, 12 May 2002, par. 2 (accessed 20 May 2015). 77 John Paul II, The Rapid Development, Apostolic Letter, Vatican Website, 24 January 2005, par. 7 (accessed 20 May 2015). 78 Benedict XVI, 47th World Communications Day Message, Vatican Website, 12 May 2013, par. 5 (accessed 25 May 2015). 79 Francis, 48th World Communications Day Message, Vatican Website, 1 June 2014, par. 8 (accessed 25 May 2015). 78 The Church stresses the role of young people in the Church’s relationship with new media. Youth have a role in evangelization that is perhaps more important than ever before, as their natural ability to engage with new media gives them the responsibility of the evangelization of this digital continent.

5.4 Challenges and Concerns Despite a welcoming approach, the Church did not refrain from airing its views that cautiousness was needed with respect to the use of new media. While considering Internet as a valuable tool for communication and evangelisation, the Church did point out potential challenges brought forward by Internet. The Pontifical Council for Social Communications released two important documents in 2012: ‘Ethics in Internet’ which provides the Catholic view of Internet and ‘The Church and Internet’, which considers the implications of the Internet for religion and the Catholic Church.

“The Church and Internet” highlights concerns and challenges the Church could face. It states that “media can sometimes seem indifferent and even hostile to Christian faith and morality.”80 Reference is made to the possibility of unofficial religious groups causing confusion to those who are just beginning to learn about religion. Moreover, the Church fears that for many, the Internet may serve as a way to pick and choose beliefs and practices from various faiths as if religion was being served à la carte.

The Church also expresses its concern about “the quality of the content” on new media.81 It emphasizes that content and relationships should always

80 Pontifical Council for Social Communication, The Church and Internet, 22 February 2002, sec. 8 (accessed 22 April 2015). 81 Benedict XVI, 43rd World Communications Day Message, Vatican Website, 24 May 2009, par. 4 (accessed 20 November 2014).

79 respect the dignity of the human person. Users may easily fall prey to believing that they are “consumers in a market of undifferentiated possibilities, where choice itself becomes the good, novelty usurps beauty and subjective experience displaces truth.”82 Furthermore, whatever relationships humans enter into through new media, should not deter them from relationships with families, neighbours and community members off-line. Pope Benedict XVI warns that “if the desire for virtual connectedness becomes obsessive, it may in fact function to isolate individuals from real social interaction while also disrupting the patterns of rest, silence and reflection that are necessary for healthy human development.”83 Moreover, as people spend excessive time on virtual realities, that could hinder their ability to think, to reflect and it would be harder to bring them in the Church to experience true community. “Virtual reality is no substitute for the incarnational reality of the sacraments and the liturgy, or the immediate and direct proclamation of the gospel.”84

The message that echoes through a number of documents and messages issued by the Magisterium, is that nothing can replace real world face-to-face contact. However, virtual communication can serve as a stepping stone, it can attract people to a fuller experience of the life of faith and enrich the religious lives of users.85

The Church also addressed the issue of digital divide. Both the document ‘Ethics in Internet’86 and Pope Benedict XVI supported the endeavour to

82 43rd World Communications Day Message, par. 6. 83 Benedict XVI, 43th World Communications Day Message, Vatican Website, 24 May 2009, par. 7 (accessed 20 November 2014). 84 Pontifical Council for Social Communication, The Church and Internet, 22 February 2002, sec. 9 (accessed 22 April 2015). 85 The Church and Internet, sec 5. 86 Pontifical Council for Social Communication, Ethics in Internet, 22 February 2002, , sec 10.

80 ensure that the benefits [new media] offer are put at the service of all human individuals and communities, especially those who are most disadvantaged and vulnerable.87

Pope Benedict XVI considers it a tragedy if new media “contribute only to increasing the gap separating the poor from the new networks that are developing at the service of human socialization and information.”88 The Church supports the bringing together of peoples via new media, but calls for a movement to represent the poor and marginalized through these new media.

5.5 Challenges in Youth Ministry At times, perceived challenges may be the result of moral panics. The history of moral panics about the alleged harmful effects of exposure to popular media and cultural forms is well known. In such media panics, the reactions are repetitive and predictable.89 The arrival of new media is often welcomed with criticisms levelled at its immoral and undermining nature. Campbell sums this up as follows: “Technology is framed as posing a threat to religion and so it is perceived that it must be resisted.”90 The same kind of accusations that were levelled at comic books, the cinema and television are now being made about Facebook and other peer-to-peer methods of communicating.91 Hogan and Wellman also suggest that the popularity of social networks and

87 Benedict XVI, 43rd World Communications Day Message, Vatican Website, 24 May 2009, par. 1 (accessed 20 November 2014). 88 43rd World Communications Day Message, par. 8. 89 Alice E. Marwick, “To catch a predator? The MySpace moral panic”, First Monday [Online], no. 13/ 6 (2008), < http://firstmonday.org/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ ojs/index.php/fm/article/ view/2152/1966> (accessed 5 May 2015). 90 Heidi Campbell, When religion meets new media, (Oxfordshire: Routledge, 2010), 4. 91 Kirsten Drotner, “Dangerous media? Panic discourses and dilemmas of modernity,” Paedagogica Historica 35, no. 3 (1999): 609.

81 always-on connectivity has led to reigniting moral panics about stranger danger, anonymous crowds and alienation in modern life.92 Youth leaders within the Catholic Church can end up in such moral panics. Thus, youth leaders are to familiarize themselves with what new media offers and entails, so that they will be well informed and can reach an informed judgement. That said, there are real challenges that youth leaders should be aware of. These will be examined in the following sections.

5.5.1 Dilution of Authority As social media is not mass media, it is leading users from being just media consumers to media producers, from passive to interactive use, consequently, the role of the youth leader as a central authorative figure is being challenged. Leaders no longer act as gatekeepers of content.

Mass media is quite friendly to hierarchy but this one-way communication is now being challenged by the popularity of the two-way method of communication of social media. Traditional boundaries are being challenged. Boundaries previously in place between the leaders and the led have become ‘fuzzy.’93 Flatter, non-hierarchical communication methods such as those provided by social media could threaten the authority of institutions and faith leaders.94 Allowing more interaction and more conversation unmediated by the leaders could lead to a reduction in their status as the authorised leader. It is to be noted, however, that recent studies claim that the Internet can serve as a source to empower religious authorities rather than challenge them. Religious users are spending more time online affirming rather than

92 Bernie Hogan and Barry Wellman, “The Immanent Internet Redux” in Digital religion, social media and culture: Perspectives, practices and futures, eds. P.H. Cheong, P. Fischer-Nelson, S. Gelfgren & C. Ess, (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2012), 49. 93 Jesse Rice, The Church of Facebook: How the Hyperconnected Are Redefining Community Colorado Springs: David C. Cook, 2009), 128. 94 Heidi A. Campbell, “Who’s got the power? Religious authority and the internet,” Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication 12, no. 3, (2007): 1059-1060.

82 challenging traditional religious leaders, structural bodies, theologies and core texts, the same studies reveal.95

5.5.2 Effect on Communities Discussion on the impact of social media on the community is ongoing. Hipps argues that technology is having a detrimental effect on faith communities. He states that Internet is emphatically not a neutral aid. Digital social networking inoculates people against the desire to be physically present with others in real social networks. Being together becomes nice but non- essential.96 However, recent empirical evidence suggests that both Hipps and Rice’s assertions are not being realised in current experiences. Johns researched religious Facebook use and observed the interactions on a range of global Facebook groups for different religions. In the study he conducted in 2010, he noted very little ongoing interaction on the group pages, with the typical post being only once a month. His conclusion is that users are signing up to Facebook groups not to engage in conversations online, but as a way of signalling their religious identity as part of their Facebook profile; a less far- reaching and revolutionary use of the technology than Rice or Hipps would suggest.97

While some are enthusiastic about the potential new social media offer for fostering valuable connections between individuals and religious communities, others caution that the experience of the community via the Internet may be merely a shallow and misleading imitation of authentic human

95 Heidi A. Campbell. Religious Authority and the Blogosphere. Journal of Computer- Mediated Communication 15 (2010): 269-270 96 Shane Hipps, Flickering Pixels: How Technology Shapes Your Faith (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2009), 115. 97 Mark Johns, M. 2012, “Voting ‘present’: religious organizational groups on Facebook” in Digital Religion, Social Media and Culture: Perspectives, practices and futures, eds. P.H. Cheong, P. Fischer-Nelson, S. Gelfgren & C. Ess, (New York: Peter Lang Publishing, 2012), 151-168.

83 community.98 However, there is broad agreement that online experiences of religious communities may be subtly changing expectations of religious communities in the real world and that Internet - mediated communications are having an impact on social interaction in general.99

5.5.3 Online versus face-to-face interaction An issue that is often a dilemma for youth leaders is finding the right balance between online and face-to-face interaction. Sherry Turkle argues that nowadays, devices are not only changing the way we communicate and interact with each other, but also who we are as human beings. “Everyone is always having their attention divided between the world of people [they’re] with and this ‘other’ reality.”100

In his message for the 2011 World Communications Day, Pope Benedict XVI refers to the risk of being less present to those we encounter in our everyday life. He asks:

Is there is a risk of being more distracted because our attention is fragmented and absorbed in a world “other” than the one in which we live?...virtual contact cannot and must not take the place of direct human contact with people at every level of our lives.101

Whereas face-to-face human interactions are viewed as warm, personal and fostering a closer feeling of connection, Internet-mediated interactions are more distant and impersonal. However, as Campbell and Lövheim observe,

98 Catherine Kerr, “Social Media and the Church: Effective Communications to form and foster parish community” (Masters diss., General Theological Seminary, 2012): 26. 99 Social Media and the Church, 26. 100 Sherry Turkle, Alone Together: Why We Expect More From Technology and Less From Each Other (New York: Basic Books, 2011). 101 Benedict XVI, 45th World Communications Day Message, Vatican Website, 5 June 2011, par. 5 (Accessed 20 November 2014).

84 the distinction between online and offline activity has been fading as for many they are integrated spheres of interaction: the Internet constitutes the space where individuals and groups live out their social and spiritual lives, and offline boundaries and relations often inform the online sphere.102

Kujath found that 75% of the surveyed college students used Facebook or Myspace instead of in-person conversations to make offline plans with one another, connect when they could not be together, or develop local groups with whom to connect.103 Kujath found that SNS serve as an extension of in-person relationships and promote offline relationship development. Participants also overwhelmingly reported using SNS to connect with people they already knew instead of making new friends. She claims that the attraction of social network use for young people is not relationship formation but relationship maintenance.104 The pattern also appears to hold for adult users. Dawson expresses similar views and suggests that “people use the Internet to augment and extend their pre-existing social lives, not as a substitute or alternative.”105 Research also suggests that the ability of users to overhear messages may encourage reticent or shy individuals to engage in discussion. In a study examining the use of social networks and how people of differing personality traits interact with the online environment, it emerged that social networks not only open up messages to a greater number of people but they also seem to encourage greater interaction among people who might otherwise remain silent in a face-to-face interaction.106 According to Kim, Larose, and Peng who surveyed 635 students from two mid-western universities, some participants

102 Heidi Campbell and Mia Lövheim, “Introduction. Rethinking the online–offline connection in the study of religion online,” Information, Communication & Society 14, no. 8 (2011): 1083–1096. 103 Carlyne L. Kujath, “Facebook and MySpace: Complement or substitute for face-to-face communication?” Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 14, no. 1-2 (2011): 76. 104 Facebook and MySpace, 77. 105 Lornie L. Dawson, “Religion and the quest for virtual community”, in Religion online: Finding God on the Internet, (New York: Routledge, 2004), 85. 106 Chris Underation, “Fear Not: Facebook, Information and Extensions of Local Church Ministry,” Advances in the Study of Information and Religion, 2 no. 9 (2012): 208.

85 with low social functioning skills use SNS to meet their relationship needs with other people in what they considered a safer environment.107.

On a negative side, Gunduz noted that Internet and social networking site usage could lead to psychological conditions such as depression or anxiety.108 Additionally, Block noted that some of the consequences for Internet usage include social isolation, fatigue and feelings of anger.109

5.5.4 Leaders and Younger Members Online Interaction Another dilemma that youth leaders as well as educators engaged in social media often face is related to the ethical and legal issues concerned with interacting online with youths particularly if they are minors.

Methodist and Anglican churches have model policies which specifically forbid the establishment of relationships with youths via social media.110 In 2011, the state of Missouri created a statute which prohibited teachers from friending pupils or former pupils on SNS although this was later amended after protests. This amendment suggests that merely prohibiting contacts is not seen as a helpful solution to the problem.

However, what is evidently needed are safeguarding policies and adequate training. These should ensure behaviour that is transparent and that can be

107 Junghyun Kim, Robert LaRose and Wei Peng, “Loneliness as the cause and the effect of problematic Internet use: The relationship between Internet use and psychological well- being,” CyberPsychology and Behavior, no. 12 (2009): 451-455. 108 Semseddin Gunduz, “Health problems with the use of information technologies,” Paper presented at the International Educational Technology (IETC) Conference, Nicosia, Cyprus, 2007, (accessed 28 January 2015). 109 Jerald J. Block, “Issues for DSM-V: Internet addiction,” American Journal of Psychiatry 165, no. 3 (2008): 306-307. 110 Sara Batts, “Informing, inviting or ignoring? Understanding how English Christian churches use the internet.” (PhD diss., Loughborough University, 2012).

86 monitored. Simply blocking the way is not the right solution. Studies of young people’s use of the Internet have shown that the incidences of unwanted contact may be over-reported and taken out of context.111

5.6 Catholics’ Use of New Technology After presenting a picture showing Catholic Church views over new media and possible implications on Church and specifically on Youth Ministry, this section will look at how members of the Catholic Church are embracing digital technologies. The section is divided into two parts: the first will take a snapshot at ordinary Catholics’ interaction with new technology, while the second section will look at how pastors and leaders are utilising digital technologies in their ministry.

5.6.1 Catholics’ presence on New Media Christians have adopted new technologies; from the printing press to mass- produced Bibles to evangelical radio and television broadcasts. More recently, they are getting more into digital technologies. Though the pace of such embedding is questionable, existing literature, (though limited and mainly based on US perspective) shows that things are moving in this direction.

According to the ‘Catholic New Media Use 2012’, the twenty-first century Church in the United States has a significant presence online from popular websites, Facebook pages, widely-followed blogs, Twitter accounts and videos often posted on YouTube.112 However, the Church may not be connecting as well as it could. According to Google, searches for anything with the phrase “Catholic” in it at the end of October 2012, were down to 37% from search

111 John Holmes, John. “Myths and missed opportunities”, Information, Communication & Society 12 no. 8 (2009): 1174-1196. 112 Mark M. Gray and Mary L. Gautier, “Catholic New Media Use in the United States, 2012,” (accessed 3 March 2015).

87 volumes of January 2004. The parish website is the Catholic website most often visited regularly by self-identified adult Catholics.113

The same study shows that the amount of time spent online is greatest amongst the youngest Catholic adults. Millennials spend an average of three hours and forty-three minutes online per day compared to the hour and forty-eight minutes spent online by Pre-Vatican II Generation Catholics.

With regards to social network profiles, the study shows that 62% of US Catholic adults have a profile on Facebook, 17% on LinkedIn, 15% on Google+, 13% on Twitter, 7% on Pinterest, 5% on Instagram and 1% on Tumblr. 31% of those having a social network profile identify themselves on their profile as Catholics.114 Millennials and Post-Vatican II Generation Catholics are more likely than older Catholics to have social network accounts as the Figure 1.1 illustrates.

Out of those having social networking profiles, 47% log on at least once a day, 20% visit multiple times a day and 30% indicate they visit at least once a week. Females are more likely than males to visit social media sites multiple times per day. Catholics with some college or a degree are more likely to have social network profiles on Facebook.

5.6.2 Christian Leaders’ Use of Social Media, Attitudes and Practices A Barna study entitled ‘The Rise of the @Pastor’ held in 2013 in which 1,263 senior pastors of Protestant Churches participated, reveals that many faith leaders and churches are still resistant to social media or are using it without realizing its full potential. Despite this, 21% of the churches use Twitter. And Facebook usage in churches reaches 70%. Pastors are also engaged in online

113 Catholic New Media Use in the United States, 1. 114 Catholic New Media Use in the United States, 40.

88 Figure 1.1 Profiles on Social media by age groups115

communication, with 23% using Twitter, 66% being on Facebook and 22% having a personal blog.

Larger churches tend to use Facebook heavily along with wealthier churches. About two-thirds of pastors (66%) say they use Facebook in their role as a pastor. Among pastors, there is a striking difference in Facebook usage according to age group. Nearly nine out of 10 of pastors aged 27 to 47 (86%) use Facebook, compared to just over one-third of pastors over the age of 65 (37%).

Attitudes towards the importance of social media correlate to age. While 72% of pastors aged 28 to 47 believe social media is a significant component of

115 Catholic New Media Use in the United States, 41.

89 their ministry, only four in 10 pastors over the age of 66 agree. Indeed, 52% of pastors over the age of 66 believe social media is mostly overrated and is not that important to their churches.116

The study ‘Youth Ministry in America’ conducted jointly by Christianity Today and Brotherhood Mutual Insurance Company based on data from 812 church leaders and volunteers involved in youth ministry, reveals that large churches are more likely than all others to have written policies on communicating with students. Furthermore, it shows that 63% of youth ministry does not have written policies outlining how leaders will communicate with students both electronically and in person.117

The same study shows that the most commonly used methods for communicating with the youths in their program are social media (34%) and in-person communication (31%). Youth pastors text almost as often as they speak to students in person (24% versus 26%).

6. Conclusion To summarize, over the course of the last twenty-five years or so, the world experienced the Information Revolution, which brought drastic changes in our way of communicating and socializing. Undoubtedly, it is changing our thinking patterns and is influencing all institutions of whatever nature they are. The Church is not immune. Hence, over the years it tried to mark its presence in new media with the aim to continue its mission.

The advent of the Information Revolution and particulary social media provided new platforms for social interaction, as well as new fields for analysis

116 Barna Group, “The Rise of the @Pastor” (accessed 23 May 2015). 117 Youth Ministry in America, (accessed 23 May 2015).

90 by scholars and others. As different litererature confirms, youths compared to other age groups are actively involved in social media. Hence, social media offers a good opportunity to youth leaders in reaching out towards youths. Different media theories were analysed in an attempt to understand the social glue behind this phenomenon.

As this review has shown, the reaction to all these developments has been varied. While some are enthusiastic about the potential new social media offer for fostering valuable connections and building relationships, others put forward possible negative consequences particularly related to the genuine community experience. There is however a broad agreement, that social media cannot be ignored.

91 92 Anthony Joe Borg *

SALMI 1 U 2:

KUNTEST U INTERPRETAZZJONI

Introduzzjoni Il-ktieb tas-Salmi huwa ktieb importanti kemm għar-reliġjon Lhudija u kemm għal dik Nisranija. Dan għaliex fis-salterju nsibu testi storiċi, kulturali u sagri li juru forom ta’ talb differenti fil-ħajja tal-fidi Lhudija kif ukoll Nisranija.

Is-Salmi huma mimlija b’ħafna messaġġi li juru l-kult Lhudi kif ukoll ikomplu juru l-wegħdiet li Alla għamel ma’ dan il-poplu. Għalhekk nistgħu ngħidu li s-Salmi huma mimlija b’messaġġi li matul iż-żminijiet diversi persuni ppruvaw jidentifikaw magħhom kif ukoll juru r-rilevanza tagħhom għall- ġurnata tal-lum.

Salmi 1 u 2 għandhom rwol importanti għax iservu ta’ introduzzjoni għas- salterju kollu. Għalhekk il-pożizzjoni tagħhom fil-bidu tas-salterju żgur ma kinitx waħda ta’ kumbinazzjoni; il-kontenut tagħhom iservi ta’ introduzzjoni u ta’ gwida għall-qarrej tul il-ktieb kollu.

* Anthony Joe Borg is a Seminarian for the Diocese of Gozo, currently reading for a degree of Bachelor in Sacred Theology at the Sacred Heart Major Seminary in Victoria, Gozo.

Emmaus 20 (2019 - 2020) • 93 1. Salmi 1 u 2 fit-tradizzjoni Lhudija

1.1 L-użu kultwali tas-salm Sa minn dejjem il-bniedem ipprova jfittex modi differenti kif seta’ jqim lill- allat. Fil-fatt, meta wieħed iħares lura fl-istorja jinnota kif bosta komunitajiet u reliġjonijiet differenti għamlu użu mill-kant u l-mużika għall-qima u l-kult tagħhom.

Anki għal-Lhud, bħal diversi soċjetajiet u popli oħra fil-madwar – bħall- Eġizzjani, il-Babiloniżi u ħafna aktar – il-poeżija, il-mużika u l-kant kienu jagħmlu parti importanti ħafna mill-ħajja tagħhom, speċjalment fil-qima lejn Alla u l-kult tagħhom fit-Tempju. Huwa għalhekk li l-Lhud jagħmlu użu mis- salmi, u dan ma narawhx biss fi żmien David, imma anki bosta żmien qabel, fejn il-mużika u l-kant kienu parti ċentrali mill-kult ta’ Iżrael.1

Huwa għalhekk li l-Lhud, huma u jiffurmaw il-kanoni tal-Kotba Mqaddsa tagħhom, ġabru salterju magħmul minn 150 salm fi ktieb sħiħ li t-titlu tiegħu fl-Ebrajk huwa Tĕhillîm, li jfisser għanjiet kultiċi ta’ tifħir.2 L-isem ‘Salmi’ kif insibuh fil-Bibbja ġej mill-kelma Griega psalmós li wieħed isibha użata fit- traduzzjoni tas-LXX, li hija traduzzjoni tal-kelma Ebrajka mizmôr li tfisser għanjiet akkumpanjati minn strument mużikali.3

Meta wieħed jaqra s-salmi jinnota kif bosta huma kkaratterizzati mill-istil kultiku li nkitbu bih. Tajjeb li wieħed joqgħod attent u ma jħawwadx l-istil kultiku ma’ dak letterarju. Dan għaliex l-istil kultiku jirreferi għall-użu tas- salm fl-okkażjonijiet tal-qima lil Alla. Permezz ta’ dan l-istil wieħed jista’ jgħid li għalkemm is-salmi nkitbu għal okkażjonijiet speċifiċi, dawn xorta waħda jkunu jistgħu jintużaw lil hinn mil-limiti ta’ dik l-okkażjoni oriġinali.4

1 Cfr Bromiley G. W., The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, v3, 1033. 2 Cfr Mowinckel S., The Psalms in Israel’s Worship, 2. 3 Cfr Bromiley G. W., The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia, v3, 1030. 4 Cfr Ibid., 1033.

94 Barra l-istil, nilmħu wkoll diversi differenzi fl-istrutturi tas-salmi, li jvarjaw ħafna bejn salm u ieħor. Bħala eżempji ta’ dawn id-differenzi nsemmu kif f’diversi salmi jkun hemm kelliem differenti fl-istess salm, bħalma nsibu f’Salm 2, fejn f’vv. 7-9 hemm kelliem differenti mill-bqija tas-salm.5

Meta wieħed jaqra s-salmi jinnota kif fihom hemm ukoll ġeneri differenti. Fost dawn il-ġeneri nsibu salmi ta’ tifħir, salmi ta’ radd il-ħajr, salmi regali, salmi tal-għerf, u ħafna aktar. Kien hemm ħafna studjużi li ppruvaw jaħdmu fuq dan u jpoġġu s-salmi f’kategoriji differenti. Studjuż li ħadem fuq dan ix- xogħol sabiex jidentifika l-ġeneri tas-salmi kien Gunkel, li żviluppa l-metodu ta’ studju Gattungsforschung li bih huwa jiffoka fuq il-forom tas-salmi.6

Studjuż ieħor li studja l-ktieb tas-Salmi, Walter Brueggemann7, jargumenta kif minn dejjem il-bniedem kien maqbud f’differenza ta’ estremità bejn ferħ u disperazzjoni. Għalhekk huwa jargumenta li s-salmi kollha huma kompożizzjoni individwali u jaqgħu fi tliet kategoriji: salmi ta’ orjentazzjoni, salmi ta’ diżorjentazzjoni, u dawk ta’ riorjentazzjoni. B’dawn il-kategoriji Brueggemann jagħti importanza lil dawk li jaqraw, għaliex huwa jgħid li salm huwa relevanti skont il-kuntest li l-qarrej ikun fih.8 B’hekk naraw kif is-salmi jistgħu jiġu wżati u interpretati skont il-kuntest li l-qarrej ikun fih u dan jagħmel is-salm aktar qrib u personali għall-poplu.

Tajjeb ngħidu wkoll li l-Lhud jaqsmu l-ktieb tas-Salmi f’ħames partijiet ewlenin. Dawn għaliex huma jibbażawhom fuq il-ħames kotba tat-Torah, li huma l-Ġenesi (1-41), l-Eżodu (42-72), il-Levitiku (73-89), in-Numri (90- 106) u d-Dewteronomju (107-150). Hawnhekk inkomplu nikkonfermaw kif is-salmi kienu parti importanti mill-ħajja Lhudija, ladarba huma jaqsmu s-salmi tagħhom skont l-aktar kotba għeżież għall-fidi tagħhom. Kif se

5 Cfr Ibid. 6 Cfr Ibid., 1034. 7 Cfr Brueggemann W., The Psalms and the Life of Faith, 189-213. 8 Cfr Whiting M. J., Psalms 1 and 2 as a hermeneutical lens for reading the Psalter, 248.

95 nkomplu naraw aktar ’l quddiem f’Salm 1, li jservi bħala introduzzjoni għall- ktieb sħiħ tas-Salmi, is-salterju huwa referut bħala “t-Torah ta’ Jaħweh”. Aktar tard, permezz ta’ Salmi 1 u 2, ser inkunu qed inħarsu lejn dawn il- punti kollha u kif dawn huma ta’ importanza sabiex wieħed jifhem aktar ċar il-messaġġ li l-awturi tas-salmi xtaqu jwasslu, u għaliex dawn għadhom ta’ importanza sal-ġurnata tal-lum.

1.2 Il-ġenesi ta’ Salmi 1 u 2 Tajjeb li qabel ma nidħlu fil-fond tal-messaġġ ta’ Salmi 1 u 2, inħarsu naqra lura u naraw ir-rabtiet u l-unità li hemm bejniethom. Nibdew billi nħarsu lejn il-Bibbja stess. Dan għaliex f’xi manuskritti tal-Atti tal-Appostli, meta Pawlu u Barnaba kienu qed jippritkaw f’Antjokja ta’ Pisidja, f’13:33 huma jikkwotaw vers minn Salm 2 u jirreferu għalih bħala l-ewwel salm.9 Tajjeb wieħed jinnota li din it-traduzzjoni tal-Bibbja ġiet irranġata. Minħabba dan, bosta jikkonkludu li dawn iż-żewġ salmi kienu jiġu moqrija flimkien.

Punt ieħor li kien jintuża bħala bażi għal din it-teorija huwa li fl-ewwel vers ta’ Salm 1, “Hieni l-bniedem li ma jimxix fuq il-pariri tal-ħżiena, li ma jiqafx fi triq il-ħatjin, li ma joqgħodx fil-laqgħat taż-żeblieħa”,10 u fit-tnax-il wieħed ta’ Salm 2, “li ma jagħdabx u intom tinqerdu, għax malajr tixgħel il-qilla tiegħu. Hienja dawk kollha li jistkennu fih!”,11 insibu għaqda li tkompli tenfasizza li aktarx dawn kienu jiġu moqrija flimkien.12

Skont Bardtke, il-fatt li fit-tradizzjoni tat-Talmud Babiloniż Salm 104 huwa referut bħala Salm 103 wassal lil bosta studjużi għall-fehma li Salmi 1 u 2 kienu jiġu moqrija bħala salm wieħed. Din l-idea narawha tibda tonqos meta beda jintuża l-metodu ta’ Gunkel, il-Gattunsforschung. Dan ġara għaliex, kif

9 Cfr Botha P.J., The ideological interference between Psalm 1 and Psalm 2, 189. 10 S 1:1. 11 S 2:12. 12 Cfr Botha P.J., The ideological interference between Psalm 1 and Psalm ,2 189.

96 diġà spjegajt, dan il-metodu kien ifittex l-istil u l-forom li bih huwa miktub is- salm. Huwa għalhekk li bosta kienu dawk li identifikaw id-differenzi li wieħed jista’ jsib f’dawn iż-żewġ salmi, bħalma huma differenzi fil-vokabularju, fl- immaġni u fl-istruttura. Dawn waslu biex jgħidu li s-soluzzjoni li l-aktar tagħmel sens rigward ir-relazzjoni letterarja tas-salmi hija dik tematika.13

Gerald Willson jagħti xi raġunijiet il-għala f’xi tradizzjonijiet Salm 2 kien jiġi referut bħala l-ewwel salm: seta’ iservi bħala l-introduzzjoni għall-ewwel ktieb tas-Salmi u juri r-rabta li teżisti bejn l-ewwel u t-tieni ktieb tas-Salmi. L-istess awtur ikompli jgħid li Salm 1 huwa edizzjoni aktar tardiva, u għalhekk inkiteb sabiex iservi bħala introduzzjoni għas-salterju kollu.14

2. Id-Daħla ta’ Salmi 1 u 2 fis-salterju Il-fatt li Salmi 1 u 2 qegħdin fil-bidu tas-salterju żgur li ma huwiex xi koinċidenza. Huwa fatt magħruf minn kulħadd li l-kanoni kollha tal-Kotba Mqaddsa huma ppjanati preċiżament fil-post tagħhom; aktar u aktar il-ktieb tas-Salmi, li fih is-salmi huma mqiegħda intenzjonalment fil-pożizzjoni tagħhom. Huwa minħabba f’hekk li huma ħafna li jżommu li l-pożizzjoni ta’ Salmi 1 u 2 hija ta’ importanza kbira, għax dawn iservu ta’ introduzzjoni għas-salterju kollu.

Wieħed jista’ jgħid li l-ewwel salm huwa introduzzjoni, għax iservi ta’ gwida għal kif wieħed għandu jgħix u jaqra s-salterju. Fil-fatt, fit-tieni vers insibu dan: “imma fil-liġi tal-Mulej hi l-għaxqa tiegħu, lejl u nhar jaħseb fil-liġi tiegħu”.15 Huma bosta li jargumentaw li dan il-vers jindika kif wieħed għandu jaqra s-salterju kollu: billi jgħix u jimmedita l-ħin kollu l-liġi ta’ Jaħweh, u dan għandu jagħmlu permezz tat-talb, speċjalment tas-salmi.16

13 Cfr Ibid., 190. 14 Cfr Ibid., 190-191. 15 S 1:2. 16 Weber B., Psalm 1 and its function as a directive into the Psalter and towards a Biblical Theology, 249. 97 Indikazzjoni ċara li Salmi 1 u 2 iservu bħala introduzzjoni għas-salterju hija l-fatt li t-temi li nsibu fihom nerġgħu nsibuhom mifruxa mas-salterju kollu. Fil-fatt, jekk wieħed ikollu jħares lejn l-ewwel ktieb tas-Salmi (minn Salm 1 sa 41), jara kif hemm bosta salmi li jitkellmu fuq l-idea tat-tajbin u l-ħżiena, li nsibuha ċara f’Salm 1. Fost dawn is-salmi hemm Salm 7, speċjalment f’v. 10 fejn jgħid: “Ħa jintemm il-ħażen tal-ħżiena, u jitwettaq il-bniedem sewwa. Int li tgħarbel il-moħħ u l-qalb, int Alla ġust”.17 Insibu rabta wkoll ma’ Salmi 11, 32, 34, kif ukoll 37. Fil-fatt, ta’ min jinnota wkoll li f’Salm 37:31 insibu referenza għal-liġi ta’ Alla u kif wieħed għandu jgħixha f’qalbu. Ir-referenza għall-qima tat-Torah u l-għerf insibuha wkoll f’Salmi 19:8 u 40:9.18 Dawn ir-riferenzi ma nsibuhomx biss fl-ewwel ktieb tas-Salmi, imma anki fl-erba’ kotba l-oħra. Salm li jiġbdilna l-attenzjoni huwa Salm 73, li nsibu fit-tielet ktieb tas-Salmi. F’dan is-salm naraw, bħal fl-ewwel wieħed, it-twissija lit- twajbin sabiex dawn ifittxu li jitbiegħdu mill-ħżiena u l-attivitajiet tagħhom.19 Imma b’differenza minn Salm 1, issa f’Salm 73 it-tajjeb ma żammx ma’ din it-twissija u spiċċa fl-inkwiet.20

Anki l-pożizzjoni ta’ Salm 2, bħal dik ta’ Salm 1, mhix b’kumbinazzjoni, għalkemm l-istil tiegħu huwa differenti minn dak tal-ewwel salm, għaliex huwa salm irjali, u bħall-ewwel salm huwa jservi bħala introduzzjoni speċjalment għal dawk tal-istess stil. Fost is-salmi marbuta ma’ Salm 2 hemm 18, 72, 89 u 110.21

Punt ieħor interessanti li juri li Salmi 1 u 2 iservu bħala introduzzjoni għas- salterju huwa l-fatt li dawn iż-żewġ salmi huma differenti mill-bqija tas- salterju. Dan għaliex, fejn il-maġġoranza tas-salmi, kif diġà rajna, huma

17 S 7:10. 18 Weber B., Psalm 1 and its function as a directive into the Psalter and towards a Biblical Theology, 250. 19 Cfr S 73:27. 20 Cfr Weber B., Psalm 1 and its function as a directive into the Psalter and towards a Biblical Theology, 251. 21 Cfr Ibid., 252.

98 forma ta’ talba, Salmi 1 u 2 ma humiex. Fil-fatt, naraw li t-talb fis-salmi jibda minn Salm 3, jiġifieri mis-salmi Davidiċi.22

Naraw ukoll kif fit-testi Massoretiċi, Salmi 1, 2, 10 u 33 ma għandhomx titlu. Għal Salmi 10 u 33 ma nsibux titlu minħabba li Salmi 9 u 10 huma ppreżentati bħala salm wieħed fis-LXX. Fis-LXX naraw ukoll kif Salm 33 għandu t-titlu “ta’ David”, kif ukoll insibu evidenzi li ġejjin minn Qumran li dan is-salm kellu xi titlu f’kitbiet tal-Ebrajk. Naraw ukoll kif hemm traduzzjoni fejn Salm 32 jgħaqqduh ma’ Salm 33; huwa minħabba f’hekk li bosta jaħsbu li fil-kitbiet Massoretiċi t-titlu ta’ Salm 32 iservi bħala titlu għal Salm 33.23

Bosta jaħsbu li huwa possibbli li n-nuqqas ta’ titlu f’Salmi 1 u 2 jista’ jindika li dawn għandhom xi rwol speċjali jew huma ta’ edizzjoni aktar tardiva. Anki fis-LXX kull salm għandu titlu għajr għal Salmi 1 u 2,24 u dan juri mhux biss li kien hemm unità bejn is-salmi imma wkoll li dawn is-salmi huma differenti mis-salterju kollu, u għalhekk faċli wieħed jikkonkludi li dawn iż-żewġ salmi jservu bħala introduzzjoni għas-salterju.

Kif diġà rajna fil-bidu, is-salmi huma forma u mezz ta’ talb għall-poplu Lhudi. Fil-punt li diġà messejna qabel rajna kif Salmi 1 u 2 ma humiex salmi ta’ talb, b’differenza mis-salmi l-oħra fis-salterju. Għalhekk wieħed jikkonkludi li l-ktieb tas-Salmi, li huwa ktieb ta’ talb lil Alla, jiftaħ b’żewġ salmi li ma humiex indirizzati lil Alla. Minflok, dan il-ktieb jiftaħ b’messaġġ sapjenzjali indirizzat lil dawk il-persuni li huma lesti li jilqgħu l-istruzzjonijiet li dan il-ktieb jagħti lill-bniedem u jaċċettawhom bħala tagħlim li ġej mingħand Alla.25

Meta wieħed iħares lejn dawn il-punti kollha, faċli ħafna jara kif Salmi 1 u 2 huma ta’ importanza kbira għas-salterju, għax huma jservu bħala bieb għalih.

22 Cfr Ibid., 253. 23 Cfr Whiting M. J., Psalm 1 and 2 as a hermeneutical lens for reading the Psalter, 249. 24 Cfr Ibid. 25 Cfr Weber B., Psalm 1 and its function as a directive into the Psalter and towards a Biblical Theology, 250.

99 Fil-fatt, dawn l-ewwel żewġ salmi mhux biss iħarsu lura u jkomplu jibnu fuq dak li sar qabilhom – il-liġi26 u l-profeti27 – imma wkoll imexxu ’l quddiem lil dawk kollha li jaqrawhom f’din il-kollezzjoni ta’ kitbiet ta’ talb, qima u kult lil Alla.

3. L-interpretazzjoni ta’ Salmi 1 u 2

3.1 L-ideoloġija wara Salm 1 Tajjeb li nibdew billi ninnutaw kif min kiteb dan is-salm kellu kuxjenza profonda tad-distinzjoni ċara li kien hemm bejn dawk li jemmnu f’Jaħweh, il-Lhud, u dawk li ma jemmnux, il-pagani.28

Nindunaw kif fis-salm dawk li jemmnu jiġu deskritti f’terminoloġija morali bħala tajbin u ġusti, u kif dawn għandhom jitbiegħdu u jiddistakkaw ruħhom minn dawk li ma jemmnux. Dan għaliex dawn jiġu deskritti bħala “ħżiena” u midinbin. Is-salm jurina wkoll kif dawk li jemmnu u jgħixu ħajja ta’ fidi f’Jaħweh u jħarsu l-liġijiet tiegħu huma xortihom tajba, għax huma jinsabu fil-grazzja ta’ Alla.29 Fil-fatt is-salmista fil-bidu tas-salm isejjaħ lil dawn in- nies “hienja”. Sabiex juri dan, is-salmista jqabbel lil dawk li jemmnu ma’ “siġra mħawla ħdejn nixxigħat tal-ilma”,30 li qegħdin jgħixu ħajja pprivileġġjata għax din is-siġra “tagħmel il-frott fi żmienha, u l-weraq tagħha ma jidbielx; hu jirnexxi f’kulma jagħmel”.31 Hawnhekk naraw kif is-salmista jagħti assigurazzjoni li Alla ser ikun magħhom u ma hux ser jabbandunahom. Din l-idea tas-siġra narawha f’Eżekjel: “Fuq iż-żewġt ixtut tax-xmara jikbru

26 Cfr S 1:2. 27 Cfr S 2:7-9. 28 Cfr Botha P.J., The ideological interference between Psalm 1 and Psalm ,2 192. 29 Cfr Ibid. 30 S 1:3. 31 Ibid.

100 siġar ta’ kull ġens ta’ frott; il-weraq tagħhom ma jidbielx, il-frott tagħhom ma jonqosx. Kull xahar jagħmlu frott ġdid, għax l-ilma tagħhom ħiereġ mit-tempju, u l-frott tagħhom ikun ikel, u l-weraq duwa”.32 Hawnhekk ukoll naraw kif il-persuni t-tajba huma bħal siġra mħawla f’post ipprivileġġjat, f’post qaddis. Dan it-taqbil insibuh ukoll f’salmi oħra, li wkoll jitkellmu dwar ix-xmara u s-siġra. Dawn huma Salmi 46:5, 52:10, 65:10 u 92:13-15.33

Il-kuntrast insibuh f’v. 4, fejn naraw il-kundanna tal-ħżiena. Dawn iż-żewġ versi nistgħu nqabbluhom ukoll mal-Profeta Ġeremija (17:5-8), fejn niltaqgħu ma’ żewġ tipi ta’ siġar: dik tal-ħżiena hija s-“siġra tal-għargħar fix-xagħri, li ma tara ebda ġid ġej”, mentri dik tat-tajbin hija “siġra ħdejn l-ilma mħawla”, li “ma tibżax meta tiġi s-sħana”.34 Anki s-salmista jurina kif dawk li jemmnu għandhom jidħlu f’meditazzjoni kontinwa tat-Torah ta’ Jaħweh u tal-liġi tiegħu.35 Għalhekk wieħed jista’ jgħid li hija din il-meditazzjoni kontinwa li hija n-nixxiegħa ta’ ilma ġieri li jżomm is-siġra ħajja u tibqa’ tagħmel frott frisk.

F’dan il-kuntest inkomplu naraw ir-rwol ta’ Jaħweh fis-suċċessi u fil-prosperità ta’ dan il-poplu. Dan il-punt is-salmista jibqa’ jibni fuqu f’v. 6, fl-għeluq ta’ dan is-salm, fejn dawk li huma l-aktar qrib ta’ Jaħweh jirnexxu, għax it-triq tagħhom il-Mulej jafha, imma l-ħżiena jintilfu, għax “triq il-ħżiena tintemm fix-xejn”.36

Meta naqraw is-salm nindunaw ukoll li hemm ċerta kompetizzjoni bejn dawk li jemmnu u dawk li ma jemmnux. Jidher li bħala poplu l-Lhud riedu assigurazzjoni tas-suċċessi tagħhom fil-ħajja, u huwa għalhekk li fis-salm

32 Eżek 47:12. 33 Cfr Cole R., An Integrated Reading of Psalms 1 and 2, 75-76. 34 Cfr Kinder D., Psalms 1-72, An introduction and commentary on books I and II of the Psalms, 48. 35 Cfr Botha P.J., The ideological interference between Psalm 1 and Psalm 2, 192. 36 S 1:6.

101 naraw assigurazzjoni li dawk li jemmnu f’Alla ma humiex ser jintilfu.37 Tajjeb li ninnutaw kif fl-ewwel vers tas-salm is-salmista jpoġġi lill-bniedem hieni miexi fi triq. Permezz ta’ din il-metafora tal-ħajja bħala triq jindika kif dawk li mexjin fiha għandhom jaslu f’destinazzjoni. Fl-aħħar vers tas-salm din it-triq tasal fit-tmiem għall-ħżiena. F’dan is-salm, f’v. 5 naraw ukoll l-idea tal-aħħar ġudizzju, fejn il-pagani jidħlu mal-fidili għall-ġudizzju. Is-salmista jagħti x’jifhem li anki dawk li jemmnu jridu jgħaddu mill-ġudizzju ta’ Jaħweh, u għalhekk il-veru suċċess fil-ġudizzju jiġi mkejjel b’mod differenti. Is-salmista jgħid dan għax ra kif bosta minn dawk li jemmnu ma humiex konvinti sal- aħħar minn dan kollu, speċjalment meta huma kienu jaraw is-suċċessi tal- pagani.38 Tajjeb ngħidu wkoll li f’vv. 4 u 5 insibu l-ġurament ta’ Alla fuq il- ħżiena. Ma nsibux referenza diretta għal Alla fil-proċess tal-ġudizzju, imma din aħna nantiċipawha. Huwa biss fl-aħħar vers li Alla jissemma bħala dak li jaf kollox.39

F’Salm 1 naraw ukoll it-tema tal-unur, li kienet valur importanti ħafna fis-soċjetà ta’ dak iż-żmien. Għalhekk f’dan is-salm naraw kif is-salmista jiddeskrivi li t-triq sabiex wieħed ikun jista’ jakkwista l-unur hija dik ta’ dawk li jemmnu f’Jaħweh u kif il-ħżiena jispiċċaw fil-mistħija. Is-salm jiżgura lil dawk li jemmnu li l-ħżiena ser ikunu dawk li jaqgħu fil-mistħija waqt il- ġudizzju;40 “ma joqogħdux il-ħatja fil-ġemgħat tat-tajbin”.41

Nistgħu ngħidu li huwa salm tal-għerf: naraw kif l-istrateġija tas-salmista hi li jqabbel l-istil tal-ħajja, is-suċċessi, u b’hekk anki l-unur veru ta’ dawk li jemmnu; jiġifieri l-Lhud mal-pagani.42 Dan jagħmlu sabiex jikkonferma

37 Cfr Botha P.J., The ideological interference between Psalm 1 and Psalm ,2 193. 38 Cfr Ibid., 194. 39 Cfr Weber B., Psalm 1 and its function as a directive into the Psalter and towards a Biblical Theology, 247. 40 Cfr Ibid. 41 S 1:5. 42 Cfr Botha P.J., The ideological interference between Psalm 1 and Psalm 2, 195.

102 lil-Lhud li huma biss jistgħu jakkwistaw il-veru ferħ, suċċessi, u l-unur jekk huma dejjem jibqgħu sħaħ fil-fidi tagħhom. Is-salmista matul is-salm jinkoraġġixxi u jħeġġeġ lil dawk li jaqrawh sabiex jgħixu ħajja tajba u jafdaw f’Jaħweh. F’dan is-salm jippreżentalna soċjetà ideali li tafda fit-tmexxija ta’ Jaħweh u ma titħallatx mal-ħajja tal-pagani.43

Huwa għalhekk li dan is-salm iservi bħala introduzzjoni tajba ħafna għas- salterju kollu. Hu juri lill-poplu Lhudi f’liema spirtu għandu jaqra s-salterju kollu, billi jenfasizza ħafna fuq l-importanza tal-meditazzjoni, speċjalment dik tat-Torah, li jkunu jafuh tajjeb u jgħixuh.

3.2 L-ideoloġija wara Salm 2 B’differenza għal Salm 1, Salm 2 jitkellem aktar fuq il-ħajja politika Lhudija milli fuq dik morali, għaliex huwa salm regali. Tajjeb li qabel ma nħarsu lejn is-salm, nagħtu ħarsa ħafifa lejn ir-rwol tas-sultan u l-post tiegħu fil-kult ta’ Iżrael.

Wieħed jista’ jara kif għal-Lhud is-sultan huwa fiċ-ċentru tal-festi tagħhom. Tajjeb li ngħidu wkoll li għall-kultura Lhudija l-poter u l-barka li huwa jirċievi, jirċeviha mingħand Jaħweh. Dan ir-rwol tiegħu fil-kult huwa ġej minn żmien David, fejn is-sultan sar dak li jieħu ħsieb il-kult. Naraw kif is-sultan jibda jorganizza u jipparteċipa fih. Fost l-oħrajn, huwa jieħu sehem fil-purċissjoni għas-santwarju. Is-sultan jipprovdi u joffri s-sagrifiċċju. Fil-kult Lhudi naraw kif il-qassisin il-kbar kienu jagħmlu r-riti f’ismu.44 Huwa għalhekk li s-salmi regali huma marbuta mal- festi tas-sultan, u għalhekk huma jitfgħu dawl fuq kif dawn kienu jiġu ċċelebrati.

Għalkemm ma għandniex identifikazzjoni tal-awtur għal dan is-salm, f’Atti 4:25 dan jiġi referut bħala salm minn ta’ David. Tajjeb li ninnutaw ukoll li fit- Testment il-Qadim insibu bosta referenzi għal dan is-salm, aktarx minħabba

43 Cfr Ibid. 44 Cfr Mowinckel S., The Psalms in Israel’s Worship, 61-62. 103 l-fatt li s-salm jitkellem fuq l-midluk li Alla jagħżel u fuq l-viżjoni universali tas-Saltna tiegħu.45

Għalkemm Salm 2 huwa meqjus bħala salm li jintuża waqt il-kult tal- inkurunazzjoni ta’ sultan ġdid, meta wieħed jidħol fid-dettall jinduna kif f’dan is-salm f’vv. 7-9 insibu li dan qed jirreferi għal żmien ta’ nkwiet,46 li bosta jqabbluh ma’ dak li nsibu fit-Tieni Ktieb ta’ Samwel, kapitlu 10, fejn naraw ir-rebħa tas-Sultan David fuq l-Għammonin u l-Aramin.47

L-ideoloġija ta’ dan is-salm tista’ tiġi deskritta bħala salm imperjalista. Fil- fatt, mal-ftuħ tas-salm, is-salmista mill-ewwel jurina kif is-slaten tad-dinja qed japprofittaw mis-sitwazzjoni politika li Iżrael jinsab fiha u qegħdin “jixxewxu” u “jreddnu” kontra “l-Mulej u l-Midluk tiegħu”.

Iktar ’il quddiem fis-salm inkomplu naraw kif Alla “jidħak” b’dak li huma qegħdin jagħmlu kif ukoll li huwa “biċ-ċajt jeħodhom”, għaliex jaf li din ir- ribelljoni mhux ser tirnexxi.48 Anki hawnhekk wieħed jista’ jgħaqqad dan is-salm mat-Testment il-Ġdid. Dan għaliex ir-ribelljoni tal-bniedem issa tiġi murija fuq il-kalvarju, fejn pagani u Lhud qeegħdin jeħduha kontra Ġesù, il- midluk.49 Imma Alla “jidħak” minħabba l-injoranza ta’ dawn is-slaten li jridu jeħduha kontra Alla u flok kontra t-tbatija li jiswewlhom dawn il-gwerer qabel jispiċċaw kollha.50

Fis-salm, minn v. 7 naraw kif Alla jagħmel wegħda lis-sultan tiegħu. Fil- fatt minn vv. 7 sa 9 il-kelliem isir il-midluk tal-Mulej. Dawn il-kelmiet

45 Cfr Kinder D., Psalms 1-72, An introduction and commentary on books I and II of the Psalms, 49-50. 46 Cfr Ibid., 50. 47 Cfr 2 Sam 10. 48 Cfr Botha P.J., The ideological interference between Psalm 1 and Psalm ,2 196. 49 Cfr Kinder D., Psalms 1-72, An introduction and commentary on books I and II of the Psalms, 50. 50 Cfr Ibid, 50-51.

104 setgħu ġew mitkellma bħala oraklu minn profeta jew moqrija waqt ir-rit tal-inkurunazzjoni tas-sultan il-ġdid.51 Anki hawnhekk nilmħu rabta mat- Testment il-Ġdid, speċjalment mal-misteru tal-qawmien mill-imwiet (Atti 13:32-33); dan il-kliem isib il-valur sħiħ tiegħu f’Ġesù Kristu. Fil-fatt, kemm fil-Magħmudija kif ukoll fit-Trasfigurazzjoni, il-Missier ipproklamah bħala Iben u Qaddej, bi kliem imfassal minn dan il-vers kif ukoll minn Iżaija.52

Il-wegħda li Alla jagħmel lil dan is-sultan narawha wkoll tasal fis-seħħ fit- Testment il-Ġdid, fejn wara l-qawmien mill-mewt Kristu jibgħat lill-Appostli jxandru l-Bxara t-tajba lill-ġnus kollha tal-art, wegħda li nsibu f’dan is-salm meta Alla jwiegħed lis-sultan tiegħu: “Itlobni, u l-ġnus nagħtik b’wirtek, u truf l-art bi priża tiegħek”.53 Din hi wegħda li l-Knisja għadha tħaddan sal- ġurnata tal-lum.54 Għalhekk wieħed jista’ jgħid li dan is-salm huwa salm profetiku u messjaniku.

F’Salm 2 ma nsibux biss referenzi għat-Testment il-Ġdid, imma wkoll għat-Testment il-Qadim. Dan għaliex il-“virga tal-ħadid” nistgħu ngħidu li tirreferi għall-bastun tar-ragħaj li kien jintuża sabiex jidderiġi l-merħla, liema referenzi nsibuhom fil-ktieb tal-Lev 27:32 u f’Eżek 20:37, waqt li f’Salm 23:4 insibu referenza għaliha bħala arma kontra l-għedewwa. Hu għalhekk li din il-“virga tal-ħadid” issir simbolu ta’ governanza.55

Tajjeb li ninnutaw kif fl-aħħar ta’ Salm 2 is-slaten jiġu ppreżentati bħala l-unika tama għas-sottomissjoni f’idejn Alla. Imma dan ma huwiex kmand, imma stedina, għaliex is-salm jagħlaq bil-grazzja ta’ Alla:56 “Hienja dawk kollha li jistkennu fih!”.

51 Cfr Ibid, 51. 52 Iż 42,1. 53 S 2:8. 54 Cfr Kinder D., Psalms 1-72, An introduction and commentary on books I and II of the Psalms, 51. 55 Cfr Ibid., 52. 56 Cfr Ibid.

105 Għalhekk wieħed faċli jikkonkludi li l-ideoloġija wara dan is-salm hija marbuta mas-saltna ta’ Alla fid-dinja, fejn Jaħweh jaħkem fuq id-dinja kollha. F’dan is-salm, bħalma naraw f’Salm 1, nerġgħu nsibu t-tema tal-unur, li kienet ferm importanti għall-poplu ta’ dak iż-żmien, u għalhekk anki turi x-xewqa ta’ dan il-poplu li juri kif Alla għandu kontroll fuq is-saltniet kollha tad-dinja u li ried jgħaqqadhom taħt is-Sultan f’Ġerusalemm. Dan issir bħala wegħda fi żmien li fih id-dominazzjoni ta’ Jaħweh għadha mhix evidenti.57

Ninnutaw ukoll kif is-salmista jixtieq jenfasizza l-għażla divina tas-sultan. Imma tajjeb ninnutaw li s-salm ma huwiex miktub sabiex jistabbilixxi rikonoxximent internazzjonali tal-awtorità tas-sultan, imma sabiex jistabbilixxi aċċettazjoni nazzjonali tal-idea tat-tmexxija universali ta’ Jaħweh permezz tas-sultan tiegħu.58

L-istrateġija tas-salmista għal dan is-salm hija li jfakkar fil-ħatra u l-inkurunazzjoni tas-sultan il-ġdid. Tajjeb ngħidu li dan is-salm ma huwiex it-test liturġiku tal-ħatra tas-sultan il-ġdid, u li meta ntemmet il-monarkija, dan is-salm sar salm profetiku.59

Bħala konklużjoni wieħed jista’ jgħid li dan is-salm mhux biss iservi bħala introduzzjoni għas-salterju, imma wkoll flimkien ma’ Salm 110 għandu rwol importanti fil-binja tat-Testment il-Ġdid, minħabba l-aspetti profetiċi u messjaniċi li fih.

3.3 Il-kontinwità bejn iż-żewġ salmi Kif diġà rajna qabel, bosta kienu li wrew kif kemm Salm 1 u Salm 2 huma marbuta flimkien, speċjalment kif dawn iż-żewġ salmi jservu bħala introduzzjoni għas-salterju.

57 Cfr Botha P.J., The ideological interference between Psalm 1 and Psalm ,2 198. 58 Cfr Ibid. 59 Cfr Ibid., 199.

106 Imma barra li dawn iservu ta’ introduzzjoni għas-salterju, f’dawn iż-żewġ salmi nsibu unità fl-ideoloġija li biha huma miktuba, għalkemm dawn ma humiex miktuba mill-istess awtur. Meta nħarsu lejn iż-żewġ salmi naraw kif it-tnejn li huma ġew miktuba f’soċjetà u għal soċjetà li hija mibnija fuq tradizzjoni ta’ valuri u l-liġi ta’ Alla. Dan għaliex f’Salm 1 din it-tradizzjoni hija deskritta bħala dik tat-Torah ta’ Jaħweh u f’Salm 2 hija meħuda mill- profezija tal-profeta Natan, li nsibuha fit-Tieni Ktieb ta’ Samwel, kapitlu 7, u b’hekk nistgħu naraw dan is-salm bħala wieħed profetiku.60

Fiż-żewġ salmi nkomplu naraw kif l-unur ta’ kull individwu li jemmen f’Alla kif ukoll dak tal-Lhud kollha huwa importanti ħafna. F’Salm 1 dan l-unur jinkiseb biss meta wieħed iċaħħad lilu nnifsu mill-elementi tas- soċjetà pagana ta’ madwaru u jaċċetta u jitfa’ l-attenzjoni tiegħu fuq it- Torah ta’ Jaħweh, u b’hekk huwa jkun qiegħed fil-grazzja ta’ Alla. F’Salm 2 naraw l-istess veritajiet li naraw f’Salm 1, imma issa fuq livell nazzjonali, li l-poplu Lhudi jirċievi l-unur tiegħu meta s-saltniet l-oħra jagħrfu lis-sultan Lhudi bħala dak li jirrappreżenta t-tmexxija universali ta’ Alla.61 B’hekk wieħed jista’ jgħid li dawn iż-żewġ salmi juru kif din is-soċjetà hija bbażata u ddedikata lil Jaħweh.

Fiż-żewġ salmi nsibu diversi tipi ta’ paralleli. Fost l-oħrajn dak il-bniedem hieni li huwa deskritt f’Salm 1 nistgħu nqabbluh mas-sultan magħżul ta’ Jaħweh f’Salm 2. Il-“ħżiena” ta’ Salm 1 jistgħu jitqabblu mas-slaten ribellużi ta’ Salm 2. Naraw ukoll paralleli bejn il-bniedem li jsib l-għaxqa tiegħu fit- Torah ta’ Jaħweh (Salm 1) u l-qawwa li s-sultan jirċievi mingħand Alla (Salm 2). Fiż-żewġ salmi nsibu wkoll kif il-wegħda tas-Sultan f’Ġerusalemm, li s-saltna tiegħu ser tissaħħaħ u tikber f’Salm 2, hi mqabbla mal-metafora tas-“siġra mħawla ħdejn nixxigħat tal-ilma” f’Salm 1. Fiż-żewġ salmi nsibu l-qerda tal-ħżiena: f’Salm 1 il-qerda tal-ħżiena tiġi mqabbla ma’ “tibna li jtajjarha r-riħ”, u f’Salm 2 dawn huma mqabbla mas-slaten li jeħduha

60 Cfr Ibid., 199-200. 61 Cfr Ibid., 200.

107 kontra s-Sultan ta’ Jaħweh u jispiċċaw meqruda mill-qilla ta’ Alla. Inkomplu naraw ukoll kif il-ferħ u l-unuri li jirċievu dawk li jinfirdu mill-ħżiena jikkorrispondu mal-wegħda ta’ ferħ lil dawk li jassoċċjaw irwieħhom mal- magħżul ta’ Jaħweh.62

Aspetti oħra li juru l-unità fid-diversità ta’ dawn iż-żewġ salmi huma: Salm 1 idur madwar it-Torah u l-għerf, filwaqt li f’Salm 2 naraw it-tmexxija divina, kif ukoll aspettattivi ta’ Messija ħellies; Salm 1 huwa salm ta’ orjentazzjoni individwali, filwaqt li Salm 2 għandu ħarsa iktar universali; l-ewwel salm fih teoloġija ta’ ubbidjenza lejn Alla, filwaqt li f’Salm 2 naraw teoloġija tal-ħakma ta’ Alla. Għalhekk wieħed jista’ jikkonkludi li dawn iż-żewġ salmi fl-unità tagħhom joffru istruzzjonijiet doppji għal kif wieħed għandu jħares lejn is- salterju.63

Kif rajna, għalkemm Salmi 1 u 2 huma differenti minn xulxin, xorta hemm unità bejniethom, li tgħin sabiex dawn iż-żewġ salmi joffru introduzzjoni tajba għas-salterju.

Konklużjoni Minn dak li rajna nistgħu nikkonkludu li s-Salmi kienu u għadhom ta’ importanza kbira. Għalkemm għaddew ’il fuq minn elfejn sena, il-messaġġ tagħhom xorta waħda għadu rilevanti għall-ġurnata tal-lum.

Is-salm kellu rwol importanti fil-kult Lhudi, kemm fuq livell nazzjonali kif ukoll fuq livell individwali. B’mod speċifiku, is-Salmi 1 u 2 għandhom l-irwol li jintroduċu lill-qarrej fil-qari tas-salterju u juruh b’liema mod aħna għandu jaqrahom. Fil-fatt, f’dawn is-salmi nsibu diversi temi li nerġgħu nsibuhom mifruxa mas-salterju kollu.

62 Cfr Ibid., 202. 63 Cfr Weber B., Psalm 1 and its function as a directive into the Psalter and towards a Biblical Theology, 253.

108 Wieħed seta’ jinnota kif fl-ewwel salm insibu l-barka ta’ Alla li tinżel fuq in- nies twajba u l-kundanna fuq il-ħżiena. F’dan is-salm ta’ xeħta sapjenzjali naraw l-importanza li dawk li jemmnu jimxu mat-tagħlim tal-Kotba Mqaddsa, jimmeditawhom u jgħixuhom, biex b’hekk jilħqu l-milja tal-ħajja. Min-naħa l-oħra f’Salm 2 għandna l-wegħda ta’ Alla ta’ sultan messjaniku li aħna l-Insara nsibuh fil-persuna ta’ Ġesù Kristu. Kif rajna wkoll, f’dan is-salm toħroġ dik ix-xewqa li dan is-sultan ikun magħruf mad-dinja kollha.

Għalhekk wieħed faċli jikkonkludi li Salmi 1 u 2 jiggwidaw lill-qarrej sabiex ikollu l-għerf li jistenna lill-Mulej iwettaq din il-wegħda futura, billi jimmedita fuq il-liġi u fuq it-tjubija tal-imħabba ta’ Alla. Importanti, mela, li nħarsu lejn is-salmi u anki nitolbu permezz tagħhom, għaliex il-messaġġ tagħhom, għalkemm ġew miktuba fi żmien differenti u minn poplu differenti, xorta għadu validu għal kull sitwazzjoni fil-ħajja Nisranija tagħna.

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