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Mode of Flow of Saskatchewan Glacier Alberta, Canada

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Mode of Flow of Saskatchewan Glacier Alberta, Canada Mode of Flow of CO Saskatchewan Glacier t-t Alberta, Canada GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 351 OJ be o PQ 1960 Mode of Flow of Saskatchewan Glacier Alberta, Canada By MARK F. MEIER GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 351 Measurement and analysis of ice movement, deformation, and structural features of a typical valley glacier UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1960 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FRED A. SEATON, Secretary GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Thomas B. Nolan, Director The U.S. Geological Survey Library has catalogued this publication as follows: Meier, Mark Frederick, 1925 Mode of flow of Saskatchewan Glacier, Alberta, Canada. Washington, U.S. Govt. Print. Off., 1959. ix, 70 p. illus. (1 col.) maps, diagrs., profiles, tables. 30 cm. (U.S. Geological Survey. Professional paper 351) Part of illustrative matter folded in pocket. Measurement and analysis of ice movement, deformation, and structural features of a typical valley glacier. Bibliography: p. 67-68. 1. Glaciers Alberta. 2. Saskatchewan Glacier, Canada. I. Title. (Series) For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U. S. Government Printing Office Washington 25, D. C. PREFACE This report deals with principles of glacier flow that are applicable to the many glaciers in Alaska and other parts of the United States. Permission to work in Canada was extended by the Canadian Department for External Affairs, and access to the National Park was arranged by Mr. J. R. B. Coleman, then supervisor of Banff National Park. Saskatchewan Glacier was chosen for study because it is readily accessible and affords an unusually good opportunity to obtain data and develop principles that have a direct bearing on studies being made in the United States. The work started in the summer of 1952 and was supported by a grant from an Arctic Institute of North America project of the Office of Naval Research. Equipment was supplied by the California Institute of Technology under a contract with the Office of Naval Research. The work in 1953-54 was supported solely by the Office of Naval Research. The final phases of computation and manuscript preparation were supported by the U.S. Geological Survey. The author's work in the Geological Survey was under the general supervision of C. C. McDonald, chief, Branch of General Hydrology. The success of this project in its conception, field program and preparation of this final report is due in large measure to the direction and the assistance given by Robert P. Sharp, B. Gunnar Bergmann, James E. Conel, Donald 0. Emerson, Jean A. Hoerni, Benjamin F. Jones, William B. Lindley, Lee R. Magnolia, Jack Rocchio, Gordon Seele, Jack B. Shepard and George Wallerstein assisted in the field without compensation, and this assistance was of greatest value. Clarence R. Alien sacrificed his own research time to conduct seismic studies on the glacier which provided essential data on the thickness of ice and configuration of the bedrock channel. Kermit Jacobson, purchasing agent of the California Institute of Technology, took time from his regular duties to expedite the shipment of material and equipment to Canada. William Black, formerly warden of the Saskatchewan District, Banff National Park, and Peter Withers of Jasper National Park assisted the project in many ways beyond their official duties. Permission to use the Sas­ katchewan Hut was kindly extended by the Alpine Club of Canada, R. C. Hind, hut chairman. A Parsons Drill Hole Inclinometer was generously loaned by the Parsons Sur­ vey Co., South Gate, Calif. Thanks are also due to the Defence Research Board of Canada for the loan of magnesium sleds, and the California Institute of Technology for the acquisition and loan of special surveying equipment. The critical comments of C. R. Alien, W. B. Ray and W. D. Simons have been most helpful in the preparation of the manuscript. m GLOSSARY Ablation. Wastage of ice and snow by melting, evap­ Foliation. A compact, layered structure or planar oration, erosion, calving, and other minor processes. anisotropy caused by flow, as defined in this report. On Saskatchewan Glacier wastage occurs mostly It is expressed mainly by differences in grain size as surface melting. or bubble content of the ice. Accumulation. Deposition of snow, hail, hoarfrost, Octahedral shear stress (or strain rate). A value rime and ice on a glacier. Most of this deposition expressing the intensity of shearing stress (or takes place as snowfall on the glacier surface on strain rate) in a body equal to the stress (or strain Saskatchewan Glacier. rate) acting on planes of an octahedron oriented Accumulation area. That part of the glacier surface with its corners on the axes of principal stress where accumulation exceeds ablation for a 1-year (or strain rate). period. Plastic flow. Flow in which the strain rate is not Compressing flow. Flow in which the velocity de­ linearly proportional to the applied shear stress. creases in the downglacier direction. Extending flow. Flow in which the velocity increases Principal axes of stress (or strain rate). In a general in the downglacier direction. state of stress (or strain rate) there are three Firn. Material in transition from snow to glacier ice. mutually perpendicular planes on which the shear It consists of coarse granules, is compact but per­ stresses (shear strain rates) vanish. The three meable, and ranges in density from about 0.4 to principal axes are normal to these three planes. about 0.84 gram per cubic centimeter. Principal stresses (or strain rates). The normal Firn limit. Line separating the accumulation area (strain rates) in the direction of the principal axes from the ablation area. of stress (strain rate). Flow centerline. An imaginary line on the surface Strain rate. Velocity of deformation, usually re­ of the glacier that is everywhere parallel to the stricted to the velocity of shearing deformation in projection on the surface of the velocity vectors this report. and which passes as closely as possible through points of maximum surface velocity in transverse Temporary snowline. Line delineating the snow- profiles. covered area at any instant. Flow law. Steady-state creep rate as a function of Viscous flow. Flow in which the strain rate is linearly the applied stress for a given material. proportional to the applied shear stress. SYMBOLS A area of a cross section p iced perimeter, analogous to the wetted R perimeter as used in hydraulics, except C = ~7v sin a that p is measured in a cross section d depth perpendicular to the glacier surface / ( ) a function of ( ) A R = , the hydraulic radius (measured in a i,3,k = x, y, or z ki,k2 arbitrary, empirical constants plane perpendicular to the surface of n empirical constant the glacier) IV s standard deviation kmy shearing strain rate on a plane perpen­ S, SS, SS surfaces (defined on p. 25) dicular to the x axis, in the direction of u displacement the y axis V the velocity vector ei greatest (most extending) principal strain V the absolute magnitude of V rate Vd the surfaceward flow (defined on p. 20) c2 least (most compressing) principal strain Vi,Vj velocity component parallel to a coordinate rate axis i or / (i,j = x, y, or z) e'ij deviator of strain rate (defined on p. 38) ^x,Vy,Vs velocity components parallel to the x, y, z- c0,eo' octahedral strain rate (defined on p. 38, axes 41) Va>', Vy velocity components parallel to the x', y'- 9 horizontal angle between x' axis and ei axes (table 4) w width £ inclination of streamline from the hori­ x,y,z rectangular coordinate axes (defined on zontal p. 10) p density of ice tfy* curvilinear "natural" coordinate axes (de­ an stress fined on p. 11) <r hydrostatic (mean) stress Xi,Xj coordinate axes (i, j = x, y, or z) axx normal stress in the direction of the x axis, a surface slope, measured from the horizon­ tensile stresses are considered positive tal in the direction of the #'-axis vxy shearing stress on a plane perpendicular to /? bed slope, measured from the horizontal in the x axis, in the direction of the y axis the direction of the #'-axis 0-2, 0-3 principal stresses y specific weight of ice (generally assumed <7i/ deviator of stress (defined on p. 38) to be 56.1 pounds per cubic foot) (T0, o-0' octahedral shear stress (defined on p. 38, 8ij Kronicker delta or idem factor (8 = 0 when 41) i = /, = 1 when i ^ /) <f> horizontal angle between x' axis and V kij strain rate (fig. 17) exai normal strain rate in the direction of the w rotation rate (table 4) #-axis, extending strain rates are con­ sidered positive VIII Page FIGURE 1. Map of the eastern part of the Columbia Icefield, Alberta-British Columbia, Canada _ _ - 4 2. Area-altitude graph of Saskatchewan Glacier and firn 5 3. Castleguard sector in 1952-54 --_ ______ _ _ _ ____ _ _ __ __ ___ _ 7 4. Average surface lowering, 1948-54, in feet per year ________________________________ 8 5. Bedrock topography .. _ _ ____________ _______________ _ ... __.______. 9 6. Cross sections in Castleguard sector... _______________________________________ ____________________________________ 10 7. Daily ablation rate, positions of the temporary snowline, and average yearly ablation expressed as a function of elevation along the central part of Saskatchewan Glacier 11 8. Total ablation and positions of temporary snowlines ___ __________ ______ _______ ___________. ______ _ 12 9. Nomenclature of velocity stakes, transit points, and coordinate systems. _ ____ __ 13 10. Dates of survey of velocity stakes ____ _____ __ _ __________ ___________ 14 11. Relative difference between summer and yearly velocity as a funtion of longitudinal position. _____ ._ 16 12. Velocity variations in 1952 ________..
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