Personality An individual’s characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting. Personality

Chapter 13 Spring, 2010 Guest Lecturer: Sara Branch

Each dwarf has a distinct and dominant personality 1 2 trait.

Theories of Personality Psychodynamic Perspective

• View of the causes and motives underlying • “A man should not strive to eliminate his personality and personality development complexes but to get into accord with them: they are legitimately what directs his 1. The Psychodynamic Approach conduct in the world.” 2. The Humanistic Approach -Sigmund 3. The Trait Approach 4. The Social-Cognitive Approach

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1 Psychodynamic Perspective Psychodynamic Perspective

In his clinical practice, Freud’s clinical Freud encountered experience led him to patients suffering from develop the first nervous disorders. Their comprehensive theory of complaints could not be personality, which explained in terms of included the unconscious purely physical causes. , psychosexual Culver Pictures Culver Pictures stages, and defense mechanisms. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) (1856-1939) 5 6

Model of Mind The mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden, and • Freud’s theory of below the surface lies the unconscious mind. The personality that attributes stores temporary . and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating disorders by exposing and interpreting unconscious tensions.

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2 Exploring the Unconscious Analysis

A reservoir (unconscious mind) of mostly Another method to analyze the unconscious mind is through unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and interpreting manifest (what we remember) and latent (what it memories. Freud asked patients to say whatever came means, symbolically) contents of . to their (free association) in order to tap the unconscious. http://www.english.upenn.edu

9 The Nightmare, Henry Fuseli (1791) 10

Model of Mind Dream Analysis The mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden, and below the surface lies the unconscious mind. The • “Learn to communicate preconscious stores temporary memories. with your mind which speaks to you in symbols through your dreams while providing practical insight into our emotional and by analyzing hidden meanings.”

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3 Personality Structure ID Personality develops as a result of our efforts to resolve conflicts between our biological impulses (id) • The Id unconsciously and social restraints (superego). strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification (Pleasure Principle)

United States of Tara: “Gimme”

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Ego Superego

• The ego functions as • The superego provides the “executive” and standards for judgment mediates the demands (the ) and of the id and superego for future aspirations. (). • Moral compass • Seeks to gratify the id’s impulses in • Focuses on how we ought to behave realistic ways

15 16 “Where id was, there ego shall be.” -Freud

4 Id, Ego and Superego Personality Development The Id unconsciously strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives, operating on the pleasure Freud believed that personality formed during the principle, demanding immediate gratification first few years of life divided into psychosexual (Pleasure Principle). stages. During these stages the id’s pleasure-seeking energies focus on pleasure sensitive body areas The ego functions as the “executive” and mediates called erogenous zones. the demands of the id and superego (Reality Principle).

The superego provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations.

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Psychosexual Stages Oedipus

Freud divided the development of personality into A boy’s sexual desire for his mother and feelings of five psychosexual stages. jealousy and hatred for the rival father. A girl’s desire for her father is called the .

Males: Fear of castration Females:

These fears/ result in identification of same sex parent (but is stronger for males because they have something to lose).

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5 Identification Defense Mechanisms

Children cope with The ego’s protective methods of reducing by threatening feelings by unconsciously distorting reality. repressing them and by From the K. Vandervelde private collection identifying with the rival 1. banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, parent. Through this feelings, and memories from . process of identification, their superego gains strength that incorporates 2. Regression leads an individual faced with their parents’ values. anxiety to retreat to a more infantile psychosexual stage.

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Defense Mechanisms Defense Mechanisms

3. Reaction Formation causes the ego 5. Rationalization offers self-justifying to unconsciously switch unacceptable impulses into their explanations in place of the real, more opposites. People may express threatening, unconscious reasons for one’s feelings of purity when they may be suffering anxiety from actions. unconscious feelings about sex. 6. Displacement shifts sexual or aggressive 4. Projection leads people to impulses toward a more acceptable or less disguise their own threatening threatening object or person, redirecting anger impulses by attributing them to others. toward a safer outlet.

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6 The Neo-Freudians The Neo-Freudians Like Freud, Adler believed • Although Freud was controversial, he attracted in childhood tensions. followers However, these tensions were social in nature and • Accepted Freud’s basic ideas (id, ego, superego; not sexual. A child unconscious; defense mechanisms)

struggles with an inferiority National Library of Medicine • Differed in two ways: complex during growth and – More emphasis on the conscious mind’s role in strives for superiority and interpreting experience and coping with the power. Emphasized the environment importance of belonging. – Doubted that sex and aggression were all-consuming (1870-1937) 25 26

The Neo-Freudians The Neo-Freudians

Like Adler, Horney Jung believed in the collective Archive of the History of American Psychology/ University of Akron believed in the social unconscious, which contained a aspects of childhood common reservoir of images growth and development. derived from our species’ past. She countered Freud’s This is why many cultures share certain myths and images assumption that women The Bettmann Archive/ Corbis have weak superegos and () such as the mother suffer from “penis envy.” being a symbol of nurturance. Types: Introvert/Extravert; Feeler/Thinker

Karen Horney (1885-1952) (1875-1961)

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7 Assessing Unconscious Processes Projective Personality Tests Evaluating personality from an unconscious mind’s perspective would require a psychological • Measures aspects of personality by asking individuals to respond to ambiguous stimuli instrument (projective tests) that would reveal the hidden unconscious mind. • Assumes that the meaning the person projects onto the ambiguous stimuli reflects unconscious core aspects of personality

• Examples: – Thematic Apperception Test (Constructive) – Rorschach Test – Rotter Incomplete Sentence Test (Completion)

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Thematic Apperception Test Rorschach Inkblot Test (TAT) Developed by Henry Murray, the TAT is a projective The most widely used projective test uses a set of 10 test in which people express their inner feelings and inkblots and was designed by Hermann Rorschach. It seeks to identify people’s inner feelings by analyzing interests through the stories they make up about their interpretations of the blots. ambiguous scenes. Lew Merrim/ Photo Researcher, Inc. Lew Merrim/ Photo Researcher, Inc.

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8 Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Projective Tests: Criticisms Perspective Critics argue that projective tests lack both reliability Modern Research (consistency of results) and validity (predicting what it is supposed to). . Personality develops throughout life and is not fixed in childhood. . When evaluating the same patient, even trained . Freud underemphasized peer influence on the raters come up with different interpretations individual, which may be as powerful as (reliability). parental influence. . Projective tests may misdiagnose a normal . Gender identity may develop before 5-6 years of individual as pathological (validity). age.

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Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective Perspective Modern Research Freud's rests on the repression . There may be reasons for dreams besides of painful experiences into the unconscious mind. wish fulfillment. . Verbal slips can be explained on the basis of cognitive processing of verbal choices. The majority of children, death camp survivors, and . According to Freud, suppressed sexuality leads battle-scarred veterans are unable to repress painful to psychological disorders. But, sexual inhibition experiences into their unconscious mind. has decreased, but psychological disorders have not. 35 36

9 Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Perspective Perspective

Freud was right about the unconscious mind. . The scientific merits of Freud’s theory have been Modern research shows the existence of criticized. Psychoanalysis is difficult to test. Most of nonconscious information processing. its concepts arise out of clinical practice, which are . Schemas that automatically control perceptions and the after-the-fact explanation. When one tenet interpretations appears to be falsified, another one comes to the . Parallel processing during vision and thinking rescue. . Implicit memories . Still, what it is an ingenious and clever theory, and . Implicit attitudes a comprehensive template for others to attempt with . Emotions that activate instantly without consciousness different premises. 37 38

Humanistic Perspective Humanistic Approach By the 1960s, psychologists became discontented with Freud’s negativity and the mechanistic • Focuses on people’s unique capacity for choice, responsibility, psychology of the behaviorists. and growth • Stresses the positive, healthy aspect of personality and the uniqueness of the individual

• Emphasis on the conscious mental process (responsibility)

http://www.ship.edu • Humanistic Psychologists:

1. Abraham Maslow

2. Carl Rogers

Abraham Maslow Carl Rogers (1908-1970) (1902-1987) 39

10 Self-Actualizing Person Growth and Fulfillment Maslow proposed that we as individuals are motivated by a of needs. Beginning with Carl Rogers also believed in an individual's self- physiological needs, we try to reach the state of self- actualization tendencies. He said that Unconditional actualization—fulfilling our potential. Positive Regard is an of acceptance of others despite their failings. Michael Rougier/ Ted Polumbaum/ Time Pix/ Getty Images http://www.ship.edu Life Magazine © Time Warner, Inc.

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Assessing the Self Evaluating the Humanistic Perspective

In an effort to assess personality, Rogers asked people to . Humanistic psychology has a pervasive impact describe themselves as they would like to be (ideal) and on counseling, education, child-rearing, and as they actually are (real). If the two descriptions were management. close the individual had a positive self-concept. . Concepts in humanistic psychology are vague and subjective and lack scientific basis. . Very difficult to even figure out what to test, let alone, how to test. All of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in an answer to the question, “Who am I?” refers to Self-Concept.

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11 The Trait Perspective Lexical Hypothesis As an outgrowth and more complex version of earlier TYPE theories. An individual’s unique constellation of durable dispositions and • 1936: Gordon Allport & H.S. Odbert consistent ways of behaving (traits) constitutes his or her personality. • Individual differences that are most noticeable and socially relevant in people’s lives eventually Examples of Traits become encoded into their language; the more Honest important the difference, the more likely it is to be Dependable expressed as a single word. Moody Impulsive • Extracted 18,000 personality-describing words; narrowed to 4500 that described observable and permanent traits

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Exploring Traits Openness to Experience Conscientiousness Agreeableness

Factor analysis is a Extroversion Neuroticism Neuroticism statistical approach used to describe and relate personality traits.

Identifies clusters of items that tap basic components of personality. Raymond Cattell

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12 Exploring Traits Personality Dimensions

Cattell used factor analysis Hans and Sybil Eysenck suggested that personality to develop a 16 Personality could be reduced down to two polar dimensions, Factor (16PF) inventory. extraversion-introversion and emotional stability- instability. More recent researches have identified 5 global personality traits; The Big Five (Costa & McCrae, 2006; John & Srivastava, 1999)

Raymond Cattell

(1905-1998) 49 50

The Big Five Factors Five-Factor Model (The “Big Five”) Today’s trait researchers believe that Eysencks’ personality dimensions are too narrow and Cattell’s 16PF too large. So, a middle range (five factors) of traits does a better job of • Most widely accepted trait theory of assessment. First mention of the Big 5 was by L. L. Thurstone in personality his presidential address to the APA, published in 1934 in Psychological Bulletin. • Based on lexical hypothesis; derived from factor analysis Conscientiousness Agreeableness • Strong evidence which documents the Neuroticism presence of the “Big Five” personality traits Openness – Stability across time Extraversion 51 – Found cross-culturally

13 The “Big Five” Personality Traits Openness • Openness to experience 1. Openness • Distinguishes imaginative people from 2. Conscientiousness down-to-earth, conventional people 3. Extraversion • High level of openness: – Intellectually curious 4. Agreeableness – Nonconforming 5. Neuroticism – Daring – Appreciative of art – Aware of feelings

Conscientiousness Extraversion

• Tendency to show a preference for planned • Characterized by positive emotions and the behavior; influences control, regulation, and tendency to seek out stimulation and the direction of impulses company of others • High levels of conscientiousness: • High levels of extraversion: – Dependable – Talkative – Productive – Sociable – Purposeful – Affectionate – High achievement – High energy/activity levels – Persistent

14 Agreeableness Neuroticism

• Tendency to be compassionate and cooperative; desire to • Tendency to experience negative emotions; maintain positive interpersonal relationships emotional instability • High levels of agreeableness: • High levels of neuroticism: – Sympathetic – Emotionally reactive – Warm – Trusting – Vulnerable to stress – Cooperative – Interpret ordinary situations as threatening – Generous – Anxious – Helpful – Insecure – Optimistic view of human nature – Self-conscious

Endpoints Questions about the Big Five

1. How stable are these traits? Quite stable in adulthood. However, they change over development. 2. How heritable are they? Fifty percent or so for each trait.

3. How about other cultures? These traits are common across cultures.

4. Can they predict other personal Yes. Conscientious people are attributes? morning type and extraverted are evening type. 59 60

15 Assessing Traits MMPI

Personality inventories are questionnaires (often with The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory true-false or agree-disagree items) designed to gauge (MMPI) is the most widely researched and clinically a wide range of feelings and behaviors assessing used of all personality tests. It was originally several traits at once. developed to identify emotional disorders. 567 true-false items!!

The MMPI was developed by empirically testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminated between diagnostic groups.

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MMPI Test Profile Evaluating the Trait Perspective

The Person-Situation Controversy

Walter Mischel (1968, 1984, 2004) points out that traits may be enduring, but the resulting behavior in various situations is different. Therefore, traits, by themselves, are insufficient predictors of behavior.

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16 The Person-Situation Controversy The Person-Situation Controversy

Trait theorists argue that behaviors from a situation Traits are socially significant and influence our may be different, but average behavior remains the health, thinking, and performance (Gosling et same. Therefore, traits matter. al., 2000). John LangfordJohn Photography

With age, personality traits become more stable, as reflected in the correlation of trait scores with follow-up scores seven years later (Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000).

Samuel Gosling 65 66 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z1g8C-r0Mhsa

Sam Gosling – Social-Cognitive Perspective What your FB profile says about you Bandura (1986, 2001, 2005) believes that personality is the result of an interaction that takes place between a person and their social context.

Albert Bandura

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17 Social-Cognitive Approach Social-Cognitive Approach

• Influenced by behaviorism • Suggests human experiences, and – Classical conditioning interpretations of those experiences, – Operant conditioning determine personality growth and – Modeling development • Locus of Control – The amount of control that a person feels he or she has over the environment • External vs. internal – Social = experiences • Self-efficacy – The beliefs one holds about their own ability to perform a task or – Cognitive = interpretation of experiences accomplish a goal

Reciprocal Influences Individuals & Environments

The three factors, behavior, , and Bandura called the process of interacting with our environment, are interlocking determinants of each Specific ways in which individuals and environment reciprocal determinism. other. environments interact Different people choose different The school you attend and the environments. music you listen to are partly based on your dispositions.

Stephen Wade/ Allsport/ Getty Images Our personalities shape how we Anxious people react to situations react to events. differently than calm people.

Our personalities shape situations. How we view and treat people influences how they treat us.

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18 Behavior Assessing Behavior in Situations

Behavior emerges from an interplay of external and Social-cognitive psychologists observe people in internal influences. realistic and simulated situations because they find that it is the best way to predict the behavior of others in similar situations.

Past behavior is the best predictor of future behavior as long as the situation and the person remain much the same

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Evaluating the Social-Cognitive Exploring the Self Perspective Research on the self has a long history because the self organizes thinking, feelings, and actions and is a critical Critics say that social-cognitive psychologists pay a part of our personality. lot of attention to the situation and pay less attention . Research focuses on the different to individuals, their unconscious mind, emotions, selves we possess. Some we dream and genetics. and others we dread.

. Research studies how we overestimate our concern that others evaluate our appearance, performance, and blunders (spotlight effect).

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19 Exploring the Self Self-Serving Bias Research on the self has a long history because the self organizes thinking, feelings, and actions and is a critical part of our personality. We accept responsibility for good deeds and . Research studies the self- successes more than for bad deeds and failures. reference effect in recall. Defensive self-esteem is fragile and egotistic whereas secure self-esteem is less fragile and less dependent on external evaluation.

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