The Role of South African Universities in Facilitating Optimal Performance of Elite Athletes with Impairments

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How to cite this thesis

Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD. (Chemistry)/ M.Sc. (Physics)/ M.A. (Philosophy)/M.Com. (Finance) etc. [Unpublished]: University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: https://ujcontent.uj.ac.za/vital/access/manager/Index?site_name=Research%20Output (Accessed: Date).

THE ROLE OF SOUTH AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES IN FACILITATING OPTIMAL PERFORMANCE OF ELITE ATHLETES WITH IMPAIRMENTS

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Johannesburg, in fulfilment for the degree of Master of Commerce: Sport Management

Nyasha Mharakurwa

(Student number: 200909906)

Supervisor: Prof. C. Burnett

Co-supervisor: Prof. C.J. Roux

Johannesburg, 2016

1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background to the study ...... 1

1.2 Problem statement ...... 2

1.3 Aim and objectives ...... 3

1.4 Hypotheses ...... 4

1.5 Research design ...... 4

1.6 Methodology and sampling ...... 4

1.6.1 Methodology ...... 4

1.6.2 Sample ...... 5

1.7 Delimitation ...... 5

1.8 Limitations ...... 5

1.9 Concepts ...... 6

1.9.1 Long Term Athlete Development ...... 6

1.9.2 High performance sport ...... 7

1.9.3 Impairment and disability ...... 7

1.9.4 Athletes with impairments ...... 8

1.9.5 Student-athletes with impairments ...... 9

1.10 Structure of thesis ...... 9

1.11 Significance and envisaged outputs...... 10

1.12 Chapter summary ...... 10

2 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 11 2.1 Introduction ...... 11

2.2 Disability and sport ...... 11

2.2.1 Perspectives on disability ...... 12

2.2.2 Linking disability to Paralympic Sport ...... 14

2.2.3 Historical overview on the institutionalisation of Paralympic Sport ...... 15

2.2.4 Athletes with impairments: Eligibility and classification principles ...... 21

2.3 Long term athlete development in a South Africa context ...... 25

2.3.1 The development of AWI ...... 27

2.3.2 Development pathways and outcomes ...... 27

2.3.3 The LTAD model ...... 28

2.3.4 Key factors influencing LTAD for AWI ...... 32

2.3.5 Key pillars to support LTAD for AWI ...... 36

2.3.6 Criticisms of the LTPD model ...... 37

2.3.7 The role of stakeholders in LTPD ...... 39

2.3.8 Resources ...... 46

2.4 Student-athletes with impairments as a special population ...... 49

2.4.1 Profiling the student-athlete ...... 49

2.4.2 Student-athletes with impairments ...... 52

2.4.3 Challenges facing S-AWI ...... 53

2.4.4 Institutional support to S-AWI ...... 55

2.5 Stakeholders and strategic partnerships for S-AWI development ...... 59

2.5.1 National level ...... 59

2.5.2 Provincial level ...... 64

2.5.3 Local level ...... 64

2.6 Chapter summary ...... 65

3 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 67 3.1 Introduction ...... 67

3.2 Research design ...... 67

3.3 Methodology ...... 67

3.3.1 Quantitative data analysis ...... 67

3.3.2 Qualitative data analysis ...... 68

3.3.3 Document analysis ...... 69

3.3.4 Validity and reliability ...... 70

3.3.5 Procedures ...... 71

3.4 Sampling ...... 71

3.5 Recruitment and selection ...... 72

3.5.1 Inclusion ...... 72

3.5.2 Exclusion ...... 72

3.6 Ethical considerations ...... 72

3.7 Chapter summary ...... 73

4 CHAPTER FOUR: PROFILING OF SAMPLE UNIVERSITIES ...... 74 4.1 Introduction ...... 74

4.1.1 Chapter overview ...... 75

4.1.2 Methodological approach ...... 78

4.2 Profiling of sample universities ...... 78

4.2.1 Introduction ...... 78

4.2.2 University of Pretoria ...... 79

4.2.3 University of Johannesburg ...... 86

4.2.4 Stellenbosch University ...... 88

4.2.5 Tshwane University of Technology ...... 93

4.2.6 University of the Witwatersrand ...... 96

4.2.7 Theme summary ...... 99

4.3 High performance sport for AWI in sample universities ...... 103

4.3.1 Introduction ...... 103

4.3.2 Participation statistics ...... 103

4.3.3 Athlete demographic information ...... 111

4.3.4 Theme summary ...... 111

4.4 Chapter summary ...... 113

5 CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...... 114 5.1 Introduction ...... 114

5.2 Access to resources ...... 114

5.2.1 Funding ...... 114

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5.2.2 External sources of funding ...... 117

5.2.3 Physical resources ...... 125

5.2.4 Human resources ...... 131

5.2.5 Theme summary ...... 137

5.3 Opportunities for Competition ...... 144

5.3.1 Sufficiency of competitive opportunities ...... 144

5.3.2 Theme summary ...... 149

5.4 Stakeholder collaboration ...... 150

5.4.1 Internal stakeholders ...... 151

5.4.2 External stakeholders ...... 152

5.4.3 Theme summary ...... 157

5.5 Challenges ...... 159

5.5.1 Challenges facing universities ...... 160

5.5.2 Balance between academics, sport and social life for student-athletes 165

5.5.3 Theme summary ...... 168

5.6 Recommendations from universities ...... 169

5.6.1 The role of universities in promoting social justice and equality ...... 169

5.6.2 Community outreach initiatives ...... 171

5.6.3 Stakeholder support and collaboration ...... 171

5.6.4 Staff training and development ...... 173

5.6.5 Mainstreaming sport for AWI ...... 174

5.7 Chapter summary ...... 176

6 CHAPTER SIX: FURTHER DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 177 6.1 Introduction ...... 177

6.2 Exclusion of PWI from elite sport in sample universities ...... 178

6.2.1 Meaningful opportunities for sport participation ...... 178

6.2.2 Absence of policy and or plan to increase sport participation for AWI 180

6.3 Marginalisation in sport ...... 181

6.3.1 Priority status of sport for AWI ...... 181

6.3.2 Depth of support offered to existing elite athletes with impairments ... 181

6.4 Failure to address challenges at strategic decision-making level ...... 183

6.5 Wider challenges facing sport for AWI ...... 183

6.5.1 Social issues of disability in society and their impact on sport for AWI184

6.6 Chapter summary ...... 187

6.7 Conclusion ...... 188

6.8 Recommendations ...... 189

6.8.1 To management in universities ...... 189

6.8.2 For future research ...... 190

7 REFERENCE LIST ...... 191 8 ANNEXTURE A: INFORMED CONSENT ...... 212 9 ANNEXTURE B: QUESTIONNAIRE TO ATHLETES ...... 214 10 ANNEXTURE C: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR CLUB MANAGERS ...... 224 11 ANNEXTURE D: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR THE EXECUTIVE OF UNIVERSITY SPORT STRUCTURE ...... 226 DECLARATION

I declare that this dissertation is my own, unaided work. It is being submitted for the Degree of Master of Commerce at the University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg. It has not been submitted before for any degree or examination in any other university.

Signature: …………………………………………………

On this ………………… day of …………………. 2016.

ABSTRACT

This exploratory study examines the role of South African universities in facilitating optimal performance of elite athletes with impairments. It provides invaluable insight in an area that is relatively under-researched and could result in improved developmental models for athletes with impairments in South African universities. A descriptive, mixed-methods approach was utilized using three data sets generated from questionnaires, semi-structured interviews as well as document analysis (including university websites) to capture data from high performance athletes with impairments (AWI), top management of the university sports structures as well as management of university sports clubs for/with AWI. This study focused on high performance sports falling under the Paralympic Movement which are offered in public universities registered on the University Sport South Africa (USSA) membership database in Gauteng Province plus one university in the Western Cape Province. Key findings from this study show that collectively, universities have strategically positioned themselves to play a pivotal role in the training and nurturing of elite athletes with impairments in the country both internally as well as externally as key role players in the delivery of elite sport to people with impairments (PWI) in South Africa at large. These institutions partner with various stakeholders such as the South African Sports Confederation and Olympic Committee (SASCOC), federations, community sports clubs, government and its agencies, universities as well as schools and private corporations. However, findings from this study also show that although university involvement in sports for AWI has grown significantly over the years there is limited focus on elite sport participation. To a greater extent, PWI are still excluded in as well as marginalised in elite sport in sample universities. There is also a lack of resources as well as collaboration and alignment between key stakeholders in facilitating the optimal performance of AWI in the post-school phase. In addition, universities face several challenges, some systemic while others are sport related in their efforts to optimally support elite AWI.

Key words: Athletes with impairments, universities, elite sport, Paralympic Sport

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DEDICATION

In memory of my father

Asam Mharakurwa

1956-2003

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To all those who played a part in getting me to this moment, in particular:

God - the creator of all through whom I am able to do all things.

My family - for supporting and empowering me to become an independent being.

Petros Ndhlovu - for sacrificing your own time and resources through giving me the opportunity to participate in tennis at no cost. A decision that changed my life and indirectly of others for the better, forever.

Holger Losch and Karen Losch – for seeing the potential in me even as I was novice tennis player and linking me with the University of Johannesburg and supporting my career over the years.

Henriette Vermaak – for being ‘crazy’ enough to provide the opportunity and support a non-citizen to pursue my dreams.

Prof. Cora Burnett – for your patience and guidance in my pursuit to be a master.

Prof. Kobus Roux – for being the fatherly figure over the years and encouraging and supporting my pursuit for academic knowledge.

Management of universities and athletes who participated in this study.

Sim Cele – for your invaluable assistance with language and technical editing

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1: Sport for life: South African model for long term participant development 30 Figure 2.2: The relationship between the LTPD pathway and the education system in South Africa 41 Figure 4.1: Number of high performance AWI per sport code at UJ 105 Figure 4.2: Number of high performance AWI per sport code at SU 105 Figure 4.3: Percentage of high performance AWI per sport code at UJ 106 Figure 4.4: Percentage of high performance AWI per sport code at SU 107 Figure 4.5: Combined membership of elite student versus non-student-athletes at Club SSD 108 Figure 4.6: Combined membership of elite student versus non-student-athletes at Maties ParaSport 109 Figure 4.7: Ratio of elite student to non-student-athletess, Club SSD 110 Figure 4.8: Ratio of elite student to non-student-athletess at Maties ParaSport 110 Figure 5.1: Sources of funding 115 Figure 5.2: Number of AWI on the OPEX programme per university 119 Figure 5.3: Combined proportion of AWI on the OPEX programme per sport code 120 Figure 5.4: Sufficiency of equipment 130 Figure 5.5: Athletes' level of satisfaction with available equipment 130 Figure 5.6: Athletes' perception on coach's level of coaching qualifications 134 Figure 5.7: Athletes' perception on coach's level of coaching experience 135 Figure 5.8: Athletes' perception on coach's knowledge about disability 136 Figure 5.9: Athletes' perception on coach's knowledge about classification 137

LIST OF TABLES

Table 4:1: Sport codes with elite AWI in sample universities 104 Table 2: Summary of athlete demographic information 111 Table 5:1: Sports facilities used for training elite AWI 126 Table 5:2: Key equipment needed by athletes 129

NOMENCLATURE

ARTN: Attraction, Retention/Transition and Nurturing

AWI: Athletes with Impairments

CAC: Coaching Association of Canada

Club SSD: Sports Club for Students with Disabilities at the University of Johannesburg

CPISRA: Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association

DISSA: Disability Sport South Africa

DoE: Department of Education

HEI: Higher Education Institution

HPC: High Performance Centre

IBSF: International Blind Sports Federation

ICC: International Coordinating Committee

IF: International Federation

INSETA: Insurance Sector Education and Training Authority

IPC: International Paralympic Committee

ISMGC: International Mandeville Games Committee

ISMGF: International Mandeville Games Foundation

ISMWSF: International Stoke Mandeville Wheelchair Sports Federation

ISOD: International Sports Organisation for the Disabled

ISR: Institute for Sports Research

NAPCOSA: National Paralympic Committee of South Africa

NCAA: National Collegiate Athletic Association

NLC: National Lotteries Commission

NLDTF: National Lottery Distribution Trust Fund

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NUSA: National University Sports Associations

OPEX: Operation Excellence

OPwD: Office for People with Disabilities

PWI: People with Impairments

SANAA: South African National Archery Association

SAPGA: South African Paraplegic Games Association

SARU: South African Rugby Union

SASAPD: South Africa Sport Association for Physically Disabled

SASCOC: South African Sports Confederation and Olympic Committee

S-AWI: Student-athletes with impairments

SAWR: South Africa Wheelchair Rugby

SRSA: Sport and Recreations South Africa

SU: Stellenbosch University

TUC: Transvaal University College

TUT: Tshwane University of Technology

UJ: University of Johannesburg

UP: University of Pretoria

USSA: University Sport South Africa

WBI: World Bank Institute

WCGDCAS: Western Cape Government Department of Cultural Affairs and Sport

WHO: World Health Organisation

Wits University: University of the Witwatersrand

WSC: Wits Sports Council

WTSA: Wheelchair Tennis South Africa

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1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background to the study

The London 2012 Paralympic Games were declared, “…the best ever” Paralympic Games by Sir Philip Craven, President of the International Paralympic committee (IPC, 2013a). The twelve-day event broke records on a number of aspects such as the highest number of athletes and countries taking part, spectator attendance, revenue as well as viewership (IPC, 2013a). The reality of the games however, was that 45 per cent of the athletes came from just ten countries and 46 countries sent just one athlete with the majority of them receiving a wild card in order to compete (Craven, 2013; IPC, 2013a). The high costs of travelling to Paralympic Games is a major barrier for most nation states, resulting in athletes from the host nation winning 80% more medals than in previous games (Coakley, 2013).

The challenge for the International Paralympic Committee (IPC) and nation states is to increasingly produce increased higher and quality athletes for future games. This will only be achieved through the increased provision of quality sport participation to more people with impairments (PWI), coupled with careful and deliberate investment in optimal athlete development. Various stakeholders that contribute to athletes’ development have to play their roles and have their input synchronised so as to maximally contribute to produce quality elite athletes.

Among these stakeholders are universities, that traditionally are centres of excellence providing leadership in the various spheres of human endeavours including sports (Joseph, 2012). The availability of facilities, sport science and medical service in one organisation makes universities special places to nurture talent (Campbell, as cited in Universities UK, 2012). Worldwide, universities are increasingly becoming the hubs for high performance sports. Within the South

African context, many of the participants in recent major sports events have been or are involved with universities in their training and preparation.

However, university involvement in elite sports, although on the rise, has prioritised able-bodied athletes and Olympic sports without adequate focus on their Paralympic counterparts. Consequently, this subject area is relatively under-researched. With this exploratory study, the researcher aims to determine the current sport delivery practices for elite AWI in South African public universities. This could contribute towards improved developmental models for AWI in South Africa public universities.

1.2 Problem statement

The availability of world class sports facilities and expert services in one place makes universities potential hubs for sport excellence and critical stakeholders in the development of elite athletes (Campbell, as cited in Universities UK, 2012). The increased visibility of successful athletes attracts universities to capitalize on high profile athletes in high performance sport for marketing and branding purposes (Burnett, 2010a; Bourdieu, 1986).

While traditional university involvement at high performance level has largely been with able-bodied elite athletes and Olympic sports, the growth of Paralympic Games in recent years has seen increasing involvement by some universities in elite sport for PWI. Although the level of involvement in sport in general currently varies by university in South Africa (Burnett, 2010a), the provision of elite sport opportunities for AWI is not yet as highly structured as most elite sport for able-bodied athletes.

Several universities in South Africa are increasingly playing key roles in the development of AWI at the high-performance level. Possibly the most successful, is Stellenbosch University (SU) whose athletes provided 58% of the medals won by Team South Africa at the London 2012 Paralympic Games (SU, 2012a) and more recently, 76% of the medals won by Team South Africa at The International

Paralympic Committee World Championships in Doha, Qatar in October 2015 (SU, 2015a). It is thus important to establish the current models and practices of South African universities in the development of elite AWI through a critical lens so as to inform strategic decision making and partnerships for delivery on a national mandate of athletic excellence.

The current relatively low levels of involvement by universities in high performance sport for AWI globally are considered in the context of wider challenges facing sport for AWI in general such as low levels of awareness and recognition of sport for AWI in society and various tertiary institutions (Roux, 2012). Other challenges include the high cost of providing specialised equipment, adapted sports facilities and support services, lack of expertise and coach education (De Bosscher, Bingham, Shibli, Van Bottenburg & De Knop, 2008; Shuhan, Rui, Ailin, Liu & Tang, 2011).

1.3 Aim and objectives

The aim of this exploratory study is to describe the role of South African public universities in facilitating optimal performance of elite AWI. This aim translates into the following objectives:

 To describe the history and development of Paralympic Sport and show emerging trends relating to high performance practices.

 To discuss student-athletes with impairments within the context of high performance sport in higher education institutions.

 To establish the role of stakeholders (SASCOC, federations and universities) in supporting high performance sport participation for AWI in sample South African public universities.

 To establish the current practices pertaining the role of South African universities in facilitating optimal performance of elite AWI.

 To critically reflect on findings within a human justice framework and equitable dispensation for AWI at South African public universities.

1.4 Hypotheses

 There is a lack of resources as well as collaboration and alignment between key stakeholders in facilitating the optimal performance of AWI in the post- school phase.  AWI face multiple challenges to succeed in academics and in sport.  There is a general under representation of elite AWI in sport in South African universities.

1.5 Research design

A descriptive, mixed-methods approach was utilized in this research where both quantitative and qualitative data were obtained and analysed to show trends as well as provide a contextual understanding of the current developmental models and practices of universities in the development of elite AWI in South Africa. Data was triangulated so as to ensure improved validity and verity the findings of the research (Fielding, 2009).

1.6 Methodology and sampling

The methodology as well as sampling criteria and procedures are discussed in under this section.

1.6.1 Methodology For this study, three data sets were produced according to different methods used. Firstly, a survey of documents, reports and other written artefacts on university websites was done to provide independent informative background literature on each university. Secondly, questionnaires were used to collect data from high performance AWI in participating universities. These questionnaires captured data on athletes’ biographical information, access to structured competition, availability of adequate and appropriate of sports equipment as well as sports facilities, access to coaching as well as the balance between academic, sport and social life. Lastly, interviews were conducted with top management of the university sports structures as well as management of clubs for or with high performance AWI in sample

universities to capture the role of universities in supporting high performance sport participation for AWI.

1.6.2 Sample This study focused on high performance sports falling under the Paralympic Movement which are offered in sample universities, where high performance refers to a sport with athletes competing at provincial level and higher. Participating universities were drawn from the public universities registered on the University Sport South Africa (USSA) membership database in Gauteng Province plus one university in the Western Cape Province. The following criteria for inclusion was used:

 Only South African public universities offering Paralympic Sport codes at high performance (provincial and higher) level of participation.

 Willingness to participate and provide access to research participants.

 Timeous response to the requests.

 Willingness to assist with local logistics and providing access for the researcher to meet the relevant staff and athletes.

1.7 Delimitation

Due to the geographical spread between South African public universities, travelling to the various universities was a challenge for the researcher mainly because of limited resources. The research was therefore primarily focused on universities in Gauteng Province. An additional university in Western Cape Province was included due to its high visibility in supporting high performance AWI in South Africa.

1.8 Limitations

Obtaining access to the relevant people in the university sports structure was a challenge, as only one responded timeously to the initial request to participate in this research. This is besides the fact that several attempts were made to follow up via

email as well as telephonically. Eventually, permission was granted in all but one university (which was excluded from this study) to interview management as well as administer questionnaires to athletes upon which a second challenge was encountered. It was difficult to get direct access to the athletes as a group in one place as had been planned due to logistical challenges on the part of the athletes and the few athletes that participated were followed on individually which was easy to do with some but not with others. Ultimately, the response ratio was very low with only nine athletes participating in this study which is less than 26% of the total number of elite athletes in all sample universities combined.

1.9 Concepts

The following key concepts from this study are briefly discussed below: Long Term Athlete Development, high performance sport, impairment and disability, athletes with impairments as well as student-athletes with impairments.

1.9.1 Long Term Athlete Development As athletes pass through developmental stages and specialize into their area of sport excellence, they require high quality training and coaching, access to high level competition, resources as well as scientific and medical support services (Higgs, Balyi & Way, 2006; Higgs, Bluechardt, Balyi, Way, Jurbala & Legg, 2011). These developmental stages are expostulated in the long-term athlete development (LTAD) pathway (Higgs et al., 2006; Higgs et al., 2011) upon which the South African long term participant development model (LTPD) is based.

The LTPD model has seven stages, namely, an Active start, Fundamentals, Learning to train, Training to train, Training to compete and Training to win as well as an Active for life (Higgs et al., 2006). The first three stages seek to impart basic fundamental sport and movement skills which are the foundation for participation and excellence (Higgs & Trono, 2013). It proposes a development framework with suitable activities and equipment used to develop a wide range of fundamental movements as basis for progression and the development of sport specific skills. In

addition to the first three, two additional stages unique to athletes with impairments are discussed which are, first contact and awareness stages where opportunities for sport participation are made known to PWI (Higgs & Trono, 2013). The next three stages in the LTAD model focus on developing the athlete for excellence or high performance sport participation while the last stage is about a smooth transition from high performance sport participation into a life-long physical activity.

The LTAD plan needs to be sport specific and athlete centred, providing guidelines to the various stakeholders such as coaches, athletes, parents and administrators as well as comprehensively addressing critical issues such as planning, training, competition and primary responsibility for serving AWI with LTAD, identifying other stakeholders who can contribute as well as establishing an effective system of communication with all stakeholders so as to synchronize their efforts (Diaper & Goosey-Tolfrey, 2009; Higgs et al., 2006; Robertson & Way, 2005).

1.9.2 High performance sport High performance sport, used interchangeably with elite sport in this study, is “highly organised and competitive and is the top level of the sport development continuum” (SRSA, 2012a: 5). In this research, high performance sport refers to Paralympic Sport codes offered in sample universities where there is at least one AWI participating at provincial level at a minimum. By extension, therefore, high performance or elite AWI in this study refers to athletes competing in a Paralympic Sport code at provincial level or higher.

1.9.3 Impairment and disability Disability is an umbrella term that refers to “…impairments, activity limitations and participation restrictions.” (World Health Organisation (WHO), 2002: 2). According to the United Nations (UN) (n.d.) people with disabilities (PWDs) are “persons who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual or sensory impairments, which, in interaction with various barriers may hinder their full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others”. Disability is therefore not an attribute of the

person but reflects an interaction between some features of a person’s body and those of society (IPC, 2007).

The International Paralympic Committee (IPC) is moving away from using the term ‘disability’ because the word normally implies that someone is not able to do something to the same extent as those who may be “able” (as in abled-body). In trying to shift the focus to what the athlete can do, the IPC recommends the term impairment where it is in reference to a loss in body function, structure or activity limitation. This is in line with World Health Organization’s International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (IPC, 2013b) which is commonly known as the ICF (WHO, 2002). The ICF “provides a standard language and framework for the description of health-related states” (WHO, 2002; 2), and is meant to be used in a wide variety of issues across different sectors. Where a distinction needs to be made, the IPC (2013b) recommends the use of the terms para-athlete or athlete with an impairment, an approach adopted in this study. The long-term aspiration is that athletes with impairments (AWI) will one day be simply be referred to as athletes and be recognized as such without any attachment to their impairments (IPC, 2013b).

1.9.4 Athletes with impairments Within the Paralympic Movement, eligible athletes have an impairment falling within one or more of the following ten impairments: limb deficiency, impaired muscle power, impaired passive range of movement, hypertonia, leg length difference, short stature, vision impairment, ataxia, athetosis as well as intellectual impairment (IPC, 2013b). Within this broad classification, federations responsible for specific sports have their own eligibility criteria guided by standards set by the IPC (Legg & Steadward, 2011). The nature of the impairment and the extent to which it affects sport specific function directly influences sport performance as well as the extent to which disability specific knowledge and support is needed (Diaper, 2012; Higgs et al., 2006) which makes sport for AWI both very specific and diverse further complicating development (De Bosscher & Wong, 2012).

1.9.5 Student-athletes with impairments Student-athletes with impairments (S-AWI) are enrolled at the university to study but in addition, they compete in sport at an elite level. S-AWI are a unique sub-group of the broader student-athlete population pursuing a dual career in academics and sport. In addition to the normal student demands of attending classes, studying and engaging in social activities, student-athletes also have to train and compete, often travelling away during study time (Watt & Moore III, 2001). Consequently, student- athletes face the challenge of balancing their academics and sport performances while succeeding in both (Watt & Moore III, 2001). In addition to these main challenges, S-AWI may also face additional time and academic demands (Weiss, 2011) and there is thus a need for tertiary institutions to provide support services to ensure student-athletes in general and S-AWI specifically succeed both academically and in sports (Cox, Macguire & Mcbride, 2009; Broughton & Neyer, 2001).

1.10 Structure of thesis

The following is an outline of the structure of this thesis:

 Chapter One provides an introduction to the study and identifies the problem statement, aims and objectives of the study, research design, delimitation and limitations of the study as well as a brief analysis of the key concepts in the study.

 Chapter Two is a review of related literature to provide relevant academic discourse on the subject matter of the research.

 Chapter Three delves in more detail, into the methodological approach used in this study, the planning involved, data collection methods and analysis as well as the ethical considerations guiding the research.

 Chapter Four is a presentation of the research results.

 Chapter Five is a discussion of the results in terms of main academic discourses in the field.

 Chapter Six is a reflection of the research results with concluding remarks as well as recommendations.

1.11 Significance and envisaged outputs

The results of this exploratory study will shed light on the current developmental models and practices of universities in the development of AWI in South Africa, identifying best practices and challenges faced by universities as well as explore the relationship between the universities and other key stakeholders in the provision of high performance sport for AWI. The research may therefore contribute to the existing body of knowledge through:

 Providing feedback to all universities who participate in the research for use in strategic decision-making.

 Packaging of results into strategies for possible actions to be taken by different stakeholders and writing informative pieces for wider consumption.

 The delivery of a research paper at the next SASreCon (National Conference) in 2017.

 Publishing at least two research papers in accredited journals.

1.12 Chapter summary

This chapter provided an introduction to the study covering background information, problem statement as well as the aim and objectives of the study. Further, the research design used was discussed as well as methodology, delimitation and limitations. Finally, the various key concepts underpinning the study were briefly analysed after which the structure of the thesis as well as envisioned output were discussed.

2 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

This chapter provides a review of related literature so as to establish a contextual background to this study. Specific focus is paid to literature relating to sport for PWI, in particular, the different perspectives on disability and impairment as well as the evolution of modern day Paralympic Sport. In addition, the long-term athlete development pathway is discussed as it relates to AWI in the South African context. Further, student-athletes with impairments (S-AWI) are profiled and the stakeholders and strategic partnerships for S-AWI development identified in a South African context.

2.2 Disability and sport

Being different physically, intellectually or sensory has been considered an abnormality or some form of disability in different cultures in society across different times (Thomas, 2002). Those with such abnormalities have been feared, tortured, killed while in some instances even revered (Le Claire, 2011a; Thomas, 2002) as their impairments have been considered a deviation or deflection from what is considered the ‘norm’ (the able-bodied person). While disability has always been a part of the human condition, it is widely acknowledged that the term is complex, multi-dimensional and dynamic and as such definition of the term is ardently contested (World Health Organisation (WHO), 2001).

Disability has had different meaning in different historical contexts (Howe, 2008) and according to Thomas (2002), definitions of disability over time have been largely informed by two dominant perspectives on disability, namely, the medical approach as well as the social approach. Those linked to the former, emphasis physical or mental dysfunction of the individual while the latter focuses on the social barriers related to the person’s impairment (Le Claire, 2011a). Over time, other definitions have emerged from approaches that recognise the limitations of the viewing disability as either an entirely medical issue or social construct. Each approach has

contributed to modern day understanding of impairment and disability and are therefore worth a brief discussion on.

2.2.1 Perspectives on disability Three perspectives to disability that are key to this study are discussed under this section. These are, the medical perspective, social perspective as well as the bio- psycho-social perspective.

2.2.1.1 Medical perspective This approach to disability affirms that disability is hereditary or a result of disease or trauma and results in less than ‘normal’ bodies. This deviation from the norm (able- body) is perceived as that there is something wrong with the person. This therefore requires the intervention of professionals such as doctors to correct or fix the abnormality (Thomas, 2002). Disability is seen as residing within the individual who needs rehabilitation (Smeltzer, 2007) and as a result, people with disabilities are relegated to residential institutions and special schools (WHO, 2001) where there are cared for.

Due to its focus is on the disability and degree of impairment rather than the ability and degree of functionality, this approach has been criticised for implying that people with disabilities are useless, pitiable and must be looked after, ignoring the ability of people with disabilities to live successful independent lives (Smeltzer, 2007). It is viewed by some as paternalistic (Le Clair, 2011a) and results in the imposition of priorities on the lives of people with disabilities (Thomas, 2002) by ‘experts’ who assume to know what is best for people with disabilities rather than those living with disabilities themselves. Others have also criticised this approach for ignoring wider aspects beyond the impairment such as barriers in the built or physical environment and social discrimination which may inhibit the individual from living independently. It was only in the early 1980s that the medical approach to disability was questioned heavily enough by disability activists and academics such as Barnes, Davis, Oliver, Tom Shakespeare and Snyder and an alternative social approach gained momentum (Le Clair, 2011a). 12

2.2.1.2 Social perspective The social model to disability emerged from the political activism of several movements for and by PWI and is largely theorised by the scholar Michael Oliver (Terzi, 2004). Unlike the medical approach which attributes disability to the individual, the social model/approach says that disability is a socially constructed problem (WHO, 2002) created by “…unaccommodating physical environment brought about by attitudes and other features of the social environment” (International Platform on Sport and Development, 2009; 10). The social approach to disability has been criticised mainly for ignoring the impairment of the individual and focusing mainly on external factors in the built and social environment (Howe, 2008).

2.2.1.3 Bio-psycho-social perspective This approach acknowledges that disability is a complex phenomenon and recognises the partial validity of the medical and social models (WHO, 2002). The bio-psycho-social model asserts that impairment is not necessarily the primary disabler (Thomas, 2002), but people with disabilities face challenges related to both their impairments as well as social elements (WHO, 2001). As such the way society views disability which includes definitions of disability have to be informed by both the impairment as well as contextual factors which can be personal or environmental.

The WHO (2002) through the World Health Organisation International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health, popularly known as the ICF, affirms that disability is not an attribute of the person but an interaction of the impairment such as blindness with environmental factors. Activity restrictions may result from the impairment itself or from the interaction between the impairment and environmental factors such as when no accommodation is made to provide reading material in braille for people with visual impairment.

2.2.2 Linking disability to Paralympic Sport According to Purdue and Howe (2012: 202), “a greater understanding of disability within the context of sport can provide us with a better appreciation of how we socially construct our understanding of what ‘disability’ and ‘sport’ mean, and represent within our society”. Developments in sport for people with impairments in general and the Paralympic Games in particular have been shaped and in turn shaped understanding of disability issues in society over time. According to Le Clair (2011a), disability-based sport evolved parallel to the political and social changes in models of disability.

The earliest connection between Paralympic Sport and developments around disability issues relates to the use of sport for rehabilitation purposes by Dr Guttmann at Stoke Mandeville Hospital in England in the late 1940s. According to Legg and Steadward (2011), for years, developments continued within the medical rehabilitation environment and academic interest through the early seventies reflected this influence. With time, the emergence of the social as well as the bio- psycho social perspectives to disability also influenced the evolvement of Paralympic Sport from “disabled sport and rehabilitation” (Legg & Steadward, 2011; 202) to sport for participation and recreation particularly after the 1988 Paralympic Games. Further influence includes the move from medical classification to sport classification (discussed further in section 2.2.4.3).

Sport has also been used as a platform on which oppression and discrimination faced by people with impairments is challenged (Le Clair, 2011a). The Paralympic Games have played and continue to play a significant role in changing attitudes by emphasizing athletes’ achievements as opposed to their impairment (Gold & Gold, 2007). Furthermore, these games have hastened the agenda for inclusion and promote the concept of a barrier-free society in the fields of town planning and architectural discourse (Gold & Gold, 2007). Gold and Gold (2007) further assert that the Paralympic Games have also had a huge impact in the parts of the world where disability has been ideologically problematic enforcing changes in people’s attitudes.

2.2.3 Historical overview on the institutionalisation of Paralympic Sport Although PWI have participated in sport for over a century (DePauw & Gavron 2005), Brittain (2010) laments the fact that sport for PWI in general as well as the Paralympic Games in particular, are under-researched. This is a concern also shared by Smith (2014). Brittain (2010), further notes that although there has been increased interest in documenting this history in the last ten to fifteen years, academic study of the history of the Paralympic Games is still in its infancy and as a result there is a dearth of academic material on the subject. Brittain (2010) suggests a number of reasons for this which include:

 The possible lack of belief in the early days on the part of those involved that the games would ever grow into something worth documenting and study the history thereof.  The absence of a single archive or library that documents the subject as exists for the Olympic Games, for example.  The lack of basic record keeping of the games prior to 1988. In some instances, the 1960 Paralympic Games in Rome a case in point, the little material that existed was lost, thrown out or destroyed by fire.  Budget constraints.  The games were run by volunteers and therefore they had little or no time to ensure adequate documentation, inherent in professional governance.

Although the IPC Documentation Centre contains archives and collections of hard copy and electronic records of administrative documents, press clippings, maps, torches and medals from previous competitions on display (IPC, 2016), there are numerous gaps in this information resulting from some of the reasons raised above (Brittain, 2010).

This section provides a historical overview of the institutionalisation of the Paralympic Games. It is not intended to provide a chronological and detailed history of the event, but highlights specific milestones in history that shaped the modern-day Summer Paralympic Games.

2.2.3.1 The early Paralympic Games According to Brittain (2010), there is little evidence of organised sport for PWI in general prior to world war two. Anderson (2003) refers to injured war veterans organising and participating in sport activities in the hallways at Stoke Mandeville Hospital in England prior to this period. Bailey (2008) and Doll-Tepper (1999) refer to similar developments in North America and Europe. Except for these and other few exceptions, there were limited opportunities for PWI to participate in organised sport prior to the 20th century (DePauw & Gavron, 2005). It is Dr Ludwig Guttmann however, who is most credited as the architect behind the birth of organised sport for PWI which culminated into the current mega-event of the modern day Paralympic Games (Anderson, 2003; Bailey, 2008; Brittain, 2010; Gold & Gold, 2007).

Appointed at the end of the World War Two by the British government to head the National Spinal Injuries Unit at Stoke Mandeville Hospital (Legg & Steadward 2011), Dr Guttmann was increasingly becoming concerned that traditional approaches to rehabilitation were not sufficiently responding to the medical and psychological needs of wounded soldiers (Steadward, 1992, as cited in Brittain, 2010). He then introduced sport as part of rehabilitation and soon realised its physiological and psychological value in the rehabilitation of war veterans with spinal cord injuries. Inspired by this development, Guttmann organised the first Stoke Mandeville Games in 1948 where 16 athletes took part in archery. These games took place on the 29th of July, the same day as the start of the Games of the XIV Olympiad as the Olympic Games.

The success of the inaugural Stoke Mandeville Games resulted in their growth over the years as they became an annual event with participants from all over England. In 1952, the Stoke Mandeville Games welcomed their first international participants, that of Dutch ex-serviceman (Brittain, 2010). The Stoke Mandeville Games continued to grow both in Britain and internationally with teams from America and Australia taking part for the first time in the 1955 and 1957 games respectively (Gold & Gold, 2007). According to Brittain (2010), Guttmann strongly cultivated the link to the Olympic Games and although his wish to one day see the Olympic Games fully

open up to disabled athletes never became a reality, his efforts saw the Stoke Mandeville Games which had grown significantly over the years being held in Rome a few weeks after the 1960 Olympic Games. Consequently, the 1960 games which had grown to include 400 athletes from 23 countries across various wheelchair events, are regarded by many as the first Paralympic Games (Legg & Steadward 2011). Thereafter, a decision was made to adopt a four-year cycle to ensure future editions of the Paralympic Games would coincide with the Olympic Games (Brittain, 2010).

Guttmann also invited prominent Olympic athletes and members of the International Olympic Committee to the Inaugural Stoke Mandeville Games in 1948 as well as future events (Jackson, Hodges, Molesworth & Scullion, 2015). This close relationship with some members of the IOC led to the Stoke Mandeville Hospital being nominated and winning an Olympic Award in 1956, (the Fearnley Cup) although the event was not officially recognised by the Olympic Movement. The Fearnley Cup was founded in 1950 by Sir Thomas Fearnley who was then an honorary member of the IOC. It is a meritorious achievement awarded for service in the Olympic Movement and is given to either a local amateur sport association or an amateur sport club (Olympic Games Museum, 2016).

Although the 1964 Paralympic Games were held in Tokyo, the same city as Olympic Games, it would be another 24 years before this would happen again because hosting this event depended on the goodwill of the Olympic Games host city as well as availability of funding (Gold & Gold, 2007). According to Legg and Steadward (2011), various Olympic host cities gave innumerable reasons for not being able to host the Paralympic Games after 1964, among them fear from having no expertise to host AWI and high altitude among others, among others. However, this did not deter the organisers of the International Stoke Mandeville Games as they had become known then as they found alternative and willing host cities across the world (Legg & Steadward, 2011).

2.2.3.2 Modern Paralympic Games According to Legg and Steadward (2011), the modern format of the Paralympic Games is credited to have started in 1988. This is because the games were hosted in the Olympic Games host city shortly after the 1988 Olympic Games for the second time and included, for the first time, the use of the same venues as well and incorporated the first ever opening and closing ceremonies in their programme. Perhaps an even more significant outcome of the 1988 games was the end of “disabled sport and rehabilitation” (Legg & Steadward 2011; 10) and the beginning of elite sport. Sport for AWI moved from being a mere rehabilitation and participation tool and increasingly became focused on sport excellence. This shift in approach not only resulted in more full time coaches as well as the need for athletes to train full time so as to improve their performance, but also increased media and sponsor scrutiny of futures games (Legg & Steadward, 2011).

2.2.3.3 Birth of the term ‘Paralympic’ According to Girginov and Parry (2005) as cited in Brittain (2010), there is confusion on the origins of the term ‘Paralympic’. While it is not crystal clear as to whether conception of the term emanated from the term paraplegic combined with Olympic, the little evidence that exist seems to point in that direction. According to The Virtual Linguist (2008), Dr Guttmann’s declaration of his wish to see the Stoke Mandeville Games being recognised one day as the paraplegics’ equivalent of the Olympic Games (at this juncture, only paraplegics participated in the games) in his speech at the inaugural Stoke Mandeville Games may as well have given birth to the term Paralympic as a merger between paraplegic and Olympics (Brittain, 2010). Later, an article titled ‘Alice at the Paralympiad’ appeared in the summer issue of The Cord (Brittain, 2010) and after that incident, the term Paraplegic Olympics then appeared frequently in the newspapers from 1953 and in the Stoke Mandeville’s own publication in 1954 (The Virtual Linguist, 2008). However, it was only in 1955 that the term Paralympics makes its first appearance and would feature several times in the future (Tynedal & Wolbring, 2013).

The link to Olympic Games was further cemented when for the first time in 1960, both the Olympic Games and Paralympic Games were held in the same host city. The four-year Olympic cycle was also adopted for the Paralympic Games in the same year. In 1976, the International Stoke Mandeville Games opened up to other impairment groups other than those with spinal cord injuries, specifically the blind and amputees. It therefore became inappropriate to use the terms International Stoke Mandeville Games or Paralympic Games from paraplegic Olympics as they were known then (Brittain, 2010). The search for a name more encompassing of all impairment groups began thereof and the name ‘Toronto the Olympiad for Physically Disabled’ (Torontolympiad) was adopted for the 1976 games instead of Paralympic Games (Brittain, 2010).

It is evident that the organisers of the games where very keen to get the games a status and possibly closer link to the Olympic Games over the years as depicted in the various names used for the different editions of the games all linked to the term ‘Olympic for the Disabled’ (Brittain, 2010). However, the use of the term did not go down well with the International Olympic Committee (IOC) who questioned the use of the term Olympic or any other name close to that (Legg & Steadward 2011). Consequently, it was agreed not to use the name after the 1976 Toronto Games. In 1988, an agreement was reached with IOC to use the term Paralympic Games and the Games have been known as such since then. Recent use of the term ‘Paralympic’ is based on ‘para’, a Greek word meaning parallel (to Olympic Games in this context) and Olympic from the Olympic Games (IPC, 2013; Keogh, 2011).

2.2.3.4 Governance of the Paralympic Games and the link with the Olympic Games As Stoke Mandeville Games grew locally and internationally, the need for professional organisation and management became eminent and as such, the International Mandeville Games Committee (ISMGC) that later became the International Mandeville Games Foundation (ISMGF) was formed in 1959 to organise and oversee the games (Gold & Gold, 2007). In years to come, sports for people with impairments increasingly became popular and various impairment based international federations were formed. An international Working Group on Sport for

the Disabled (ISOD) was set up to study the challenges faced in sport for PWI and resulted in the formation of The International Sports Organisation for the Disabled (ISOD) in 1964 (IPC, 2013a). The ISOD provided opportunities to impairment groups who could not affiliate to the International Stoke Mandeville Games, specifically the visually impaired, paraplegics, amputees as well as those with cerebral palsy (IPC, 2013a). The ISOD was responsible for organising the 1976 and 1980 Paralympic Games together with the ISMGF.

As the Paralympic Games grew, the various international federations formed the International Coordinating Committee (ICC) to organize sport for AWI internationally as well as eliminate duplication (Brittain, 2010). The ICC would also serve as a single voice in negotiations with the IOC on behalf of AWI (Brittain, 2010, Howe, 2008) in pursuit of their aspirations to gain Olympic status (Gold & Gold, 2007). Specific organisations who formed the ICC include the International Stoke Mandeville Wheelchair Sports Federation (ISMWSF), IOSD, International Blind Sports Federation (IBSF) as well as the Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association (CPISRA). The ICC oversaw the running of the Paralympic Games between 1988 and 1992. In 1988 the IPC was formed as a non-profit organisation and umbrella body to oversee the organisation of the Paralympic Games in place of the ICC. To date, the IPC is the world governing body of the Paralympic Movement and has the primary function of organizing the summer as well as winter Paralympic Games for nine sports (IPC, 2013b).

Over the years, closer ties with the IOC were forged and the 1992 Barcelona Games saw the organisational integration of the Olympic and Paralympic (Gold & Gold, 2007). The IPC later reorganized to follow global regions of the Olympic Games as well as formally becoming structurally and financially linked to the Olympic bid process as well as the Olympic Games themselves (Le Clair, 2011b). According to Gold and Gold (2007), four agreements were signed between the IPC and IOC between 2000 and 2006 clarifying the relationship between the two organisations and paving the way for further cooperation. Key issues covered in these agreements include financial support for the IPC from IOC as well as co-opting of an IPC member

on each of the IOC eleven commissions. Integration of the two games became a requirement beginning from the 2008 games in Beijing going forward. To date, Olympic Games bids have to show full integration of the organisation of Olympic and Paralympic Games (Gold & Gold, 2007). The Paralympic Games have since grown to become the second largest multi-sport event in the world having transformed from the medical model (sport for rehabilitation) to elite athlete performance, impacting disability sport and society immensely (Legg & Steadward 2011).

2.2.4 Athletes with impairments: Eligibility and classification principles When it comes to determining who can participate in Paralympic Sport and consequently the Paralympic Games, the two key terms of eligibility and classification are of utmost importance. On the one hand, eligibility seeks to answer the question, does the athlete have the impairment they claim to have? While on the other hand classification asks the question, what impact does the impairment have on the sport, if any? The two are discussed in the following section.

2.2.4.1 Eligibility The IPC sets out the prerequisite that, to be eligible to compete in Paralympic Sport one must have an impairment that is both permanent and lead to a permanent as well as verifiable activity limitation that affects the individual’s ability to compete equitably with athletes without an impairment (IPC, 2007). The IPC’s (2013b) Policy on Eligible Impairments in the Paralympic Movement only recognises athletes who have a primary impairment that falls in one of the ten eligible impairment types which are:

 Impaired muscle power.

 Leg length difference.

 Limb deficiency.

 Hypertonia.

 Impaired passive range of movement.

 Short stature.

 Athetosis.

 Ataxia.

 Vision impairment.

 Intellectual impairment.

These terms of eligible impairment groups were adopted from the 2001 World Health Organisation International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (IPC, 2013a).

Once eligibility has been confirmed, the athlete has to meet sport specific criteria set by International Federations (IFs) governing the specific Paralympic Sport (IPC, 2013a). Each IF is required to clearly define the impairment groups they provide sport opportunities for. Certain sports cater for all ten impairment groups (athletics and swimming for example), others cater for a selection of impairment groups (cycling) while others for only one specific impairment group (Goalball and Boccia) (IPC, 2013b). Eligibility to compete in one sport does not necessarily mean eligibility to compete in another sport which gives rise to the need for classification.

2.2.4.2 Classification Classification is common in sport in general and is simply some criteria to categorise athletes, for example based on gender, age and weight so as to create a level playing field for all athletes. However, classification in sport for AWI is different to that in able-bodied sports (Tweedy, 2002; Vanlandewijck, 2006) because athletes are classified according to their ability as well as disability characteristics (Fung, Chow, Fong & Chan, 2010). In Paralympic Sport, the athlete is classified based on their level of functional ability (Lauff, 2007). This is done so as to provide structure for competition by firstly determining eligibility as well as grouping athletes for competition (IPC, 2007). Basically, classification serves to ensure that:

“…winning or losing an event depends on talent, training, skill, fitness and motivation rather than unevenness among competitors on disability

related variables (e.g. spasticity, paralysis, absence of limb…” (Vanlandewijck & Chappel, (1996) as cited in Sherrill, 1999: 210).

Classification also ensures that impairment is relevant to sport performance as well as ensure equitable competition (IPC, 2007). Furthermore, classification also serves to clarify the allowable equipment modifications (Legg & Steadward, 2011).

2.2.4.3 Evolution of classification According to Sherrill (1999), the classification philosophy is constantly changing and has evolved from being impairment based to sport based. According to Buckley (2011), this evolution is closely linked to the evolvement from the use of sport for rehabilitation through to sport for participation and recreation and finally elite sport. Impairment based classification involved a pure medical test that would determine your impairment type and group you with athletes with similar or related impairments (Howe, 2008). Sport based classification categorises athletes based on their functional ability in the sport as opposed to their clinical impairment and is done through observing the athlete participating in sport. According to Thomas (2002), sport based classification reduces both the number of classes as well as improves the standard of competition. Sport based classification has also resulted in multi- impairment events such as in swimming (Howe, 2008).

Classification systems vary with each sport as determined by the classification rules of each IF. However, classification for the Paralympic Games as well as for all Paralympic Sports is guided by the IPC’s Classification Code and International Standards which the various IFs governing Paralympic Sport classification rules should comply with. This is meant to achieve consistency in classification across all Paralympic Sports. Regardless of this however, classification in Paralympic Sport is still much a contested area. According to Doyle, Davis, Humphries, Dugan, Horn, Shim and Newton (2004), there is an ongoing debate regarding the actual process used to classify athletes as well as the sometimes blurry boundaries between classes. Some like Thomas (2002), question the fairness of classification systems while others like Tweedy (2003) as well as others (Vanlandewijck, Evaggelinou,

Daly, Verellen, Houtte and Aspeslagh, 2004) question the validity of classification systems among the Paralympics sports.

Buckley (2011) suggests several reasons why there is much controversy surrounding the classification systems used in Paralympic Sport. Firstly, there can be a number of impairments in one class which may result in unfair competition in some events when athletes with one form of impairment compete against athletes with another type of impairment. A case in point is wheelchair racing events where athletes with paraplegia may be classified in the same groups and therefore compete against those with leg amputation (IPC, 2016). While this may be perceived as unfair by some, according to the IPC (2016), classification goes beyond the mere grouping of athletes with similar impairment types together. The extent to which the athlete’s impairment negatively impacts on specific sport activities is also a key consideration. Because different sports require athletes to perform different activities such as sprinting, propelling a wheelchair among others, the impact of the impairment on each sport also differs (IPC, 2016). As a result, it may be possible to have athletes falling into different impairment groups competing in the same class if it is deemed by classifiers that both types of impairments impose similar or almost similar activity limitations in a given sport. Other reasons put forward by Buckley (2011) are that:

 Athletes could misrepresent their impairment.  Classifiers could err in classifying.  Equipment and other technology could give unfair advantage to some.  Not all impairments are eligible into the Paralympic Games for example, hearing impairments.

Another area of possible controversy relates to the progressive nature of some impairments which means that their impact on certain activities may also change (IPC, 2016). If unnoticed and unreported, athletes may compete in inappropriate classes thereby resulting in unfair competition to themselves or other athletes. To guard against this, athletes may be classified several times throughout their career (IPC, 2016). Further, the IPC requires that should the medical condition of an athlete

change, the athlete should inform the sport federation and request a re-assessment (IPC, 2016).

In short, controversy will always surround the issue of classification because a perfect classification system is not achievable as no two athletes are exactly the same (Buckley, 2011). None the less, classification is vital in Paralympic Sport to level the playing field as much as possible and for this to happen, classification systems need for it to be robust and be able to achieve equity (Howe, 2008).

2.3 Long term athlete development in a South Africa context

The desire by nation states to achieve international success on the sport field has pushed national federations and other stakeholders to try and better understand their sport development practices and elite athlete pathways with a view to improving them (Sotiriadou, 2013). In South Africa, according to the national custodian of elite sport, SASCOC (2012a), there was a general consensus that the country had done well in international competitions over the years but had fallen short of the nation’s aspirations. The need for more international sport success and a more active citizenry led to some introspection into the sport system by various stakeholders in the country spearheaded by Sport and Recreation South Africa (SRSA) in a bid to identify the challenges facing the sports system, find solutions and map the way forward. One of the key realisations from this process was that there was a need for a considered approach to elite athlete development so as to successfully deliver on key elite athlete development outcomes which include success at national as well as international sport events (Brouwers, Sotiriadou & De Bosscher, 2015).

From a theoretical point of view, more specifically in relation to athlete development, several diverse developmental frameworks have been put forward from various disciplinary backgrounds to inform decision making. These frameworks include Balyi’s LTAD model (Balyi & Hamilton, 2004), Deliberate Practice (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Romer, 1993), as well as the Developmental Model of Sport Participation (Côté & Fraser-Thomas, 2007) to mention but a few. The practical dilemma facing

nation states and other stakeholders therefore is deciding what framework (model and approach) to use (Gulbin, Croser, Morley & Weissensteiner, 2014). Balyi’s LTAD model (Balyi & Hamilton, 2004) has proven to be popular as a platform for designing elite athlete development pathways in a number of countries in recent years (Brouwers et al., 2015), sentiments shared by Roberston and Way (2005). Balyi’s LTAD model has been adopted and implemented by various countries including Canada, England, Ireland and South Africa while a lot of his concepts have been utilised in countries such as Australia and New Zealand.

As part of its efforts to address the challenges in the South African sport system, SASCOC adopted, among other initiatives, the Canadian LTAD model, which is based on Balyi’s LTAD model. After modifying it to suit the South African context, SASCOC rolled it out in 2012 as the Long-Term Participant Development (LTPD) model aimed at meeting the needs of all participants at various levels (SASCOC, 2012b). SASCOC’s LTPD model is a key element in implementing the aspirations of the National Sport and Recreation Plan of 2011, the National Sports Indaba of 2011 as well as the principles, values and vision of SRSA’s White Paper of 2011 (SASCOC, 2012c). It was hoped the LTPD model would align the structures and efforts of the major stakeholders at national, provincial and district levels and put the nation on track to achieve SRSA’s vision of an active and winning nation.

It is acknowledged that there are many athlete development models, however it is neither the purpose of this study to fully explore each one nor debate the merits and demerits of different athlete development models. However, a brief discussion of the LTPD model adopted by (SASCOC) for the South African context particularly as it relates to AWI is necessary mainly for a couple of reasons. Firstly, because this study was done in the South African context and as such it is important to briefly discuss SASCOC’s LTPD model to give a contextual background. Secondly to help us identify and position key stakeholders, particularly universities on the LTPD pathway. These are key steps in unravelling the current role of universities in the training and nurturing of AWI in South Africa as well as that of other key stakeholders involved.

2.3.1 The development of AWI According to the IPC, development refers to a “process of building, fostering and supporting growth.” (IPC, 2013c: 3). It can occur in individuals, communities, nations as well as international movements. In the Paralympic Movement, development involves multiple stakeholders such as member organisations, athletes, officials, coaches, classifiers among others. Athlete development refers to “Investment and intervention activities which directly or indirectly enhance the development of athletes at all levels.” (IPC, 2013c: 3). The IPC (2013c) further identifies key areas which support as well as impact on the development of athletes which are sport development, organisational development as well as participation. Sport development refers to investment and interventions meant to develop the capability as well as the capacity of sport infrastructure (physical, financial and human resources) so as to increase participation levels (IPC, 2013c). Organisational development refers to the “process of building, fostering as well as supporting advancements in human and financial aspects of an entity as well as governance so as to improve functioning.” (IPC, 2013c: 3). Participation entails measures aimed at ensuring full and meaningful engagement of groups to ensure that their views are heard and valued in decision making that impacts their lives (IPC, 2013c).

2.3.2 Development pathways and outcomes Success in elite sport is a result of training and performing well in the long run and research shows about eight to twelve years (the 10,000-hour rule) is required for an athlete to reach elite levels (Charness, Krampe & Mayr, 1996; Ericsson et al., 1993). During this period the athlete passes through various physiological, cognitive and emotional phases of development and acquires technical, tactical and mental skills necessary to specialize into their sport of choice. The athlete development pathway is however complicated and difficult to define (Du Randt, Headley, Loots, Potgieter, De Ridder & Van der Walt, 1992) and career development of athletes and sport systems vary by country (De Bosscher et al., 2008; Houlihan & Green 2008). Also, development of elite athletes is culture specific and is influenced by various factors, among them, the nature of the sport as well as elements unique to the individual athlete such as gender and physiological make up (Doll‐Tepper, 2012).

Nonetheless, there are several athlete development models that have been put forth by various authorities, some of which have already been identified in section 2.3.1 which include LTAD (Balyi & Hamilton, 2004), Deliberate Practice (Ericsson et al., 1993), as well as the Developmental Model of Sport Participation (Côté & Fraser- Thomas, 2007) among others. Although there are notable differences between these and other athlete development frameworks, although they share several key features. Firstly, there is general agreement that athlete development is a process that takes place over a long period of time following a defined pathway. Secondly, the athlete development pathway incorporates stages or phases through which an athlete progresses or ought to progress. Although there is no standard number of phases along the pathway, the existing models all incorporate between three to six stages each (Gulbin et al., 2013). These phases are seen as building blocks from basic movement skills to specialized skills and performance (Holl, 2013). Section 2.3.3 below further discusses the LTDP model as it applies to AWI in the South African context.

2.3.3 The LTAD model Models are increasingly being used in applied research to help make sense of several elements that influence on a particular situation. Models are particularly useful in establishing the relationship between elements such as cause and effect and ideally, models should facilitate the explanation, prediction and modification of behaviour or phenomenon (McNamara & Collins, 2014). According to Kaplan (1964: 255):

“The value of the model lies, in part, in its abstractness, so that it can be given many interpretations, which thereby reveal unexpected similarities. The value also lies in the deductive fertility of the model, so that unexpected consequence can be predicted and then tested by observation and experiment.”

Models need to have contextual relevance and in an athlete development context, this refers to the model being based on a specific sport system taking into consideration the prevailing political, economic, as well as social conditions. In

addition, the model needs to provide a platform for integrating and aligning all the relevant structures and stakeholders (Robertson & Way, 2005).

The South African LTPD model is a result of widespread international research, discourse as well as practice and is informed by extensive workshops with various stakeholders. Key stakeholders include government, provincial and national federations, as well as other interested stakeholders at national level between 2008 and 2012 (SASCOC, 2012a). The LTPD model, was first postulated by Dr Istvan Balyi as the LTAD model to address the challenges faced by the British Columbia and Canadian sport systems. It is defined by Robertson and Way (2005: 6) as “… a training, competition and recovery program based on biological age (the maturation level of an individual) rather than chronological age.” LTAD ensures that athletes train and compete in programmes appropriate to “…their biological and training ages in creating periodised plans specific for their development.” (Robertson & Way, 2005: 6). Following the LTPD ensures the overarching framework upon which sport specific and logical participant developmental pathways exist to address the challenges in the South African sport system (SASCOC, 2012c).

LTPD provides an appropriate as well as recognizable trajectory for engaging in physical activity and sport from the beginner stage to high performance using logical guidelines for training, competition as well as recovery (Balyi, Way, Norris, Cardinal & Higgs, 2005; Robertson & Way, 2005). It enables stakeholders to track athletes’ progress, identify what support is needed by athletes at each stage in the pathway, how the support should be rendered - how much of it and by whom?

2.3.3.1 Stages of LTPD The South African LTPD identifies seven stages for late specialisation sport, namely; an Active start, FUNdermentals, Learn to train, Training to train, Train to compete, Train to win and Active for life as shown in Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1: Sport for life: South African model for long term participant development (SASCOC, 2012a: 43)

The first three stages (Active start, FUNdermentals, Learn to train) develop physical literacy and encourage sport for all. Physical literacy is defined as “…possessing the competence and confidence in fundamental movement skills and fundamental sport skills combined with the ability to read the environment and make appropriate decisions” (SASCOC, 2012a: 37). These stages are intended for all people who wish to partake in physical activity and symbolize the process of attaining basic physical literacy as well as a lifelong engagement in physical activity (Balyi et al., 2005). These stages should ideally take place before adolescence, that is, from birth to twelve-year-old for both girls and boys. Suitable activities and equipment are used to develop a wide range of fundamental movement skills such as running, throwing, jumping, which are the foundation for participation and excellence (Balyi, 2001; Higgs & Trono, 2013). The fundamental movement skills are crucial building blocks and should be acquired through movement exploration and mastery before

sport specific skills are introduced and serves as a foundation for athletic excellence in later stages of the athlete’s career.

In addition to the first three, two additional stages (first contact and awareness) unique to AWI are identified in the LTPD model. The awareness stage refers to providing opportunities and creating awareness for sport participation to AWI (Higgs & Trono, 2013). Generally, fewer opportunities to participate in sports exist for AWI when compared to those of their able-bodied counterparts and as such prospective participants may not be aware of such opportunities. The first contact stage is about creating a positive experience for the participant the very first time they participate in sport so as to encourage future participation.

The next three stages in the LTPD model (Train to train, Train to compete as well as Train to win) focus on developing the athlete for excellence or high performance sport participation. Athletes are introduced to sport specific skills, basic technical and tactical skills and important capacities which include warm up and cool down, mental preparation, recovery and regeneration as well as hydration and nutrition, among others. During this phase, athletes are ideally between the ages of eleven and early twenties for both girls and boys. The last stage (Active for life) encourages mass sport participation and an active lifestyle for all South Africans. It encourages life-long physical activity for all and facilitates a smooth transition from high performance sport participation. The seven stages together denote a comprehensive pathway for athletes who opt to pursue high performance sport (Balyi et al., 2005).

LPTD is an all-inclusive approach that takes into consideration cognitive, mental, emotional and physical development of the athlete. Although all athletes will go through the same stages, the age groups in this model are general and the individual athlete’s rate of maturation will determine how athletes will progress through the various stages along the LTPD pathway. The LTPD model is a general guideline upon which sport specific models can be developed and is meant to assist decision-

making as well as practice for several stakeholders, among them, coaches, participants, national federations, policy makers and others.

The LTPD model denotes a pathway for able-bodied individuals and although there are numerous similarities between AWI and their able-bodied counterparts, certain differences between the two groups change the LTPD pathway for AWI (Balyi et al., 2005). These include:

 The athlete’s impairment which is either congenital or acquired can affect the athlete’s prior as well as future learning and development (Balyi et al., 2005). AWI progression along the LTPD pathway may therefore not occur during set ages (Higgs & Trono, 2013).  Opportunities for physical play in the early years for children with congenital disabilities are not always readily available and as a result the children may not have similar opportunities to learn the fundamental movement skills in the same years as their able-bodied colleagues.  AWI may require custom-made equipment as well as adapted sport facilities to minimise the impact their impact might have on sport performance fully exploiting their potential. Additional support such as guides and interpreters, among others may be necessary as is early classification into their appropriate sports classes. Failure to access these when needed negatively impacts the development of the athlete in the long term.  It is difficult to find two or more athletes with a similar type and level of impairment which limits access to appropriate competition.

2.3.4 Key factors influencing LTAD for AWI Balyi et al. (2005) identify ten key factors which relate to human development, training as well as sport system management for AWI. These factors are discussed below.

2.3.4.1 The 10-year rule The amount of time it takes to become an elite athlete differs with each sport, the nature of the athlete’s impairment and for acquired impairments, the pre-injury sport experience as well as expertise. While the 10,000-hour rule may not apply to athletes in some categories of physical and sensory impairments, AWI require the same dedication and commitment as demanded of their able-bodied counterparts to progress to the elite levels of performance (Balyi et al., 2005).

2.3.4.2 The FUNdamentals The fundamental movement skills and sport skills that make up physical literacy are acquired through fun physical activity and games and children develop these skills prior to puberty as well as during the growth phase. However, some PWI may have difficulty learning the FUNdamentals and physical literacy skills before puberty due to their impairments while others may require assistive devices or aides. Children with impairments may also encounter challenges acquiring fundamental movement as well as sport skills for a variety of reasons, among them:

 Parents may have not been encouraged to enrol their children in sport and activities that are both fun and safe.  Well-adapted physical education may not be available in all schools.  Coaches may not welcome children with impairments to their activities due to a lack of knowledge on how to inclusive.

Creativity is therefore important when including PWI into group activities where FUNdamental skills are taught and physical literacy is developed (Balyi et al., 2005). While activities teaching physical literacy skills needed by children with impairments may have to be adapted, all of the fundamental skills should be taught. Individuals who acquire an impairment at a later stage in life also need to relearn the fundamental movement and sport skills. AWI may make use of assistive devices or training partners in the process.

2.3.4.3 Specialization Most sport for AWI appear to be late specialization sports and AWI need to be exposed to all fundamental skills before specializing in their chosen sport. Athletes who acquire an impairment later in life need to master their new fundamental movement skills before they specialize in a single sport.

2.3.4.4 Developmental age There are similarities in stages of development everyone passes through albeit at different rates and timing. Similarities in chronological age between two children (for example two ten year olds does not necessarily mean similarity in in developmental age and it is not uncommon to find congenital impairments that change the timing of puberty. As a result, optimum periods of trainability may occur at varying ages. However, the sequence of development each individual goes through is the same.

2.3.4.5 Trainability There is no information on the periods of optimum trainability for AWI and it is therefore recommended that the ages of optimum trainability in the LTPD model be adjusted to suit the individual athlete based on the perceived age of puberty for children with congenital impairments. There is no available information regarding optimum periods of trainability for acquired impairments either.

2.3.4.6 Physical, mental, cognitive and emotional development In addition to the physical component, the emotional, mental and social development aspect is crucial and should be considered for AWI in general and those with an intellectual impairment in particular.

2.3.4.7 Periodization With no evidence of the difference between periodization for AWI and that of their able-bodied counterparts, the periodization in the LTPD may be followed with particular attention to individual athletes. This is because certain impairments may

lower functional muscle mass and aerobic capacity and this necessitates close monitoring with regards to fatigue, rest as well as recovery periods in AWI.

2.3.4.8 Calendar Planning for Competition There is need to match competition to the athlete’s stage of development to avoid the common problem of undertraining and/or over competing.

2.3.4.9 System Alignment and Integration For AWI to achieve their best, there is need to align and integrate the sport system from talent identification and support, coaching, competition, training partners, facilities, funding, equipment, sports science, ancillary services as well as daily living support. All these aspects form an enabling environment for AWI.

2.3.4.10 Continuous Improvement Although relatively young, sport for AWI is developing rapidly and developments in equipment, techniques and research demands an ongoing process of continuous improvement to enable the athlete to fully take advantage of competitive opportunities.

According to Balyi et al. (2005), the factors discussed above are grounded in sport and exercise science research. They are also informed by observing best practices in the areas of coaching as well as athlete training and it is upon these factors that the LTPD stages for AWI are defined. Further, the ten key factors are related to the processes of human’s physical maturation and how these processes interact with competition, training as well as recovery program design throughout the athlete’s career.

2.3.5 Key pillars to support LTAD for AWI Balyi et al. (2005) as well as Higgs et al. (2006) identify six key pillars supporting LTPD for AWI which are critical in ensuring optimal development of the athlete in the long term. These pillars are discussed in the following paragraphs.

2.3.5.1 Pillar 1: Coaching AWI need adequately qualified coaches with advanced knowledge of adaptations for skill, knowledge of disability sport rules and classification as well as disability knowledge related to the sport and equipment.

2.3.5.2 Pillar 2: Appropriate competition This refers to the availability of structured and well organized competitions at local, national as well as international levels. Competition schedules should be centred on the long-term needs of the athlete, appropriate to the athlete’s stage on the LTPD pathway. There should be enough competitors in the athlete’s division/class and where this is not possible, creativity is required to ensure that AWI access competition appropriate for their age, skill as well as fitness levels. The ratio of training to competition needs to be appropriate to avoid under training and/or over competition. In each developmental phase, competitions should be used as building blocks to the next level in achieving the set goals and focus should be on performance rather than results.

2.3.5.3 Pillar 3: Funding, equipment and facilities Although funding, equipment and facility needs vary for each athlete and sport, there is need for all three at the various stages of the LTAD for all athletes.

2.3.5.4 Pillar 4: Training partners All athletes in general need training and competition partners to encourage and push them to their full potential. For some AWI however, training and competition partners are not just wanted but are often needed. A visually impaired runner for example, may not be able to train or compete without a sighted guide. The level of

commitment and competitiveness of these training and competition partners needs to be at the appropriate level at all times.

2.3.5.5 Pillar 5: Athlete support AWI, may require additional support services for them to train and compete, for example, transport for in getting to and from training sessions and competitions.

The six key pillars discussed above are crucial in supporting LTPD for AWI which contributes to the optimal development of the athlete in the long term.

2.3.6 Criticisms of the LTPD model There has been various criticism aimed at athlete development models in general as well as the LTAD model in particular. At the former level, questions have been raised regarding the linearity of the development pathway as pronounced in these models. Gulbin et al. (2013) assert that high performance pathways are unstable and have a high degree of non-linearity because athletes can leapfrog several of stages. At the latter level, LTAD has been criticised for being mainly a coaching tool (Ford, De Ste Croix, Lloyd, Meyers, Moosavi, Oliver, Till & Williams, 2011) centred on general principles from motor learning literature, physical training as well as physiology (Holt, 2010). It is chronologically and content prescriptive, emphasizing physiology and conditioning at the expense of technical and tactical skill components, as an example (Gulbin et al., 2013). LTAD has also been criticized for its limited interpretation because of its reliance on data which is based on assumptions that are questionable as well as erroneous methodologies (Ford et al., 2011). Irrespective of these criticisms however, LTAD has partial validity and like any model, it is a work in progress which needs to be questioned, tested and revised further (Ford et al., 2011).

In as far as its applicability to AWI, besides assurances by proponents of the model, there is limited scientific literature (as with coaching and exercise science literature for AWI in general) supporting or refuting the applicability of LTAD/LTPD to AWI

(Bhambhani, 2004). Nonetheless, the model has been given credit in some aspects although more research is needed. The model’s emphasis on maturation age of the individual makes it applicable to athletes with acquired impairments as it is consistent with the classification system adopted by the IPC which considers functional ability and not type of impairment (Bhambhani, 2004; Bhambhani & Higgs, 2007).

Current literature also suggests that AWI pass through similar stages to those of able-bodied athletes (Higgs et al., 2006) in LTPD including the two extra stages of awareness and first contact (Higgs et al., 2011; Higgs & Trono, 2013). Due to their unique impairments (congenital or acquired), the ages appropriate at the various stages in the LTPD may not apply to all AWI (Higgs & Trono, 2013). Whatever the case, AWI should learn or re-learn fundamental movement and sport skills using appropriate equipment and technique to maximize the potential for their functional capacities and ensure smooth transition into the later stages in the LTPD (Higgs & Trono, 2013). The nature of the impairment the athlete has and the extent to which this affects sport specific function should also be considered as this may impact the athlete’s trainability and performance (Diaper, 2012).

The coaching practices and sport science and research upon which LTAD is based on continue to evolve and there is need for more research relating to AWI. The value of a handful of studies focusing on various aspects relating to the physiological and training of specific impairment groups such as athletes with cerebral palsy in wheelchair sports (Bhambhani, Burnham, Wheeler, Eriksson, Holland & Steadward, 1995; Bhambhani, 2004; Bougenot, Tordi, Betik, Martin, Le Foll, Parratte, Lonsdorfer & Rouillon, 2003). These studies provide invaluable information on the physiological stress associated with certain athletes with spinal cord injuries who compete in specific sports. Such insights meaningfully contribute to the development of LTAD for AWI. However, Bhambhani (2004) highlights the need for more longitudinal studies on athletes with specific impairments and also on the training programmes in relation to intensity, duration, volume and mode of training to enable wider application of results as well as prescription to potential competitive athletes. This will also allow for

comparison and thus inform the development of appropriate guidelines for LTAD for AWI.

Regardless of the limited empirical data to support the applicability the LTPD model in the development of AWI, sport specific LTAD models have been developed for several sport codes for AWI, most notably in Canada. It seems as if, except in instances where there are known differences, in the absence of evidence to the contrary, the LTAD and LTPD models will continue to be applied as they currently are to AWI. This is in the context of the much uncertainty about the best ways to train AWI. The increased growth in Paralympic Sports and competitiveness amongst the top nations, among other factors is expected to attract more research interest in the LTAD of AWI and shed more light into other impairment groups such as those with visual impairments (Keogh, 2011).

2.3.7 The role of stakeholders in LTPD Traditionally, the mandate to develop sport at elite level predominantly lies within a partnership between government, international and national federations (Chalip et al., 1996; Thoma & Chalip, 1996). However, the ever changing national and global sports landscape has resulted in a sport delivery system characterized by multiple stakeholders with interdependent and overlapping roles (Burnett, 2010b). The challenge of limited national resources and expertise also necessitates collective effort from other stakeholders beyond the traditional role players to ensure optimal delivery (Burnett, 2010b).

While there is need for various stakeholders to support developing athletes, this also creates the potential for conflict of interest amongst the stakeholders and if their efforts are not integrated and aligned to prioritise the needs of the athlete, such conflict may derail and harm the athlete’s development. Uncoordinated efforts by stakeholders can result in challenges including athletes over-competing and/or under/over-training resulting in failure to reach one’s generic potential (Robertson & Way, 2005).

The above challenges and others gives rise to the need to have a clear and structured pathway followed by the athlete, acknowledged and accepted by all stakeholders. Such a roadmap would not only benefit the athletes in terms of their progress in sport, but also identify what should be done to support the athlete, at what stage and by whom. Each stakeholder should be aware of their role and that of other stakeholders or partners in paving the way for a unified and coordinated effort from all concerned.

The role of stakeholders on the LTPD pathway in a South African context will be discussed under this theme, with the intent to firstly position universities on the LTPD pathway and then secondly, unpacking their role in supporting elite AWI.

2.3.7.1 Role of stakeholders on the LTPD pathway The successful implementation of LTPD rests on the involvement and commitment of several key stakeholders (Balyi & Hamilton 2004; Brouwers et al., 2015). These stakeholders include the athlete and their family members, peers, coach(s), sports clubs, private academies, national and provincial federations, provincial academies of sport as well as government policy makers, among others. The role each of these stakeholders plays in the LTPD pathway varies with some responsible for initiating sport and athlete development strategies (policy frameworks and legislation) while others implement them. Findings from a study done by Brouwers et al. (2015) show that stakeholder roles, influence as well as level of involvement are linked to a specific development phase, yet specific stakeholders such as coaches, clubs and national federations are mostly involved in all the phases of athlete development.

An effective system of communication between those with the primary responsibility for serving AWI with LTPD and other stakeholders in the sport system is important to ensure that their efforts are integrated and aligned. In a South African context, the LTPD model is a framework that aligns the energies as well as efforts of key providers of sport programmes in the country, in particular:

 School sports and physical education programmes.

 Club, regional, provincial as well as national sports programmes.  High performance sports programmes (SASCOC, 2012a).

The role of stakeholders is to develop programmes to deliver on the LTPD pathway and as such it is critical to have clear role definition of who should deliver what as well as how (SASCOC, 2012a). LTPD would thus provide the platform to address the lack of cohesion at district, provincial and national levels on issues relating to the management, delivery as well as athlete and sport programmes evaluation, a key challenge identified in the South African sports system by SASCOC (SASCOC, 2012a).

The education system encompassing schools and HEIs is recognised as key in implementing the LTPD pathway as it is positioned to provide physical education and sport to a large number of South Africans at key points in their development (SASCOC, 2012a). Figure 2.2 shows the relationship between the LTPD pathway and the education system in South Africa.

Figure 2.2: The relationship between the LTPD pathway and the education system in South Africa (adapted from SASCOC, 2012a: 61)

The first four phases (Active start – Train to train) on the LTPD pathway would, to a greater extent typically take place in school (birth to sixteen-year age group). During this period, the school together with other stakeholders provide an important platform for supporting the progression of the athlete on the LTPD pathway. For LTPD to make the utmost impact in South Africa, there is wide recognition that school physical education and sport programmes have to be aligned with LTPD values, principles and practices (SASCOC, 2012a).

The latter phases of the LTPD model (Train to train and Train to win stages) are when athletes enter the elite levels of sport participation as illustrated in Figure 2.1. With some exceptions, this is the same phase where athletes find themselves out of school (see Figure 2.2) and have the opportunity to enrol in HEI for tertiary education. HEIs are therefore positioned to play a more influential role in the training and nurturing of elite athletes on the LTPD pathway during these phases as they have direct access to elite athletes who are enrolled to study in their institutions.

2.3.7.2 The University as a stakeholder on the LTPD pathway Higher Education Institutions, in particular, universities, can make significant contributions to the sports delivery system at both recreational and high performance levels, for students and society at large (Goslin, 2002). Universities and other stakeholders form a value chain for the delivery of structured sport programmes and athlete development (Burnett, 2010b). The availability of facilities for training, sports science and medicine and expertise in research means that athletes can access a well-resourced and specialized environment for high performance sport participation (Burnett, 2010a; Universities UK, 2012). This is a major draw-card in attracting aspiring elite athletes (Universities UK, 2012) and strategically positions universities as significant stakeholders in the sport delivery system.

The involvement of universities in sport also carries symbolic significance (Bourdieu, 1986). Successful sport entities are recognized by other stakeholders and the increased visibility of successful athletes attracts universities to capitalize on high

profiled athletes in high performance sport for marketing and branding purposes (Bourdieu, 1986; Burnett, 2010a). A favourable brand of a university can have considerable positive impact on the recruitment of potential students (Burnett, 2010a; Watt & Moore, 2001), develop opportunities to network with key stakeholders such as corporates, government and federations and has revenue generation potential (Lee, Miloch, Kraft & Tatum, 2008).

Globally, universities are increasingly becoming involved in the sports delivery system as preferred partners of government and other stakeholders. University involvement in the development of elite athletes has contributed to the success of individual athletes and teams at major sport competitions. Between 1992 and 2008, 61% of Team GB’s Olympic Games medallists had been students or alumni, while 59% of Team GB for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games have been or were then current student-athletes at universities (Universities UK, 2012). Universities are also involved in partnerships within their communities and provide resources and expertise used by many high performance non-student-athletes.

In South Africa, SRSA has called for the establishment of strategic partnerships with tertiary institutions to effectively support elite athletes and turn potential into excellence (SRSA, 2012b). Research by Burnett (2010b) shows significant partnerships between universities, SASCOC and national federations, particularly the tapping of physical resources, scientific support and expertise as well as managerial assistance from different universities to support elite athletes and high performance sport. Federations networking with universities are afforded access to expert services and scientific support as sport science, medical and technical assistance as well as sports facilities while universities gain access to conduct research as well opportunities for integrated learning experiences for their students (Burnett, 2010b). Universities in South Africa are increasingly becoming hubs for the delivery of sport excellence in collaboration with provincial sports academies (Burnett, 2010b).

Much of this documented evidence of partnerships between universities and other stakeholders in South African sports system has been with able-bodied elite sport. Not much information exists between universities and other stakeholders in elite sport for people with impairments and thus more research is this area is needed.

2.3.7.3 Limitations of the LTPD in addressing the role of stakeholders in athlete development Although the various athlete development models acknowledge the importance of various stakeholders in supporting the athlete along the athlete development pathway, they have been criticized for failing to address this area adequately. Brouwers et al. (2015) note that all the frameworks put forth including the LTPD model start from the micro level (athlete perspective) and focus on how factors like motor skill development, training load, coach as well as parent involvement change throughout the different phases of development associated with an athlete’s pathway. As a result, they give little insight from a meso-level (organizational and management) perspective on how organizations can optimally support the athlete during the various stages on the development pathway (Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2013). As a result, there is currently a gap among athlete development models and what these models signify practically to organizations such as national federation, sport clubs, sport academies and universities among others (Greyson, Kelly, Peyrebrune & Furniss, 2010).

Sotiriadou’s attraction, retention/transition and nurturing (ARTN) model attempts to address this gap by providing a meso-level (organizational and managerial) approach on elite athlete development (Sotiriadou, Shilbury & Quick, 2008). The ARTN framework emanated from a study of 35 Australian National Sports Organizations’ annual reports as well as policy documents over a period of four years. It gives an organizational viewpoint on “‘who is involved with sport development’, in ‘what ways’, at ‘which developmental level’, and with ‘which outcomes’.” (Brouwers et al., 2015: 458). The framework identifies three different sport development processes which are interrelated and refer to the processes of attraction, retention/transition as well as nurturing.

During the attraction process, the focus is on increasing awareness of sport programmes, the benefits of participation as well as nurture a large number of young participants who have the potential to become elite athletes in future (Sotiriadou & Shilbury, 2013). This stage is complemented by various strategies such as sport development programmes, competitions as well as modified/adapted sports to increase accessibility to sport and maintain interest (Sotiriadou et al., 2008). Key formal stakeholders in this phase include participants, supporters, and spectators as well as sport federations and clubs who are involved in the attraction process at a local level through offering participation as well as development opportunities to the general public (Sotiriadou et al., 2008).

The retention/ transition process “aims to capitalize on the identification of the most talented, retain them, and assist them to obtain the required skills to achieve high standards of performance.” (Sotiriadou et al., 2008: 262). This stage includes talent identification as well as development phases (Brouwers et al., 2015) where talent identification is the process of recognizing athletes that have potential to become elite athletes in future. After the talent identification stage, specific athletes are selected to participate in structured training activities and competitions (De Bosscher, Shibli, Westerbeek & Van Bottenburg, 2015). Success within this stage is reliant on success at the attraction stage.

Throughout the nurturing process “… stakeholders coordinate their efforts to tailor sport development for specific sports and individuals or teams. The aim is to nurture the finest athletes, their success at prestigious international events and competition.” (Sotiriadou et al., 2008: 263). Success of elite athletes at this stage is a result of talent, ability, commitment as well as dedication to training and competition including the synchronized efforts from multiple stakeholders (Sotiriadou et al., 2008). Key stakeholders in this phase include expert support staff, among them nutritionists, psychologists and physiotherapists as well as skilled, professional, committed and knowledgeable coaches.

According to Brouwers et al. (2015), the ARTN framework has been used in various studies to scrutinize stakeholder involvement in processes of development across certain sports, selected development processes such as those that focus on one stage of the ARTN framework, specific strategies such as facilities as well as sport specific groups (indigenous populations as well as athletes with impairments). However, key limitations of this framework have been highlighted which include that:

 Most of the studies where the framework has been applied are focused on the attraction and retention/transition stages with little attention on its application at the elite level.  Currently, the framework has only been applied in Australia and as such the framework is still to be implemented and evaluated in other contexts.  The framework was developed based on national sports organizations documents and lacks insight from other stakeholders who are involved in the sports development process.

There is a need for sport specific studies to validate the ARTN framework such as Brouwers et al.’s 2015 study which applies the ARTN framework to a sport specific setting by exploring the role of stakeholders in shaping elite athlete development in tennis. This study addresses some of the limitations of the ARTN framework highlighted above by:

 Applying all three of the framework’s stages in tennis to examine and understand the role of stakeholders on the elite athlete development pathway.  Applying the framework internationally.  Using data from interviews with experts working with elite tennis players.

This meso-level approach complements other studies with the micro-level perspective.

2.3.8 Resources To achieve sport excellence, athletes require adequate resources support to fully reach their potential (Higgs et al., 2006; Higgs et al., 2011). These resources are

discussed shortly under following three sub-headings, namely human resources, physical resources as well as financial resources.

2.3.7.1. Human resources

There is need for adequately qualified coaches with advanced knowledge of adaptations for skill, knowledge of disability sport rules and classification as well as disability knowledge related to sport and equipment (Balyi et al., 2005). While some of these qualities can only be acquired overtime though experience in coaching AWI, this is complemented by developing coaching materials that addresses the variety of sport contexts and activity streams for AWI (Balyi et al., 2005).

In the South African context, one of the challenges identified by SASCOC (2012a) relates to the lack of understanding regarding the training needs of AWI and the development of formal coaching material can go a long way in addressing this issue. According to Coaching Association of Canada (CAC) (2011), there is no fundamental difference between coaching AWI and able-bodied athletes.

“The core element in coaching is to determine where people are, assess where they need to get to, and find a path down that road. The basic issues are much the same with persons with a disability.” (Higgs in CAC, 2011: 4)

Even with much similarity, there is a lack of literature on coaching AWI. With regards to coaching qualifications, much of the content on sport for AWI is available as segments in mainstream coaching courses for able-bodied sport codes. It is not uncommon therefore that coaches trained in coaching able-bodied athletes are also coaching AWI. These coaches resort to informal learning opportunities such as seminars and workshops as well as experience on the job to enhance their knowledge and experience of sport for AWI.

Besides coaches, AWI also need access to additional support staff as they progress along the LTPD pathway. As with other sports structures in the country, universities need to be adequately employ enough qualified staff with

knowledgeable, skilled and experienced personnel who can effectively liaise with athletes and their coaches as well as other internal and external stakeholders (Higgs et al., 2006). Like their able-bodied counterparts, AWI require access to professional personnel to provide various services relating to sport science services, sport nutrition, injury prevention, sport medicine as well as rehabilitation. In addition, counselling services are also essential for optimal athlete development when it comes to educators and counsillors who can assist them in their career decision making (Balyi et al., 2005). Some AWI may require additional support staff to assist with personal care, training and competition aids as well as skilled technicians for maintenance of their sport equipment (such as wheelchairs, prosthetics, among other). Such qualified personnel are not necessarily found in able-bodied sport. These additional supporting roles need to be adequately developed as they have direct impact on the development of AWI (Balyi et al., 2005).

AWI also require various physical resources in their pursuit of sport excellence which broadly includes equipment and sport facilities. AWI may require adapted equipment to be able to fully exploit their athletic potential as well as minimize the barriers to sport participation that are related to their impairment (Balyi et al., 2005). There is also the need for access to user-friendly and sufficient high quality sport facilities for training and competition. Closely linked to facilities is the removal of architectural barriers which make sports facilities inaccessible to AWI (Pierce, 1998). Although the facility and equipment needs of each athlete varies across the stages, adequate access to these two components is crucial particularly during the Active start and FUNdamentals stages (Balyi et al., 2005). During the ‘Train to win’ stage (high performance phase), there is need for more cutting-edge technological equipment that gives the athlete an advantage in international competition (Balyi et al., 2005).

According to Balyi et al. (2005), access to adequate and appropriate equipment as well as quality and accessible facilities is important for several reasons:

 Although all sports require the use of some form of equipment, for many AWI sport participation without specialized equipment is impossible.

 Equipment needs to be both affordable and easily accessible and suitable to meet the athletes’ needs across all stages. This is crucial for increasing participation opportunities as well as the provision of quality sport experiences.  In order to make sport for AWI more affordable, there is need for innovative approaches to designing and developing sports equipment. In turn, this will assist in supporting as well as promoting performance for athletes in the ‘Train to win’ stage.  Affordable and accessible sport facilities enable AWI to partake in sport, from ‘Active start’ to ‘Active for life’.  Scheduling as well as programming at sport facilities needs to permit AWI to train and participate in sport across all stages. In addition to access to facilities, AWI need human support and equipment to participate and train.

With respect to financial resources, AWI need access to sufficient and sustainable funding distributed appropriately across all stages of the LTPD pathway. Adequate funding facilitates access to other resources such as coaching, equipment as well as sports science and medicine enabling the athlete to focus on training and competition (Higgs et al., 2006). Without adequate financial support, athletes are more likely to withdraw from competitive sport during the training to train and training to compete stages in the LTAD (Higgs et al., 2006).

2.4 Student-athletes with impairments as a special population

Under this section, the concept of student-athlete is introduced with the aim of describing student-athletes with impairments, the challenges they face as well as the institutional support that can be given to this group.

2.4.1 Profiling the student-athlete The term student-athlete can be traced as far back as the 1950s in the USA where it was used by the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) in a bid to clearly separate athletes from employee status to avoid worker’s compensation liability

(Boland, 2012). The NCAA then, identified student-athletes as anyone who was registered with an academic institution while at the same participating in sport as an extracurricular activity (Boland, 2012).

Over the years, the term ‘student-athlete’ has gained popularity in the USA and abroad and much has been debated regarding the intended meaning versus the reality around it over time. Some critics have contended that the term student- athlete is a cover up by organizations such as the NCAA and others worldwide to indirectly promote sport participation for students over academics (Boland, 2012). NCAA in particular was criticized for focusing on sport ability and placing huge demands on athletes and hiding behind the term student-athlete when in fact they are athletes first who are registered to study at a college (Eckard, 2010). These arguments seem to have found support in some research that has shown that student-athletes spend 50% more time engaging in sports more than academics while a large number of student-athletes identified themselves as athletes first and students second (NCAA, 2011, in Boland, 2012).

To counter these critics as well as deal with some of the challenges raised, the NCAA has over time emphasized the need to prioritize student-athletes’ education foremost and sport second (Boland, 2012; Clark & Parette, 2002). In addition to the normal student demands of attending classes, studying and engaging in social activities, student-athletes also have to train and compete, often travelling away during study time and thus lead a dual career (academics and sport) (Watt & Moore III, 2001).

A dual career in sport and education is almost unavoidable for athletes who seek to further their post school education as well as progress in the realm of elite sport, mainly for various reasons. Firstly, according to the LTPD model, for late specialisation sports (varies by type of sport), athletes enter the elite stages of sport participation in their late teenage years, the same period an average student enters university for their first qualification. Athletes therefore find themselves at the peak

of their elite sports careers in the same years that they have to take up studies in a HEI (Burnett, 2010a). Secondly, research has shown that relatively few athletes make it to that level where they get remunerated enough to earn a living from sport (Amara, Aquilina, Henry & PMP Consultants, 2004) and there are massive differences between the highest and the lowest paid athletes in sport. Studies in football in the United Kingdom show that only 2% of academy players secure professional contracts while failure and dropout rates are high in Netherlands and France (Amara et al., 2004). Thirdly, athletic careers are relatively short when compared to other non-sport careers (depending on the sport of course), and can end prematurely because of injury, not being selected to play or not performing well enough.

There is therefore no guarantee that the years spent training as well as resources used will bring success and secure a descent standard of living in future and this brings about the need for one to adequately prepare for life outside competitive sport. Acquiring formal education is one such avenue. Lastly, a dual career in a non-sport professional pathway and in sport is pursued in preparation for the transition into a post sport career (Lavalle & Wylleman, 2000) where athletes can use their academic qualifications to pursue employment of their choice or pursue business opportunities.

From a sport perspective, a dual career in academics and sport also has benefits for the student-athlete, particularly in the elite stages of sport participation where they require top level coaching and access to various support services and facilities. Universities world-wide have some of the best sport facilities as well as sports science and medicine services available to student-athletes who gain access to such resources in addition to study for a formal qualification which they can use later in life (Universities UK, 2012). The university therefore becomes an important place and a hub for academic, social and athletic development for the student-athlete.

2.4.2 Student-athletes with impairments Student-athletes with Impairments (S-AWI) are a unique sub-group of the broader student-athlete population pursuing a dual career during their university years. Sport for S-AWI is still in its infancy and does not enjoy as much popularity as student sport for their able-bodied counterparts which partly explains the dearth of academic interest and thus knowledge production in the field. A handful of people have written on this topic, among them Adler and Adler (1985); Etzel et al., (1996); Knight Foundation Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics, (1991); Roper and McKenzie, (1988) who have focused on student-athletes with learning disabilities.

The growth of sport for AWI and the Paralympic Games in particular over the years may result in an increased interest in the field. Already, in the USA, sport for S-AWI has received increased attention in the last five years with institutions such as the NCAA’s 2012 establishment of the Student-Athletes with Disabilities Subcommittee tasked to explore the different ways to accommodate S-WI as well as other initiatives such as documenting current practices in the field as well as the creation of a best practices document. These developments further show how sport for S-AWI is still in its infancy even in leading countries in terms of student sport such as the USA.

Beyond the benefits of pursuing a dual career in academics and sport already discussed in 2.4.1, there is perhaps more reason for AWI to ensure that they acquire a formal tertiary qualification. This is because post-secondary education is a good predictor of meaningful employment and therefore opens up opportunities for career development and consequently for quality of life (Duta, Scguri-Geist & Kundu, 2009; Getzel, Stodden & Brief, 2001). In the context of students with impairments, Kendall and Terry (1996) as well as McGeary, Mayer, Gatchel, Anagnostis and Proctor (2003) are of the opinion that the above finding has higher significance for people with physical and sensory impairments whose range of employment is restricted to occupations that require less physical capacity and skills. Obtaining formal education is therefore key for people with impairments (Drake, Gray, Yoder, Pramuka & Llewellyn, 2000; Rimmerman & Araten-Bergman, 2005).

2.4.3 Challenges facing S-AWI Student-athletes across the board, including S-AWI are developing both as students, athletes and people concurrently and as a result face unique challenges (Ervin, Saunders, Gills & Hogrebe, 1985). Each individual’s experiences as a student- athlete are however not necessarily the same due to the differences in sex, race and ability as well as the type of sport they play (Street, 2009 as cited in Watt & Moore III, 2001), among other factors. Street (2009) as cited in Watt and Moore III (2001) therefore suggests that for discussion purposes it is convenient to assume that all student-athletes have similar experiences and experience common problems, an approach used in this discussion. However, this does not mean that the differences are not acknowledged and that the vast array of unique problems faced by different student-athletes should not be addressed.

Elite student-athletes often train and study on scholarships or bursaries from the university, national federation or government which may come with set performance standards which the student-athlete has to meet both on the field of play and in their academics in order to continue being funded (Henry, 2010). In the South African context, in some universities, student-athletes are expected to pass a minimum of 60% of their academics to qualify for sports bursaries in the following year (Burnett, 2010a). University sport is also increasingly attracting huge media coverage and funding placing the university, the athletes and sport in the public limelight thus further heightening expectations on the athletes who bear massive responsibility to perform well (Watt & Moore III, 2001). Increasing expectations on elite athletes to perform require them to dedicate themselves more to achieve excellence (Aquilina, 2013; Mann & Nagel, 2003 as cited in Henry, 2010).

This impacts on the time available for other non-sport aspects of life and produces tension as less time is available to fill in their roles as students, athlete and spouse among others. The dual roles of student and elite athlete are therefore often in conflict and exert complex demands on the individual resulting in some undesirable outcomes such as financial constraints, social isolation as well as stereotyping (Cross, 2004 in Amara et al., 2004). The challenge for student-athletes therefore is

trying to achieve some balance between sport and academics while succeeding in both and at the same time maintaining a good social life. Balance is essential for a holistic development of the student-athlete which not only leads to success in sports and education but also better prepares the athlete for the transition into a post- athlete life (Amara et al., 2004; Stambulova, Alfermann, Statler & Côté, 2009). Achieving balance as well as the demands upon the student-athlete to achieve it vary with individuals and sports (Amara et al., 2004; Stambulova et al., 2009) and various factors such as race, ability, gender, personal circumstances and support structure, among others also play a role (Watt & Moore III, 2001).

In addition to the main challenges of balancing academics, sport and social life as those faced by their able-bodied counterparts, S-AWI may also face additional time and academic demands (Weiss, 2011). S-AWI may face unique challenges in academic areas, among them, reading and writing as well as social and emotional difficulties such as low self-esteem, lack of self-worth and poor self-concept (Barton & Fuhrmann, 1994). A study by Sachs and Schreuer (2011) indicates that, among other aspects, students with impairments devoted more time to meet the demands of their studies and partook in less extra-curricular and social activities. Obiozor, Onu and Ugwoegbu (2010) are of the view that tertiary institutions in South Africa are not purposely built to accommodate students with impairments. Consequently, students with impairments and S-AWI by implication have challenges such as gaining physical access to infrastructure as well as the lack of appropriate support services and programmes.

There is great diversity amongst S-AWI (Gerber & Reiff, 1991) and an individual may have a specific challenge or an assemblage of challenges, which manifest themselves in different ways (Clark & Parette, 2002). There is therefore a need for universities to be aware of the additional and specific challenges S-AWI may face so as to be provide the necessary services and support as when needed. This is rather problematic as there is very little relevant information regarding the prevalence of impairments among student-athletes at universities (Clark & Parette, 2002). The unavailability of information means that the various interventions developed and

implemented to assist the student-athlete in general may not fully accommodate the specific needs of SA-WIs (Clark & Parette, 2002). Researchers have raised the concern that the needs of student-athletes in general and those with learning impairments in particular have frequently been ignored (Adler & Adler, 1985; Etzel, Ferrante & Pinkney, 1996; Knight Foundation Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics, 1991; Roper & McKenzie, 1988).

In the South African context, the challenges facing S-AWI cannot be looked at in isolation without considering that PWI in the country have largely been left out of mainstream society and barred from accessing essential economic, social as well as political rights (Masambo, 2013 as cited in SASAPD, 2016). In a sport context, the main challenges relate to inaccessibility of sport facilities, shortage of equipment as well as the lack of sufficient competition locally, particularly in the rural arears (DISSA, 2003as cited in SASAPD, 2016). There is a massive gap when it comes to academic research on S-AWI in selected sports. Such enquiry would not only shed light on the dynamics in individual or team sports but, also illuminate the various sport specific challenges faced by S-AWI.

2.4.4 Institutional support to S-AWI The unique challenges encountered by student-athletes in general and S-AWI in particular gives rise to the need for a strong support system (Clark & Parette, 2002; Watt & Moore III, 2001) to enable them to successfully achieve their best academically, in sport as well as socially. This support system requires the cooperation of key stakeholders in the educational, sports as well as personal systems in supporting student-athletes to achieve good education, sports success as well as a successful ‘normal’ life (Doll–Tepper, 2012; Amara et al., 2004).

The following is a discussion on the institutional support to S-AWI from the education system, specifically in as far as it concerns universities. Because S-AWI are a sub- population of the broader student-athlete’s population, the various interventions to support student-athletes in general should be applicable to this group as well.

However, because S-AWI may face additional challenges such as additional time and special academic demands (Weiss, 2011), additional interventions may be needed.

Universities can set up various structures and programmes to assist S-AWI cope with academic, sport as well as personal life demands. For discussion purposes, it is meaningful to consider various interventions under the broad categories of academic support as well as sport support systems (see Henry, 2010; Aquilina & Henry, 2010). A third category (the post-athletic career phase) is also identified but falls outside the scope of this study. In reality however, there is an overlap between the various categories as well as close interplay between some of the interventions.

2.4.4.1 Academic support Diersen (2005) and Hanover Research (2012) highlight the need for academic support programmes as part of a wider range of interventions to support elite student-athletes. Although this support comes in different forms depending on a particular university there are many similarities in terms of what is offered. Aquilina and Henry (2010) as well as Henry (2010) conducted research across European universities and found the following forms of academic support predominantly:

 Flexibility in entry requirements for elite athletes who aspire to gain entry into university.  Extended term time to allow student-athletes more time to dedicate to sport and academic demands.  Individually tailored study schedules.  Alternative ways of delivering courses.  Small group tutoring.

Flexibility in academic programmes such as permission to be absent to attend training camps and competitions, personalised study programmes, individual tutoring and monitoring, flexible time tabling, distance learning and e-learning as well as unrestricted transfer between departments and campuses are some of the initiatives

universities are taking to support the needs of the elite student-athlete (Amara et al., 2004). These and other specific support enables student-athletes to succeed both academically and in sports (Broughton & Neyer, 2001; Cox, McGuire & McBride, 2009; Amara et al., 2004). The Hanover Research (2012) emphasises that academic support should be available continuously and to all student-athletes and not just those at risk of failing.

2.4.4.2 Sport related support Universities can also provide support to S-AWI through offering:

 Bursaries or scholarships that cover a range of costs among them, tertiary, residence as well as subsistence expenditure.  Access to accessible sports facilities and other key sport infrastructure for training.  Professional support services to S-AWI including access to physiotherapy sport science and medical services as well as expert coaching.

Specific services such as coaching, accommodation, medical support and nutrition are key to elite level competition, and so is the proximity of training facilities to education facilities which helps with time management (Amara et al., 2004).

Hanover Research (2012) highlight the need for collaboration between the sport and the academic elements in the university in as far as supporting the student-athlete is concerned. Collaboration works as checks and balances to ensure that the various interventions complement each other in supporting the student-athlete. It is also equally important for actors in the sports system, particularly coaches, managers, national federations and others to understand academic demands placed on the elite student-athlete so as to ensure that they support the athlete in their bid to strike a balance and succeed in academics, sport and social life. The same applies to the athlete’s personal circle of family, friends and peers (significant others).

2.4.4.3 Other services As highlighted in 2.4.3, S-AWI may face specific challenges which may require universities to provide additional support beyond what is typically provided for able- bodied student-athletes. Much of this additional assistance may be needed by students with impairments in universities in general and not just S-AWI. Tugli, Zungu, Ramakuela, Goon and Anyanwu (2013) are of the view that the lack of essential support services for students with impairments in tertiary educational institutions, can result in social and academic exclusion and students with impairments being overly dependentand. As such, disability support units or offices providing dedicated support to students with impairments across all spheres of student life are a common feature across several universities nowadays worldwide as well as in South Africa. According to the Department of Education (DoE) (2005), the philosophy behind establishing disability support units is to support equal participation of people with impairments in all aspects of university life as well as eradicate unlawful discrimination and harassment towards PWI.

Key services offered to students with impairments by disability support units include:

 Keeping a comprehensive database of the various students and staff with impairments in the university.  Awareness raising on impairment as well as disability related issues on campus through initiatives such as workshops, simulation and games, among others.  Auditing accessibility of campus infrastructure as well as addressing access issues in general.  Provision and maintenance of assistive devices and equipment such as wheelchairs.  Provision of academic and personal support such as a flexible academic programme and extended assessment time.  Provision of assistance with applications for scholarships and other funding support opportunities.  Ensuring the complete inclusion of students with impairments in campus programmes.

 Provision of special services such as braille transcription for students with visual impairments (Tugli et al., 2013).

Such units serve as one stop resource centres providing support to students and staff with impairments as well as other university departments that may require assistance on general disability matters or a specific student.

2.5 Stakeholders and strategic partnerships for S-AWI development

There are several institutions that are involved in the development of Paralympic Sport for as well as elite AWI in South Africa. These institutions operate in specific constituencies which could be at national, provincial as well as local levels. Some of these key institutions are identified in this section with the aim of describing their roles in the development of elite AWI and elite S-AWI in particular, as well as explore any strategic intra- and inter-institutional partnerships as discussed in available literature. Collaboration happens at different levels and will be discussed in the following sections.

2.5.1 National level The following are the key (external) institutions that are involved in the development of Paralympic Sport and AWI at national level in South Africa: Sport and Recreation South Africa (SRSA), South African Sports Confederation and Olympic Committee (SASCOC), national federations as well as the National Lotteries Commission (NLC).

2.5.1.1 Sport and Recreation South Africa SRSA is the government department responsible for strategic direction and funding public resources for sport and recreation in South Africa at national level. Its main functions are to manage the regulatory framework around sport in the country as well as provide funding for different sport codes channelled through SASCOC to national federations, club development as well as SRSA programs (SRSA, 2016). SRSA focuses on mass participation while high performance sport aspects fall under the mandate of SASCOC (SRSA, 2016) (See 2.5.1.2). 59

2.5.1.2 South African Sports Confederation and Olympic Committee SASCOC was formed in 2004 as the sole national body responsible for preparing, presenting as well as performance of teams to the Paralympic Games, Olympic Games, Commonwealth Games, All Africa Games, Olympic Youth Games, Commonwealth Youth Games and Region 5 Games (SASCOC, 2016). SASCOC was formed through a process which started with the formation of a Ministerial Task Team established by former Minister of Sport (SASCOC, 2016).

SASCOC is the only body with the mandate to award National Protea Colours to athletes and officials who meet the criteria to represent South Africa, (SASCOC, 2013). In executing its mandate of preparing athletes to participate in elite international events such as the Paralympic Games, SASCOC looks after several national federations affiliated with them and through its High-Performance Department offers funding support to deserving athletes and teams through initiatives such as the Operation Excellence (OPEX) programme. Through the OPEX programme, selected athletes who meet the set criteria may benefit from funding to attend local camps, local and international competition as well as living costs, (SASCOC, 2013). Regarding high performance sport for AWI, SASCOC works in partnership with South Africa Sport Association for Physically Disabled (SASAPD), national federations and various other stakeholders such as provincial and local government, universities as well as the private sector (SASAPD, 2011).

2.5.1.3 National federations There are various national federations that offer Paralympic Sport in South Africa, each with a mandate to develop sport and athletes in their respective constituencies from recreational to elite level. These federations are either sport specific or offer various sports to people with a specific type of impairment (impairment specific) or a group of impairments as informed by international practice. Sport specific federations offer sport opportunities to people with various impairment who meet the minimum criteria of admission into the sport as set out by the IFs governing their respective sport. Examples of sport specific federations include Wheelchair Tennis South Africa as well as Wheelchair Basketball South Africa. Impairment specific

federations offer several sport codes to athletes who have impairments falling within similar impairment group only. An example internationally is the International Blind Sport Federation.

The South Africa Sport Association for Physically Disabled (SASAPD) is the national umbrella body responsible for developing and promoting sport codes offered at Paralympic level for athletes with physical impairments and visual impairments (De Bosscher & Wong, 2012). SASAPD has its roots in the formation of the South African Paraplegic Games Association (SAPGA) in 1962 in Johannesburg. The formation of SAPGA is closely linked to the establishment of a spinal injuries unit in Cape Town as well as the growth in stature of the International Stoke Mandeville Games. Consequently, SAPGA initially catered for individuals with spinal cord injuries only. In the same year it was established, SAPGA sent its first team to represent South Africa at the International Stoke Mandeville Games on the invitation of the event organisers (Scruton, 1998). South African athletes would participate in these games until their expulsion in 1985 in protest against the apartheid rule in the country (Scruton, 1998).

After the 1976 Paralympic Games, SAPGA opened up to athletes with visual impairments, amputees, cerebral palsied as well as les autres and changed its name to South Africa Sport Association for Physically Disabled (SASAPD). The National Paralympic Committee of South Africa (NAPCOSA) was formed in 1994 following requests by the IPC as well as the then National Department of Sport to have a single structure for people with impairments (SASAPD, 2016). Three federations affiliated to NAPCOSA then and these were SASAPD, South African Deaf Sport Association and the then South African Association for Severely Mentally Handicapped, which later became the South African Sports Association for Intellectually Impaired (SASAPD, 2016).

In 2001, NAPCOSA was disbanded in favour of Disability Sport South Africa (DISSA) by the same affiliates that formed NAPCOSA and the functions of NAPCOSA were

merged into the high-performance unit of DISSA (SASAPD, 2016). With the formation of SASCOC in 2005, the three affiliates of DISSA affiliated directly with SASCOC and SASCOC took over the high-performance functions of DISSA. SASAPD retained its responsibility to provide sport at a both mass participation as well as development levels to all AWI as well as support elite athletes to represent South Africa at the highest level in partnership with SASCOC (SASAPD, 2011).

SASAPD caters for 17 sports across twelve regions in South Africa in partnership with sport specific or impairment focused federations which are affiliated to it (SASAPD, 2016). Five impairment groups are currently catered for in the 17 sports, namely, cerebral palsied, amputees, visually impaired, spinal cord injuries and blind as well as les autres (the others) (SASAPD, 2011). SASAPD is affiliated to various international bodies, recognized as an affiliate member of SASCOC and an associate member in several national federations for sport for AWI. SASAPD is directly in charge of nine of the 17 sports under them where each sport is coordinated and managed by a national convener who in turn is supported by their sport national committee. The rest of the sports are run by national federations who affiliate to SASAPD as well as the international federations that govern their respective sports.

Universities in South Africa offer sport participation opportunities to their student populations as well as in some instances, to external club members. As a result of the unique nature of student sport, SRSA and SASCOC agreed that university sport in South Africa should be administered separately. Consequently, University Sport South Africa (USSA) was formally established on the 8th of December 1992 as the official unified national umbrella sports structure that regulates, organizes and coordinates student sport at regional, provincial as well as national levels in the tertiary education sector (USSA, 2016a).

Any public or private Institution of higher education that is registered with the Department of Higher Education and Training and offers academic qualifications at

the National Qualification Framework Level 5 and higher, qualifies and may therefore be a member (USSA, 2016a). Only registered bona fide students of an institution that are members of USSA are entitled to participate under the jurisdiction of USSA. An audit conducted in 2011 showed that there were approximately 585,000 students enrolled across the various member institutions (USSA, 2016a). USSA recognizes several National University Sports Associations (NUSAs) which are responsible for the administration of their respective sports (USSA, 2016a). NUSAs organise annual student sports events for member clubs from which national student teams are selected to represent South Africa at various national and international events. NUSAs are also in charge of instituting development programmes for students in conjunction with relevant national federations.

Sport for students with impairments is not currently active under USSA but is listed as one of the eight NUSAs that are not yet constituted due to inadequate numbers and is therefore under administration, (USSA, 2016b). Membership information (last updated on the 5th of June 2015) shows only three HEI registered with USSA under ‘disability sport’ and these are Mangosuthu University of Technology, University Free State as well as Walter Sisulu University (USSA, 2016b). There are therefore no inter-varsity competitions for AWI in South Africa although several universities have sports for students with impairments within their (able-bodied) student sport structures. Some universities also offer membership to non-student-athletes which entitles them to some benefits such as access to facilities, competition, equipment and kit.

2.5.1.4 Other government agencies The National Lotteries Commission (NLC) of South Africa is a government agency established through the Lotteries Act (No 57 of 1997) to regulate the National Lottery and other lotteries in South Africa. Each week, 27% of the revenue received through the National Lottery which is operated by an independent company is transferred into the National Lotteries Development Fund (NLDF) and distributed to various good causes after each financial year (NLC, 2016). Members of National Lotteries Board (NLB) who are the trustees of NLDF are appointed by the Minister of Trade and

Industry with the mandate to ensure that best possible use of these funds to benefit good causes (NLC, 2016).

NLDTF funds are allocated to the different sectors as laid down in regulations set in the Lotteries Amendment Act, No. 32 of 2013 (NLC, 2016). The sport and recreation sector receives a set 28% of the total amount of funds available in the NLDF each year (NLC, 2016). The NLC accepts applications from schools, local sports and recreational clubs as well as regional as well as national sport bodies (NLC, 2015). In July 2010, new regulations were set and these require that 50% of funding available to the sport and recreation sector should be directed to institutions that develop sports and recreational facilities (NLC, 2016). This is meant to support the nurturing of sporting talent in rural areas as well as increase access to recreation and sports facilities for all, including people with impairments (NLC, 2016). Within this framework, the NLC opens calls for applications for specific funding in different times of the year.

2.5.2 Provincial level This level consists of provincial federations who, as part of the national federation structure have the mandate for the development of specific sport(s) as well as athletes within their constituency. SASAPD has set up regional structures that are responsible for the development of the nine sports under its direct jurisdiction as well as the respective athletes. These regions work closely with the national structures and there are a total of eleven regions with each active region run by a convener responsible for a specific sport in the clubs and schools in the region. As at national level, each active region has a sport specific regional committee supporting the regional convener. In some instances, a region is synonymous with a province while in others, a province is made up of two regions. Not all sports are active in all eleven regions.

2.5.3 Local level The local level has universities as the key stakeholder. While provision of sport opportunities at all levels is not their primary mandate, universities can play a 64

significant role in the sport delivery system. As centres of excellence, universities are providing leadership in different spheres of human endeavours, including sports (Joseph, 2012). It is however, up to universities to align and position themselves in the value chain of sport delivery to enable them to play a significant role (Burnett, 2010b).

Several universities in South Africa are currently involved in varying degrees with elite AWI, the most visible being SU whose members provided 59% of the medals won by Team South Africa at the London 2012 Paralympic Games (SU, 2012). More recently, 13 of the 17 medals were won by Team South Africa at The International Paralympic Committee World Championships in Doha, Qatar in October 2015 (SU, 2015a). However, there is not much documented about SU’s involvement with elite AWI beyond the above, let alone at other universities in the country. It is for this reason this research is necessary as a starting point in documenting how and to what extent universities in Gauteng are involved in the training and nurturing of elite AWI in South Africa.

2.6 Chapter summary

This chapter provided a review of literature related to the main concepts of impairment, disability and sport, LTAD, S-AWI as well as stakeholders and strategic partnerships for S-AWI development. This serves as a precursor to the main discussion of this study which explores the role of South African universities in the training and nurturing of elite AWI. A recurring theme in the above discussion is that sport for AWI in general and Paralympic Sport in particular, is under researched when compared to able-bodied sport as noted by Brittain (2010). The result is that much of the discussion relied on related literature on able-bodied sport and or athletes complemented where possible by information from research on sport for as well as AWI. This is partly explained by the fact that until the recent exponential growth of the Paralympic Games, Paralympic Sport has been largely ‘unknown’ due to the limited media attention and thus has had little impact in terms of attracting research interest in academic circles. However, this could change in the near future

as Paralympic Sport continues to receive increased attention and the athletes being viewed as elite sports people.

3 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter introduces and explores the research design and methodological approach used in this study. Managers from five university sports structures were interviewed as representatives of their respective institutions while a total of nine athletes from three universities also participated in this study. Four of the universities are from Gauteng Province while the fifth one is located in the Western Cape Province.

3.2 Research design

For this study, a descriptive, mixed-methods approach was used to gather both quantitative and qualitative data to indicate trends and provide a contextual understanding of the involvement of sample universities in supporting high performance sport participation for AWI in South Africa. The concurrent triangulation mixed methods design strategy put forward by Creswell (2003) where two or more methods are used concurrently to confirm, cross-validate, or corroborate research findings was specifically chosen for this study. This is because of its advantages of combining differing strengths and non-overlapping weaknesses of both qualitative as well as quantitative methods. This approach also has the added advantage of enriching the research findings by providing a contextual understanding of the viewpoints of the research participants and how they construct their social worlds (Fielding, 2009).

3.3 Methodology

3.3.1 Quantitative data analysis A questionnaire (Annexure B) was designed and distributed to high performance AWI in sample universities. The questionnaire was designed following a comprehensive literature study under the supervision of the researcher’s supervisors as well as a statistical consultant from STATKON. This questionnaire sought to

capture the athletes’ biographical and sport participation information, access to structured competition, funding, equipment, facilities and coaching as well as the balance between studies, social life and sport for student-athletes.

Questionnaires were chosen for this study because of their appropriateness in descriptive research (McNabb, 2015), in particular the ability to systematically organise and present data (Thomas, Nelson Silverman, 2005). The questionnaires were analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics 22 with the support of a STATKON consultant. Descriptive statistics were generated that include frequencies, percentages and mean and these are displayed through tables and graphs in chapters four and five followed by a discussion.

3.3.2 Qualitative data analysis Semi-structured interviews (Annexures C and D) were conducted with executive members of sample universities, inclusive of probing until theme saturation was reached. Sports manager(s) or their equivalent in charge of sports for or with AWI were also interviewed to establish the current practices pertaining the role of South African universities in facilitating high performance sport participation for AWI. Semi- structured interviews were chosen for this study because of the small sample as well as other advantages such as:

 Being an efficient and a practical way of collecting data with high validity because participants have the opportunity to have an in-depth discussion about something.  Allowing further discussion and clarification of complex questions and issues as the interviewer has the opportunity to probe specific aspects suggested by the respondent, picking-up information that the interviewer might have had no prior knowledge about (Sociology Central, 2016).

Transcripts from the semi-structured interviews were read into ATLAS.ti 7, a computer based software programme for qualitative data analysis. ATLAS.ti 7 is Ideal for analysing large amounts of data including written text. The process

involved the creation of a system to categorise the data into related themes using codes. Codes refer to a unique label allocated to a section of the data such as a word, phrase, sentence or paragraph (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Labels were inclusive, meaning where appropriate, data was given more than one label.

Dey (1993) identifies three approaches to coding, namely deductive, inductive as well as the middle approach. The deductive method involves theme generation from relevant literature prior to data collection while the inductive approach discovers themes from the collected data. The middle approach, which was used for this study, combines both the inductive and deductive methods. This flexible method allows the merging of themes and codes from inductive and deductive approaches (Dey, 1993). The process involved comprehensive literature review, prior and post data collection to ensure that themes generated through the deductive approach align with the those generated through the inductive method. Codes were also revised, entered into ATLAS.ti 7 and colour coded for easier management. The research findings were then discussed under related themes.

3.3.3 Document analysis In addition, a review of a variety of documents such as policies, reports and other written artefacts found on the universities’ websites was done with the intention of collecting data and information that can be independently verified. According to Yanow (2007), information from document analysis may be useful in corroborating or refuting data collected through other techniques such as questionnaires and interviews thereby enabling the researcher to clarify or challenge the given narratives. The World Bank Institute (WBI, 2007) also identifies the following additional advantages of document analysis:

 The information contained in existing document(s) can be verified independently.  The process of document review can independently be done, without soliciting extensive input from additional sources.  Document review is usually less expensive when compared to other forms of data collection.

3.3.4 Validity and reliability According to Merriam (1998), issues of reliability and validity require careful attention across all phases of the research process that include conceptualisation, data collection, analysis, interpretation and discussion. Validity refers to the accuracy of a measure (Bounds, 2005). In other words, does the instrument measure what it claims to measure (Thomas, Nelson Silverman, 2005). Two types of validity are considered for this study, namely face and content validity. Face validity demands that the instrument (questionnaire in this case) look valid to someone who should complete it (Gerber, 2009) while content validity ensures that only the relevant elements are included in the questionnaire. To ensure both face and content validity in this study, assistance was obtained from a consultant at STATKON, a statistical consultation service provider at the University of Johannesburg with regards to questionnaire design. In addition, a comprehensive literature study was conducted to ensure that only questions relevant to the study were included in both the questionnaire and interviews.

The questionnaire and interview questions were pre-tested as part of a pilot study and the results assessed with the assistance of the statistical consultant from STATKON. Feedback was obtained and necessary changes made to both the questionnaire and interview questions before final data collection commenced. The consultant also assisted with the statistical analysis, interpretation and presentation. For this exploratory study, the questionnaire contained no scales of measure or items requiring correlation. There was no need to determine internal consistencies, thereof and consequently, reliability is not an issue of concern.

In addition, the following measures discussed in Shenton (2004) were adopted by the researcher:

 The adoption of well-established research methods used in a similar study by Thomas and Smith (2009).  Familiarisation with the culture of sample universities before data collection.

 The triangulation of data to compensate for the individual limitations of the different methods of data collection used for this study as well as exploit their respective benefits. Triangulation is key for this study as a safeguard on issues relating to trustworthiness of participants.  Participants were given the opportunity to refuse to participate in this study at any stage of the data collection process if they so wished. This was to ensure that only those with interest to participate do so.  Iterative questioning was used which included the use of probes to elicit detailed data, returning to matters that would have previously been raised by participants to clarify matters of interest as well as the use of rephrased questions to extract related data.  Data collection took place in environments chosen by participants to ensure that they were as comfortable as possible.

3.3.5 Procedures During a visit to sample universities, questionnaires were administered to all participants with the support of the sports managers and the researcher availed himself for possible enquiries. Where it was logistically impossible to meet the athletes during the visit, arrangements were made and the questionnaires were either completed at a later date or they were completed through a structured interview format by the researcher telephonically. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with one executive member of each university sports structure, the sports manager(s) or their equivalent in charge of sports for or with AWI. The interviews were tape recorded with the permission of the participants.

3.4 Sampling

Although focus was primarily on public universities in Gauteng Province, Stellenbosch University (Western Cape Province) was invited to be part of this research because of its high visibility in Paralympic Sport in South Africa.

3.5 Recruitment and selection

This relates to matters of inclusion, exclusion as well as procedures undertaken in the data collection process.

3.5.1 Inclusion This study focused on high performance sports falling under the Paralympic Movement across HEIs in Gauteng Province plus Stellenbosch University in the Western Cape Province. Participating athletes were identified and recommended to the researcher by management at participating universities. The following criteria for inclusion was used:

 Only universities offering Paralympic Sport codes at elite (provincial and above) level of participation.  Willingness of management in universities to participate and provide access to research participants.  Timeous response to the requests.  Willingness to assist with local logistics in terms of organizing for the researcher to meet the relevant staff and athletes.

3.5.2 Exclusion Institutions and athletes falling outside the criteria discussed in 3.5.1 were excluded from this study.

3.6 Ethical considerations

The research proposal for this study was submitted to the Faculty of Health Sciences at the University of Johannesburg and ethical clearance was obtained. The researcher was guided by the following ethical considerations:

 An explanation of the purpose and practical procedures of data gathering to all participants was given, supported by a cover letter.  Prior to the interview, interviewees were requested to read and sign the informed consent form (see Annexure A). All informed consent forms are

stored in a secure place within the Department of Sport and Movement Studies for three years after which they will be destroyed.  Permission to record interviews on tape was requested and granted by all participants.  All participants will remain anonymous and where necessary pseudonyms were used to refer to specific participants.  Participants were informed of the option to withdraw from the study at any time.  All the information gathered from participants was treated with strict confidentiality and used for research purposes only.  Participants were informed that they will have access to the study results if they desire.  The findings of the study will be disseminated through scientific conferences, presentations and publications locally and internationally.

3.7 Chapter summary

This chapter explored the methodological approach used in this study. The key aspects covered include the research design and methodology which covered issues related to data analysis. Further, sampling was discussed as well as recruitment and selection which covered areas of inclusion, exclusion as well as the procedures used in data collection. Lastly, issues of data analysis and documentation as well as the ethical considerations underpinning the study were discussed

4 CHAPTER FOUR: PROFILING OF SAMPLE UNIVERSITIES

4.1 Introduction

Traditionally, the mandate to develop sport at elite level predominantly lies within a partnership between government, national and international sport federations (Chalip et al., 1996; Thoma & Chalip, 1996). However, the ever changing global and national sports landscape has resulted in a sport delivery system characterized by multiple stakeholders with interdependent and overlapping roles (Burnett, 2010b). The challenge of limited national resources and expertise necessitates collective effort from other stakeholders beyond the traditional sport specific role players to ensure optimal delivery (Burnett, 2010b).

Higher Education Institutions can make significant contributions to the sport delivery system (Goslin, 2002) at both recreational and high performance levels, for students and society at large. Universities and other stakeholders form a value chain for the delivery of structured sport programmes and athlete development (Burnett, 2010b). The availability of facilities for training, sports science and medicine as well as expertise in research means that athletes can access a well-resourced and specialized environment for high performance sport participation (Burnett, 2010a; Universities UK, 2012). This is a major draw-card in attracting aspiring elite athletes (Universities UK, 2012) and strategically positions universities as significant role players in the sport delivery system. The involvement of universities in sport also carries symbolic significance (Bourdieu, 1986). Successful sport entities are recognized by other stakeholders and as such university involvement in the delivery of sport can both be a marketing and branding tool for the institution as well as a status symbol (Burnett, 2010a).

Globally, universities have over the years increasingly become involved in the delivery of competitive sports in partnership with government and other stakeholders. The relatively large investments by universities in the development of elite athletes have contributed to the success of individual athletes and teams at major sport events. Between 1992 and 2008, 61% of Great Britain’s (Team GB) Olympic Games’

medallists had been to university (students and alumni) while 59% of Team GB for the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games had been or were current student- athletes (Universities UK, 2012).

In the South African context, SRSA has called for the establishment of strategic partnerships with tertiary institutions to effectively support elite athletes and turn potential into excellence (SRSA, 2012b). Research in South Africa shows significant partnerships between universities, SASCOC and national federations, particularly for the provision of physical resources, scientific support and expertise as well as managerial assistance from different universities to support elite athletes and high performance sport (Burnett, 2010b). Universities in South Africa are also increasingly becoming hubs in the delivery of sport excellence in collaboration with provincial sports academies (Burnett, 2010b).

Although traditional involvement at high performance level by South African universities has largely been with able-bodied elite athletes and Olympic Sports, the growth of Paralympic Games in recent years has seen increasing involvement by some universities in supporting high performance sport participation for PWI. There is also growing interest in academic circles in this field although not much has been documented when compared to other fields relating to Olympic sport both internationally and in South Africa. This exploratory study seeks to contribute towards addressing this challenge through providing a descriptive analysis of the role of South African universities in the training and nurturing of high performance AWI, and thereby contributing to the growing body of knowledge on sport for AWI and Paralympic Sport in particular.

4.1.1 Chapter overview This chapter is the first of two chapters (chapters Four and Five) that provide a descriptive analysis on the role of South African universities in facilitating optimal performance of elite AWI through an exploration of current offerings across five

selected universities. In addition, attention will also be paid to the various challenges faced by universities as well as measures put in place to counter these challenges.

This study was primarily targeted at the five public universities in Gauteng Province, four of which agreed and took part in the research. In addition, Stellenbosch University in the Western Cape Province was included in the sample due to its high visibility in supporting South African Paralympic athletes over the years. Amongst Stellenbosch University’s most notable contributions are 59% of the medals won by its members who formed part of Team South Africa at the London 2012 Paralympic Games (SU, 2012a) and more recently, 76% medals won by Team South Africa at The International Paralympic Committee World Championships in Doha, Qatar in October 2015 (SU, 2015a). A total of ten Paralympic Sport codes formed part of this research and these are athletics (track and field), hand cycling, cycling, adaptive rowing, swimming, wheelchair basketball, wheelchair tennis, archery, wheelchair rugby as well as triathlon.

To provide as much a comprehensive description as possible, a mixed method approach utilizing three data sets (document analysis, questionnaires and interviews) was used in this study. This concurrent triangulation mixed method approach provides a more thorough understanding of the research problem that neither a quantitative nor qualitative approach can by itself (Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2004). Two or more methods are used concurrently to confirm, cross-validate and corroborate research findings with the added advantages of combining differing strengths and non-overlapping weaknesses of both quantitative and qualitative methods (Creswell, 2003). This approach also has the added advantage of enriching the research findings (Fielding, 2009).

Qualitative data was obtained through interviews with key decision makers from the sample universities specifically, one representative of top management of university sports structures as well as club managers in charge of sports clubs or codes with or for high performance AWI. The qualitative methodology is appropriate for this study

as it provides individual case information thereby fulfilling the aim of this study which relates to describing and understanding, rather than to predicting and controlling (Streubert & Carpenter, 1995). Furthermore, qualitative research is useful where an in-depth description of complex phenomena as they are situated and rooted in local contexts is required (Streubert & Carpenter, 1995).

Qualitative data from the interviews was coded and analysed using Atlas Ti Edition 6.2. Themes and sub-themes were developed through a deductive process (analysis of literature) as well as an inductive process (analysis of data). The main themes covered in this study relate to:

 Profiling of sample sport for AWI in sample universities.  High performance sport for AWI in sample universities.  Access to resources.  Opportunities for competition.  Stakeholder collaboration.  Challenges facing universities as well as student-athletes.  Recommendations as voiced by universities.

The first two are covered in this chapter whereas the rest are the subject of chapter five.

Document analysis encompassed a survey of a variety of documents on university websites to provide informative background literature on each university. These documents included official, ongoing records of each university such as mission statements, annual reports, policy manuals and strategic plans among others. According to Yanow (2007), information from document analysis may be useful in corroborating or refuting data collected through other techniques such as questionnaires and interviews thereby enabling the researcher to clarify or challenge the given narratives.

Finally, questionnaires completed by respondents from high performance AWI in sample universities were used to collect quantitative data. The questionnaire captured data on biographical and sports participation information, access to structured competition, funding, equipment and facilities, training as well as competition.

4.1.2 Methodological approach The aim of this study was to describe the current practices pertaining to the role of South African universities in facilitating optimal performance of elite AWI. The findings are presented in two chapters (chapter four as well as chapter five) under specific themes generated from interviews with management in sample universities as well as information gathered from document analysis. Where appropriate, a ‘third voice’ (the athlete) is used to complement information from the other two sources adding the invaluable participant’s perspective on the issues at hand. Occasionally therefore, quantitative as well as qualitative data from questionnaires completed by elite athletes in sample universities are used in this chapter.

4.2 Profiling of sample universities

4.2.1 Introduction This theme profiles the sample universities so as to provide key background information to each university. This is important in as far as giving a contextual background of each institution thereby setting the scene to the main discussion of this paper. The information presented herewith was obtained through the analysis of each university's website from which a variety of documents such as mission statements, annual reports, policy manuals and strategic plans among others. This information is presented in two sections. The first part contains a brief background information covering location of campuses, enrolment figures and overall philosophy of as contained in the vision, mission as well as strategic focus of each university. The second part focuses on sport information and identifies the describes the delivery and structuring model, sport related entities, resources as well as the priority status of high performance sport.

4.2.2 University of Pretoria 4.2.2.1 Background information The Transvaal University College’s (TUC) Pretoria branch which was mainly housed in Johannesburg and commenced its activities in 1908 is the forerunner of the University of Pretoria (UP). The first campus of UP, Kya Rosa, was a house in Pretoria and initially enrolled thirty-two students. In 1910 the TUC Pretoria branch became an independent institution from the TUC in Johannesburg which became known as the South African School of Mines and Technology. Over the years, the institution expanded and in 1930, became a fully-fledged university under the name The University of Pretoria. (UP), also known as Tuks which derives from the acronym for its forerunner (TUC) is located in Pretoria which forms part of the City of Tshwane in Gauteng Province and in 2015 enrolled approximately 50,000 students across seven campuses (UP, 2015a).

4.2.2.2 Philosophy UP’s vision is to become a “…leading research‐intensive university in Africa recognized internationally for quality, relevance, impact and for developing people, knowledge and making a difference at local as well as global levels” (UP, 2015a: 1). Its mission statement reads that in the pursuit of “…recognition and excellence in its core functions of research, teaching and learning, and integrating engagement with society and communities into these, the University of Pretoria will use quality, relevance, diversity and sustainability as its navigational markers” (UP, 2015a: 1). UP's strategic focus is towards being a research‐intensive institution.

Because sport is considered a vital part of the UP experience (UP, 2015b), the UP has positioned itself locally and internationally as a leader in the fields of sport participation as well as managing and coaching sport (UP, 2015b) in this regard, UP is on a mission to:

 To provide students and staff with prime opportunities for participation in sport and recreation while marketing the UP in a positive manner through individual and team sports performances.  To contribute to the development as well as management of sustainable programmes that cater for recreational, league and elite athletes as well as provide services that support and ensure effectiveness, efficiency and professionalism.  To compete successfully in all competitions and be the leader in innovative sport management and coaching through utilising highly trained coaches and managers as well as cutting-edge technology (UP, 2015c).

4.2.2.3 Sport profiling and structures The UP focuses on developing its diverse student population to become fully integrated individuals both academically and in sport and takes pride in its culture of excellence in both these spheres (UP, 2015a). The UP provides sport participation opportunities catering for recreational, competitive as well as high performance athletes across its diverse student population. There are at least 30 sports clubs at Tuks Sport that accommodate 9,000 participants in club, residence as well as junior leagues weekly (UP, 2015c). These clubs are grouped on a dual tier system separating tier one clubs (high performance sport codes) from tier two (competitive and recreational sport codes). This allows Tuks Sport to cater for the sport participation needs of a variety of students at the same time providing comprehensive, high-performance support to their elite athletes participating on both national and international levels. There are 28 sport codes offered on a secondary level, namely: Aikido, cheer-leading, fencing, mind, sport, trampoline, water, polo, archery, chess, gymnastics orienteering, triathlon, wrestling, badminton, cycling, judo, rowing, ultimate, basketball, dance, karate, softball, underwater, hockey, canoe, exploration, lifesaving, taekwondo as well as volleyball. Strategically Tuks Sport focuses mainly on ten priority sport codes or clubs which are athletics, hockey, swimming, cricket, netball, tennis, rugby (union, women's, wheelchair and league), golf, squash as well as football.

In as far as sport for students with impairments is concerned, Tuks Sport operates an integrated sports structure at management and organizational level which is the utilization of facilities, contacts, events as well as economic resources (Kaipainen, 2013) for both able-bodied as well as students with impairments. The narrative below obtained from a key decision maker, explains how this model works at Tuks Sport.

“Within the club if there is a specific need and a specific opportunity then the AWI forms part of that. So, for example, Paralympic swimmer E* who went to the last two Paralympic Games has been part of our swimming programme now since 2007 or 2008…Our wheelchair rugby guys do fit in well into the rugby club for example.”

All athletes playing the same sport form part of the same club regardless of ability although they may participate separately. This also means that all athletes under a specific club may benefit fully or partially from opportunities that arise because of the category in which their club falls under on the Tuks Sports club tier system. For example, the various teams under Tuks Rugby that include union, women's and wheelchair as well as league teams are all recognised as priority teams without distinction (UP, 2015c).

Sports related entities refer to departments and or units under whose mandate is or relates to sport. These entities and include sports administration units, specialised entities as well as academic departments. Also covered in this category are key external stakeholders that include external strategic partners such as federations, sponsors, USSA, Varsity Cup as well as Varsity Sport (relating to commercialisation), among others.

At UP, internal sport related entities include Tuks Sport, the entity responsible for the administration of sports and provides integrated services to athletes in over 30 different sport codes. Tuks Sport has a staff complement of over 16 as well as several coaches for different sports (UP, 2015d). Tuks Sport has two key internal specialised entities, namely the High-Performance Centre (HPC) as well as Institute for Sports Research (ISR).

The HPC is an elite performance sports facility launched in 2002 offering world-class nutritional and scientific expertise, accommodation and training facilities, medical services as well as research and hospitality (UP, 2015b). This integrated offering attracts local as well as international athletes and teams for training camps and specific team preparation which has resulted in it being the ideal centre of specialisation for many national federations and teams (UP, 2015b). The HPC operates on a business model where the entity generates income through its activities to sustain itself.

The HPC also runs Tuks Sport High School, a specialized institution offering a unique sport and learning environment to learners from Grades 8-12. The school allows its high-performance athletes to train and travel internationally, while still studying and staying in school and focusses on seven sport codes, namely golf, athletics, football, swimming, tennis, triathlon and judo (UP, 2016a).

The ISR seeks to “combine, structure as well as integrate existing unaddressed sport scientific and biokinetics requirements incorporated within the training, service and research responsibility of the UP, with those of established as well as envisaged academic departments.” (UP, 2015c: 1). In addition to conducting sport testing services, the ISR undertakes research and publishes the results to provide stakeholders with the latest sport science information that could contribute towards the optimum sports performance (UP, 2015c).

The UP also offers a variety of sport management and leisure related studies through the Department of Sport and Leisure Studies which is housed in the Faculty of Humanities, while academic disciplines related to biokinetics and Sport Science are housed in the Department of Physiology in the Faculty of Health Sciences. Students in these departments have various opportunities to engage in work integrated learning with Tuks Sports structures as well as with organisations outside the university.

The UP’s website shows several strategic partnerships between the university and several external stakeholders. These include sponsors who offer support such as funds and/or product sponsorships, funding for construction and upkeep of sports facilities, support for key high performance sports such as rugby, athletics as well as specific club activities such as tournaments. Through the HPC, UP has partnerships with some national federations among them Cricket South Africa and Rowing South Africa where the institution houses the performance teams for these federations. The UP is also part of several inter-varsity competition platforms such as USSA, Varsity Cup for rugby, as well as Varsity Sport which encompasses several sport codes.

The UP’s sports facilities attract local and international athletes and sport bodies for specific team preparation for major events across a variety of sports. The HPC is the preferred center for the specialization for several national federations and has hosted many of Team South Africa's pre-departure camps (UP, 2015c). UP’s indoor facilities include, one sport hall for basketball, netball and volleyball with 3.000 seating capacity, five halls for fencing, gymnastics and table tennis, judo, fitness gymnasium, karate, badminton as well as a heated indoor swimming pool. Other notable outdoor facilities include:

 One rugby stadium with 3,500 seats as well as six other rugby fields and a clubhouse.  Athletics stadium with tartan track and 3,000 seats as well as an additional practice athletics track.  Five cricket ovals and two clubhouses.  A synthetic hockey playing surface (astro turf) and four hockey grass fields and clubhouse.  Six all-weather netball courts.  Cross-country track.  Nine soccer fields with one clubhouse.  22 tennis courts plus a clubhouse.  One softball field.

 Three all-weather basketball courts.  Two volleyball courts.  One beach volleyball court.  Olympic standard swimming pool with a pavilion with a seating capacity of 1,500 seats.  Seven squash courts.  Climbing wall.  Dam for rowing and canoeing.  Practice golf course with four holes (UP, 2016b).

The UP offers sports bursaries for its student-athletes across its various sports clubs. The value of these bursaries varies between sport codes as well as athletes and are granted to athletes meeting set criteria inclusive of academic and sport performance targets. At Tuks Sport, high performance sport is of high priority and performance is a key result area particularly for their priority sport codes. Success is measured in the number of Tuks Sport athletes, coaches and managers who participate at provincial, national as well as international levels annually.

“One of our key performance areas from the university executive is what number of international representatives do we have? So, when our Director has to report to the University Executive, he has to report how many athletes, coaches and managers are competing at an international level. Particularly the number of national representatives or those who obtain full national colours as well as senior provincial colours.” (Key decision maker, Tuks Sport)

Performance of priority sport codes is also closely monitored at intervarsity competitions.

“Then also what we have to report on is our average log position, top three. What percentage of inter university competitions do we compete at and what percentage do we finish in the top three, particularly with the priority clubs and then the next group. So, high performance sport is very important for us.” (Key decision maker, Tuks Sport)

Overall, winning is a key part of Tuks Sport culture and tangible results of individual athletes and teams in terms of medals and championships won is a key measure of success for the institution.

The University of Pretoria runs a fully integrated sports structure and all athletes and teams that form part of the university’s priority sports clubs enjoy such status regardless of whether they have an impairment or not as referred to by a key decision maker in the illustration below.

“So, if we have a disabled athlete in any of our sport codes, they are catered for in the same manner as any other club. So you will see for example in rugby, wheelchair rugby is part of the priority codes.” (Key decision maker, Tuks Sport)

What this means in principle is that membership in a Tuks Sport club structure is not separated for AWI as in other universities. The scope of resource support towards a specific athlete is firstly and indirectly linked to the priority status of their code or club and secondly and directly determined at club level according individual or team performance in the context of the club’s resource capacity. Specific high performance codes with elite AWI include rugby (wheelchair), swimming as well as athletics. In some instances, exceptions are made to support elite AWI who do not belong to a specific Tuks Sport high performance sport code but do exceptionally well in a registered Tuks Sport code. This is the case with the one elite archer who participated in this study.

With regards to whether the institution has any deliberate plans to increase high performance sport participation for AWI in the mid to long term, management at Tuks Sport reported no deliberate policy or plans to increase high performance sport participation for AWI or any specific sub-population in the institution, unless they are required to do so by senior structures in the country governing sport.

“So, in terms of policy, there is not a specific policy that says we want this percentage of people with disabilities, this percentage of females, this percentage of African vs. Indian or whatever. Yes, in certain sports

that gets regulated from top down and we have to adhere to that, there is no issue.” (Key decision maker, Tuks Sport)

Management went on to highlight the success of their approach.

“So for example, in swimming we have a coach also in a wheelchair who came through our academy and is now going to the World Champs and is still competing. He was here at Tuks Sport High School, he has Spinal Bifida and came through, competed, always competed even post school, even today. He has also decided that he wants to go into coaching and now he is coaching a squad in Centurion under Tuks which is one of our satellites. For me he is an example, he slotted into the system and within swimming we had E* and others and now we have a young boy with Down syndrome that’s part of the junior programme.” (Key decision maker, Tuks Sport)

Top management at Tuks Sport emphasised that their role is to create a conducive environment for sport participation at all levels for all athletes with and without impairments. This in turn would attract the right calibre of athletes and all athletes with potential to do well in the priority sport codes have an equal chance of being recruited and supported regardless of whether they have an impairment or not.

4.2.3 University of Johannesburg 4.2.3.1 Background information The University of Johannesburg (UJ) was constituted in 2004, through the incorporation of the Rand Afrikaans University (RAU) with the Soweto and East Rand campuses of Vista University, as well as Technikon Witwatersrand. UJ has four campuses spread around the City of Johannesburg metropolitan area, namely, Auckland Park Kingsway, Auckland Park Bunting Road, Doornfontein and Soweto campuses which accommodated just over 49 500 students in total in 2015 (UJ, 2015a).

4.2.3.2 Philosophy It is UJ’s vision to be an “…international university of choice that is anchored in Africa, and dynamically shaping the future.” (UJ, 2015a: 1). UJ’s mission is about “…inspiring its community to transform and serve humanity through innovation and the collaborative pursuit of knowledge.” (UJ, 2015a: 1). Although relatively young at

10 years old, UJ is taking its place amongst the leading research institutions in the world as seen its achievement of being ranked in the top 4% of Universities in the World according to the QS World University Rankings for the 2014/2015 period (UJ, 2015a).

With regards to sport, UJ seeks to offer a wide variety of sports throughout the year with a mission “…to provide opportunities for every athlete to achieve his or her personal level of excellence.” (UJ, 2015b: 1).

4.2.3.3 Sport profiling and structures The prevailing culture at UJ Sport is to provide the ultimate student experience (UJ, 2015b) and sport participation is offered on a spectrum inclusive of high performance (provincial, national as well as international levels), competitive and social/recreational levels (residence leagues). In 2015, there were 14 officially registered sports clubs UJ Sport and these are athletics, golf, sport for students with disabilities (popularly referred to as Club SSD), football, rugby, beach, volleyball, netball, basketball, hockey, cycling, squash, cricket as well as rowing (UJ, 2015c). Although high performance sport is of key importance at UJ Sport, as of November 2015, UJ Sport was going through a restructuring process and no commitments had been made yet regarding priority sport codes going forward.

With regards to sport for students with impairments, UJ Sport operates the ‘hybrid’ structure which is a combination of both the ‘separate’ and ‘integrated’ club structures. Sport for AWI is predominately offered along the separate structuring model where, different from able-bodied sports clubs which are sport code based, sport for AWI is all clustered as one club (Club SSD). Through this club, participation opportunities exist at competitive levels across six sport codes. Adaptive rowing however, is fully integrated into the able-bodied UJ Rowing sports club. This was largely influenced by the national federation, Rowing South Africa who fund the high performance adaptive rowing team housed at UJ Sport in line with the national and international practices where rowing for able-bodied athletes and

adaptive rowing are fully integrated and governed by the same international sport federation.

Internal sport-related entities include UJ Sport, the unit in charge of sport administration supported by a staff complement of at least 17 people (UJ, 2015c). UJ also offers a variety of undergraduate as well as post graduate sport management and other human movement related studies through the Department of Sport and Movement Studies which is housed in the Faculty of Health Sciences. As with Tuks Sport, strategic partnerships exist between UJ and several external stakeholders such as sponsors, federations and the institution is a member of USSA, Varsity Cup as well as Varsity Sport.

UJ has several sports facilities across its four campuses, the majority of which are at the Auckland Park Kingsway Campus. In total, these facilities include, among others, nine rugby fields, five all weather netball courts with a club house, five all weather tennis courts with club house, two athletics stadiums with synthetic tracks, four soccer fields and one club house, four basketball courts, four gymnasiums, four grass hockey fields with one club house, one astro-hockey field with club house, five squash courts with club house, two indoor multi sports arenas as well as three cricket fields with club house. UJ also offers sports bursaries to prospective students who played at minimum provincial sport subject to meeting set academic performance.

Although high performance sport is important at UJ, the institution, in 2015 at the time of this study was going through a restructuring process and as such no commitments had been made regarding priority sport codes going forward.

4.2.4 Stellenbosch University 4.2.4.1 Background information The history of SU goes as far back as the 17th century when the foundation was laid for the establishment of the Stellenbosch Gymnasium in 1863. Several developments took place over the years culminating in the decision to build a proper

college which was named after Queen Victoria in 1879. Over the years, the college continued to expand offering several academic qualifications across different disciplinary fields. In April 1918, Victoria College officially became Stellenbosch University curtesy of a £100 000 donation from a benefactor, Mr Jan Marais of Coetzenburg (SU, 2016a). In 2015, an approximately 30,500 students enrolled at its five campuses that include Stellenbosch main campus, Tygerberg (Bellville), Bellville Park, Saldanha as well as Ukwanda Rural Clinical School (Worcester) (SU, 2016a).

4.2.4.2 Philosophy The vision of SU is “…to be inclusive, innovative and future focused, a place of discovery and excellence where both staff and students are thought leaders in advancing knowledge in the service of stakeholders.” (SU, 2012b: 1). SU’s mission is “…to achieve its vision through sustained social transformation and, on this journey of discovery through academia in the service of its stakeholders.” (SU, 2012b: 1).

Stellenbosch University’s focus is on academic excellence and innovation and is recognized locally and internationally as an academic institution of excellence (SU, 2015c). According the institution’s website, SU has a long and proud sport tradition upon which the university aims to launch an exciting future as reflected in its vision regarding sport, which is drawing on tradition, imagining the future (SU, 2015b). The mission of Maties Sport is “…to foster excellence in both the academic and sport performances of talented student-athletes, as well as to promote social cohesion as well as engagement in an active lifestyle among students and staff.” (SU, 2015d: 1).

4.2.4.3 Sport profiling and structures At SU, sport participation opportunities are offered to all students across recreational, competitive as well as high performance levels. In line with this, Maties Sport operates a three-tier system where clubs are categorised according to participation level, namely, tier one which consists of being high performance sport

clubs, tier two for competitive and tier three for recreational sport. In 2015, there were 29 sports clubs officially registered at SU, which are: rugby, squash, water polo, ultimate frisbee, tennis, underwater sport, equestrian, netball, golf, basketball, hockey, badminton, surfing, fencing, athletics, rowing, kendo, football, gymnastics, judo, chess, cricket, sailing, cycling, swimming, and taekwondo as well as Maties ParaSport Club.

Similar to UJ, sport for AWI at SU is structured along the separate structuring model where all sport for AWI is all clustered under one club called Maties ParaSport. Under this club, opportunities exist at recreational, competitive as well as high performance levels across five sport codes, namely athletics, cycling, swimming, and wheelchair rugby and goal ball. Within this club, athletes receive varying support from the club according to both their level of participation as well as specific academic and sport performance within the limits of available resources.

There are several internal sport related entities at SU which include Maties Sport, the responsible entity for the administration of sport which has a staff complement of at least 15 people comprising of junior and senior sport managers as well as support staff. Maties Sport also operates five specialised units aimed at streamlining its activities which are:

 High Performance Sport Unit which aims to recruit and produce winners in both individual and team sports as well as facilitate the academic success of student-athletes through the athlete support programme.  The Centre for Human Performance Sciences facilitates research and community interaction, develops academic collaborations, deliver innovative athlete, coach and trainer education as well as infuse technology into sport coaching and training.  The Recreation and Active Lifestyle Unit aims to promote the benefits of participation in physical activity, provide active recreational programmes that are relevant and appealing as well as develop new opportunities in recreation and community interaction.

 The Events and Communication Unit is responsible for planning and hosting of events at Maties Sport's facilities (SU, 2015d).

The department of Sport Science offers undergraduate and post-graduate academic programmes across a variety of human movement studies. Students undertaking these programmes have opportunities for internship at Maties Sport as well with organisations outside the university. Strategic partnerships also exist between SU and a number of external stakeholders such as sponsors, federations and the institution is a member of USSA, Varsity Cup as well as Varsity Sport.

SU has numerous sports facilities that are available to students, staff and the public (in driving commercialization through income-generation). SU sport clubs have priority in the use of these sports facilities for both training and competition with other applicants being served on an ad hoc basis. These facilities are situated at Coetzenburg, Welgevallen and Lentelus campuses and include:

 One athletics stadium with floodlights and a seating capacity of 14,000.  One swimming pool as well as two small heated swimming pools.  Two artificial grass pitches with floodlights.  Nine hockey fields, two of which have floodlights.  Six cricket fields with five permanent training nets.  Two indoor cricket training nets.  Eight squash courts with an additional main court that has a glass wall and seating for approximately 140 spectators.  Eight netball courts, two with floodlights.  Fifteen rugby fields that include the main stadium with 17 000 seats and floodlights.  One soccer field that has a shared clubhouse with three fields at Vergenoegd.  Five soccer/rugby fields at Lentelus.  Twenty-seven tennis courts, one under cover and three with floodlights.  Six clubhouses for rugby, cricket, hockey, netball, soccer, underwater sport, water polo and tennis (SU, 2016b).

Maties Sport also offers sport bursaries for its student-athletes across its various sports clubs. The value of these bursaries varies between sport codes as well as athletes and are granted to athletes meeting set criteria inclusive of academic and sport performance targets.

The culture at Maties Sport places high emphasis on high performance sport through which it seeks to:

 Achieve a dominant position (winning) within focused sports at tertiary, regional, national and international levels.  Develop world-class sportsmen and women.  Deliver an excellent university sport experience, increase participation in recreational sport, build social capital as well as raise the percentage of sportsmen and women who also achieve academic success (SU, 2015c).

Strategically, Maties Sport has identified seven high performance or priority codes, namely athletics, cricket, football, hockey, netball, rugby and swimming as well as cycling, athletics and swimming for AWI.

Going forward, management reported being in the process of reviewing the status of Maties ParaSport with a view to upgrade the club to tier one or priority level sport code. This would enable the club to receive additional financial and other resource support from Maties Sport making it possible to offer enhanced support to athletes in existing sport codes as well as increase the number of sport codes offered by the club. Eligible AWI would also be able to apply for high performance sport bursaries of a higher financial value in future because of this move. Management also reported plans to increase the width and depth of sport codes to AWI.

“…we are currently considering wheelchair basketball, wheelchair tennis and goal-ball. We have identified the above-mentioned codes with the aim of growing them over the next three to five years.” (Key decision maker, Maties Sport)

“The idea is to make that club grow, add new sports, new coaches and obviously funding.” (Key decision maker, Maties ParaSport, Maties Sport)

However, no formal commitments such as policies or plans exist at SU to increase elite sport participation for AWI at the institution.

4.2.5 Tshwane University of Technology 4.2.5.1 Background information Tshwane University of Technology (TUT) was established in 2004 through the merging of the former Technikon North-West, Technikon Northern Gauteng as well as Technikon Pretoria (TUT, 2015a). TUT had an enrolment of approximately 60 000 students across its campuses in the City of Tshwane in Gauteng Province, Witbank in Mpumalanga Province as well as Polokwane in Limpopo Province in 2015 (TUT, 2015a).

4.2.5.2 Philosophy TUT’s vision is “…to pioneer an enterprising as well as transformative brand of twenty-first century university of technology scholarship” (TUT, 2015b: 1). In fulfilling its vision, TUT is on a mission to “…support its students to achieve their highest potential in a safe, enabling and conducive environment by:

 Fostering a scholarship of teaching and learning.  Providing relevant and competitive academic programmes with seamless articulation pathways.  Investing in state-of-the-art technology.  Conducting relevant research and promoting innovation, engagement and social enterprise” (TUT, 2015b: 1).

TUT’s strategic focus is to offer entrepreneurial focused education through which the institution aims to unlock unlimited opportunities for students to become job creators and entrepreneurs (TUT, 2015a). With regards to sport, TUT’s mission is to “…provide opportunities for every athlete to achieve his/her personal level of excellence” (TUT, 2015c: 1). According to information on the institution’s website,

management at TUT believes that sport can be a powerful marketing tool for HEI and aims to leverage the power of sport to make TUT a household name and the first-choice university of technology for South African learners (TUT, 2015c).

4.2.5.3 Sport profiling and structures TUT is largely recreational and competitive sport orientated mainly due to limited resource capacity. In 2015, there were 25 registered sport codes/clubs namely aerobics, chess, dance, sport, netball, squash, athletics, cricket, football, power- lifting, supa-pool, badminton, cross-country, running, golf, road running, table-tennis, basketball, cycling, hockey, rugby, tennis, bodybuilding, darts, karate, softball as well volleyball. All sports clubs at TUT are registered to participate in community league competitions and where possible, in tertiary, provincial as well as national competitions (TUT, 2015c). TUT also offers limited high performance sport participation opportunities in athletics, rugby, football and netball which have been identified as flagship sport codes at the institution

TUT has made provision to accommodate S-AWI and has ‘sports for students with disabilities’ listed as one of its sports clubs. Sport codes offered in this club include golf and cricket for the visually impaired, both of which fall outside the scope of this study because they are not Paralympic Sport codes.

Internal sport related entities at TUT include the Directorate of Sport and Recreation which is the entity in charge of sport administration comprising of at least 27 staff members spread across all its campuses. Two departments offer various sport related qualifications from National Certificate to Post-graduate levels. These are the Department of Marketing, Logistics and Sport Management under the faculty of Management Science which offers 17 sport management related qualifications as well as the Department of Sport, Rehabilitation and Dental Sciences offering five sport and exercise related qualifications. The Golf Academy at TUT is a unique entity that seeks to educate future entrepreneurs in the world of golf through the provision of an exclusive golf tuition programme (TUT, 2016a).

TUT has strategic partnerships with several external stakeholders that include sponsors who support a number of its sports clubs and teams as well as federations. The institution is a member of USSA, Varsity Cup as well as Varsity Sport. The Golf Academy mentioned above partners the Professional Golfers Association of South Africa (PGA) in facilitating the National Diploma in Club Professional Golfing (TUT, 2016a).

TUT has several sports facilities across its different campuses. Although the TUT website does not show the specific sports facilities per campus, according to (Burnett, 2010a) most facilities are found at Pretoria campus. The following are the listed sports facilities at TUT without specific reference to their location:

 Two recreational swimming pools.  One athletics track and field.  Two cricket fields, four astro-turf cricket practice nets and one clubhouse.  One astro-turf and two grass hockey fields.  Three netball courts with flood lights.  Three rugby fields with lights and clubhouse.  One soccer field and club house.  Three squash courts (TUT, 2016b).

TUT also offers sport bursaries to athletes who participate at provincial, national as well as international levels subject to athletes meeting set academic and sport performance related criteria. TUT places a high level of priority on its four priority high performance sport codes as highlighted by a key decision maker from the university in the following narrative.

“Priority is very high. We have as a directorate identified four codes as high performance codes that we need to try and invest resources in. These are athletics, rugby, football and netball.” (Key decision maker, Sport and recreation, TUT)

None of the sports codes for AWI enjoy priority status at TUT because management reported having no high performance AWI in the university.

“We haven’t looked at that yet but you know at times you are forced to prioritise it as soon as you can identify an athlete of that calibre or that athlete by coincidence comes to your show. You are therefore left with no option but to look at ways and means of how to prioritise them because you need that athlete to be well taken care of.” (Key decision maker, Sport and Recreation, TUT)

It would seem from the above narrative that for now, management at TUT has adopted the wait-and-see strategy where the university will only consider high performance sport for AWI as when the institution has registered S-AWI who participate at that level and as opposed to taking the initiative to provide such opportunities. However, this could change if the need to facilitate high performance sport participation for AWI arose in the future.

“In the long run as we relook at our objectives we might have to look at that because we are obliged to also have those kinds of athletes within our institution.” (Key decision maker, Sport and Recreation, TUT)

From the above narrative, the decision on what sport opportunities are offered and for who reflects strategic decision making at the institution which may change in time.

4.2.6 University of the Witwatersrand 4.2.6.1 Background information The origins of the University of the Witwatersrand (popularly known as Wits University), can be traced back to the 1986 establishment of the South African School of Mines in Kimberley (Wits, 2016). After transferring to Johannesburg as the Transvaal Technical Institute in 1904, this institute was later renamed the Transvaal University College in 1906 which later became the South African School of Mines and Technology in 1910 (Wits, 2016). With time, as other departments were added, the institution was renamed the University College, Johannesburg in 1920 (Wits,

2016). In 1922, the College was integrated into the new University of the Witwatersrand (Wits, 2016).

To date, Wits University is one of the prominent research universities on the African continent as well as in the world, well-known for its accredited teaching programmes, excellent research as well as its commitment to social justice (Wits, 2014). With five campuses spread across Braamfontein and Parktown in the City of Johannesburg, Wits University had a total enrolment of 32,703 students in 2015) (Wits, 2015a).

4.2.6.2 Philosophy Wits University has always been a liberal university advocating for non-discrimination on any grounds as evidenced by its consistency and firm stand against apartheid in South Africa over the years (Burnett, 2010a). Wits University’s vision is to “…aspire to be a leading research-intensive university firmly embedded in the top 100 world universities by 2022” (Wits, 2015b: 1). Its mission is “to grow its global stature as a leading research-intensive university and a gateway to research engagement and intellectual achievement in Africa. This, it will achieve by building on the principles of intellectual excellence, international competitiveness and local relevance” (Wits, 2015b; 1).

Wits University’s reputation and strategic focus is built on research and academic excellence. In a sport context, Wits University recognises the value of recreational as well as competitive sport in the holistic development of the university community and as such encourages everyone to participate in health, fitness and physical activity (Wits, 2015c). In terms of policy, the institution affirms that its student body, staff and alumni have the right to participate in sport without discrimination based on sex, race, nationality and or creed (Wits, 2015c).

The vision for the Wits Sports Council (WSC) is to be a student body and university community that:

 Understands maintaining fitness, participation in sport and pursuing an active lifestyle as integral to leading healthy, rewarding as well as productive lives.  Provides the university community sports programmes that promote inclusivity, recognise diversity and create opportunities to excel.  Instils confidence and lasting pride in oneself and the university through participation as well as achievement recognition (Wits, 2015b).

In line with this vision, The Wits Sports Council is committed to provide high quality, affordable services to students in an efficient and effective way, ensuring that that adequate facilities and resources are provided to recreational, competitive as well as elite sports persons (Wits, 2015b).

4.2.6.3 Sport profiling and structures Although predominantly recreational over the years, Wits Sports also provides opportunities for sport participation at competitive as well as high performance levels. Various opportunities exist for students to participate in residents’ leagues, inter-varsity competition as well as various external leagues and competitions in the province and beyond. Wits Sport had 34 sports clubs in 2015, namely: aerobics, cricket, judo, table-tennis, aquatics, cue sports/pool, karate, taekwondo, mind games, athletics, fencing, mountain, tai chi & yuishinkai, kobujutsu, badminton, flying, netball, tang soo do, basketball, football, orienteering, tennis, boat, futsal, rugby, ultimate frisbee, boxing, gymnastics, snow ski, underwater yachting, chess, hockey and squash as well as volleyball. Other sports and fitness programmes offered include learn-to-swim, walking group, sport for alumni as well as varsity kudus weekly run (Wits, 2015d). Sport for AWI is not reflected in any way the Wits Sport on the Wits Sport website, neither as a sports club or sport code.

Internal sport related entities at Wits University include Wits Sport, the sports administration entity responsible for the organisation, control and co-ordination of all sports activities. This is a permanent administrative entity with a staff complement of 18, headed by a director who reports to the dean of student affairs (Wits, 2015c).

Wits Sport works in close collaboration with the student-elected Wits Sport Council (WSC) which is the body representing all the university's accredited sports clubs. The Council comprises of the heads of all the Wits sports clubs and is led by an elected executive committee (Wits, 2015c).

Sports related qualifications are offered in the Faculty of Health Sciences as well as the Faculty of Humanities from degree level up to post graduate level. External stakeholders include sponsors for some of the institution’s clubs and teams. In addition, Wits University is also a member of USSA, Varsity Cup as well as Varsity Sport.

Wits Sport has at least 77 sports facilities across its three campuses which consist of, among others, 19 squash courts, three gymnasiums, eleven football fields, a heated swimming pool and four multipurpose indoor facilities (Wits, 2016). Wits Sport also offers several sports bursaries across a limited number of sport codes and as is with the other universities in this study, eligibility is based on the individual athlete’s sport as well as academic performance.

Although highly focused on recreational sport, in 2013, management at Wits Sport embarked on a restructuring process to enable them to offer both recreational and high performance sport participation across more sport codes. A few priority sport codes were provisionally selected (pending full restructuring) and were already receiving enhanced support from Wits Sport towards high performance sport participation. These sport codes are rugby, football, hockey basketball, netball and cricket.

4.2.7 Theme summary This theme profiled sample universities so as to give the overall background of sport in sample universities. Overall, universities are guided by philosophies which serve to define in broad terms, what the institution is about, as well as set it apart from others. These philosophies reflect the socio-political as well as historical factors that

have shaped the institutions (Burnett 2010a). Universities are working towards addressing pre-independence legacies of apartheid through transforming and embracing diversity. Part of this involves providing equal opportunities for education and sport participation to all students across the racial, gender, ability as well as other socio-economic divides.

Sport in sample universities is largely offered on a continuum encompassing sport for all (recreational and competitive sport) as well as high performance sport to cater for the varied needs of their diverse student populations. Along this wide spectrum however, some universities are more skewed towards high performance sport (Tuks Sport, UJ Sport and Maties Sport) while others focus more on recreation and competitive sport (TUT and Wits Sport). This is largely informed by, among other things, historical factors, overarching philosophy as well as resource capacity of individual institutions.

Top management in four of the five sample universities (with the exception of the Wits University), reportedly place a high level of priority on high performance sport participation. These institutions focus on a few, selected sport codes to ensure strategic allocation of scarce resource. This is aimed at ensuring enhanced integrated support. The choice of priority sport codes predominantly reflects able- bodied male team sport in the country such as rugby, cricket, netball, as well as individual sport codes such as swimming and athletics. Due to their popular stature in the country, these sport codes also have potential to attract funding and other forms of support from key stakeholders such as sponsors, government as well as national federations which complements university funding and thus makes them attractive.

There is a business element to sport in some of these institutions as well, where, on the one hand, universities have become hubs for service provision in the areas of sports management, sports science and medicine as well as research to the various external stakeholders such as federations, SASCOC, SRSA and international

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athletes and teams. On the other hand, these institutions also provide and charge for use of their sports infrastructure to the above-mentioned stakeholders or any other interested party.

The priority status of all sport codes is reviewed periodically as management continuously seeks to re-evaluate and strategically reposition their institutions in line with changing trends in the external environment. One of these trends has been the emergence of Varsity Sport (and media exposure) which has seen sample universities focusing more on sport codes offered under this inter-varsity competitive platform. Existing resource capacity of individual institutions as well as the ability of management to leverage resource support from external stakeholders are crucial in determining the scope of support offered towards priority sport codes.

Of significance to this study is sport for AWI which is offered at recreation and competitive levels in all five universities. Only two institutions (Stellenbosch University and the University of Pretoria) offer high performance sport for AWI. The University of Johannesburg does have high performance AWI as defined for this study (see section 1.9.2). However, sport for AWI is not officially recognised as high performance sport (see 4.3.2 for further discussion).

Sport for AWI is predominantly offered along the ‘separate club’ structuring model except for Tuks Sport which has an integrated model and UJ Sport with a hybrid model. All five universities have open clubs which cater for both student as well as non-student AWI to boost the low participation levels of AWI in these institutions. The separate structuring model reflects the traditional organisation of sport for AWI internationally which is predominately governed and organised separately to that of able-bodied athletes. Eighty percent (n=10) of the sample sport codes in this study are internationally structured along this model.

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The integrated structuring model found at Tuks Sport reflects recent developments in some sports at international level to integrate the governance and organisation of sport for able-bodied and AWI under the same organisations. Amongst the ten sample sport codes, adaptive rowing and wheelchair tennis are the only codes governed by the same international federations as those for able-bodied athletes. Although there are instances at national and local (club) levels where structures in these two sport codes are separated, the international and national federations for rowing and tennis encourage rowing and tennis clubs to adopt the integrated structure.

This allows for sharing of management, coaches, sports facilities as well as economic resources between able-bodied and AWI where possible. This presumably also allows for equitable recognition of elite AWI with their able-bodied counterparts in the same sports code as is the case with rugby at Tuks Sport. Because Tuks Rugby is a priority sports club, by default, all the rugby teams under this club encompassing union, women’s as well as wheelchair rugby are accorded priority status without distinction on ability or gender. While this does not necessarily imply equal allocation of resources between the various teams and athletes in this sport code, this recognition comes with enhanced resource support when compared to non-priority sport codes as an example.

Going forward, there is general consensus across all five sample universities that people with impairments in South Africa are a marginalized and disadvantaged group and that universities, among other stakeholders have a moral obligation as well as a social responsibility to redress the inequalities and disadvantages created by prejudice and discrimination against this minority group. All universities have therefore put in place various transformation initiatives and measures to ensure equity for people with impairments which include:

 Disability policies which broadly seek to ensure the integration, inclusion as well as empowerment and of students and employees with impairments in their specific universities.

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 Establishment of disability units/offices to ensure coordinated support to students and staff with impairments as well as head the implementation of the disability policies.

Although there is no sport specific policy linking students with impairments and sport in all sample universities (based on information available on university websites), their respective disability policies all speak to the fact that students with impairments have equal right to actively participate in all facets of university life. It can therefore be implied that sport is included amongst these facets which is then demonstrated in the provision of sport for students with impairments in the respective sports structures in all sample universities, or so it appears on the surface. The next section will explore high performance sport participation statistics for AWI in sample universities.

4.3 High performance sport for AWI in sample universities

4.3.1 Introduction As referred to in section 4.3.4, only three of the five sample universities have high performance AWI (UJ, UP as well as SU). This theme explores this aspect in more detail by providing a descriptive analysis of participation statistics as well as athlete demographic information. To protect the identity of the participants, broad descriptors such as ‘university A’ and ‘key decision maker’ will be used as needed. Where it is necessary to identify the participant, a random letter denoting the name of the participant will be allocated to each person followed by an asterisk. For example, participant John may be represented by ‘P*’.

4.3.2 Participation statistics The following is a discussion of sport participation statistics of elite AWI at Tuks Sport, UJ Sport as well as Maties Sport. These statistics emerged from data provided by management and reflect participation figures of AWI competing at provincial level and higher in a Paralympic Sport, irrespective of whether they belong to an officially recognised priority or high performance sport code in these

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universities. This is the working definition of elite or high performance athlete adopted in this study (see section 1.9.2) and thus explains the inclusion of data from UJ Sport’s Club SSD. Table 4:1 (below) shows the sport codes with elite in the three universities.

Table 4:1: Sport codes with elite AWI in sample universities

Universities

Sport codes with high performance AWI UJ SU UP

Athletics (track and field) X x X

Hand cycling x

Cycling x

Adaptive rowing x

Swimming x x X

Wheelchair basketball x

Wheelchair tennis x

Archery X

Wheelchair rugby X

Triathlon x

Information from Table 4:1 shows that there are a total of ten sport codes with high performance AWI across the three universities. Sixty-four per cent of these are found at UJ Sport (n=7), followed by Maties Sport and Tuks Sport both with 36% each (n=4). Swimming and athletics (track and field) are the only sport codes offered at all three universities while the rest of the sport codes are only found at one university (UJ). The breakdown of the total number of high performance athletes per sport code at UJ as well as SU is illustrated in Figure 4.1 as well as Figure 4.2 below. No data was provided by Tuks Sport in this regard.

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University of Johannesburg

7 7

5 44 4

3 2 2 11 1 1

0 Athletics Blind Judo Swimming Adaptive Wheelchair Triathlon Wheelchair rowing tennis basketball

Figure 4.1: Number of high performance AWI per sport code at UJ (n=18)

9 8 7 6 5 3 4 2 2 3 2 1 0 Cycling Swimming Athletics (track and Hand Cycling field)

Figure 4.2: Number of high performance AWI per sport code at SU (n=16)

In both universities, (UJ and SU), track and field athletics is the sport code with the highest number of participants at high performance level with seven and nine athletes respectively. Adaptive rowing and wheelchair tennis which are only offered at UJ both have the second highest number of participants at high performance level

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with four athletes each. The least number of athletes are found in blind judo and swimming also at UJ, with one athlete each. Figure 4.3 as well as Figure 4.4 below capture the frequencies as percentages to show the proportional representation of club participation.

Figure 4.3: Percentage of high performance AWI per sport code at UJ (n=18)

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Figure 4.4: Percentage of high performance AWI per sport code at SU (n=16)

Both Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4 show that athletics has the highest number of participants at high performance level with 35% and 56% athletes at UJ and SU respectively. Adaptive rowing and wheelchair tennis only offered at the UJ both have 20% each. Blind judo and swimming are only offered at UJ have 5% each.

Figure 4.5 and Figure 4.6 illustrate student and non-student club membership statistics for elite AWI per sport code from data provided by club management at Club SSD as well Maties ParaSport as respectively. No information was provided by Tuks Sport on this aspect.

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7 6 6

4 3 3 2 2 11111 1 1 0 0 Athletics Blind Judo Swimming Adaptive Wheelchair Triathlon Wheelchair rowing tennis basketball

Total number of elite student‐athletes Total number of elite non‐student athletes

Figure 4.5: Combined membership of elite student versus non-student-athletes at Club SSD (n=18)

Figure 4.5 above shows that Club SSD has combined membership of elite student and non-student-athletes in three sport codes only. Swimming and wheelchair basketball only have student-athletes participating at high performance level while triathlon (one athlete) is the only sport code without elite student-athletes.

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8 7 7

3 2 2 2 2 111 1

0 Cycling Swimming Athletics (track and Hand Cycling field)

Total number of elite student athletes Total number of elite non‐student athletes

Figure 4.6: Combined membership of elite student versus non-student-athletes at Maties ParaSport (n=16)

At Maties ParaSport (Figure 4.6), cycling, swimming and athletics all have elite student and non-student-athletes while hand cycling is composed of elite non- student-athletes only. Overall, both universities have more non-student AWI participating at the high-performance level as compared to student-athletes as reflected in Figure 4.7 and Figure 4.8 respectively.

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Figure 4.7: Ratio of elite student to non-student-athletes, Club SSD (n=18)

Figure 4.8: Ratio of elite student to non-student-athletes at Maties Para Sport (n=16)

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Figure 4.7 as well as Figure 4.8 show ratios of non-student to student-athletes at high performance level of 67% to 33% (n=18) at Club SSD and 75% to 25% (n=16) at Maties ParaSport for AWI respectively.

4.3.3 Athlete demographic information The information under this section was compiled from data collected from the club athletes through questionnaires of which nine athletes agreed and responded to the questionnaire. Table 4.2 provides a summary of participants’ demographic information

Table 2: Summary of athlete demographic information

Age Gender Ethnicity Impairment category range Male Female Black White Amputee Visual Wheelchair Les Autres (years) impairment (other)

20-42 3 6 5 4 3 1 3 2

The ages of the participants were quite diverse, ranging between 20 and 42 years because the sports clubs are open to both student and non-student-athletes. There was a 55% to 44% ratio of female to male respondents and all nine athletes fall under two of the three impairment categories according to the General Classification Systems of Paralympic Summer Sports (IPC, 2013) as follows; physical impairments (89%) and visual impairment (11%). Seven of the nine respondents were from the University of Johannesburg with the remaining two evenly divided between SU and UP.

4.3.4 Theme summary Overall, sport participation statistics show that participating numbers of AWI at a high-performance level across the three universities (n=34, excluding Tuks Sport who did not provide data in this regard) are relatively low, particularly in consideration that a total of 10 sport codes were sampled in this study. This echoes 111

Burnett’s (2010a) findings of a general under representation of AWI in university sport in South African. These low numbers also explain, in part why eight of the eleven sample sport codes are primarily individual sports as opposed to team sports.

Unlike with able-bodied sports in universities in general, most of the elite AWI in these universities are non-students, again reflecting the low number of PWI in sport in South African universities as identified earlier. Generally, PWI in South Africa have largely been excluded from mainstream society and barred from accessing basic political, social as well as economic rights (Masambo, 2013 as cited in SASAPD, 2016) and thus have had limited access to education and sport. Perhaps, to some extent, the low number of PWI in sport in sample universities reflects a gap in the current education and sport landscape with regards to access for PWI. From a competition point of view, the low numbers of S-AWI has negative implications with regards to organising inter-varsity competition which in the strict sense, is reserved for athletes registered to study at university (see section 5.3.1.3).

The diverse age range of the athletes reflects the large number of AWI who are non- students and as such does not reflect the typical age group of students at university. In addition, this possibly reflects differences between sport for AWI and able-bodied sport in relation to LTPD. According to SASCOC’s (2012a) LTPD model, athletes ideally enter the high-performance level (Train to train phase) in their mid-teenage years (see 2.3.3.1, paragraph four). However, with AWI, the athlete’s impairment which is either congenital or acquired may impact on the athlete’s prior as well as future learning and development (Balyi et al., 2005). This is because firstly, children with impairments may encounter challenges acquiring fundamental movement and sport skills at the appropriate age when compared to those of their able-bodied counterparts due to limited opportunities to participate in sport as well as the lack of customised equipment and training partners for those that need them (Balyi et al., 2005).

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Secondly, the importance of basic fundamental movement and sport skills in the individual athlete’s progression on the LTPD pathway necessitates that individuals who acquire an impairment at a later stage in life relearn the fundamental movement and sport skills. This means that AWI progression along the LTPD pathway may therefore not occur during set ages (Higgs & Trono, 2013).

4.4 Chapter summary

In this chapter, sample universities were profiled so as to provide a contextual background to the main discussion on the results of this study (in chapters five and six). Key areas of focus included the background of each institution as well as the overall philosophical orientation as reflected in the respective institutions’ vision and mission statements. A summary of each institution’s sport profile featured key aspects which include the sport delivery and structuring models, sport related entities, sport facilities as well as other resources. Further, the priority status of high performance sport in each institution was discussed as well as the placing of sport for AWI in these institutions in general as well as elite sport or AWI in particular. High performance statistics for AWI were then explored and key findings summarised. The rest of this paper will explore in more detail the high-performance element of sport for AWI in sample universities with particular focus on how these institutions facilitate and support optimal participation of elite AWI.

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5 CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1 Introduction

This following is another chapter in the presentation and discussion of research findings from a study aimed at providing a descriptive analysis on the role of South African universities in facilitating optimal performance of elite athletes with impairments. Findings are grouped and presented under related themes and sub- themes generated from the qualitative data and informed by discourses from the literature review (see section 4.1.1 for further discussion in this regard). Further in this chapter, the discussion of the results follows as it relates to current discourses and prominent literature. The main themes covered in this chapter are:

 Access to resources.  Opportunities for competition.  Stakeholder collaboration.  Challenges facing universities as well as student-athletes.  Recommendations as voiced by universities.

5.2 Access to resources

This theme explores the resources available to universities in supporting high performance sport for AWI. Specific focus is paid to the sources, types and use of funding, availability and sufficiency of physical resources (equipment and sports facilities) as well as the human resources component consisting of administrative and support staff as well as coaches.

5.2.1 Funding Adequate funding is crucial in supporting elite sport participation. According to Higgs et al. (2006), there is need for stable funding that is adequately distributed across the various stages of the LTAD pathway to address the needs of athletes. Adequate funding facilitates access to other forms of support such as coaching, equipment as well as sports science and medical services which enable the athlete to focus on training and competition (Higgs et al., 2006). If not supported adequately, athletes

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are more likely to withdraw from competitive sport during the ‘Training to train’ and ‘Training to compete’ stages in the LTAD (Higgs et al., 2006).

Although the challenge of limited financial resources continues to limit the level and quality of support offered to elite athletes, South African universities continue to exploit multiple funding opportunities thereby offering financial support to athletes across various sport codes for both able-bodied and sport for AWI. This is in collaboration with external stakeholders such as federations, SASCOC, government and its agencies as well as private corporations (Burnett, 2010a). This theme reflects on the various sources of funding available to universities supporting high performance sport participation of AWI. For the purposes of this discussion, these sources are broadly categorized as reflected in Figure 5.1.

Sources of funding

Internal External

Non-sport Non-sport Sport specific Sport specific specific specific

Figure 5.1: Sources of funding

Within the broad internal and external sources of funding depicted in Figure 5.1, the different sources of funding will be identified and discussed under sport specific and non-sport specific funding. Each of these categories and sub-categories are defined in the following sections.

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5.2.1.1 Internal sources of funding Internal sources of funding refer to funding from the various units or departments within the university towards supporting high performance sport participation for AWI. This funding is either dedicated towards the development of specific sport code(s) or to support specific athletes (sport specific funding) within the university or open to all students to cover general study costs such as tuition fees, accommodation, among others (non-sport specific funding).

With regards to internal sport-specific funding, all sports clubs in the participating universities receive an annual club budget allocation from the university sports structure to cover club administrative and other costs related to sport participation for AWI. In addition, elite AWI who attain provincial and or national colours in priority sport codes become eligible to apply for a high-performance sports bursary at Maties ParaSport’s (SU) and Tuks Sport (UP). These bursaries are funded through the mainstream Maties Sport High Performance Unit in the former and Tuks Sport High Performance Unit in the latter. Bursaries typically cover, partially, or in full some of the following: gymnasium fees, sports science and medicine related costs and in some instances coaching fees. The value of these bursaries varies across sport codes as well as between individual athletes. Key factors considered include the individual athlete’s sport and academic performance as well as their financial need in the context of available resources.

Unlike at Maties Sport as well as Tuks Sport, elite AWI at UJ Sport are not considered for high performance sport bursaries as they fall under a non-priority sports club (Club SSD). Elite AWI at UJ Sport are therefore supported through funding from SASCOC, national federations as well as other external stakeholders and initiatives (see 5.2.2).

With regards to internal non-sport specific funding, only management at Club SSD reported working closely with the Office for People with Disabilities (OPwD) within the university to secure additional funding for student-athletes to cover items

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such as tuition fees, accommodation and meals as well as non-sport mobility and assistive devices such as wheelchairs, where possible. Student-athletes are provided with information on the bursaries available within the university and encouraged to apply with the support of the OPwD and Club SSD where such assistance is needed. Securing non-sport funding for high performance athletes in the club to cover tuition fees, accommodation, books and meals allows management at Club SSD to direct club funding to other sport specific budget items such as coaching, among others.

5.2.2 External sources of funding External sources of funding refer to funding from stakeholders outside the university towards supporting the living costs of students in universities. This funding can either be dedicated towards the development of a specific sport code or athlete (sport specific funding) or available to all students in general covering study costs such as tuition fees, accommodation, among others (non-sport specific funding).

With regards to external sport-specific funding all three universities reported having athletes who are, or have in the past been recipients of funding from SASCOC through the Operation Excellence (OPEX) programme which offers financial and logistical support to targeted prospective Olympic and Paralympic medallists (SASCOC, 2013). These athletes are categorised into three tiers where they receive varying degrees of financial and logistical support towards:

 Sport specific expenses that include transport to training sessions, coaching fees, access to training facilities, local as well as international camps and competitions.  Subsistence allowances for living expenses.  Specialized services such as scientific and medical support services, medical aid, technological services as well as sport equipment (SASCOC, 2012a).

Tier one consists of athletes who were either medallists or finalists at the London 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games and are eligible to participate at the Rio 2016

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Olympic and Paralympic Games (SASCOC, 2012b). Tier two consists of junior athletes who were either medallists or finalists at the 2010 Youth Olympic Games or 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games and have potential to win medals at the 2016 Rio Olympic and Paralympic Games while tier three has athletes who do not fall under tiers one and two but have consistently demonstrated their potential to win medals at key international sporting events (SASCOC, 2012b).

Athletes in tier one receive the most comprehensive support towards specific items covered under the programme followed by those in tiers two and three. Athletes’ performance is reviewed and evaluated annually to determine eligibility for the following year in the four-year cycle. The chosen athletes are funded through their respective national federations who in turn can partner other stakeholders who provide among others, training facilities and or expert support services in sports science and medicine. Some universities have strategically positioned themselves to indirectly benefit from the OPEX programme through partnering with federations where they offer expert services as well as the use of sport facilities for training and competition to athletes on the OPEX programme in both able-bodied and sport for AWI.

For the 2013-2016 quadrennial, the OPEX programme initially targeted 48 athletes in total, of which 48% were high performance AWI across seven sport codes namely swimming, athletics, adaptive rowing, shooting, cycling, wheelchair tennis and triathlon (SASCOC, 2012b). Figure 5.2 shows the number of AWI on the OPEX programme in 2015 who were club members in universities that participated in this research (information contained on the SASCOC website and confirmed by university club management).

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7 7

5 4 4 3 3

2 1 111 1

0 Athletics Adaptive rowing Cycling Swimming Wheelchair tennis

Maties ParaSport Club SSD

Figure 5.2: Number of AWI on the OPEX programme per university (n=18)

While both Maties ParaSport and Club SSD each have nine athletes on the OPEX programme in total, athletics has the most number of beneficiaries with a total of eight athletes, seven from Maties ParaSport and one from Club SSD. The four rowers and three wheelchair tennis players are Club SSD members whereas the swimmer is from Maties ParaSport. Cycling has two athletes in total split evenly between Maties ParaSport and Club SSD.

Figure 5.3 further illustrates the combined proportion of high performance AWI on the OPEX programme from participating universities for the 2015-2016 period grouped by sport code. Athletics has the most number of athletes (44%) followed by adaptive rowing (22%), wheelchair tennis (17%), cycling (11%) and swimming (6%).

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17%

6% 44%

11%

22%

Athletics Adaptive rowing Cycling Swimming Wheelchair tennis

Figure 5.3: Combined proportion of AWI on the OPEX programme per sport code (n=18)

Several partnerships also exist between some universities and specific federations who pay the university for support services rendered to high performance AWI. These services include sport science and medicine, biokinetics as well as use of gymnasium and other sports facilities by athletes who are part of the federations’ high performance teams. This is the case at UJ which houses the high performance centres for the national federations in charge of adaptive rowing and wheelchair tennis. SU receives funding from the provincial branches of SASAPD when such is available. UP reported receiving no funding from sport federations.

The South African government has set up various departments at national, provincial and local levels to develop and promote sport participation amongst citizens in their respective constituencies. As part of their mandate, these government departments often provide specific funding for sport development to organizations involved in sports which universities can apply for. This funding is available for initiatives such

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as, among others, training and capacity building workshops, training camps as well as competitions across recreational, competitive and high performance sport.

The Gauteng Province Department of Sports, Arts, Culture and Recreation (GPDSACR) in particular, allocates funds to some tertiary institutions as bursaries for previously disadvantaged students who excel in sport to enhance their academic and sport performance (GPDSACR, 2015). These bursaries cover tuition, equipment, accommodation, scientific support, life skills, competition opportunities as well as other logistical needs (GPDSACR, 2015). Management at Club SSD reported successfully hosting a conference and workshops on sport for AWI on behalf of GPDSACR and using the hosting fee paid to the club to supplement services provided to student-athletes.

The Western Cape Government Department of Cultural Affairs and Sport (WCGDCAS) offers sport federations various opportunities to apply for funding to support sport participation initiatives for AWI and high performance AWI. Among these are, the Ad-Hoc funding entity for individuals who are selected to represent South Africa in SASCOC recognized sports events at international level (WCGDCS, 2015). The Transformation Fund targets initiatives or projects which aim to increase participation and ensuring equitable access for historically disadvantaged individuals such as people with impairments while the Development and Equipment Funding covers, among other things, travel assistance to national championships that take place outside the Western Cape Province (WCGDCS, 2015).

Although available through sport federations only, universities with provincial and national level competitive athletes can engage sport federations and encourage athletes to apply for this funding which can then be used to support specific projects or high performance sport participation for club members in these universities. Management at Maties ParaSport reported having applied for, and successfully obtained funding to upgrade sport facilities and purchasing equipment from the WCGDCS, City of Cape Town as well as the local municipality.

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The National Lotteries Commission formerly the National Lotteries Board, through its National Lottery Distribution Trust Fund was also highlighted by all three universities as a key government agency funding specific projects such as the upgrading and/or adapting of sports facilities to make them accessible to PWI as well as purchasing sports equipment for the clubs or individual athletes. The NLC does not directly fund individual athletes but accepts applications from national and regional federations, local sports and recreational clubs as well as institutions such as universities and schools (NLC, 2015).

External non-sport specific sources of funding include funding that is not exclusively targeted at high performance sport participation but can be motivated for to cover both sport related and non-sport related costs. This includes academic bursaries, donations and sponsorships from private corporates, government departments and agencies. Universities can apply for such funding or encourage their athletes to apply where the funding is only available directly to students. Typical items covered by this funding include tuition and residence fees, living expenses, the purchase of customised equipment as well as training and competition expenses such as coaching, travel expenses to training and competitions, competition entry fees, sports science and medicine, among other things. University B reported successfully engaging various external stakeholders to get supplementary funding for specific items for the club as well as individual athletes as reflected below.

“One of our new members applied for funding from a former employer though their corporate social responsibility programme and now we can buy a new piece of equipment for them. From the local side, we tap into our municipality where we can apply for funding for specific projects such training camps.” (Key decision maker, University B)

Club SSD at UJ reported successfully partnering with the OPwD in the university in assisting current and potential student-athletes to apply for bursaries from external funders. To date, a number of student-athletes had secured bursaries from the Department of Labour as well as the Insurance Sector Education and Training Authority (INSETA). These bursaries are either targeted exclusively at students with

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impairments or all students in general and cover a range of items among them registration, tuition and exam fees, university accommodation, residence meals, books and pocket money (Skills Portal, 2014). This then enables Club SSD to only cover sports related costs for these student-athletes.

5.2.2.1 Sufficiency and sustainability of funding Higgs et al. (2006) highlight the need for adequate and stable funding to optimally support high performance sport participation for AWI. This sub-theme explores the sufficiency of sport specific funding available to universities to support high performance sport participation as well the sustainability of such funding as evidenced by the signing of medium to long term funding agreements between the funder and the university or individual athletes.

Regarding sufficiency of funding, there was consensus from management across all five universities that in general South African universities do not have sufficient financial capacity to optimally support high performance sport participation for all athletes in general and elite AWI in particular. This situation is exacerbated by the high cost of providing for high performance sport participation.

“Funding is never enough really but the little we get does help in our efforts to provide opportunities for sport participation to club members.” (Key decision maker, University A) “High performance sport costs and doesn’t make and so the financial resources of supporting athletes is a challenge for us for both AWI and able-bodied athletes.” (Key decision maker, University D) “We are not a very strong university financially as other universities such as Stellenbosch. With resources, you can do more outside of the norm.” (Key decision maker, University E)

Even within the scope of what universities can afford, the priority status of a club is a key determining factor on the level of financial support given to a specific club by the university. This is evident at University A where there is a substantial difference between annual club budget allocations to sports for AWI, versus priority sport codes

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such as rugby, athletics, as well as rowing as narrated by a key decision maker at the club.

“I get R164 000.00 a year for the whole club including for our high- performance athletes and it’s not enough. Rugby gets about R13 million, athletics about R8 or R9 million and rowing about R1.5 million.” (Key decision maker, University A)

As a result, management at University A reported continuously engaging in partnerships with various external stakeholders to secure additional funding to supplement their annual club budget allocations as well as engaging in fundraising activities. These other sources of funding have reportedly become the biggest contributors to the club's revenue as reflected by a key decision maker below.

“…these are supplementary sources of funding which ideally should be less than our annual portion from the university but unfortunately it is the other way around.” (Key decision maker, University A)

With limited funding from the university, these supplementary sources of funding have reportedly allowed the club for AWI to continuously be able to support its high performance AWI.

In as far as sustainability of funding is concerned, there were also concerns across the three universities offering high performance sport participation opportunities for AWI regarding the tenure of funding agreements between existing funders and universities and or individual AWI. Funding from federations and government was particularly singled out as short term, project based or often distributed once off which makes it difficult for universities to offer sustained support to athletes. The quadrennial OPEX programme from SASCOC is the only funding cited as having long term outlook which gives the athlete security to strategically plan their competitive participation over time.

Management at University A also noted that restructuring in the university sports structures (if carried out too often) can be disruptive to athletes when sport codes

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that previously enjoyed priority status are downgraded to non-priority status. The 2013 restructuring at University A’s sports department resulted in the club for AWI receiving less financial and other resources when compared to previous years which adversely affected the level of support given to existing student-athletes who had enrolled in the university before the restructuring as well as the club’s capacity to recruit new athletes in future. In 2015, the same institution was undergoing another restructuring less than three years after the last one reportedly to reposition itself in response to changes in the internal and external environment.

5.2.3 Physical resources In addition to access to user friendly or accessible sports facilities for training, the availability of appropriate equipment, in some instances custom made equipment for the athlete is crucial for optimum performance at the high-performance level. This theme firstly explores the availability of accessible sports facilities for training high performance AWI in participating universities before discussing the sufficiency of as well as level of satisfaction with athletes’ current sport equipment.

5.2.3.1 Sports facilities Table 5:1 shows the various facilities used for training elite AWI across the 11 sport codes in the three universities as indicated by athletes through data provided in questionnaires.

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Table 5:1: Sports facilities used for training elite AWI

Sport code Facility(s) used

Adaptive rowing Lake, gymnasium*

Wheelchair tennis Tennis courts

Wheelchair basketball Basketball courts

Archery Archery range

Swimming Swimming pool

Wheelchair rugby Indoor hall/basketball court

Cycling Road

Triathlon Road and swimming pool

Hand cycling Road

Athletics Athletics track

Key: * indicates a facility used by athletes in all 11 sport codes.

Findings from this study show that none of the eleven sport codes available across the three universities offering elite sport for AWI require any special facilities for training except for wheelchair rugby. All the other ten sport codes use the same facilities as their related able-bodied counterparts without any changes. Wheelchair rugby is played on any facility with a smooth flow that allows wheelchairs to move easily and a goal is scored by crossing the opponent’s goal line with a wheelchair while carrying the ball. Thus, the sport can be played on most indoor facilities and basketball courts. However, as with all facilities, adaptations may need to be made to ensure that AWI have relatively easy access.

Regarding the sufficiency of sports facilities for training, club management in all three universities reported having access to sufficient sports facilities for training elite AWI. This also was confirmed by all athletes (n=9) who participated in this study. In instances where the university does not own the required facility or it is logistically easier for the athlete to use another facility, arrangements are made with external

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sports clubs and local municipalities to allow athletes use of their facilities. Specific sport facilities where such arrangements with external stakeholders exist include gymnasiums (Stellenbosch University), archery range (University of Pretoria), swimming pool, wheelchair basketball court and rowing lake (University of Johannesburg).

Concerns were raised by members of management regarding the overall inaccessibility of university facilities including sports facilities in particular. Adapting and improving accessibility of existing general university structures and sports facilities comes at a high cost to universities that are already faced with the challenge of limited financial capacity. This results in less than desired progress.

“We sit on an old campus. Some these buildings were built in the seventies and at that stage the awareness of people with disabilities was poor and so we got to make sure that with time those things are sorted.” (Key decision maker, University C) “The challenge is that older buildings on all four UJ campuses never provided accessible facilities, and now need to be adapted at high cost.” (Key decision maker, University A)

However, all three universities reported having made incremental progress towards improving the accessibility in university facilities over the years, albeit slowly.

“Although it took us eight years, most of our facilities now have wheelchair accessible toilets (albeit only one or two at big stadiums), as well as accessible ramps to courts, halls and the track. We are moving in the right direction.” (Key decision maker, University A)

The UJ is going a step further to partner with external sports clubs in sourcing funding to adapt their sports facilities to improve access for AWI.

“We applied for funding from LOTTO to adapt the bathrooms/toilets at the VLC Rowing Club in Germiston and Roodeplaat Rowing Club enabling the Para-Rowers to train and participate in Rowing South Africa events.” (Key decision maker, University A)

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None the less, all nine athletes reported being satisfied with the level of accessibility (ease of access for AWI) of the sports facilities they use for training. Overall, the availability and accessibility of sport facilities has a direct impact on elite sport participation in sample universities.

5.2.3.2 Equipment From universities point of view, club management in all three universities highlighted the challenge of inadequate suitable sports equipment for high performance AWI in their institutions. The high cost of standard as well as custom made sports equipment in particular, coupled with limited financial resources were singled out as major challenges facing universities in providing adequate equipment for high performance participation to AWI.

“In terms of equipment such as hand cycles, a good second one costs much. I got a quote recently in the region of R45, 000.00 to R50, 000.00 each. So, that’s a big problem. If a person is interested in wheelchair racing or hand cycling, where do you get the equipment?” (Key decision maker, University B)

Both Stellenbosch University and University of Johannesburg reported only being able to offer limited standard equipment for use by club members in some of the sport codes they offer while they continuously engage various stakeholders such as federations, SASCOC, the NLC and private corporations to source funding to purchase more standard as well as custom built sports equipment for individual athletes where possible. Some of the athletes have personal sponsors or fund their own equipment. Table 5:2 shows the key equipment used by the nine athletes who participated in this research.

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Table 5:2: Key equipment needed by athletes

Sport code Equipment used

Adaptive rowing Boats, oars, stabilising pontoons* and specially designed seats*

Wheelchair tennis Wheelchair, racquets, tennis balls, strapping*

Wheelchair basketball Wheelchair, basketball, strapping*

Archery Recurve bow, strapping* and body support system*

Swimming Swimwear

Wheelchair rugby Wheelchair, balls

Cycling Bicycles

Triathlon Wheelchair, hand cycle and swimwear

Hand cycling Hand-cycle

Athletics As per event

Key: equipment marked with * is optional.

Figure 5.4 illustrates athlete’s responses on the sufficiency of equipment in their respective sport codes from combined data from Club SSD and Maties ParaSport. Two of the three adaptive rowers indicated that they have sufficient equipment while one responded otherwise. In wheelchair basketball, one athlete confirmed that they have sufficient equipment while the other reported not having sufficient equipment. The two wheelchair tennis players as well as the swimmer all responded positive, the archer indicated that they did not have sufficient equipment.

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2 2 2

111 1 1 1

000 0 Adaptive rowing Wheelchair Wheelchair tennis Swimming Archery basketball

I have sufficient equipment I do not have sufficient equipment

Figure 5.4: Sufficiency of equipment (n=9)

Respondents were also asked to rate their level of satisfaction with the equipment they currently have on a Likert scale ranging from one to five, one being highly dissatisfied and five highly satisfied. The results are presented in Figure 5.5.

2 2

111 1111 1

0 1 (highly 2345 (highly satisfied) dissatisfied)

Adaptive rowing Wheelchair basketball Wheelchair tennis Swimming Archery

Figure 5.5: Athletes' level of satisfaction with available equipment

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From Figure 5.5, five of the nine athletes (55%) reported being highly satisfied (level five) with their current equipment. These include two rowers as well as one athlete each from wheelchair basketball, wheelchair tennis and swimming. Three athletes (33%) reported being satisfied with their current equipment (level four) and these include one athlete from adaptive rowing, wheelchair tennis and archery. One wheelchair basketball player (11%) was indifferent (level three) while none (0%) of the athletes responded being dissatisfied (level two) or highly dissatisfied (level one) with their current equipment.

Overall, physical resources are key in facilitating elite sport participation in sample universities, specifically the availability of user friendly sport facilities for training and competition as well as appropriate equipment.

5.2.4 Human resources The human resource component is crucial in supporting high performance sport participation of AWI in universities. University sport structures need to be adequately staffed with knowledgeable, skilled and experienced personnel who can effectively liaise with athletes and their coaches, as well as other internal and external stakeholders (Higgs et al., 2006). There is also need for sufficient and adequately qualified coaches as well as professional personnel to provide services in the areas of sport nutrition, rehabilitation, injury prevention as well as sport medicine. This theme explores the available human resource component supporting the participation of high performance AWI in participating universities with specific reference to club management and coaches.

5.2.4.1 Club management A common challenge that emerged from this research is that university sports clubs are generally under staffed such that in some instances a single manager oversees as many as six sport codes. Managers are reportedly overwhelmed which negatively affects the quality of service given to athletes. At the time of this research, the Sports Officer in charge of Sports for the Physically Disabled at University of the

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Witwatersrand was also in charge of five other sport codes namely yachting, badminton, canoeing, fencing and rugby.

At Stellenbosch University, the Maties ParaSport club manager was also in charge of six other sports codes (taekwondo, rowing, equestrian, sailing and canoeing). At Tshwane University of Technology, the sport for students with impairments portfolio falls under an administrative assistant/secretary who is also in charge of several indigenous sports, while Tuks Sport which operates an integrated structure, had a dedicated sports manager for each of the tier one/priority sports clubs, one manager in charge of all tier two sports clubs and another manager in charge of all tier three sports clubs. Club SSD at UJ Sport is the only one that had a dedicated sports manager.

“Generally, like I mentioned earlier, we are short staffed, one person in charge of six sport codes will not do justice to these codes.” (Sports officer, University E) “We do not have sufficient human resources across the board however.” (Key decision maker, University D) “Our human resources side is very thin. May be some extra paid personnel would be good for us.” (Key decision maker, University B)

The above challenge has resulted in some universities engaging student volunteers to assist with basic club administration as well as when running sport events. Maties ParaSport reported successfully working with student volunteers in various capacities while Club SSD at the University of Johannesburg reported limited success in this regard.

5.2.4.2 Coaches According to Martin and Whalen (2010), one of the key factors impacting on sport performance is coaching. The sufficiency of quality coaches is therefore crucial to enable universities to optimally support elite AWI. The quality of a coach in high performance sport for AWI is measured against criteria inclusive of, among other aspects; the coach's sport specific technical knowledge and skills, advanced knowledge in sport rules and classification (Higgs et al., 2006). Also important is

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disability issues related to sport, in particular, the interface with custom made equipment where such is required (Higgs et al., 2006). This sub-theme first explores the sufficiency of quality coaches across the various high performance sport codes for AWI from club management as well as athletes' perspectives. Further, athletes' perceptions on the quality of their current coach is also explored with specific reference to the coaches' level of coaching qualification(s), coaching experience, knowledge of disability issues related to sport as well as knowledge of classification in their respective sport.

In relation to the sufficiency of quality coaches, management at both Club SSD and Maties ParaSport highlighted the challenge of lack of adequately qualified and experienced coaches in high performance sport for AWI in South Africa in general. This results in athletes relying on coaches from able-bodied sport codes who in some instances have little or no knowledge of sport for AWI. Management at Club SSD further highlighted that the lack of inclusive coach development pathway in South Africa because of unwillingness of some able-bodied federations to cooperate makes coach's development in sport for AWI in South Africa difficult. This leaves sport for AWI isolated and relatively vulnerable in coach development as it is not yet a fully developed and standalone field. Although there is mention of an inclusive coaches’ development in the South African Model for Long Term Coach Development (LTCD), there is little evidence on implementation on the ground.

Regardless of these challenges, University A reported having sufficiently qualified and experienced coaches in athletics, adapted rowing and wheelchair basketball as well as wheelchair tennis.

“I think we do have very experienced coaches across the sport codes we have. We select good coaches even though it costs us much. Where we don't have qualified coaches, we link our athletes with coaches outside the university that is clubs or federations.” (Key decision maker, University A)

Maties Para-sport at SU reported having sufficiently qualified coaches in hand cycling, cycling and swimming but highlighted their need for an additional athletics 133

(track and field) coach. The two current coaches in athletics (track and field) were singled out as both highly qualified and experienced. No information was provided by management at Tuks Sport in this regard.

From the athletes’ perspective, all nine athletes reported having adequate number of coaches in their various sport codes. Data was also collected on athletes’ perception of the quality of their coaches with regards to the level of coaching qualification(s), coaching experience and knowledge of disability issues related to sport as well as knowledge of classification in their sport. The results are illustrated from Figure 5.6 to Figure 5.9.

3 3

22 2

11 1

0000000000 0 Adaptive rowing Wheelchair Wheelchair tennis Swimming Archery basketball

My coach is qualified My coach is not qualified I am not sure

Figure 5.6: Athletes' perception on coach's level of coaching qualifications (n=9)

Figure 5.6 shows that all nine athletes in the five sport codes view their coaches as adequately qualified to coach their respective sport at elite level. Eight of these athletes also view their coach as having enough coaching experience to coach their respective sport at elite level while one athlete in wheelchair basketball indicated that they were not sure (Figure 5.7).

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3 3

2 2

1 1 11 1

000000 000 0 Adaptive rowing Wheelchair Wheelchair tennis Swimming Archery basketball

My coach is well experienced My coach is not well experienced I am not sure

Figure 5.7: Athletes' perception on coach's level of coaching experience (n=9)

Seven athletes were of the view that their coaches have adequate knowledge about disability issues related to their sport while one athlete (archery) responded otherwise and another (wheelchair basketball) responded ‘not sure’ (see Figure 5.8).

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3 3

2 2

1 1 1 1 1

00000 000 0 Adaptive rowing Wheelchair Wheelchair tennis Swimming Archery basketball

My coach is knowlledgable about disability issues related to my sport My coach is not knowlledgeble about disability issues related to my sport I am not sure

Figure 5.8: Athletes' perception on coach's knowledge about disability (n=9)

All nine athletes across the five sport codes were of the view that their coaches are knowledgeable about classification in their sport (see Figure 5.9).

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3 3

22 2

11 1

0000000000 0 Adaptive rowing Wheelchair Wheelchair tennis Swimming Archery basketball

My coach is knowlledgable about classification in my sport My coach is not knowlledgeble about classification in my sport I am not sure

Figure 5.9: Athletes' perception on coach's knowledge about classification (n=9)

Overall, ‘good’ knowledge about disability issues related to sport is crucial as coaches need to make the distinction between what the athlete can and cannot do (Cregan, Bloom & Reid, 2007). Favourable perceptions of the athlete on their coach are also crucial because coaches influence the athlete’s competitive psychological states such as confidence and anxiety which strongly impact on the athlete’s sport performances (Martin & Whalen, 2010).

5.2.5 Theme summary It is apparent that all aspects of high performance sport require access to funding, yet this was highlighted as one of the major obstacles faced by all three universities in their efforts to optimally support high performance sport participation for both able- bodied and AWI. This negatively impacts on the quality and depth of other forms of support required for high performance sport participation such as access to adequate and appropriate equipment, quality coaching as well as sports science and medicine which all rely on funding. Management in sample universities reported resorting to strategic allocation of limited resources to selected priority sport codes to

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enable these institutions to offer more integrated support to the few selected elite athletes within their limited (often shared) resource capacity.

Further, findings from this study show that all three universities are collaborating with multiple internal and external stakeholders to source additional funding to support elite sport for AWI. Internally, annual club budget allocations from the university sports structure are the main source of income for sports clubs to cover general club administrative costs as well facilitate training for club members across all levels of participation.

The priority status accorded a sports club in the university (discussed in section 5.2.1.1) is a key determinant of the level of funding support allocated to that club which is a key similarity amongst all three universities. Elite AWI at Tuks Sport as well as Maties ParaSport may be eligible for additional funding in the form of sports bursaries which they have to individually apply for, subject to them meeting various criteria such as individual sport and academic performance and financial need, among others. This funding is availed through a high-performance fund operated by these universities. Although UJ Sport also operates a high-performance fund as described above, elite AWI at Club SSD are not eligible for bursaries from this fund as their sports club is not officially recognised as a high-performance sports club. Thus, additional funding for elite AWI at Club SSD is provided by various stakeholders such as federations, SASCOC as well from fundraising initiatives done by the club management.

Regardless of these similarities and differences however, it is apparent that management in all three universities have to be resourceful in sourcing funding in order to better support their elite athletes due to the limited financial capacity their institutions face. A significant partner in this regard is SASCOC which supports 53% of elite Paralympic athletes (n=34) across all three universities combined. This partnership shows how these universities are making significant contributions to the sports delivery system as argued by (Goslin, 2002). It is also evident that these

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universities are strategically aligning and positioning themselves in the value chain of sport delivery (Burnett, 2010b), enabling them to play a significant role in the South African sport landscape. Further, this partnership and others reflects the importance of multi-stakeholder collaboration in respect to funding in supporting elite sport in South Africa.

With regards to sports facilities, findings from this study show that elite AWI have sufficient access to quality sports facilities across all sample sports. There is facility sharing of sports facilities between AWI with their able-bodied counterparts across the combined eleven sport codes in the three universities. This is evidence that AWI don’t necessarily require ‘special’ facilities to participate in sport but rather highlights the importance of scheduling and programming at sport facilities to allow access to AWI when needed (Balyi et al., 2005).

However, a key challenge highlighted by management as well as athletes is the problem of physical barriers which make sports facilities user ‘un-friendly’ to AWI. Challenges relating to physical inaccessibility of sports facilities for PWI have been documented by, among others, Brittain (2010), Pierce (1998) as well as French and Hainsworth (2001). Accessible sports facilities are key in facilitating sport participation for AWI (Balyi et al., 2005). Inaccessible sports facilities can make PWI feel awkward, unwanted and unwelcome (Brittain, 2010) and if there are no alternatives, this may discourage PWI from participating in sport.

This challenge of physical barriers was reported not only in relation to sports facilities but also with regards to general infrastructure in sample universities. This resonates with Obiozor, Onu and Ugwoegbu’s (2010) view that tertiary institutions in South Africa were initially not designed and built to accommodate students with impairments. Consequently, students with impairments and S-AWI by implication face challenges when accessing university infrastructure. While universities are taking measures to remove physical barriers in their infrastructure to accommodate

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students and staff with impairments, progress is slow due to the high cost of implementing some of these changes.

With regards to sports equipment, although all sports require the use of some form of equipment, for many AWI specialized equipment makes sport participation possible (Balyi et al., 2005). At the high-performance level, there is need for customised equipment which enables the athlete to take advantage of their full athletic potential at the same time minimizing the barriers to sport participation that are associated with their impairment (Balyi et al., 2005). Further, cutting-edge equipment gives the athlete an advantage in international competition (Balyi et al., 2005).

Much as this is the case however, issues relating to sports equipment design have historically raised questions relating to unfairness within sport Dyer, Noroozi, Redwood and Sewell (2010) in general. In sport for PWI, technological advancements have evolved from enabling sport participation to being viewed, in some instances as too much advantage (Wilson & Clayton, 2010). The margin at which technology moves beyond being essential for sport participation and performance to when it creates an unfair advantage is however vague (Burkett, McNamee & Potthast, 2011) and a matter of heated public debate.

All the same the IPSD (2016a) notes that the gap between developing and developed countries on participation and performance levels continues to increase as a result of the high cost of available cutting edge equipment. Going forward, it is therefore critical to ensure that technological advancements in equipment are monitored to preserve the integrity of sports contests (Burkett et al., 2011). This is in terms of ensuring that both design and cost of equipment does not become a source of unfair advantage to some athletes which raises the need for both affordable and easily accessible and suitable equipment to meet the needs of all athletes. Innovative approaches in the design and development of equipment are important to help make sport for AWI more affordable which is key in supporting and promoting

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performance for athletes in the Train to win (high performance) phase (Balyi et al., 2005). Given the limited financial capacity facing universities in this study, there is need for multiple stakeholder collaboration in finding innovative approaches in the design and development of equipment to help make sport for AWI more affordable (Balyi et al., 2005) is crucial.

With regards to the human resource component, findings from this study indicate that all three universities sports structures are understaffed mostly because of limited financial capacity. Findings from this study show on the one hand, the clustering of up to six on-priority sport codes under one manager. The result of which is that mangers are overwhelmed and cannot adequately service these sport codes and their athletes. On the other hand, the priority sport codes are each afforded a manager solely responsible for that sports code in all three universities. While student volunteers can play a key role in addressing the understaffing challenges in these universities, theirs is a complementary role. Although volunteers may possess the required enthusiasm they may lack have full-time or professional input (Thomas & Smith, 2009).

With regards to coaching, management in all three universities reported having sufficient number of quality coaches for their high performance AWI which is was also confirmed by all athletes (n=9). Where universities do not have the required coach, they have established close ties with external sports clubs and federations who provide coaches where possible. A significant finding from this study is that coaches for elite AWI in the three universities are predominantly qualified as able- bodied sport coaches but can coach AWI due to the similarities in sports and experience gained over time. These coaches also attend platforms such as workshops where knowledge on sport for AWI is shared and learnt ‘on the job’ through interacting with athletes (experienced-based learning).

On the one hand, this finding is a reflection on the shortage of coaches trained specifically to work with elite Paralympic athletes in South Africa which has been

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highlighted elsewhere with regards to sport for AWI in general (see DePauw & Gavron; 2005; Liow & Hopkins 1996, Sherrill & Williams 1996, Robins et al., 2010). The same is noted by Cregan et al. (2007) who found that even at higher level of competition such as the Paralympic Games, many coaches are not trained in specific aspects that relate to sport for AWI.

On the other hand, however, this supports Coaching Association of Canada’s (CAC) (2011) assertion that there is no fundamental difference between coaching AWI and able-bodied athletes. This is because coaching requires basic fundamental skills as well as foundation skills regardless of whether you are coaching able-bodied or AWI (Cregan et al., 2007). This is a sentiment shared by Higgs in CAC (2011:4) as reflected in the following narrative:

Even with much similarity however, the shortage of research on coaching AWI in the various sport codes was highlighted by some in management as a major concern. This is so because coaching AWI may require additional and specific skills and knowledge among them, understanding the nature of the athlete’s impairment as well as awareness of and ability to recognise biomechanical adaptations (Quade, 1999).

Currently, there is only a handful of studies on coaching athletes with physical impairments done by Cregan, et al. (2007); Hanrahan (2007); Goodwin, Johnstone, Gustafson, Elliot, Thurmeier and Kuttai (2009); Banack, Sabiston & Bloom (2011) and even fewer on coaches for elite AWI (Rangeon, et al., 2009). This challenge is historical (McMaster, Culver & Werthner, 2012) where research on coaching AWI has not gone much further than descriptive data showing whether athletes had coaches or not (Martin & Whalen, 2010). The lack of coaching materials on coaching AWI has been an ongoing concern for the last 25 years (DePauw, 1986; McMaster et al., 2012).

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With regards to coach education, much of the content on coaching AWI is reportedly available as minor segments in mainstream coaching courses for able-bodied sport codes. It is not uncommon therefore that coaches of able-bodied athletes are coaching AWI. This in itself is not a challenge except that coaches resort more to informal learning opportunities as well as experience on the job to enhance their knowledge and experience due to the lack of formal platforms (Cregan et al., 2007). None the less, studies by McMaster et al. (2012) as well as Davey (2014) demonstrate that coaches viewed these informal experiences as vital components of coaching education.

To address this challenge, Thomas and Smith (2009) highlight the need for more content that is disability specific able-bodied sport coach education. Given the lack of understanding regarding the training needs of AWI in South Africa SASCOC (2012a), the need to develop coaching materials that address a variety of sport contexts as well as activity streams for AWI (Balyi et al., 2005) is therefore crucial in addressing this challenge. These are sentiments shared by Sawicki (2008). Much of this knowledge should come from research on coaching athletes with impairments which currently is limited as highlighted earlier.

Overall resources are key in the universities efforts to support high performance sport participation for AWI. Adequate funding in particular facilitates access to other resources such as accessible facilities, coaching, equipment as well as sports science and medicine enabling the athlete to focus on training and competition (Higgs et al., 2006). The challenges facing universities with regards to resources in relation to high performance sport for AWI cannot be looked at in isolation without considering that PWI in the country have largely been excluded from mainstream society and barred from accessing basic economic, political as well as social rights (Masambo, 2013 as cited in SASAPD, 2016). In a sport context, this partly explains the various challenges such as inaccessibility of sport facilities, shortage of equipment and other resources as well as the lack of sufficient competition locally, particularly in the rural arears (DISSA, 2003 as cited in SASAPD, 2016).

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5.3 Opportunities for Competition

This theme explores the sufficiency of competitive opportunities for high performance AWI at local, national as well as international levels using data collected from interviews with club management as well as from athletes through questionnaires. Further, the challenges raised by both club management and athletes in this regard will be discussed and some of the initiatives taken by universities to counter these challenges are shared as good practices.

5.3.1 Sufficiency of competitive opportunities Concerns were raised by both club management and athletes regarding the uneven spread of competitive opportunities across local, national as well as international levels. This imbalance is explored further under the respective headings below. Overall however, regarding the quantity of competitive opportunities in a calendar year, 60% of the athletes spread across swimming (one), wheelchair basketball (two), archery (one) and wheelchair tennis (one) were all of the view they are competing in enough competitions in a calendar year.

5.3.1.1 International On the one hand, club management expressed content with the quantity of competitive opportunities available to their elite AWI in wheelchair tennis (UJ), swimming (SU), athletics (SU), cycling and para cycling (SU) as well as adaptive rowing (UJ).

“We do send our top athletes to various international competitions with the support of SASCOC and the federations where they represent the country even though it’s not the university that necessarily pays for these trips. For example, wheelchair tennis players travel a lot and are club members with us.” (Key decision maker, University A) “In terms of my high-performance guys competing overseas and internationally, there is enough competition there. Some of my para guys have just come back from Europe where they competed in Italy and Berlin. And then my athletes and swimmers also compete in international competitions regularly.” (Key decision maker, University B)

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On the other hand, all three adaptive rowers and one wheelchair tennis player were of the opinion that they are not competing in sufficient international competitive events in a year and insufficient funding was highlighted as the main challenge hindering the athletes’ participation.

“We could compete in more international races but it is difficult because there is not enough money.” (Rower, University A) “Internationally we don’t compete enough against country opposition in a year either, for the most part, this is due to a lack of funding/sponsors.” (Rower, University B) “I have no sponsorship to travel outside the country so it’s a challenge.” (Wheelchair tennis player, University A)

Further, concerns were also raised by club management at both University A and B regarding the limited number of internationally accredited competitive events held in Africa and South Africa. Thus, local athletes have to travel overseas almost every time they need to participate in internationally accredited sports events. The high cost of travelling to these events coupled with the challenge of limited financial resources facing universities, federations and SASCOC means that only a limited number of athletes can get the opportunity to participate overseas.

“There are not many international events held locally, we always have to travel outside and the cost is high and thus only a few can go.” (Key decision maker, University B)

Wheelchair tennis was singled out as the only sport code with a fair amount of international competitive events hosted in South Africa.

“Wheelchair Tennis South Africa is the probably the only federation that hosts about six international tournaments locally and you can see the difference that it makes in terms of the athlete’s world ranking for most players that otherwise wouldn’t have the opportunity to travel outside the country to participate in international events.” (Key decision maker, University A)

As a result, South Africa has at least 70 players on the world ranking, surpassed only by Japan (WTSA, 2016). The solution would therefore be for South Africa and other

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African countries to host more international events as highlighted by a key decision maker at University B.

“Bringing one or two of these events here will give exposure to many local athletes.” (Key decision maker, Maties ParaSport)

This would reduce the high travelling costs for local athletes, a major barrier for most nation states as highlighted by Coakley (2013) and thus enable many more local AWI to take participate in international events. Through such events, more local athletes have the opportunity to qualify for bigger international events or earn crucial points that contribute to their world ranking.

5.3.1.2 National The challenge of limited competitive opportunities at national level was also highlighted by management at both University A and B with the regards to all the sport codes they offer to AWI at high performance level.

“Within the national structure for South Africa, unfortunately there are not enough continuous opportunities at all levels.” (Key decision maker, University B)

This was also confirmed by two of the adaptive rowers who reported that the challenge of limited number of participants or competitors within specific classification groups as the main challenge in organizing competitive opportunities at national level

“There is no local competition that can be put up against us and also there are not enough local regattas for us to be entered in against stiff competition in a year.” (Rower, University A) “There are not enough athletes in my class here. I therefore need to compete in more international competitions.” (Rower, University A)

In between international competitions, these athletes do not compete in any events at local or national levels which limits their time spent to prepare for optimal competitive readiness.

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The Nedbank National Championships for the Physically Disabled, an annual multi- sport code event was highlighted as the only opportunity available at national level across sample sports. Even with this event, only two of the 11 high performance sport codes (athletics and swimming) offered at sample universities form part of the games as they are not solely organized for universities. In efforts to provide more competitive opportunities for high performance AWI at the national level, University B have however taken the initiative to engage ‘sister’ federations for able-bodied sports to allow the club’s high performance AWI to compete in their national events where possible.

“…this year ASA (Athletics South Africa) gave us a slot at the able- bodied SA Champs at Stellenbosch and also in Potchefstroom there was an opportunity and two other opportunities, one in Cape Town and another in Germiston. Currently our para-cycling guys are under Cycling South Africa so they compete at their national championships where there is a slot for them. Our swimmers, we are currently moving slowly but surely in the direction of competing under Swimming South Africa. A few of our swimmers compete at the national champs for able-bodied swimmers.” (Key decision maker, University B)

Similar success was also reported by management at University C with regards to archery, swimming and athletics as well as at University A with swimming, adaptive rowing and triathlon.

5.3.1.3 Local The challenge of limited number of participants/competitors within specific classification groups already pointed out by one athlete in section 5.3.1.2 above is also experienced at local level (intra-varsity and intervarsity). In order to organise suitable competitive events, a minimum number of participating individual or teams is required. For team sports, the minimum number of teams can be as little as two while a larger number of participants is required for individual sport codes. In sport for AWI, particularly in individual sport codes, meaningful competition is only possible not only where there are enough participants in the specific sport code but where these participants fall within a similar classification group. This is where universities reported facing their biggest challenge in trying to organise intra-varsity competition for high performance AWI.

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“The pool of high performance athletes in South Africa is too small to organize events. We might have or two athletes in a category and is not worth doing currently.” (Key decision maker, University B)

Data collected from club management in the three universities with high performance AWI also highlights the above challenge as discussed below. Of the three universities participating the UJ had the most number of high performance AWI (18) which is inclusive of both male and female athletes spread across seven sport codes. Where these athletes participate in similar sport codes, they may not necessarily compete in similar events (athletics has both track and or field events) or compete in the same classification group. Universities therefore reported no intra- varsity competitive opportunities for high performance AWI across all sport codes although some AWI participate in internal able-bodied sports events where possible (swimming and athletics at SU and UP). In this case AWI either compete against their able-bodied counterparts or other AWI who may or may not be in the same classification group. This integration provides elite AWI the opportunity to compete, albeit not the idea situation.

Generally, intervarsity competition is only feasible between two or more universities in close proximity so as to keep travelling and other costs to a minimum. However, South African universities however face additional challenges when it comes to organising intervarsity competition for high performance AWI. Only a handful of universities offer high performance sport participation for AWI and those that do, they do not necessarily offer similar sport codes. For example, at the time of this research, In Gauteng Province the only two universities with high performance AWI within proximity enough to be able to organise intervarsity competitive opportunities for high performance AWI were the UJ and UP (similar opportunities exist between the two universities in able-bodied sport codes). However, swimming and athletics are the only sport codes offered by both universities and although the possibility of organising inter varsity competition between these two institutions could still be explored this would only be possible if there are enough athletes participating in similar classification groups in both sport codes, a challenge already highlighted in this paper.

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“In and between universities it’s very difficult because, for example, you have one wheelchair tennis player here and there is no one at Tuks so in the university set up it is very difficult. These athletes do not participate in leagues, USSA and or Varsity Sport.” (Key decision maker, University A)

Despite the above challenges, some universities are forging alliances with external sports clubs to enable their athletes to participate and compete in community sport club events giving these athletes more competitive opportunities than would otherwise be possible.

“Our club pays the affiliation and club member fees for student-athletes who participate at outside clubs and provides transport to training and competitions.” (Key decision maker: University A) “We decided if we don’t have competitions say from our national bodies we create our own competition. For hand cycling and cycling we have got a Western Province cycling league that takes place every month. We have a place where we start and there is three routes, a 10, 16 and 34km route with marshals where the guys can compete. That helps with the level of competition that’s why Western Province is strong in cycling as well.” (Key decision maker: University B)

Regardless of the efforts made by universities to ensure that elite AWI compete in more local, national and international competitions, there was also an outcry that the lack of continuity resulting from the uneven distribution of events at local, national and international levels makes it a challenge to meet the long-term needs of individual athletes.

5.3.2 Theme summary Findings from this study show that although overall, there are relatively more opportunities for elite AWI in the three universities to participate in international competitions than there are nationally as well as locally across all but one sport code (wheelchair tennis). This is because there are more athletes and or teams in the various classification categories in the international events which is the main challenge with regards to national and local events. Travel costs to international events are a major barrier, resulting in only a few athletes being able to compete

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internationally (Coakley, 2013) with funding mainly from SASCOC as well as national federations.

The positive impact of hosting internationally accredited events in South Africa is evident in wheelchair tennis where the six international events hosted locally have enabled at least 70 local players to participate in international events where they earn crucial points which contribute to their world ranking. As a result, South Africa has the second highest number of players ranked internationally after Japan (WTSA, 2016). The shortage of competitive opportunities at national and local levels is attributed mainly to the scarcity of AWI at high performance level in South Africa in general and in universities in particular which makes it impossible to organise meaningful competitive events. Similar challenges were also reported in the United States of America where (Fay, 1999) highlights that as a result, few opportunities exist for AWI to participate in scholastic, college or professional sport.

However, universities are coming up with innovative ways to ensure that their athletes do take part in some form of competition through integrating AWI in able- bodied events where possible. This is one of the two models of integrating AWI into able-bodied sports events (Sørensen & Kahrs, 2006), the other being holding events for AWI in conjunction with event for able-bodied athletes. Although less than the ideal, such creativity ensures that AWI have numerous opportunities to compete which is crucial with regards to the athlete’s progress on the LTPD pathway (Balyi et al., 2005).

5.4 Stakeholder collaboration

In the context of challenges already highlighted so far, the importance of stakeholders pooling together in supporting high performance sport participation for AWI cannot be over emphasized. Collaboration renders optimal results for all stakeholders (Burnett, 2010a) which ultimately benefits the athlete. This theme explores the extent to which university sports structures are working together with the various internal and external stakeholders in providing for high performance AWI.

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5.4.1 Internal stakeholders University academic departments and other support services emerged as the two key stakeholders within this category.

5.4.1.1 Academic departments The scope for collaboration between university sports structures and academic departments in supporting high performance sport participation for AWI is fairly wide and includes but is not limited to knowledge sharing through research, inclusion of content on sport for AWI in university academic curricula as well as voluntary and internship opportunities for students (and staff in the former). However, the only area of cooperation highlighted by club management across all three universities is volunteer opportunities (discussed in 5.2.4.1) for students studying sports and non- sports related qualifications in various capacities such as in general club administration and or in sports events organised or hosted by clubs for AWI.

5.4.1.2 Support services All the sample universities have disability support units/offices dedicated to providing additional support to students with impairments across all spheres of student life. These units keep a comprehensive database of the various students and staff with impairments in the university. As a result, they serve as ‘one stop’ resource centres providing support to students and staff with impairments as well as other university departments who may require assistance on issues relating to impairments and disability matters or a specific student. These units were reported to be a pivotal resource for club management when it comes to reaching out to new students with impairments in the university with information regarding available opportunities for sport participation at both Wits University as well as at UJ.

Further collaboration was also reported between Club SSD and OPwD at the UJ in sourcing funding (bursaries) for AWI in general as well as high performance AWI in particular. Both offices cooperate to provide student-athletes with information on bursaries offered for students with impairments to cover non-sport related costs such

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as accommodation, tuition, acquisition of assistive devices as well as providing supporting documentation to students applying for bursaries where such assistance is required. Collaboration was also reported in lobbying for improved accessibility to university buildings and services as well as increasing campus awareness on disability related matters.

5.4.2 External stakeholders Several stakeholders are covered under this sub-theme and theses are government departments and agencies, national and provincial federations, provincial academies of sport, universities, schools as well as community sports clubs.

5.4.2.1 Government and governmental agencies The most frequently reported partnerships between universities and government or government agencies are in the area of funding (see 5.2.2 above). Various government departments and agencies offer academic and sport bursaries as well as grants to host events and purchase equipment. UJ’s Club SSD reported successfully hosting workshops and an international conference on sport for AWI supported by the Gauteng Department of Sport, Arts, Culture and Recreation while SU’s Maties ParaSport reported receiving financial support from the local municipality as well as the City of Cape Town for specific projects. All three universities also reported receiving funding from the National Lotteries Commission in the past towards the refurbishment of sports facilities to make them more accessible to PWDs as well as to purchase sports equipment (see 5.2.1. for further discussion on funding).

5.4.2.2 South African Sports Confederation and Olympic Committee All three universities reported past or existing indirect partnerships with SASCOC through national federations in supporting high performance sport participations for AWI under the OPEX programme as highlighted in 5.4.2.2. These universities operate as centres of excellence that provide various support such as access to university sports facilities for training as well as sports science and medicine to elite

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AWI under the OPEX programme in swimming (SU and UP), adaptive rowing and wheelchair tennis (UJ) as well as athletics (all three universities). In addition, SU reportedly hosts SASCOC funded training camps for South African athletics and para-cycling teams preparing for various international competitions.

5.4.2.3 Provincial academies Provincial academies form part of the academy system which refers to a range of South African institutions that that form part of a national approach which aims to develop sport talent at different levels (SASCOC, 2012a). The overall goal of the academy system is to nurture talented athletes by providing sport science and medical services as well as training opportunities to athletes, coaches, technical staff and administrators as part of a coordinated national plan (SASCOC, 2012a).

Provincial Academies of Sport (PAS) form part of the Provincial Sports Confederations which in turn fall under the ambit of the General Manager: High Performance at SASCOC and have a specific mandate to, among other things:

 Facilitate and coordinate the preparation of provincial athletes and officials for competitive events.  Facilitate and coordinate scientific and medical services.  Act as a major feeder to the National Training Centre and OPEX programme (SASCOC, 2012a).

PASs are mandated to work in partnerships with key stakeholders such as national and provincial federations, district academies, provincial departments of sport as well as Sports Performance Institutes/tertiary institutions. None of the sample universities reported any collaboration with PAS regarding high performance sport for AWI.

5.4.2.4 Federations Research results show varying degrees of collaboration between specific universities and federations in supporting high performance sport participation for AWI in the

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areas of funding, training and competition as well as expert support services. This collaboration is between two types of federations, that is, federations governing sport for AWI as well as federations governing related sport codes for able-bodied athletes. In some instances, the same federation governs both the able-bodied and sport codes for AWI (Rowing South Africa) while in other instances, the federation governing a specific sport for AWI is affiliated to the federation governing the able- bodied sport code (South Africa Wheelchair Rugby or SAWR, which in turn is affiliated to the South Africa Rugby Union (SARU) whereas Wheelchair Tennis South Africa is affiliated to Tennis South Africa).

In terms of funding collaboration with federations was reported on two levels. The first level involves federations out rightly funding universities towards high performance sport participation for AWI through paying the university for services rendered to athletes as well as for the use of university sports facilities. Maties ParaSport Club reported receiving funding from the provincial arm of SASAPD for high performance sport participation for AWI as well funding for wheelchair rugby from SARU.

The second level is a cost sharing arrangement where both the university and federation contribute financially (in varying proportions) towards specific costs such as training and competition costs. Club SSD houses the high-performance teams for Wheelchair Tennis South Africa and Rowing South Africa and provides access at reduced pricing to sports facilities such as tennis courts and gymnasium as well as support services in sports science and medicine to high performance teams from the two federations. In turn, sport federations provide coaching to Club SSD members at minimum cost to the club and fund some elite athletes’ costs to compete in international events as well as purchasing sports equipment.

With regards to training and sports facilities high performance athletes need quality coaches and access to quality sport facilities for training, among other things. Federations employ some of the best coaches in the country while universities in

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South Africa have some of the best quality sports facilities which they provide access to students as well as external individual athletes and teams for training and competition. Club management reported strong working relationships between Club SSD and the two federations of Wheelchair Tennis South Africa and Rowing South Africa. These federations provide coaching to the club’s AWI at minimum cost while Club SSD facilitates access to tennis courts to Wheelchair Tennis South Africa’s high performance team as well as the use of the university’s gymnasium to the adaptive rowing high performance team.

Collaboration in the area of competition goes beyond specific federations for AWI funding elite AWI to compete in international competitions as discussed in 5.2.2. Partnerships also exist where universities high performance AWI compete in events organised by federations governing related able-bodied sports. Maties ParaSport reported partnerships with Athletics South Africa, Cycling South Africa as well as Swimming South Africa who offer slots for high performance AWI from the university to participate in their national championships. Similarly, Tuks Sport and Club SSD elite swimmers compete in some events organised by Swimming South Africa. Elite archers at Tuks Sport also compete in various events organised by the South African National Archery Association (SANAA). Such collaboration enables high performance AWI to participate in more competitions within South Africa beyond those offered specifically for AWI.

“…this year, ASA (Athletics South Africa) gave us a slot at the able- bodied SA champs at Stellenbosch and also in Potchefstroom there was an opportunity and two other opportunities one in Cape Town and another in Germiston.” (Key decision maker: University B) “Currently our para-cycling guys are under Cycling South Africa so they compete at their national championships where there is a slot for them. So they really operate under them and I think that’s why they can compete overseas quite a few times. Our swimmers, we are currently moving slowly but surely in the direction of competing under Swimming South Africa. A few of our swimmers compete at the national champs for able-bodied swimmers. I am not sure of wheelchair basketball but I think table tennis is moving in that direction.” (Key decision maker: University B)

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The UJ further reported successfully hosting various events organised by federations for AWI. In 2015, the University of Johannesburg Athletics Stadium hosted athletics events during the Nedbank National Championships for Physically Disabled.

Only the UJ reported providing expert support services (a dedicated fitness trainer) specifically to the adaptive rowing high performance team.

5.4.2.5 Inter-varsity collaboration None of the universities reported any collaboration with other universities with regards to high performance sport participation for AWI with one exception. This was when coaches from Maties Sport formed part of the presenting team at the international conference on sport for AWI hosted by UJ Sport in 2013.

5.4.2.6 Schools and community Management in all three universities reported linking with schools in relation to athlete identification and recruitment. Reported partnerships involve targeting various learners with impairments in both mainstream and schools for PWDs within the provinces and beyond. Tuks Sport has an established sports school (Tuks High School) where identified learners including those with impairments are groomed for future high performance sport participation.

Further, Club SSD reported working with sports clubs in the surrounding community in sport codes where the university does not have the required sports facility (partnership with the Mandeville Dolphins Swimming club) as well as where the university has insufficient numbers to make a team (wheelchair basketball). Athletes are also encouraged to join community clubs and the university provides transport to training and competitions where possible. University B organises competitions between its club athletes and teams with community clubs and works with community volunteers in sports events.

“In terms of South Africa or local, like for goal ball, we usually create our own local competitions for clubs in Western Province and Boland 156

and we have got a league of seven games where we go and play at different clubs. The hand cycling and cycling we have got a Western Province cycling league that takes place every month.” (Key decision maker: University B)

These partnerships between universities and external stakeholders such as schools and community sports clubs have mutual benefits for both parties particularly with regarding to increasing the pool of AWI or clubs available to organise competitive opportunities.

5.4.3 Theme summary Results from this study reflect a mixed profile when it comes to collaboration between universities and other key stakeholders in the South African sport industry with regards to supporting elite AWI. While there are some solid partnerships which have, and continue to yield significant positive outcomes, there are also noteworthy gaps resulting from poorly structured partnerships which yield less than optimum reciprocal benefits for all parties concerned.

Internally, there appears to be solid partnerships between sports entities and disability support units/offices in some universities with regards to athlete recruitment, assisting students with applications for bursaries and grants as well as advocacy on disability related issues on campus. This supports the overall philosophy behind the establishment of these disability support units which is to facilitate the equal participation of people with impairments in all facets of university life as well as eradicate unlawful discrimination and harassment towards PWI (Department of Education (DoE), 2005).

Whereas Maties ParaSport and Tuks Sport reported relatively more success in recruitment of student volunteers from the academic departments than Club SSD at UJ, a more structured partnership between the two entities in all three universities could possibly yield more success in this regard. The lack of reported partnerships in terms of research in sport for AWI in particular does reflect to some extent the

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challenge of limited academic interest in sport for AWI in general as well as Paralympic Sport in particular as highlighted by Brittain (2010) as well as Smith (2014).

Externally, findings from this study show good partnerships between universities with various government departments and agencies such as the NLC in the areas of funding for equipment as well as construction, maintenance and adaptation of existing sports facilities for improved accessibility for AWI. Results also show that some universities heed the call by SRSA for the establishment of strategic partnerships with tertiary institutions to effectively support elite athletes and contribute in turning potential into excellence (SRSA, 2012b). This is evident through significant partnerships between universities, SASCOC and national federations, particularly the tapping of physical resources, coaching, scientific support and expertise as well as managerial assistance from different universities to support specific elite athletes and high performance sport in general. Similar findings were also reported by Burnett (2010b). In contrast however, provincial sports academies that were reported as significantly key partners to universities in relation to high performance sport in the same research (Burnett, 2010b) were not mentioned in relation to elite sport for AWI by management in this study.

Another significant finding in this study is with regards to the lack of collaboration between sample universities with regards to supporting elite AWI. This seems to reflect the ‘silo’ mentality of different sports entities within universities as reported by (Burnett, 2010a), but in reference to inter-university collaboration in this context. Given the high cost of providing for high performance sport for all athletes in general as well as AWI in particular, coupled with limited resource capacity facing universities, strategic partnerships have potential cost-sharing and cost-saving benefits to universities. This renders optimal results beyond what universities can achieve individually which ultimately benefits the athlete. When viewed as a cluster, perhaps the University Sport South Africa (USSA) which is officially recognised as the national umbrella sports body for the organization, regulation and coordination of student sport at regional, provincial as well as national levels in HEI in South Africa

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(USSA, 2016a) could do more to ensure coordination of sport for students with impairments in the tertiary sector as they do with able-bodied sport.

Although universities are strategically positioned to become key stakeholders on the LTPD pathway because they have direct access to elite athletes who are enrolled to study in their institutions, supporting elite AWI also necessitates collective effort from other stakeholders beyond universities to ensure optimal delivery. The primary responsibility for high performance sport for AWI remains the burden of SASCOC and national federations at national and international levels. While some universities such as UJ, SU and UP have and continue to play key roles towards the success enjoyed by South African Paralympic athletes nationally and internationally, education and not sport remains their primary responsibility. Universities should therefore be seen as key stakeholders among others who contribute to a value chain for the delivery of structured programmes and athlete development in the South Africa sports landscape (Burnett, 2010b).

Overall, results also show the centrality of some stakeholders as well as the periphery of others in relation to stakeholder arrangements for resource provision to elite AWI in sample universities. From an LTPD point of view, it appears as if there is a degree of lack of cohesion between universities, between universities and other key as well as between key stakeholders themselves. This is in relation to the management and delivery of high performance sport for AWI in the country at national, provincial and local levels. This is also a key challenge identified in the South African sports system in general (SASCOC, 2012a).

5.5 Challenges

This sub-theme explores the challenges faced by universities in providing high performance sport participation for AWI besides those already discussed in this paper. Key success factors will be highlighted as good practices. Further, the challenges faced by student AWI participating in elite sport are also discussed, in particular the balance between academic, sport and social life.

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5.5.1 Challenges facing universities From a university point of view, this paper has already highlighted several systemic and sport related challenges faced by universities in providing high performance sport participation opportunities to AWI which include:

 A limited pool of elite AWI in South African universities which negatively impacts on the feasibility of organising meaningful competitive opportunities mainly due to limited number of participants or competitors within specific classification groups.  Limited sport participation opportunities for elite AWI in South African universities due to fewer universities offering elite sport for students with disabilities.  Insufficient opportunities for competition at local and national level which impacts negatively on athlete preparation.  Resource challenges specifically limited funding to purchase appropriate equipment and adapt sports facilities for increased access by AWI, human resource challenges related to understaffing in university sports structures as well as shortage of quality coaches in sport for AWI, particularly at high performance level.

In addition to the above, further challenges were reported by management in some universities as discussed under related themes below.

5.5.1.1 Impact of limited resources The first challenge highlighted by management representatives relates to the challenge of scarce resources which leads to choices that sometimes have unintended negative consequences. As highlighted in section 5.2.1.1, the priority status of a sport code or club has financial and other resource support implications for both able-bodied and sport for AWI. High priority sport codes which are the high- performance codes receive enhanced resource support from the university sport structure when compared to recreational and competitive sport codes. This is a norm

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in all sample universities as management endeavour to better use scarce resources to provide enhanced integrated support. This however has unintended unfavourable impact on non-priority sport codes as highlighted by a key decision maker at University A.

“Because Club SSD has not been officially recognized as one of the high-performance sports clubs here in UJ Sport since 2013, we only receive minimum financial support which is not enough to support all our club athletes, let alone those at the high-performance level. This frustrates our efforts to support our athletes who continuously excel at provincial, national and international levels.” (Key decision maker, University A)

This downgrade negatively impacted on the club’s ability to recruit new athletes going forward. In addition, the club’s existing elite athletes would no longer receive scientific and medical support from the institution’s High Performance Unit meaning club management would have to fund the needs of their current elite athletes from the downsized budget in addition to those of non-elite club members. However, the executive management at University A clarified this decision by emphasising the need for the university to strategically focus on a few sport codes at the high- performance level in the context of limited financial and other resources.

“I think as an individual institution we need to sit down and say what we want to do because we can’t do everything. Yes, we must provide sports that accommodate everyone but we need to make a deliberate decision to say these are the codes that we are going to focus on.” (Key decision maker, University A)

Top management further highlighted the strategic need for the university to periodically review its position to ensure the institution remains relevant in changing contexts as well as ensure sustainability of the institution.

“… In choosing the codes that we want to focus on, they must speak to, one the vision and mission of the institution and also the strategic direction of the institution. So the challenges we face are keeping up with the trends where we have to constantly trying to find something that will differentiate us from the other universities and continuously being able to sustain ourselves because we can’t be everything to everyone.” (Key decision maker, University A)

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What is evident from the results is that universities’ limited financial capacity is a key obstacle in their efforts to provide sports that accommodate a large portion of their student population. Thus, universities have to make strategic choices regarding allocation of their limited resources to the various recreational, competitive as well as high performance sport codes they offer. Typical priority sport codes in all three universities include rugby, athletics, netball, cricket and swimming which are mainstream sports in South Africa. Although strategically selecting a few priority codes enables the university to offer better quality and integrated support towards the chosen sport codes, it disadvantages athletes in non-priority sport codes who have ambitions to participate for the university at an elite level. This is because non- priority sport codes receive significantly limited resource support from the university when compared to priority sport codes.

Key factors considered in choosing priority sport codes appear to include, among other elements, the overall philosophy of the university as captured in the vision and mission of institution, sustainability as well as the desire to differentiate the institution from others. Previous success associated with a specific athletes or teams in selected sport code also appears to be a key factor in consideration at Maties Sport where Maties ParaSport club was reportedly being considered for upgrade into a priority level club due to success of its athletes in recent years. At Tuks Sport, due to their integrated sports structure, elite AWI falling under the mainstream priority sport codes in the institution also enjoy priority status.

5.5.1.2 Models and implementation Management at University C highlighted challenges related to their integrated delivery model.

“…so as much as I say that we want to integrate, that does come with challenges in certain points for example, our programme for a particular group, for example, in swimming can be easily used by some AWI with little modifications where necessary but for another athlete, this may not be feasible in terms of integrating them in our system. Obviously, this challenge varies with individuals with different disabilities and across codes.” (Key decision maker, University C)

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From the above narrative, it is apparent that the ease with which a specific elite AWI can fit into the existing high performance programme for able-bodied athletes varies greatly depending on the impairment of the individual athlete, their capacity to adapt as well as the sport. Where the existing high performance programme is not flexible, there is limited adaptation opportunities and thus only the few athletes who require minimal or no adaptation can be accommodated.

This may result in what Sørensen and Kahrs (2006) refer to as assimilation as opposed to integration. Assimilation occurs when only individuals with impairments that require little assistance or no extra resources end up being the only ones who benefit from an integrated sports structure. Assimilation can occur unintentionally or could also be deliberate when institutions want to be seen to be operating integrated sports structures for both able-bodied and sport for AWI but with little intention to change current practices or status quo. This is because it is convenient as only AWI who can adjust to existing practices and values are included into able-bodied sport structures (Sørensen & Kahrs, 2006). Either way, the unintended consequence of assimilation is that individual athletes with more need for support and resources end up with limited opportunities to participate in elite sport in such structures (Sørensen & Kahrs, 2006). However, there are also benefits to AWI where adequate integration is achieved as discussed in 5.6.5.

5.5.1.3 Societal attitudes towards people with impairments According to Aiden and McCarthy (2014) attitudes are an intricate collection of feelings beliefs, values as well as dispositions that characterize the manner in which we think or feel about other people or situations. Attitudes stem from people’s life experiences or in some instances from ignorance or misinformed beliefs about a condition or situation. People’s attitudes may lead to the acting out of stigma, prejudice and discrimination. There is a growing body of evidence indicating that people with impairments are much more likely to experience the attitudes of others as a key barrier to access public services, transport, leisure, education, accessibility as well as social contact than people without impairments (Aiden & McCarthy, 2014).

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Concern was raised by management at University A regarding the negative attitudes of society on disability issues and PWI in particular.

“Societal attitude towards people with disabilities in general influences how society views AWI. Disability is more visible than the athlete and often opportunities are not provided from the onset so you always have to fight to be equals in almost everything.” (Key decision maker: University A)

The above narrative highlights the stigma associated with PWI as well the inequality inherent in able-bodied ideology. Social discrimination becomes a barrier when opportunities are not provided for PWI from the onset or when the necessary provisions are not made to get rid of barriers in the built environment that hinder PWI’s to participation in sport and society at large. In this case, disability reflects a socially constructed problem (WHO, 2002) as propagated by the social model to disability which states that disability is created by “…unaccommodating physical environment brought about by attitudes and other features of the social environment.” IPSD (2009: 10).

Further, the above narrative also reflects to some extent, the invisibility of the athlete behind their impairment. This is a key trait of the medical approach to disability where the focus is on the impairment rather than the ability of the individual (Smeltzer, 2007). This subsequently leads to the attachment of ‘inferior’ and ‘special’ citizen tags on PWI and AWI in this case who ultimately do not receive equal opportunities to enjoy and fully participate in society on an equal footing with their able-bodied counter parts.

To address this and other related challenges, management representatives at University C stressed the need to mainstream sport for AWI at all levels which would enable AWI to be viewed on par with their able-bodied counterparts.

“…disabled athletes don’t see themselves as disabled and so sport bodies, universities, whatever should also not. So the way in which we deal with athletes should be standard whether you are abled or disabled.” (Key decision maker, University C)

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The above narrative reflects Nixon’s (2007) assertion that there is need see AWI as athletes first regardless of their impairment. To be able to achieve this however, this requires us to question the traditional ideas about the sport body (Nixon, 2007) as well as the redefinition of the terms ‘sport’ as well as ‘ability’ (DePauw & Gavron, 2005).

Management at University C pointed out that their integrated sports structure contributes towards ensuring that students with impairments as viewed on par with their able-bodied counterparts through acknowledging the athlete’s success without unnecessary reference to ability or disability.

“At the sports awards ceremony, we don’t have a category for disabled athlete of the year. If the athlete is good they compete. If you go for Paralympics and you compete, we look at the level and if you do well then you should be up for sportsman of the year. So for example, O* competed here and he won awards against able-bodied athletes. We don’t see the need to create a separate category.” (Key decision maker, University C)

The above narrative reflects the desire to acknowledge the athlete first approach before their impairment, a reflection of DePauw’s (1997) (In) Visibility of DisAbility in sport where AWI are simply seen as athletes as opposed to AWI. The emphasis on the athlete’s achievement also shows how the Paralympic Games and Paralympic Sport in general can play a significant role in accelerating the agenda for inclusion and changing attitudes (Gold & Gold, 2007).

5.5.2 Balance between academics, sport and social life for student-athletes Student-athletes are enrolled at the university to study but in addition, they participate in sport. In addition to the normal student demands of attending classes, studying and engaging in social activities, elite student-athletes also have to train and compete, often travelling away during study time (Watt & Moore III, 2001). Consequently, student-athletes face the challenge of balancing their academics and sport performance while succeeding in both (Watt & Moore III, 2001) as well as maintaining a healthy social life.

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5.5.2.1 Key challenges All five student-athletes reported facing several sport specific demands as well as academic related challenges in trying to achieve a balanced academic, sport and social life. Two student-athletes’ pointed out challenges related to sport specialization demands, the first of which relates to the time demands associated with high performance sport participation.

“Sport is extremely time consuming and studies get negatively affected.” (Elite wheelchair basketball player, University A)

Another student highlighted that high-performance sport participation takes a toll on the student-athlete’s body which impacts negatively on the student’s ability to study.

“When I am tired from training it’s difficult to study.” (Elite wheelchair basketball player, University A)

Academic demands were also highlighted as key challenges. Two student-athletes reported having challenges prioritizing academics over sport and social life as well as adhering to set timetables in some instances. However, this is also closely tied to good self-management.

“Prioritizing my studies is sometimes a challenge.” (Elite swimmer, University B) “Sometimes it is difficult to adhere to my schedule.” (Elite wheelchair tennis player, University A)

Where students struggle to balance academic, sport and social life, social life is the first to be sacrificed as pointed out by one athlete.

“I have no social life really. It’s tough because I don’t have much time because I spend much time studying or at training or competition.” (Elite wheelchair tennis player, University A)

Besides these challenges however, four of the five student-athletes reported a relatively well balanced academic, sport and social life overall. Key success factors were identified from this and these are discussed in the next sub section.

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5.5.2.2 Key success factors Key success factors highlighted by student-athletes include, self-management as well as having academic and social support. Good self-management involves, among other things, being able to set one’s priorities and schedules and committing to the set priorities and schedules, key elements highlighted by some of the participants as contributing towards their success in maintaining balanced sport, academic and social life.

“Being able to schedule my tasks.” (Elite wheelchair tennis player, University A) “Time management.” (Elite swimmer, University B) “Having a structured timetable for when I am not training.” (Elite adaptive rower, University A)

One student even opted to study part time so as to cope better with their academic demands.

“I do part time studying and I only take the number of courses I can handle.” (Elite adaptive rower, UJ Sport)

In addition to the above, academic and social support can play a significant role in ensuring student-athletes succeed academically, in sport as well as social life as highlighted by some athletes. Others cited good support they receive from academic advisors, coaches and significant others as contributing towards their success in balancing their sport, academic as well as social life.

“Having an academic advisor that monitors and tracks performance regularly.” (Elite adaptive rower, University A) “My coach also works training around my timetable - which is only once a week that I have class.” (Elite adaptive rower, University A) “Having positive friends and family that understand my rowing commitments and encourage me to do well on the rowing front.” (Elite adaptive rower, University A)

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5.5.3 Theme summary Findings from this study illuminate the dual roles of student and elite athlete are often in conflict as they exert complex demands on the individual which results in some athletes struggling to optimally balance their academic, sport and social life. These demands are both physiological, that is, strain on the athlete’s body which negatively impacts on their ability to study because they are often tired form training as well as challenges related to time management. These findings confirm that in addition to the normal student demands of attending classes, studying and engaging in social activities, student-athletes have additional demands related to their dual roles as elite athletes and student (Watt & Moore III, 2001).

Although several of students reported several challenges such as those above, majority of them reported a relatively well balanced academic, sport and social life. This reflects to some extent that each individual’s experiences as a student-athlete are not necessarily the same possibly due to differences in sex, gender, race and ability as well as the sport they play (Street, 2009 as cited in Watt & Moore III, 2001) among other factors. These factors play a part in the athlete’s ability to cope with the various demands placed upon them. This finding must however be taken in the context that this study was focused on the role of universities in supporting elite AWI and as a result this sub-theme of student-athletes was not intensively covered to be able to make conclusive arguments on the subject. None the less, the findings are worth mentioning.

A couple of key success factors were pointed out by some student-athletes as key in their ability to balance the various demands in their academic, sport and social life. These are good self-management such as being able to set prioritises as well as being able to stick to set schedules and the role of a good support system. The key elements in the athlete’s support system highlighted by some student-athletes include academic support which includes flexibility in the structure of the qualification pursued. This allows student-athletes to study part-time if they so wish as well as being able to get help from academic advisors when needed.

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In addition, the support from coaches and the athlete’s peers and family in relation to sport and academics was also reported as crucial. This reflects on the importance of key stakeholders in the educational, sports as well as personal systems in supporting student-athletes to achieve good education, sports success as well as a successful ‘normal’ life (Doll-Tepper, 2012; Amara et al., 2004).

5.6 Recommendations from universities

Management in sample universities gave several recommendations not only with regards to the role of universities in elite sport for AWI but in relation to other disability related issues in society at large. These recommendations were also grouped under related sub-themes and discussed below.

5.6.1 The role of universities in promoting social justice and equality Management at University B called upon all South Africa universities to offer more meaningful sport participation opportunities for AWI in their respective sport structures as they do for main stream able-bodied sports. This would widen the choice of available universities and hopefully motivate more AWI to pursue their academic and sport careers in South African HEIs. Increased number of AWI participating in university sport across more institutions would enhance the chances of organising intra and intervarsity competitive events for AWI which would generate more awareness and interest in sport for AWI and hopefully attract more athletes in the long term.

“More universities will make inter varsity competition possible whether organized separately or as part of the able-bodied structure. This will motivate athletes out there to pass and come to university and further their academic and sport careers.” (Key decision maker, University B)

Management at University A also called upon those universities currently offering high performance sport participation for AWI to do more in the development of AWI than they are currently are.

“Universities are some of the only institutions in the country that have facilities and support structures for sport development in general. They

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can and should do more for sport for AWI than they are currently.” (Key decision maker, University A)

The above narratives reflect the perception that universities have potential capacity to provide adequate and meaningful sport participation opportunities to AWI. It is perhaps not just recognition by some in management that currently universities are currently not doing enough but also that universities can be at the forefront in advocating for more access to sport for AWI.

For some, more opportunities for AWI should come about through the establishment of or tasking specific universities to solely focus on the development of elite Paralympic Sport.

“I would like to see an institution that specializes in the high performance of Paralympic athletes because currently I don’t know of an institution. I would like to see an institution that makes it its vision to build the facilities where there will be emphasis on Paralympic athletes.” (Key decision maker, University D)

Management at University D went on further to highlight the importance of establishing a specialist university on high performance sport for AWI.

“This will also assist those athletes that want to compete and at the same time further their studies. This is a shortfall currently because if you look at the athletes how many have done well academically? That is a gap we have to close so that we have Paralympic athletes who are excelling in both academics and sport.” (Key decision maker: Sport and Recreation, University D)

While an institution dedicated to the development of elite Paralympic athletes could contribute significantly to the development of elite sport for AWI in the country, to some extent, this narrative reflects a belief in the separate structuring model when it comes to providing for PWI. Implied in the above narrative, perhaps unintentionally, is that elite sport for AWI is significantly different from that of their able-bodied counter parts and therefore requires ‘special’ facilities which warrant a separate and focused offering. This is also a reflection on the visibility of disability (DePauw, 1997) where AWI are not just seen as athletes but athletes with impairments which

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necessitates the establishment of separate structures and sport events. This is in contrast with the results of this study where management reported sharing of facilities between able-bodied and Paralympic Sports across the eleven sample sport codes with the only adaptations mentioned being in relation to the removal of architectural barriers. The above narrative is also in contrast to the views of management at Universities A, B, C and E who would rather see a more integrated offering in relation to able-bodied and sport for AWI.

It has to be questioned however, weather the need to have successful elite S-AWI requires establishing a dedicated institution supporting elite AWI or rather requires strengthening the capacity of existing South African HEIs to offer quality support to elite S-AWI as well as able-bodied athletes both academically as well as in sport.

5.6.2 Community outreach initiatives Universities were also called upon to use sport and other platforms to play a more active role in disability related matters in the community.

“Universities can play an important role in all aspects pertaining to the development of people with disabilities. They also have a role to play in the development of teachers, coaches as well as providing career guidance and support thereby enabling scholars and schools/clubs to focus on working towards excellence instead of conforming to mediocrity.” (Key decision maker, University A)

The key role of universities in the education and training of key support personnel for PWI is emphasized in the above narrative. Further, universities could render support in initiatives to empowering PWI in wider society highlighting the view that universities are centres of excellence that can play a key role in providing leadership in different spheres of human endeavours (Joseph, 2012).

5.6.3 Stakeholder support and collaboration Top management at University A and B emphasised the need for an integrated approach from key stakeholders in supporting elite AWI. Resource sharing was

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particularly highlighted as key in enhancing the quantity and quality of support towards elite AWI.

“Government, SASCOC and federations are key to us providing opportunities for participation at different levels. For AWI to become a priority it has to be managed with an integrated and not stand alone approach and shared- resources is critical.” (Key decision maker, University B) “I think that if we have the support from the city, province and various government departments working together we can achieve more.” (Key decision maker, University A)

Top management at University B further emphasised the need for collaboration between universities and other relevant stakeholders on a long-term strategy for recruitment and retention of AWI which will ensure that the small pool of current high performance AWI in South Africa receive enhanced support at the same time creating additional opportunities for more AWI.

“A clear recruitment and retention strategy is necessary with identified stakeholders to ensure success. Stakeholders should not work with a “half-way” model of support but understand that it takes special and dedicated resources to achieve success at the highest level.” (Key decision maker, University B)

Partnerships were also highlighted as critical with regards to growing high performance sport participation opportunities for AWI in universities.

“…for the prospective new codes to be successfully implemented and maintained, partnerships are critical and to include schools, communities, clubs, government, SASCOC, federations and corporates.” (Key decision maker, University B)

Besides sport-related issues, management of sports clubs for or with AWI in universities were specifically challenged to continuously engage other internal stakeholders on disability related issues so as increase institutional awareness.

“We also have a responsibility to create understanding, knowledge and experience within the various academic departments to assist the disabled community including sport and recreation.” (Key decision maker, University A)

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In essence, management at both University A and B are calling for a holistic approach around disability related matters of which sport is just but one of them. Such an approach stems from synergies at stakeholder level which then allow for optimal resource sharing. The potential outcomes from such an initiative include enhanced provision of sport participation opportunities for AWI, empowerment of PWI in general as well as key personnel around them.

5.6.4 Staff training and development Universities need adequately trained staff in sports for AWI to enable them to offer enhanced support towards high performance sport participation. This includes management and as well as support services staff offering expertise to AWI in the areas of sports science and medicine, among others. Results from this study show a shortage of adequately trained staff in sport for AWI as highlighted by club management in some of the universities. Similar findings appear in Burnett’s (2010a) research which shows that staff in South African universities lack the appropriate expertise to offer adequate sport participation opportunities to AWI.

The current shortage of adequately trained staff in sport for AWI was attributed in part, to the fact that sports related qualifications offered by universities do not have enough sufficient content on sport for AWI to effectively equip students with knowledge to work with AWI.

“It is a concern that physiotherapists qualify to work with able body patients and yet have limited knowledge of the effect of a potential impairment on the body. The same applies to qualified biokineticists and sport scientists.” (Key decision maker, University A)

A call was therefore made for more intra-institutional collaboration between university sports structures with academic departments offering sports related qualifications to facilitate the sharing of knowledge and experience in sport for AWI. This will create the platform for students studying for sports related qualifications to

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be more meaningfully involved in sport for AWI as part of their internship which will equip the students with relevant knowledge and experience in working with AWI.

5.6.5 Mainstreaming sport for AWI Management at Wits Sport, UJ Sport, Maties Sport and Tuks Sport called for mainstreaming of sport for AWI through integrating sports structures for AWI with those of their able-bodied counterparts at club, university as well as federation levels.

“I think that within the able-bodied codes we need to have opportunities for disabled athletes. Now we need to identify the codes in which we can use the same club structure because that would allow the athletes to enjoy the same benefits as the able-bodied athletes because it’s the same sport.” (Key decision maker, University A)

The above narrative reflects an understanding of integration from an angle where able-bodied athletes are in competition together with AWI as opposed to the integration at organizational and management level which is utilization of common economic resources, facilities, contacts as well as events, (Kaipainen, 2013). While the former may be challenging due to differences in sports rules, equipment among other elements, there are more possibilities of success with regards to the latter. It is also perceived, from the above statement, that integration can result in more equitable distribution of resources to able-bodied and AWI in the same sport code. A similar request for integrating sports for AWI with-bodied sports structures was also made by management at University E.

“Sport for students with disabilities as I know it needs to be integrated. So track and field needs to be integrated, wheelchair tennis needs to be integrated with the tennis club but I am quite surprised that there hasn’t been a move from up top whether its government level or varsity sports to bring in a tournament for athletes with disabilities.” (Key decision maker, University E)

From the above narrative, management seem to be suggesting that the move to integrate sport for AWI in able-bodied sport structures should be spearheaded from the top (government level) coming down to structures in the middle to lower end of

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the sports system. Such a move would most likely see a system wide adoption of integration structuring model in the South African sports landscape. However, universities can also take the initiative to integrate thereby acting as models to others should they wish to do, a case in point being the integrated sports structures at University C.

Management at University B believe competing in able-bodied events could result in in improved performances of AWI.

“Obviously if some of our guys can compete more and more in able- bodied competitions where it’s possible it will also help to improve their performances.” (Key decision maker, University B)

Regarding the feasibility of integrating sport events for AWI into able-bodied events, management at University B are of the view that integrating sport for AWI into able- bodied events does not always imply making drastic changes to the status quo nor does it always result in increased costs.

“It’s also just a matter of mind-set, people just need to be told that it is possible. Just because you have a disability doesn’t mean that there is extra barriers or changes or expenses needed sometimes it’s just a matter of providing a slot for them to compete.” (Key decision maker, University B)

Management at University C reported success with regards to their integrated structures.

“With those codes where we attach to a school as I mentioned earlier, we are always looking for athletes and if we identify an athlete, disability or no disability and if we see it feasible to bring them in then we bring them in. So for example in swimming we have a swimming coach also in a wheelchair who is now going to the World Champs for or swimming and is still competing who came through our academy. He was here at our high school, he has Spinal Bifida and came through, competed, always competed even post schools even today but has also decided that he wants to go into coaching and now he is coaching a squad in Centurion which is one of our satellites. For me he is an example, he slotted into the system and within swimming we had E* and others and now we have a young boy with Down syndrome that’s part of the junior programme.” (Key decision maker, University C)

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University A is moving towards integrating elite AWI into able bodies clubs and events where feasible.

“The focus is now to include athletes into able body clubs, exposing managers and coaches to sport for AWI.” (Key decision maker, University A)

Exposing sport for AWI to more coaches and managers will increase their knowledge and competence in key issues in sport for AWI such as knowledge of impairments, rules and adaptation of training and competitions, among others. This is one of the key goals of integration cited by (Sørensen & Kahrs, 2006).

5.7 Chapter summary

This chapter has explored various themes with the main aim of identifying and describing the support systems available to high performance AWI in sample institutions. Specific attention was paid to elite AWI’s access to the following resources: funding, sports equipment, sports facilities for training and competition as well as key human resource support. Further, the availability of adequate competitive opportunities at local, national as well as international level was discussed. The various stakeholders involved in supporting universities with their nurturing of elite AWI were identified and their various roles described. Particular attention was paid to SASCOC, federations, government departments and agencies as well as between universities. Lastly, the various challenges faced by elite S-AWI as well as universities were discussed as well as recommendations by management in relation to sport for AWI in general as well as elite sport for AWI in particular.

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6 CHAPTER SIX: FURTHER DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Introduction

This chapter offers an overarching reflection on the main findings from this study. It is a macro view of what the findings from this study mean collectively as opposed to the micro perspectives given under specific themes in chapters four and five. Thereafter, a summary of the main findings is given followed by the conclusion as well as recommendations.

Historically, PWI in South Africa have largely been excluded from mainstream society and denied access to fundamental economic, political as well as social rights including sport (Masambo, 2013 as cited in SASAPD, 2016). None the less, overall, sample universities in this study have made significant strides over the last two decades to address this anomaly particularly in as far as it relates to the provision of elite sport participation for AWI. Although the level of progress made by individual institutions varies, ranging between modest to significant, collectively, their efforts have had some outstanding outcomes that include the provision of opportunities for sport participation across a combined ten sport codes with at least 30 elite AWI across three institutions. Individually, some of these institutions have successfully contributed to and supported elite AWI who have had great success at provincial, national as well as international levels as already highlighted in other parts of this study.

Amid these achievements however, overall, findings from this study also reflect that PWI are still largely excluded from and marginalised in sport (DePauw, 1997) and elite sport in particular across the same universities. This is chiefly with regards to the relatively limited opportunities for elite sport participation that currently exist as well as the shallow depth of resource support given to existing sport codes for AWI because of the overall failure to acknowledge elite sport for AWI as priority sport. These shortcomings can be linked to and are reflected in the lack of tangible policies

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or plans to address the existing disparities currently as well as going forward in these institutions.

The rest of this section reports on how this exclusion and marginalisation plays out under related themes and sub-themes. Thereafter, the wider context in which these universities find themselves in regarding sport for AWI in general as well as elite sport for AWI in particular will be explored to shed light on current practices in these intuitions. This latter part of the discussion will specifically focus on the social issues of disability in society and their impact on sport for athletes with impairments as well as the challenges in sport for AWI which directly and indirectly impact on the role South African universities in facilitating optimal performance of elite AWI.

6.2 Exclusion of PWI from elite sport in sample universities

It is argued here that overall, PWI are relatively excluded from elite sport participation across sample universities. This is, firstly as it relates to the existing limited meaningful opportunities for participation at the elite level, in particular, the number of sport codes available for PWI who want to pursue their academic and sport careers in these institutions. Secondly and more significantly however, the absence of policy and concrete plans to address the existing disparities going forward. Each of these is discussed in more detail below.

6.2.1 Meaningful opportunities for sport participation Findings from this study show that of the five sample universities, only three have elite AWI mainly because no opportunities exist at this level in the other two institutions. Within the three, at most, four sport codes are offered at elite level in a single institution (both at SU as well as the UP). Although the UJ has the highest number of sport codes with elite AWI (n=6) based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria set for this study (see section 3.5), these athletes are not officially recognised as elite athletes at UJ Sport.

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Considering that collectively, these institutions are arguably the biggest contributors towards high performance sport for AWI from the HEI sector in South Africa, it is argued here that the current offerings are significantly limited. The status quo directly disadvantages AWI who participate in other sport codes besides the ones offered in and thus have no opportunity to become elite student-athletes in these institutions.

Although there are pockets of excellence and good practices within what is offered, collectively, when viewed in a wider context, there is what Goggin and Newell (2005) call social apartheid. This is a system of exclusion faced by PWI in accessing opportunities and resources that are available to their able-bodied counterparts (Goggin & Newell, 2005). This is by no means to say that there are blatant acts of discrimination when it comes to providing elite sport for AWI in these institutions but rather, exclusion is taking place in “different ways and through different methods all of which seem to be acceptable” (Rains 1999: 493) and justifiable. These methods include mainly what Rains (1999) refers as the use of organisational and administrative issues to justify decisions that result in PWI not getting adequate opportunities in elite sport participation.

There is need to put the status quo in context however, particularly that historically, PWI have been excluded from sport and have been marginalised in sport (DePauw, 1997) in South Africa as well as across wider community. At some point in the history of many societies, PWI were not even considered as participants in sport (Thomas & Smith, 2009). When sport was introduced to PWI, for some, there was no need for sport beyond the therapeutic role (Mastro, Hall & Canabal, 1998). In a South African context, PWI have also largely been excluded from mainstream society and prevented access to fundamental political, social as well as economic rights (Masambo, 2013 as cited in SASAPD, 2016). Within a sport context, this is reflected in the limited opportunities for participation, inaccessibility of sport facilities, shortage of equipment and other resources (Roux, 2012) as well as the lack of sufficient competition locally, particularly in the rural arears (DISSA, 2003 as cited in SASAPD, 2016). Although South African universities have to some extent embraced

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social transformation, it is argued here that this has been predominantly has been about ethnicity and gender and little about PWI. This is an observation also shared by Thomas and Smith (2009) in a related study in the United Kingdom. Regardless of these contextual insights however, a case is made here all the same, that the existing opportunities fall short of the ideal.

6.2.2 Absence of policy and or plan to increase sport participation for AWI The historical context given above gives rise to the need for universities and other institutions to take proactive as well as extraordinary measures to fast-track the provision of meaning opportunities for elite sport participation for PWI. While there are overarching commitments by sample universities through disability policies to ensure that previously disadvantaged groups such as PWI are catered for in terms of equal access to education, there is an aura of silence when it comes to sport.

Sport for AWI in sample universities remains a largely marginal aspect of sport policy and practice with sample universities reporting having no policy or plan to increase sport participation for AWI going forward. In a country where social transformation is being pushed through in sport along ethnicity and gender lines through the quota system and other initiatives, the lack of attention on sport for AWI is a concern both at university level as well as the wider sporting context.

The importance of policy need not be overemphasised because policy informs strategy and practice. As such, it should be the first step taken by universities to address the inequalities faced by PWI in relation to sport. The resultant impact of policy is evident in other areas in society where disability issues are high on the agenda because of legislation and policies resulting from increased lobbying activities of disability activists and organisations (Thomas & Smith 2009). A strong and encompassing mission statement with clearly articulated and measurable goals stated publicly (Fay, 1999) is key in addressing the challenge of exclusion from as well as marginalisation of PWI in sport in these institutions. The absence of policy, it is argued here, is the chief reason for the considerable lack of adequate progress in

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sport for AWI in sample universities. For this to change, there is need for commitment to disruptive justice (changing the will) (Thomas & Smith, 2009) by top management in these institutions to redistribute finite resources. Failure to address the challenge of marginalisation of PWI in sport for at strategic level will result in little or no change to the status quo.

6.3 Marginalisation in sport

Findings from this study also reflect the marginalisation of PWI in sport in sample universities mainly through the overall failure by management to recognise sport for AWI as priority sport. The result of this is the shallow depth of support offered to existing elite AWI. These two concerns are discussed shortly.

6.3.1 Priority status of sport for AWI It is argued here, that the predominantly non-priority status of most of the elite sport codes for AWI in sample institutions is evidence that sport for AWI is largely viewed as less important in these institutions. This is because, as discussed in earlier chapters, such recognition is the first and main criteria used in determine funding priorities in relation to sport in these universities and as such directly impacts on the depth of support available to sport for AWI. The relative depth of support is discussed below.

6.3.2 Depth of support offered to existing elite athletes with impairments Universities support elite sport participation through the provision of access to training and competition, coaching, provision of expertise in the areas of sports science and medicine, among others. There are costs incurred in providing this support however, and consequently as reflected in findings from this study, the value of funding support allocated towards the specific sport code or club from the university becomes key in determining the scope of support available to elite athletes in these sport codes or clubs. The level of funding support from the university sets the foundation of what can be provided for in terms of supporting elite sport participation from the institution’s perspective from which other external stakeholders

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can add value. In other words, universities primarily rely on their own funding to support elite sport participating although in addition, they exploit other external sources of funding to enhance their resource capacity.

It is argued here, that overall, elite sport for AWI in these institutions receive relatively limited funding support from the universities which by implication limits the other forms of support available to elite AWI. No figures were provided regarding the value of funding made available to the various priority sport codes by sample universities to enable comparison within and between sample universities. However, given that institutional funding priorities favour priority sport codes, the overall failure to recognise existing elite sport for AWI as priority sport directly results in less funding support allocated to this sub group. With the exception of UP where three of the four sport codes for AWI are official priority sports, none of the sport codes for AWI at SU as well as UJ enjoy this status.

It is acknowledged that there is need for universities to strategically invest their relatively limited resources in sport codes that yield some financial return (business model) in order to cover some of their cost, as well focus on sport codes that align with their vision and mission. However, these funding principles inherently favour predominantly able-bodied, white, male, upper middle class sport codes (DePauw, 1997), which by default disadvantages and result in the marginalisation of PWI in sport in these institutions.

Supporting high performance sport is costly in any case and as such, management needs to transcend the barrier of limited resources (real or perceived) (Rains, 1999) and find new and better ways to fund a more inclusive and diverse elite sport offering. Management also needs to develop the potential of existing resources through expanding their fundraising initiatives, corporate marketing strategies as well as exploring new market niches. Paralympic Sport has the potential to become a new niche market (Fay, 1999).

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6.4 Failure to address challenges at strategic decision-making level

The challenges regarding the exclusion from as well as marginalisation of PWI in sport of PWI in sample institutions reflect to a greater extent the failure by management to take measures that address the historical exclusion from and marginalisation in sport of AWI at strategic decision making level. While there are other challenges in sport for AWI which directly and indirectly impact on the universities’ ability and potential to optimally support elite sport participation for AWI, universities, in their own spheres of authority and within their respective capacities can and should make ‘the right’ decisions that ensure that minority populations such as PWI have adequate access to elite sport opportunities in the same way they do for able-bodied sport.

While, decision making at any level is inherently about making choices for one or another, where decision making lessens the chances of certain groups of people to meaningfully and adequately participate in sport (Rains, 1999), it may be construed as discrimination and marginalisation. Further, failure to take proactive and concrete measures to address the disparities that exist can be construed as the use of strategic processes by the power elite (top management in universities) to justify and reinforce the status quo (Fay, 1999).

It is however crucial to note that elite sport for AWI in sample universities does not take place in a social vacuum. The exclusion from and marginalisation of PWI in sport across sample universities discussed above is a reflection of wider social issues related to disability in society as well as other global and national challenges in sport for AWI. These impact on the universities’ ability to adequately support elite for AWI and thus necessitate a discussion on.

6.5 Wider challenges facing sport for AWI

A number of systemic and sport related challenges faced by universities in providing high performance sport participation opportunities to AWI have already been highlighted in earlier chapters. These include:

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 Limited pool of elite AWI in South African universities which negatively impacts on the feasibility of organising meaningful competitive opportunities.  Limited number of participants or competitors within specific classification groups.  Uncertainty and other challenges related to delivery and structuring models for sport for AWI.  Insufficient opportunities for competition at local and national level which negatively impacts on athlete preparation.  Resource capacity challenges specifically, limited funding to purchase appropriate equipment and adapt sports facilities for increased access by AWI, human resource challenges related to understaffing in university sports structures as well as shortage of quality coaches in sport for AWI, particularly at high performance level.

This section will focus on wider social issues in disability and sport and their impact on elite sport participation in society at large as well as sample universities in particular.

6.5.1 Social issues of disability in society and their impact on sport for AWI There is a complex relationship between sport, disability and other aspects in wider society (Thomas & Smith, 2009). As a result, any meaningful discussion on sport for AWI should be conceptualised through wider social processes that have shaped matters relating to disability in society at large (DePauw, 1997; Thomas & Smith, 2009).

6.5.1.1 Disability in society Although disability has always been a part of the human condition (WHO, 2001), being different physically, intellectually or sensory has been considered an abnormality in different cultures in society across different times (Thomas, 2002). Those with such abnormalities have been feared, tortured, killed while in some instances even revered (Le Claire, 2011a; Thomas, 2002) as their impairments have been considered a deviation or deflection from what is considered the ‘norm’ (the

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able-bodied person). The traditional medical/individual approach to disability views PWI as not only different but ‘less’ than the ideal/norm. Due to its emphasis ‘correcting’ the wrong that exists in PWI, the solution has traditionally been to segregate PWI in separate institutions where they are cared for by experts. This institutionalisation relegated PWI to minority positions out of the mainstream which contributed to stereotyping, stigmatisation as well as limited opportunities for economic advancement and success (Goffman, 1963). This policy and practice of segregating PWI significantly influenced emergence and evolution of sport for AWI (Thomas & Smith, 2009) and is still evident in some societies around the world as discussed shortly.

6.5.1.2 Disability, sport and society Sport is linked to social relations according to Sage (1993) and reflects as well as reproduces social inequalities in society at large (DePauw, 1997). Sport produces and reinforces dominant social values which are often rooted in power and oppression (Donnelly, 1996). Traditionally, at the centre of sport is ability (DePauw, 1997) which is reinforced through positive images of powerful groups with desirable characteristics of ‘able-bodiedness’ or normality (Elias & Scotson, 1994). This is because, sport as we know it is defined through the lens of those with power and privilege who are the upper middle class, white, able-bodied men (DePauw, 1997).

The social construction of sport by and for able-bodied individuals puts ability at the centre of sport (DePauw, 1997). The obvious challenge with this for PWI is with regards to how the terms ability and disability are defined in the context of sport by society as reflected by DePauw (1997:423), stating:

“Ability, as currently socially constructed, means ‘able’ and implies a finely tuned ‘able’ body. On the other hand, disability, also a social construction is often viewed in relation to ability and is, then, most often defined as ‘less than’ ability, as not able.”

Traditionally, mainstream high performance sport which articulates perfection as the main aim (Howe, 2008), and as a result, bodies are judged according to able-bodied

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norms (Seymour, 1998). Having good physic has a currency of value in society (Howe, 2008) therefore, while a lack of physicality is viewed as being less than the norm as opposed to being different. Because of this conceptualisation of the body, standards of performance in sport for PWI are constantly compared to those of their able-bodied counterparts and will obviously fall short of the ideal. As a result, “disabled sport remains sport for people with damaged bodies” (Seymour 1998: 115) because it somehow does not meet the social standard of normality and ‘ableness’. Consequently, sport for AWI as well as AWI largely remain invisible and segregated from mainstream sports (Brittain, 2010). This complex relationship between sport, disability and society has immensely shaped the evolution and organisation of modern day Paralympic Sport as discussed shortly.

6.5.1.3 Evolution and organisation of sport for athletes with impairments Historically, the organisation of sport for AWI has been largely been separate and segregated from mainstream sport. This is because early sport for AWI took place in segregated institutions away from mainstream sport, such as Stoke Mandeville Hospital (Thomas & Smith, 2009) where PWI were institutionalised. Within these isolated institutions from ‘normal’ society, participation was centred on specific impairment groups such as paraplegics, amputees, as well as those with visual impairment among others (McCrae, 1999). Organisation of sport was largely undertaken by disability sport organisations (DSO) centred on specific impairment groups (IPSD, 2016b).

Modern day organisational structure of sport for AWI is still largely separated from able-bodied sport, with some few exceptions. The international structure of modem day Paralympic Sport is the made up of mixture of international bodies including federations for sport, federations for disabilities as well as sub-committees often with contradicting and interfering aims. By and large, DSOs continue to organise sport for AWI in isolation with little or no support from mainstream federations (Thomas and Smith, 2009).

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6.5.1.4 Impact of social issues on disability in sample universities The foremost and most obvious impact of the social issues as reflected in finding from this study is the largely segregated nature of sport for AWI from mainstream sport. Attempts to integrate some sport for PWI into mainstream sport while others remain segregated have resulted in a historically fragmented, complex and confusing organisational structures surrounding sport for AWI (Thomas & Smith, 2009). This poses some challenges for stakeholders, including universities. The complicated national and international structure is a source of confusion for member organisations and other stakeholders such as universities that have generally followed this historically fragmented organisation and structuring. Resultantly, they have inherited some of the challenges and this is evident in findings from this study.

It seems that there is a lack of awareness regarding where sport for AWI fits in existing mainstream structures. Particularly with regards issues around whether sport for PWI should be mainstreamed into able-bodied sport bodies or remain segregated. This is evident in this study where a total of three different structuring models are found in sample universities. On the one hand is the segregated or separate structuring model and on the other, the integrated model. In between is the hybrid model at which to a greater extent illustrates the complicated nature of this issue. It is argued here that this confusion does to some extent, explain the side- lining of elite sport for AWI in sample universities. This is in addition to other issues such as the lack of unified voice in sport for AWI (Allard & Bornemann, 1999) to raise awareness and advocate for change in universities such as USSA for able-bodied sport.

6.6 Chapter summary

This chapter discussed the exclusion from as well as marginalisation in sport of PWI in sample universities as reflected in findings from this study. In addition, the contextual background of sport for AWI was explored to shed light on some of the issues raised in the above discussion. Although there are comparatively more opportunities for PWI to participate in sport today than there were about twenty years ago, overall PWI in sample universities have relatively limited opportunities and

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choice when it comes to participation in elite sport. They also receive comparatively less resource support towards elite sport participation in the sport codes offered across sample universities.

6.7 Conclusion

The aim of this exploratory study was to describe the current practices pertaining to the role of South African universities in facilitating optimal performance of elite AWI. In the process, an attempt was also made to establish how these institutions partner other key stakeholders, specifically fellow universities, SASCOC as well as federations in this regard. The main findings from the study are summarised below.

With regards to the first part in the aim of this study, findings show that collectively, universities have strategically positioned themselves to play a pivotal role in the training and nurturing of elite AWI in the country. This involvement is on two levels, the micro/internal as well as macro/external levels. The former takes place within individual institutions where as part of its broad mandate, the university provides elite sport participation opportunities to student-athletes. The latter goes beyond what universities undertake internally, and involves some universities positioning themselves as key role players in the delivery of elite sport to PWI in South Africa at large. This revolves around offering elite sport participation opportunities and resource support to non-student AWI who fall outside the typical constituency of universities through offering membership in university sports clubs. This allows these non-student-athletes access to institutional resources such as access to sports facilities, equipment and support services.

Additionally, some universities have further positioned themselves as high performance centres and are significant role players in supporting high performance teams and athletes on behalf of federations and SASCOC. The level of involvement at the elite level varies by institution and ranges between non-involvement in some, while others it is at moderate as well as advanced levels.

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With regards to the latter part of the aim of this study, the main findings are that the core stakeholders partnering universities are SASCOC, federations, community sports club as well government and its agencies. Other stakeholders at the periphery include fellow universities as well as schools and private corporations. Collaboration with some stakeholders such as SASCOC and federations is primarily based on a give and take basis where on the one hand the university is primarily an implementing partner providing access to specialist services and facilities as part of a conducive environment for elite sport participation. On the other hand, these stakeholders provide resources that enable universities to offer enhanced support to elite AWI. With others, such as government and its agencies, universities again serve as implementing partners but without the obligation to give back anything in turn.

Overall however, findings show that although university involvement in sports for AWI has improved significantly over the years, there is still not adequate focus on elite sport participation. , PWI are still excluded in as well as marginalised in sport structures, resource-allocation and practices in sample universities. There is also a lack of resources as well as collaboration and alignment between key stakeholders in facilitating the optimal performance of AWI in the post-school phase. In addition, universities face several challenges, some systemic while others are sport related in their efforts to optimally support elite AWI.

6.8 Recommendations

The following recommendations are made to the custodians of sport in universities, other practitioners in the sports industry as well as for future research.

6.8.1 To management in universities Given the historical exclusion from and marginalisation in sport of PWI in South Africa and universities in particular, extraordinary measures are required to ensure PWI have adequate access to meaningful opportunities to participate in elite sport in these institutions. This requires:

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 Political will by management to address the inherent exclusion from and marginalisation of PWI in sport.  The enactment of policies that have a clearly articulated focus to inform practice as well as unity of purpose at all levels of management in these institutions.  PWI should be central to this policy making as well as in management that is put in charge of implementing the policy at all levels in the university.  Management should address the underrepresentation of PWI in positions of authority in the same manner they address racial and gender disparities to ensure PWI have more control in decision making on issues concerning them.  The use of sport to promote as well as raise awareness on general issues relating to impairment, disability and sport so as to influence attitude change and building community support.  The reinvention of universities so as to come up with creative initiatives to increase existing and potential resource capacity as well as leverage the resources of other stakeholders.  Establishment of as well as the enhancement of existing partnerships with key stakeholders to ensure a more collaborated and aligned offering for optimal reciprocal benefits for all parties.

6.8.2 For future research Possible areas of focus for future research in this subject area could include.

 Focused and in-depth analysis of individual themes covered in this study such as access to resources, opportunities for competition, stakeholder collaboration and balanced lifestyle of student AWI, among others.  Incorporate more input from the athlete to highlight the lived experience so as to complement, challenge or verify the management narrative.  Possible comparison of offering for elite AWI versus their able-bodied counter parts in these institutions across gender as well as types of sports.

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http://psychiatr.ru/download/1313?view=name=CF_18.pdf

World Health Organisation. (2002). Towards a common language for functioning, disability and health (ICF). Available from:

http://www.who.int/classifications/icf/icfbeginnersguide.pdf

Yanow, D. (2007). Qualitative-interpretive methods in policy research. In Handbook of public policy analysis: Theory, politics, and methods. Edited by Fischer, F., Miller, G. & Sidney, M.S. Boca Raton: Taylor & Francis.

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8 ANNEXTURE A: INFORMED CONSENT

Dear participant

You are hereby cordially invited to participate in this research. The broad ethical considerations for quality research will be to ensure that the research:

 Adds value to the participants of this project, stakeholders in the sports industry and the existing body of knowledge.  Adheres to high standards of ethical conduct at all times.

The researcher will follow specific ethical guidelines to:

 Achieve objectivity and maintain integrity by acknowledging the methodological constraints and determining the validity of findings.

 Acknowledge and represent areas and degrees of expertise accurately and justly.

 Fully and accurately report on findings.

 Refrain from fabricating, falsifying or changing data.

 Co-operate in making raw data and final results available to other researchers, except in cases where confidentiality, privacy or claims of fieldworker might be violated.

 Respect confidentiality of information and protect identification of research participants.

 Be sensitive to and respect to right of choice to participate, to withdraw at any time, and to uphold anonymity and confidentiality of research participants at all times.

 Be sensitive to and respect the right to full disclosure about the research, its process and how they will be able to obtain the published report and/or results.

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 Protects from harm (physical, psychological and/or emotional).

 Be prepared to disclose methodology and techniques of analysis.

 Keep the research data in a safe and secure place within the department for 3 years.

 Follow ethical publishing practices.

 Be accountable to society and environment.

I declare that I have read the above, thus am fully informed on the procedures and am partaking by free will, and that I have not been coerced or paid for my participation.

Initials & Surname: ______Signature: ______Date: ______

Please feel free to contact me or my supervisors at any stage if you require additional information regarding the research:

Student: Nyasha Mharakurwa 0835462549 email: [email protected]

Supervisor: Prof. C. Burnett 0115593184 email: [email protected]

Co-Supervisor: Prof. CJ. Roux 0115593685 e-mail: [email protected]

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9 ANNEXTURE B: QUESTIONNAIRE TO ATHLETES

Section A: Biographical information

Indicate with an (X) below. 1. How old are you (in years)?

2. Are you male or female?

Male Female

3. To which ethnic group do you belong?

Black White Coloured Indian Asian Other (specify)

4. What is the nature of your disability?

Cerebral Intellectual Visual Les Autres Amputee Wheelchair palsy disability impairment (other)

5. Which university do you compete for?

Tshwane University University University Stellenbosch University Vaal University of of of the University of of Technology Johannesburg Pretoria Witwatersrand Technology

6. Are you a student at the university you compete for?

Yes No

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Section B: Sport information

7. Do you consider yourself an elite athlete?

Yes No

If no to question 8 above, briefly explain why.

8. Complete the table below for the sport codes you participate in.

Sport Classification Level of participation

Social Elite Competitive (for fun, (for performance entertainment or (for competition) leisure) excellence) Example: Athletics X T54 X

Athletics

Hand cycling

Leg cycling

Rowing

Swimming

Wheelchair basketball Wheelchair tennis Other (specify)

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9. Please indicate the highest level you have participated in your sports in the table below. Indicate as many as applicable.

Sport Highest level competed in Name of competition Year(s)

Provincial National International

Example: 2008, X X World Championships Swimming 2010

Athletics

Hand cycling

Leg cycling

Rowing

Swimming

Wheelchair basketball Wheelchair tennis Other (specify)

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Section C: Pillars for optimal long term athlete development

Access to structured competition

10. In the table below, indicate access to competition you have in your sport during the year?

Sport Level of competition

Local (club or Provincial National International university) Example: X X X Swimming

Athletics

Hand cycling

Leg cycling

Rowing

Swimming

Wheelchair basketball Wheelchair tennis

Other (specify)

11. In your opinion, do you think you are competing in enough competitions in a year?

Yes No

If no to question 11 above, please briefly explain why:

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12. Do you think your competitive schedule is suited to your needs and long term- goals?

Yes No

If no to question 12 above, briefly explain why below:

14. Are you aware of the various competition calendars for the sport you participate in?

Yes No

15. Do you have any input in choosing which competitions you participate in?

Yes No

If no to question 15 above please indicate with X who chooses the events you participate in from the table below.

Coach(es) National Federation Other (specify)

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Funding, equipment and facilities

16. Complete the table below about all monetary and non-monetary support you get.

Duration Fully Partially Value Item Source of paid for paid for (if known) contract Example: No X University X R8000-00 Equipment contract Access to training

facilities

Accommodation

Completion

Equipment

Medical

Sports science

Study bursary

Supplements

Training and competition partners Training and

competition kit

Transport

Training

Other (specify)

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18. Complete the table below with regards to all the facilities you currently have access to.

I have access to Are the facilities accessible? Indicate with an the X following facilities If you pay, are the Completely Partially Completely Free I pay fees inaccessible accessible accessible affordable (yes or no) Example: Athletics X X X track Athletics track/oval

Basketball

Gymnasium

Swimming pool Tennis court Water (rowing) Other (specify)

19. What other facilities do you need which the university does not currently provide?

Athletics Basketball Gym Swimming Tennis court Water Other track court pool (rowing) (specify)

20. Describe any challenges you face in getting to training facilities e.g. no transport

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21. Do you have enough equipment to participate in your sport?

Yes No

22. On a scale from 1 to 5, how satisfied are you with the equipment that you do have?

1 2 3 4 5 (Highly dissatisfied) (Highly satisfied)

23. Do you need customized equipment?

Yes No

24. If yes to question 23 above, do you have customized equipment?

Yes No

25. If no to question 24 above, give reason(s) why?

Access to training and competition partners 26. Which of the following do you need and have? Indicate with X

Item I need I have

Training partner

Competition guide/partner

27. In your opinion, is your training and competition partner/aid committed to assisting you?

Yes No

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28. In your opinion, is your training and competition partner/aid competent enough to assist you?

Yes No

Access to coaching 29. Do you have a coach(es)?

Yes No

30. Complete the table below:

I am not My coach … Yes No sure

Is qualified

Is experienced

Is knowledgeable about disability issues related to my sport

Knows the classification in my sport

Balance between academics, sport and social life

31. In your opinion, are you able to manage your studies, sport and social life?

Yes No

If yes to 32 above, what works well for you?

a. In your studies?

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c. In your social life?

If no to 32 above, what main challenges do you face?

a. In your studies?

c. In your social life?

THANK YOU!

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10 ANNEXTURE C: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR CLUB MANAGERS

Name of university

Position held at university

Sport(s)/club in charge of

Gender

Ethnicity

1. Would you please give a brief overview of your university sport structure and where you and your club fit in?

2. Please complete the table below regarding the number of athletes you have in your club/sporting code at high performance level (those that compete at provincial level at minimum).

Sport(s) Total number of athletes at How many are How many are not high performance level students in the students in the university? university?

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3. What is the total budget on elite sport at the university? (approximate)

4. What percentage of this budget is for high performance AWDs?

5. Is your budget sufficient? (Too low, enough).

6. What other sources of funding do you have for high performance AWDs apart from university funding? E.g. Lottery funding

7. What is it used for? E.g. equipment

8. Is this funding adequate?

9. Do you have adequate support in the following: equipment, human resources, and facilities?

10. Do you feel that the university prioritizes high performance sport for AWDs? Why?

11. How many qualified coaches do you have?

12. How many qualified coaches do you need?

13. Are they experienced enough to coach at high performance level?

14. Is there sufficient opportunity for high performance athletes to participate in the following competitions? (Local, regional, International).

15. Is there collaboration between the university and SASCOC, federations and government (local, provincial and national) in the provision of high performance sport for AWDs? If yes, please explain.

16. What challenges do you face in providing high performance sport for AWDs?

17. Do you have other positive things or recommendations you wish to share?

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11 ANNEXTURE D: INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR THE EXECUTIVE OF UNIVERSITY SPORT STRUCTURE

Name of university:

Position held at the university:

Gender: Ethnicity:

1. What structures exist to cater for high performance Athletes with Disabilities (AWDs) in the university (clubs etc.?)

2. How much of a priority is the delivery of elite sport in the university?

3. How much of a priority is the delivery of elite sport for AWDs in the University?

4. Do you have priority sporting codes?

5. If yes to (4) above, do any of the Paralympic Sports fall under the priority sport codes.

6. Is there any deliberate plan and strategy to increase the provision of elite sport to people with disabilities in the next 5 to 10 years?

7. If yes to (6) above, please elaborate

8. What challenges do you face as a university in the delivery of elite sport for people with disabilities?

9. Which stakeholders do you work with in the delivery of high performance sport for AWDs? (Government, SASCOC, federations).

10. Please elaborate on the relationship and support you have with the identified stakeholders.

11. Do you have any recommendation(s) and/or successes you wish to share?

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