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Online Hate Speech in the European Union a Discourse- Analytic Perspective Springerbriefs in Linguistics SPRINGER BRIEFS IN LINGUISTICS Stavros Assimakopoulos Fabienne H. Baider Sharon Millar Online Hate Speech in the European Union A Discourse- Analytic Perspective SpringerBriefs in Linguistics Series editor Helen Aristar-Dry, Linguist List, Ypsilanti, MI, USA and Dripping Springs, TX, USA More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11940 Stavros Assimakopoulos Fabienne H. Baider • Sharon Millar Online Hate Speech in the European Union A Discourse-Analytic Perspective With contributions by Natalie Alkiviadou Á César Arroyo López Á Pablo Bernardino Tempesta Á Tatsiana Chulitskaya Á Anna Constantinou Klaus Geyer Á Łukasz Grabowski Á Uladzislau Ivanou Monika Kopytowska Á Roberto Moreno López Á Rasmus Nielsen Á Valentina Oliviero Á Anastasia Petrou Á Ernesto Russo Á Rebecca Vella Muskat Á Anna Vibeke Lindø Georgia Whitaker Á Julita Woźniak Stavros Assimakopoulos Sharon Millar Institute of Linguistics and Language Department of Language and Technology Communication University of Malta University of Southern Denmark Msida Odense Malta Denmark Fabienne H. Baider Department of French and European Studies University of Cyprus Nicosia Cyprus ISSN 2197-0009 ISSN 2197-0017 (electronic) SpringerBriefs in Linguistics ISBN 978-3-319-72603-8 ISBN 978-3-319-72604-5 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-72604-5 Library of Congress Control Number: 2017961096 © The Author(s) 2017. This book is an open access publication. Open Access This book is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adap- tation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this book are included in the book’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the book’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publi- cation does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Printed on acid-free paper This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Contents 1 Introduction and Background .............................. 1 1.1 Hate Speech in the EU and the C.O.N.T.A.C.T. Project ........ 1 Fabienne H. Baider, Stavros Assimakopoulos and Sharon Millar 1.2 Regulating Hate Speech in the EU ....................... 6 Natalie Alkiviadou 1.3 Hate Speech in the Online Setting ........................ 10 César Arroyo López and Roberto Moreno López 1.4 The C.O.N.T.A.C.T. Research Workstream ................. 12 Stavros Assimakopoulos, Fabienne H. Baider, and Sharon Millar References ............................................. 14 2 The C.O.N.T.A.C.T. Methodological Approach ................ 17 2.1 Harvesting and Analysing Online Comments to News Reports ..................................... 17 Sharon Millar, Fabienne H. Baider and Stavros Assimakopoulos 2.2 Approximating Perceptions of Hate ....................... 20 Sharon Millar, Fabienne H. Baider and Stavros Assimakopoulos References ............................................. 22 3 Analysis of Online Comments to News Reports ................ 25 3.1 Categorisation and Defence Strategies ..................... 25 Ernesto Russo and Pablo Bernardino Tempesta 3.2 Stereotyping Vulnerable Groups ......................... 29 Uladzislau Ivanou v vi Contents 3.3 From ‘Patriotism’ to Hate: Axiological Urgency in Online Comments Related to Refugees .......................... 32 Monika Kopytowska, Julita Woźniak and Łukasz Grabowski 3.4 Metaphors Related to Othering the Non-natives .............. 38 Fabienne H. Baider, Anna Constantinou and Anastasia Petrou 3.5 The Implicit Dimension of Discriminatory Discourse .......... 42 Rebecca Vella Muskat and Stavros Assimakopoulos 3.6 Changing Participant Roles in the Expression of Hate Speech .... 46 Sharon Millar, Klaus Geyer, Anna Vibeke Lindø and Rasmus Nielsen References ............................................. 50 4 Young People’s Perception of Hate Speech .................... 53 4.1 Youth and Hate Speech in the (Mediatised) Public Sphere ...... 54 Monika Kopytowska, Julita Woźniak and Łukasz Grabowski 4.2 Resistance Against Hate Speech: Generation ‘Snowflake’ or Generation ‘Woke’? ................................ 57 Georgia Whitaker 4.3 Folk Characterisations of Hate Speech ..................... 62 Sharon Millar, Rasmus Nielsen, Anna Vibeke Lindø and Klaus Geyer 4.4 Thoughts on Regulating Hate Speech ..................... 66 Tatsiana Chulitskaya 4.5 It All Depends on Who Discrimination Targets .............. 69 Stavros Assimakopoulos and Rebecca Vella Muskat 4.6 The Conceptual Contiguity of Race and Religion ............. 72 Fabienne H. Baider, Anna Constantinou and Anastasia Petrou 4.7 Hate Speech and the Communication Medium ............... 77 Ernesto Russo and Valentina Oliviero 4.8 Hate Speech, Cyberbullying and Online Anonymity ........... 80 César Arroyo López and Roberto Moreno López References ............................................. 83 5 Concluding Remarks .................................... 87 Fabienne H. Baider, Stavros Assimakopoulos and Sharon Millar References ............................................. 90 Contributors Natalie Alkiviadou AEQUITAS, Limassol, Cyprus; University of Central Lancashire, Limassol, Cyprus, e-mail: [email protected] César Arroyo López Asociación Socioeducativa Llere, Toledo, Spain, e-mail: [email protected] Stavros Assimakopoulos Institute of Linguistics and Language Technology, University of Malta, Msida, Malta, e-mail: [email protected] Fabienne H. Baider Department of French and European Studies, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus, e-mail: [email protected] Pablo Bernardino Tempesta Ce.S.F.Or., Roma, Italy, e-mail: pablo.tempesta89@ gmail.com Tatsiana Chulitskaya European Humanities University, Vilnius, Lithuania, e-mail: [email protected] Anna Constantinou Department of French Studies and Modern Languages, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus, e-mail: [email protected] Klaus Geyer Department of Language and Communication, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark, e-mail: [email protected] Łukasz Grabowski Institute of English, University of Opole, Opole, Poland, e-mail: [email protected] Uladzislau Ivanou European Humanities University, Vilnius, Lithuania, e-mail: [email protected] Monika Kopytowska Department of Pragmatics, Institute of English Studies, University of Łódź, Łódź, Poland, e-mail: [email protected] Sharon Millar Department of Language and Communication, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark, e-mail: [email protected] vii viii Contributors Roberto Moreno López Universidad de Castilla—La Mancha, Talavera de la Reina, Spain, e-mail: [email protected] Rasmus Nielsen Department of Language and Communication, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark, e-mail: [email protected] Valentina Oliviero Ce.S.F.Or., Roma, Italy, e-mail: valentina.oliviero12.01@ gmail.com Anastasia Petrou Department of French Studies and Modern Languages, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus, e-mail: [email protected] Ernesto Russo Ce.S.F.Or., Roma, Italy, e-mail: [email protected] Rebecca Vella Muskat Institute of Linguistics, University of Malta, Msida, Malta, e-mail: [email protected] Anna Vibeke Lindø Department of Language and Communication, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark, e-mail: [email protected] Georgia Whitaker UKREN, London, UK, e-mail: georgiawhitakerhughes@ gmail.com Julita Woźniak Department of Pragmatics, University of Łódź, Łódź, Poland, e-mail: [email protected] Chapter 1 Introduction and Background 1.1 Hate Speech in the EU and the C.O.N.T.A.C.T. Project Fabienne H. Baider, Stavros Assimakopoulos and Sharon Millar Migration phenomena characterised by a large influx of populations can question our conception of territories and social relations. Since this conception is part and parcel of our identity, migration has the power to trigger political discourses on identity issues. One such occasion has indeed been unravelling lately, especially since the summer of 2015, with the arrival in the European Union (henceforth EU) of migrants from a variety of places, and in particular from regions in conflict, such as Syria, Libya or Iraq, countries under totalitarian regimes, such as Erythrea, as well as countries with high levels of poverty, such as Pakistan
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