• Abstract and Figures
• Public Full-text

TIME UNDERESTIMATION IN EDUCATIONAL INNOVATIVE PROJECTS IN IRAQ KHALIS ABDUL RAHMAN AHMAD A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosopy at the University of London Institute of Education December 1989 2 ABSTRACT Time is a highly significant element in the complex process of educational change. It bears on all the components of innovative projects. It influences decisions to embark on a particular change model or a strategy. And ultimately time affects adoption decisions. But in spite of such significance, world-wide experience of introducing innovative programmes shows frequent occurrence of time underestimation. This study attempts to explain the reasons behind the phenomenon of time underestimation in educational change. In the context of the Iraqi educational system, it appears that there are a number of reasons behind time underestimation in planning and implementing innovations. These can be grouped under two categories: economic and non-economic. The former explains the underestimation of time as a deliberate effort made by people in order to reduce the apparent cost of a lengthy process. The latter interprets the phenomenon by organizational, structural, or psychological factors. These include incomplete and weak situational analysis prior to introducing innovative projects, lack of coordination pertaining to prevalent work modes, predominance of a top-down change model the outcome of which is the absence of a feeling of ownership, lack of skilled and well-trained personnel, lack of clear-cut objectives and distinct features of projects, lack of dependable criteria for estimating the cost of projects, fear of accountability on the part of both the planners and the implementing bodies, lack of systematic and well-timed evaluation, and lack of interest or poor motivation. Currently, economic considerations of time in the education sector are gaining ascendency. The opportunity cost of time makes a strong case for an efficient utilization- pattern of behaviour pertaining to time. And it appears imperative to base time estimation primarily on the cost that this entails. 3 DEDICATION To my wife Afaf 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am greatly indebted to my supervisor Dr. Paul Hurst from whom I have learned a great deal. Throughout the course of this study, his encouragement, support, and guidance have been invaluable. To him, I offer my deep thanks and sincere gratitude. I am also indebted to the people who willingly gave me their time during the conduct of the fieldwork. 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract 2 Dedication 3 Acknowledgements 4 INTRODUCTION 6 CHAPTER ONE The Development of the Modern Educational System in Iraq 18 CHAPTER TWO The Issue of Time and the Process of Educational Change: The Theoretical Framework 57 CHAPTER THREE The Methodological Considerations 120 CHAPTER FOUR Educational Innovative Projects in Iraq 142 CHAPTER FIVE Data Analysis - Interviews 194 CHAPTER SIX Data Analysis - Documents 247 CHAPTER SEVEN Conclusions 297 Bibliography 314 Appendix I 330 Appendix II 333 Appendix III 336 Appendix IV 342 6 INTRODUCTION 7 This study is on the question of time underestimation in the process of planning for and implementing educational innovative projects in Iraq. But why is time important? Early attempts to provide more relevant formal education in Iraq began in the early 1920s under the influence of Al Husri, the leading Arab educationist and nationalist when the country was under the British mandate (Simon 1986: ch.4, Marr 1985:37). These attempts were mainly constrained by political conditions, and lack of human and material resources. However, there were notable gains with regard to the quantitative side of the educational process. And this quantitative growth has continued ever since to reach its peak in the 1980s. But throughout this long period the search has persisted to provide more relevant, efficient, and equitable educational services. In other words, the search has persisted to make qualitative changes that match the quantitative accomplishments. In essence, educational change represents a qualitative improvement over a previous practice. It is a complex social phenomenon. Further, it is conditioned by time. Lack of time constitutes a problem to an innovation. It may lead to "undesirable compromises" (Dalin 1978:30), and "inadequate logistical support" (Fullan 1982:68). And it may result in conveying discordant messages which "paralyse" the responses of schools (Maclure 1985:115). Furthermore, time influences decisions to embark on a particular model of change. And this is also the case with regard to strategies for change (Huberman 1973:93). For example, top-down strategies need less time than 8 bottom-up ones. Time, then, constitutes a significant dimension in the process of educational change. It is a factor which bears on all other factors. One of the main conclusions of a major research work on educational change is that lack of time is the single most frequently cited barrier to implementation of innovative projects (Fullan 1982:293). This is consistent with an earlier major research finding that barriers to implementation of innovative projects reflect "merely a need for more time rather than anything else" (OECD/CERI 1973: Vol.4. 228-229). Hence, insufficient time appears to be a chief source behind many of the problems which impede implementing innovative programmes. In short, time is recognized as an important element in the processes pertaining to educational change. But to the contrary of what might be expected in such a case, the problem of time occupies too little a space in the literature on educational innovation in comparison to its significance. It is true that it is cited in the literature, but it is equally true that it is frequently touched upon lightly, and rarely treated in full. The issue of time acquires more significance in the particular case of Iraq. This can be considered at different levels. Firstly, developing countries are striving to speed up the process of national development, and to narrow the gap between them and the industrialized countries. It was, and 9 still is, conceived that education in particular can play a vital role in expediting the process of development. Therefore, there have been calls from all corners of the world, especially from international and regional agencies such as UNESCO, for developing countries to reform their systems of education, and to try to catch up with the rest of the world while there is still time. Pressures on developing countries have been immense and persistent. It was not without intention that J.R. Kidd chose "Whilst Time is Burning" as the title of his report on education and development in the mid 1970s. Besides, the seriousness and sharpness of this gap can further be put into focus if one takes into consideration that there has actually been what is called a "time gap" between industrialized countries themselves. In 1972, The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education maintained that "Europe • •• seems to be faced with an even more difficult task than the United States in trying to reform its higher education system; it has to undertake many of the reforms that America has implemented progressively for almost 100 years, and it must, at the same time, introduce patterns of higher education in response to the needs that America also faces at this point in history" (cited in Dalin 1978:30). In Iraq, as is the case with the rest of the developing countries, the process of rapid development has made it imperative to consider time as a fundamental factor. Secondly, in 1986 there was a sharp drop in the price of oil which constitutes the major source of revenue for Iraq. This drop "severely depressed the incomes of oil-exporting 10 developing countries" (The World Bank 1987:41-52). Both the terms of trade, and the gross national income of these countries have been greatly affected. Therefore, they have embarked on economic policy reforms to solve their problems. With regard to Iraq, the sharp drop in the price of oil was a contributory factor. It enhanced the need for strengthening the economic policy reforms which had already started in 1982 due to the impact of the war on the economy. The main policy measures included concentrating on vital economic projects, rationalizing public spending practices, reducing the scale of the imports programmes, easing bureaucratic routine in public sector operations, and encouraging the participation of the private sector in the economy. In short, the economic conditions have created pressures to use human and material resources, including time, optimally. Efficiency of performance has gained primacy. Time, in particular, has been a crucial factor of the production (Al Bustany 1984:66-80). Thirdly, and perhaps most importantly, the state of the war between Iraq and Iran has crystallized a new thinking and orientation to the time factor. On the one hand, the war, which lasted eight years was costly at both the material' and human levels. The overall economic cost has necessitated more efficient use of resources, including time, if the war effort was to be sustained, and if its subsequent effects were to be endured. On the other hand, the military institution employed the time factor as a decisive element to reduce the human and material cost of the war (e.g., the critical battle for regaining the strategic and fortified Fao Peninsula lasted only 11 36 hours and was described as "successful blitzkrieg" Time No.18, May 2 1988, Newsweek No.18, May 2 1988). That was coupled by attempting shorter time frames for accomplishing tasks in other areas (e.g., developing military industries). The success of the military institution with regard to the efficient use of time has created a strong motivation for all other civil institutions to follow the same path though with varying degrees of success. Time-conscious efforts and accomplishments have been politically encouraged and rewarded.

Load more

  346

Copy Link