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The International Flow of News Regarding the 2003 Iraq War: a Comparative Analysis

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The International Flow of News Regarding the 2003 Iraq War: a Comparative Analysis The international flow of news regarding the 2003 Iraq War: A comparative analysis by IVONNE PETRONELLA LOUW Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS In the subject INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR ELIRIA BORNMAN CO-SUPERVISORS: DR. A.G. VAN DER VYVER MR. G.M. KIRSTEN JANUARY 2009 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am deeply grateful to all those who contributed towards the completion of this study. Special thanks are due to my supervisor Associate Professor Eliria Bornman for her guidance, patience and constructive criticism. I am also indebted to the following people: My dear friend Irene Maitland for her assistance, patience and unfaltering enthusiasm and for the hours that she spent proofreading my chapters. My colleagues for the interest that they showed in my study. My husband Frank for his contribution and support and my family for understanding my need for self-development. ii TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 PROBLEM FORMULATION, AIM AND METHOD PAGE 1.1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF STUDY 1 1.2 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS 2 1.2.1 Information and the international flow of information 2 1.2.2 News as part of the international flow of information 3 1.2.3 The newspaper as a medium for disseminating news 5 1.3 AIM OF STUDY 8 1.4 RESEARCH PROBLEM AND SUB-PROBLEMS 8 1.4.1 The main research problem 8 1.4.2 The sub-problems 8 1.5 ANTICIPATED OUTCOMES OF THE STUDY 9 1.6 THEORETICAL FOUNDATION 11 1.6.1 Theories of information flow 12 1.6.2 Patterns of news flow 13 1.6.3 Theoretical framework for the construction of news 13 1.6.3.1 The selection of newsworthy events 14 1.6.3.2 Processing newsworthy events into news 14 1.7 METHODOLOGY 16 1.8 OVERVIEW OF THE DISSERTATION 18 CHAPTER 2 THEORIES AND PATTERNS OF INFORMATION FLOW PAGE 2.1 INTRODUCTION 20 2.2 INFORMATION AND THE INTERNATIONAL FLOW OF INFORMATION 20 2.2.1 The fall of communism and the break-up of the Soviet Union 21 2.2.2 The development of information and communication technology (ICT) 21 2.2.3 An increase in the role players 22 iii 2.2.4 The debates of the New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) 22 2.3 INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION AND THE FREE FLOW OF INFORMATION 23 2.4 THEORIES OF INFORMATION FLOW 24 2.4.1 Dependency theory 25 2.4.2 Galtung’s structural theory of imperialism 25 2.4.2.1 Communication and media Imperialism 27 2.4.3 World system theory 27 2.4.3.1 World system theory and international communication 29 2.4.4 Patterns of information flow 31 2.4.4.1 The centre-periphery pattern 32 2.4.4.2 The North-South flow 33 2.4.4.3 The triangular pattern 34 2.5 IMPLICATIONS OF THEORIES AND PATTERNS OF INFORMATION FLOW FOR INTERNATIONAL COMMUNICATION 35 2.6 THE NEW WORLD INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION ORDER (NWICO) 37 2.7 SUMMARY 41 CHAPTER 3 THE CONSTRUCTION OF NEWS: A PROCESS OF SELECTION AND PROCESSING PAGE 3.1 INTRODUCTION 43 3.2 CONSTRUCTING NEWS: A PROCESS OF SELECTION AND PROCESSING 43 3.3 THE SELECTION OF NEWSWORTHY EVENTS 45 3.3.1 Context-related news determinants 46 3.3.1.1 The structural and hierarchical status of a country 46 3.3.1.2 Political and ideological factors 47 3.3.1.3 Economic factors 48 3.3.1.4 Social and cultural factors 48 3.3.1.5 Geographic proximity 49 3.3.1.6 Attributes of the population 50 iv 3.3.2 Event-related news determinants 50 3.3.2.1 Deviance as a news determinant 51 3.3.2.2 Relevance to elite nations, countries and people 52 3.3.2.3 Perceptions of journalists and editors 52 3.3.2.4 Timeliness 53 3.3.2.5 Foreign correspondents and news agencies 53 3.3.2.6 The human factor 54 3.4 THE PROCESSING OF NEWSWORTHY EVENTS INTO NEWS 54 3.4.1 The agenda-setting role of the media 54 3.4.1.1 The public agenda 55 3.4.1.2 The policy agenda 56 3.4.1.3 The media agenda 57 3.4.2 First and second-level agenda setting 58 3.4.3 Shaping political agendas through agenda-building and priming 59 3.4.4 The framing of newsworthy events and issues 61 3.4.5 Gatekeeping forces 65 3.4.5.1 Individual and routine levels of journalists 67 - Individual journalists 67 - Professional routines 68 3.4.5.2 Intermediate agenda-setting 69 3.4.5.3 Primary and secondary news sources 70 - The president as a primary source 71 - Other powerful sources 72 - Routine and non-routine sources 72 - Expert sources 72 - News agencies as a secondary source 73 - A critical evaluation of news agencies 76 3.4.5.4 Ideology and propaganda 77 - Modern and traditional propaganda 78 - Forms of propaganda 79 - Propaganda and war 81 - Psychological warfare 82 - Classic propaganda strategy 83 3.5 CONCLUSION 86 v CHAPTER 4 THE 2003 IRAQ WAR: A CASE STUDY PAGE 4.1 INTRODUCTION 87 4.2 THE 2003 IRAQ WAR: 2003 TO THE PRESENT 88 4.3 THE NEWSWORTHINESS OF THE 2003 IRAQ WAR 93 4.3.1 Context-related news determinants of the 2003 Iraq War 94 4.3.1.1 Structural and hierarchical status of a county 94 4.3.1.2 Political and ideological determinants 94 4.3.1.3 Economic determinants 97 4.3.1.4 Social and cultural determinants 98 4.1.3.5 Geographic proximity 100 4.1.3.6 Attributes of the population 101 4.3.2 Event-related news determinants of the 2003 Iraq War 103 4.3.2.1 Deviance as a determinant 103 4.3.2.2 Relevance of elite people and nations 106 4.3.2.3 Perceptions of journalists and editors 106 4.3.2.4 The timeliness of the war 107 4.3.2.5 Human factor stories pertaining to the war 107 4.4 THE AGENDA-SETTING ROLE OF THE MEDIA IN THE WAR 110 4.5 THE FRAMING OF THE WAR BY THE MEDIA GLOBALLY 116 4.6 GATEKEEPING FORCES AND THE WAR 122 4.6.1 Primary and secondary news sources 122 4.6.1.1 The president as a primary news source 122 4.6.1.2 Other powerful sources 123 4.6.1.3 News agencies as a secondary news source 123 4.6.2 Intermediate agenda-setting in the war 124 4.6.3 Individual and routine levels of journalists 125 4.6.3.1 Embedded journalism and the 2003 Iraq War 128 4.7 PROPAGANDA AND THE 2003 IRAQ WAR 131 4.7.1 Psychological warfare 132 4.7.1.1 The psychological war of the coalition forces 132 4.7.1.2 The psychological war of the Insurgents 136 4.7.2 The classical propaganda strategy of the coalition forces 139 4.8 CONCLUSION 145 vi CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY PAGE 5.1 INTRODUCTION 147 5.2 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY 147 5.3 THE FORMULATION OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM 148 5.4 THE RESEARCH DESIGN 148 5.5 THE RESEARCH APPROACH 148 5.6 THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 150 5.6.1 Defining the population 150 5.6.2 The sampling procedure 150 5.6.2.1 Sampling stage 1: The selection of a sample of newspapers 151 5.6.2.1 Sampling stage 2: The selection of the time-frames 154 5.6.3 The unit of analysis 156 5.6.4 The coding scheme 156 5.6.4.1 The quantitative coding scheme 156 5.6.4.2 The qualitative coding scheme 164 5.6.5 The coding procedure 164 5.6.6 Data analysis 166 5.6.6.1 Quantitative data analysis 166 5.6.6.2 Qualitative data analysis 169 5.6.7 Reliability and validity 170 5.6.7.1 Reliability 170 5.6.7.2 Validity 174 5.7 CRITICAL EVALUATION OF THE STUDY 175 5.7.1 Limitations to the study 175 5.7.2 Strengths of the study 176 5.8 CONCLUSION 177 vii CHAPTER 6 THE RESULTS FOR THE STUDY CONDUCTED ON THE FLOW OF INFORMATION DURING THE 2003 IRAQ WAR PAGE 6.1 INTRODUCTION 178 6.2. THE NEWSWORTHINESS OF THE 2003 IRAQ WAR 178 6.3 THE DIRECTION OF THE FLOW OF INFORMATION 181 6.4 EVENT AND CONTEXT RELATED NEWS DETERMINANTS 183 6.4.1 Event-related news determinants 183 6.4.1.1 Deviance 183 6.4.1.2 Elite nations, countries and people 185 6.4.1.3 Perceptions of journalists and editors 186 6.4.1.4 Timeliness 187 6.4.1.5 Foreign correspondents and agencies 188 6.4.1.6 Human factor stories 189 6.4.2. Context-related news determinants 190 6.4.2.1 Political and ideological factors 190 6.4.2.2 Structural and hierarchical status 191 6.4.2.3 Social and cultural factors 192 6.4.2.4 Economic factors 193 6.4.2.5 Geographic proximity 193 6.5 THE USE OF SOURCES BY THE NEWSPAPERS 194 6.6 THE SOURCES QUOTED BY THE NEWSPAPERS 196 6.7 THE THEMATIC FRAMING OF THE EVENTS OF THE WAR 199 6.8 THE USE OF PROPAGANDA IN THE WAR REPORTING 204 6.8.1 Psychological warfare 204 6.8.1.1 The weak versus strong tactic 204 6.8.1.2 The strong versus weak tactic 205 6.8.1.3 Presenting selective information to the audience 205 6.8.1.4 The control of communication mediums in the war 206 6.8.2 Classic propaganda strategy 207 6.8.2.1 Presenting the war as a war of defence 207 6.8.2.2 Presenting the war in a polarised manner 208 6.8.2.3 The control of information in the war 209 6.8.2.4 The use of drama and conspiracy in the war 209 viii 6.9 THE TONE OF THE NEWSPAPERS TOWARDS THE WAR AND THE USA 210 6.9.1 The tone of the newspapers towards the war 210 6.9.2 The tone of the newspapers towards the United States 214 6.9.3 The association between the newspapers’ attitude towards the 2003 Iraq War and the USA 218 6.9.4 The change in tone towards the war and the USA from 2003-2006 219 6.9.4.1 The change in tone towards the war 219 6.9.4.2 The change in attitude towards the USA 220 6.10 CONCLUSION 221 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS PAGE 7.1 INTRODUCTION 222 7.2 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY 222 7.3 THE NEWSWORTHINESS OF THE WAR 224 7.4 THE NEWS DETERMINANTS OF THE WAR 225 7.5 THE DIRECTION AND PATTERNS OF FLOW 228 7.6 THE WAR AGENDA OF THE BUSH ADMINISTRATION 228 7.7 THE FRAMING OF THE EVENTS OF THE WAR 230 7.8 THE SOURCES USED BY THE RESPECTIVE NEWSPAPERS 231 7.9 THE SOURCES QUOTED IN THE WAR COVERAGE 233 7.10 THE USE OF PROPAGANDA IN THE WAR COVERAGE 234 7.11 THE TONE OF THE NEWSPAPERS TOWARDS THE WAR AND THE USA 236 7.12 GUIDELINES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH 238 7.13 CONCLUSIVE STATEMENTS 243 BIBLOGRAPHY
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