Science for the Curious Photographer

While there are many books that teach the A crucial read for those seeking the sci­ "how-to" of photography, Science for the entific context to photographic practice, this Curious Photographer is a book for those second edition has been comprehensively who also want to understand how photogra­ updated, including discussion of DSLRs, phy works. Beginning with an introduction mirror-less cameras, and a new chapter on to the history and science of photography, the limits of human vision and perception. Charles S. Johnson, Jr. addresses questions about the principles of photography, such as Charles S. Johnson, Jr. taught physi­ why a camera needs a lens, how lenses work, cal chemistry at Yale University and the and why modern lenses are so complicated. University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Addressing the complex aspects of digi­ He now uses his scientific background to tal photography, the book discusses color research and write about the science behind management, resolution, "noise" in images, photography. In 2010 he published Science and the limits of human perception. The for the Curious Photographer. creation and appreciation of art in photog­ raphy is discussed from the standpoint of modern cognitive science.

Science for the Curious Photographer An Introduction to the Science of Photography

Second Edition

CHARLES S. JOHNSON, JR. First edition published 2010 by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2017 Charles S. Johnson, Jr. The Right of Charles S. Johnson, Jr. to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. The following names and trademarks are used throughout the book: 360Precision, Adobe, Adobe Camera RAW, Adobe Digital Negative, Adobe Flash, AT&T Bell Labs, Autopano Pro, B+W, CamRanger, Canon, Canon Digital Photo Professional, Capture One Pro, Cibachrome, Ciba-Geigy Corp., CoCam, Cognisys, Cokin, ColorChecker Passport, Colormunkie, , Combine ZM, Datacolor, DxO Optics Pro, Dynamic Photo HDR, Eastman Kodak, EIZO ColorEdge, Epson, Eyescan, Fairchild Semiconductor, Fisheye-Hemi, FocalBlade, FocusMagic, Foveon X3, Fuji, Fujifilm, Fujifilm Provia, GigaPan, Google, HDR Efex Pro, HDR Expose, HeliconFocus, Heliopan, Hoya, Ilfochrome, Integrated Color, Intel, iPad, iPhone, JPG, KelbyOne, Kenko, Kirk, Kodak, Kolor Panogear, Kodachrome, Leica, LifePixel, Lightroom, Linhof, LR/Enfuse, Lytro, Manfroto, Mathcad, MaxMax, Microsoft HD View, Nik, Nik Sharpener Pro, Nikon, Nodal Ninja, Olympus, OSLO, Panasonic, PangeaVR, Pano2VR, Panorama Tools, Panoscan, PhotoKit Sharpener, Photomatix Pro, Photoshop, Photoshop CC, Polaroid Corp., Popular Photography, PT-Gui, Rhythm & Hues Studios, Rolleicord, Roundshot VR Drive, Samyang, Schneider-Kreuznach, Schott Glass, Sigma, Sony, Spyder5PRO, SpyderCHECKER, Stackshot Macro Rail, Sunwayfoto, Tamron, Texas Instruments, Tiffen, Topaz Detail, Twisting Pixels, Wikipedia, Wratten, X-Rite, Zeiss, and Zerene Stacker. First edition published by A.K. Peters/CRC Press 2010 Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested

ISBN: 978-0-415-79322-3 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-79326-1 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-21116-9 (ebk)

Typeset in Warnock Pro by Keystroke, Neville Lodge, Tettenhall, Wolverhampton To Ellen, my wife and best friend

Contents

Preface to the First Edition xiii Preface to the Second Edition xv Permissions xvii chapter  What Is Photography? 1 chapter  What Is Light? 5 chapter  The Camera—An Introduction 11 3.1 Introduction 11 3.2 The Camera Body 12 3.3 The Lens 13 3.4 Film and Sensors 15 3.5 Digital Camera Design 18 chapter  Images: What Is Perspective? 21 chapter  Why Does a Camera Need a Lens? 27 chapter  Elementary Optics: How Do Lenses Work? 31 viii contents chapter  The Simple Thin Lens and What it Does 37 7.1 Introduction 37 7.2 Optical Surfaces 38 7.3 Compound Lenses 40 7.4 Conclusion 41 chapter  How to Make Lenses that Are Good Enough for Photography 43 8.1 Introduction 43 8.2 Aberrations 46 8.3 The Petzval Sum 48 8.4 Optical Materials 49 8.5 Anti-Reflective Coatings 50 8.6 Conclusion 54 chapter  Coming to Terms with Real Camera Lenses 57 9.1 Introduction 57 9.2 The Thin Lens 58 9.3 The Compound lens 59 9.4 Gaussian Optics 60 9.5 Entrance Pupil, Stop, and Illumination of the Image 61 9.6 Vignetting 63 9.7 Metalenses and the New Optics of the 21st Century 65 9.8 Conclusion 66 chapter  Wide-Angle Lenses, Fisheye Lenses, and Panoramas 69 10.1 Introduction 69 10.2 Conventional or Rectilinear Lenses 72 10.3 Types of Fisheye Lenses 72 10.4 How Fisheye Lenses Accomplish Their Magic 72 10.5 Examples and Illustrations 74 10.6 Panoramas 76 10.7 Conclusions 82 chapter  What Is an Equivalent Image? 83 11.1 Introduction 83 11.2 Determinants of Image Appearance 84 11.3 Comments and Conclusions 88 chapter  How to Get Very High Magnification 91 12.1 Introduction 91 contents ix

12.2 Supplemental Lenses 95 12.3 Extension 97 12.4 Teleconverters (Tele-Extenders) for Cameras with Interchangeable Lenses 98 12.5 Afocal Teleconverters for Fixed Lens Cameras 100 12.6 Combinations of Lenses and Extenders for Real World Macrophotography 100 12.7 Special Problems Resulting from High Magnification 103 12.8 Lighting for Close-Up Nature Photography with High Shutter Speeds 103 12.9 The Optimum F-Number for Macrophotography 105 12.10 Expanding the Depth-of-Field 106 12.11 Conclusions 107 chapter  Do We Need Filters Anymore? 109 13.1 Introduction 109 13.2 Absorption Filters 110 13.3 Polarization Filters 115 13.4 Polarization in Nature 117 13.5 UV and IR Photography 122 chapter  The Limits of Human Vision 131 14.1 Introduction 131 14.2 Structure of the Eye 132 14.3 Operation of the Visual Receptors 133 14.4 Visual Acuity 135 14.5 Sensitivity 137 14.6 Conclusions 140 chapter  How Can Color Be Managed? 143 15.1 Introduction 143 15.2 Color Theories 146 15.3 Colorimetry 149 15.4 Color Spaces for Digital Photography 155 15.5 Color Management in the Tristimulus World 157 15.6 Goethe-Hering Theory 158 15.7 Monochrome and Monotone Images 160 15.8 Color Constancy and the Land Theory 161 15.9 Color Opponent Cells in the Retina and Brain 162 chapter  Image Capture and Processing 167 16.1 Introduction 167 16.2 Capturing Photons with Image Sensors 168 16.3 CCD and CMOS Image Sensors 168 x contents

16.4 Encoding of Color 169 16.5 How Film/Sensor Speed (ISO) Is Defined 172 16.6 How the Dynamic Range Is Determined 175 16.7 Exposure Settings for High Image Quality 178 16.8 Saving and Storing the Image 182 16.9 Image Processing and Manipulation 183 16.10 Artifacts Resulting from Inadequate Periodic Sampling 184 16.11 Gamma Correction 185 16.12 Capturing the LightField 186 16.13 Does the Sensor Really Determine the Resolution of My Digital Camera? 187 chapter  What Is Perceived Image Quality? 189 17.1 Introduction 189 17.2 Image Blurring and Softness 190 17.3 Focus 191 17.4 Camera Motion 191 17.5 Signal-to-Noise Ratios 192 17.6 Diffraction 192 17.7 Lens Performance 193 17.8 Sensor Resolution 196 17.9 Perceived Image Quality 199 17.10 Sharpening by Means of Image Processing 199 17.11 Contrast Sensitivity Function 200 17.12 Subjective Quality Factor 201 17.13 A Caveat 203 chapter  The Creation and Appreciation of Art in Photography 207 18.1 What Is a Good Photograph? 207 18.2 Art and Consciousness 209 18.3 How Images Are Perceived 211 18.4 Why Do Images Attract or Repel? 214 18.5 How Knowledge of the Visual System Can Enhance the Artist’s Bag of Tricks 218 18.6 Reflections on Art in Photography 221 chapter  What We See and How We Photograph It 223 appendices 231 A Historical Note on Enlargers 231 B What Is Behind the Rules of Optics? 233 C Derivation of the Lens Maker’s Equation 239 D Gaussian Optics and the Principal Planes 241 E A Macro Lens with Attachments 243 F Observing and Managing Color: Dealing with Color Vision Anomalies 245 contents xi

G Capturing Photons with Photographic Film 253 H Microelectronics and the Path to Digital Sensors 261 I Irradiance and Illuminance Units 265 J All about Depth-of-Field and Hyperfocal Distance 267 index 271

Preface to the First Edition

y love of photography started doing freelance photography (while still very early. As a teenager I in high school), I ordered a Rolleicord III Mworked in a small, full-service medium format camera. It served me well photography shop. Portraits were made, and is still functional. events were photographed, snapshots were From the beginning I was fascinated by developed and printed, and equipment was all aspects of photography. I love the equip­ sold. From that experience, I learned about ment, the techniques, the processing of photographic techniques and the value of images, and, of course, the chance to pho­ quality cameras and lenses. I started devel­ tograph interesting things. Photography oping and enlarging my own photographs, also provided a summer job and a door­ and I searched for ways to learn more. way to business and social interactions. Fortunately, I found the book Lenses in Photographs documenting those years Photography by Rudolf Kingslake in the pho­ reveal small-town life in the 1950s and a few tography shop, and I studied it diligently. I cheesecake pictures as well. My career as a still have that book and refer to it frequently. scientist and a university professor took me At that time (the 1950s) my uncle was serv­ away from photography for many years, but ing with the Air Force in Germany, and he in the past decade I have returned to that was able to buy fine cameras for me. First, early love. I spend a lot of time on nature I got a Zeiss Ikonta 35. It was bare bones, photography now, and I enjoy photo shoots with no rangefinder or light meter, but it with the Carolinas’ Nature Photographers had a wonderful Zeiss Tessar f/2.8 lens. It Association (CNPA). Of course, everything was great for documenting sports and other is digital so the chemical darkroom is no high school events. Later, when I started longer necessary. This has given me a new xiv preface to the first edition world of opportunities and an array of new photographers and other artists as well have subjects to understand. benefited from a knowledge of their media In my case, understanding the way pho­ and ways to get the most out of it; Ansel tography works has increased my enjoyment Adams comes to mind. In addition to mak­ of it. Each new question is a challenge. The ing awe-inspiring photographs, he wrote process of working through the concepts of technical books on cameras, negatives, photography, from basic optics and image and prints. To each his or her own, but I sensors to human perception of color and believe that in photography, as elsewhere, the appreciation of beauty, was an exhilarat­ knowledge is power. ing experience for me. I have written this I have worked on this book for four years, book for those who also enjoy photography trying the patience of my wife and friends. and who want to know more about their I appreciate comments from all those who photographic equipment, and the operation have read sections of it at various stages of of their eyes and brain as well. The book is its gestation. I am sure to leave out some specifically aimed at those who enjoy sci­ generous and helpful people, but here is at ence and are not afraid of a little math. Of least a partial list of those who have con­ course, perfectly good photographs can be tributed at various times with corrections made by those who have no interest in the and advice: John Fowler, Archibald Fripp, scientific side of photography. They see a Richard Jarnagin, and Calvin Wong. clean separation between the scientific part CHARLES S. JOHNSON, JR. and the artistic part, and they reject the sci­ CHAPEL HILL, 2009 entific part. On the other hand, some great Preface to the Second Edition

n the second edition, sections have extend the discussion of human percep­ been updated to reflect advances in tion and the eye/brain system. There are Icamera design and imaging technology. also new appendices that address color Also, more attention is paid to the practi­ management in the presence of color vision cal aspects of digital photography, such as anomalies and the derivation of depth-of­ camera settings, image formats, and photo field equations. processing, and the sections on panoramas I would like to thank Peter Finkelstein and UV/IR capture have been expanded. for his comments and corrections. A chapter concerning how we see and how we image nature has been added to

Permissions

Figure 1.2 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Daguerre#/media/File:Louis_Daguerre_2. jpg and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Fox_Talbot#/media/File:William_Henry_ Fox_Talbot,_by_John_Moffat,_1864.jpg Figure 2.2: 1698 painting. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:GodfreyKneller­ IsaacNewton-1689.jpg Figure 2.6: Photographer died in 1942. Public domain in US and Switzerland. https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Einstein_patentoffice_full.jpg Figure 15.14: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Grid_illusion.svg Figure 18.1: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lascaux_painting.jpg Figure 18.8: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Claude_Monet,_Impression,_ soleil_levant.jpg Figure 19.1: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Yarbus_The_Visitor.jpg Figure 19.2: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Grey_square_optical_illusion.svg Figure 19.5: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gustav_Klimt_046.jpg Figure F.1: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cone-response.svg

CHAPTER 1

What Is Photography?

The painter constructs, the photographer discloses. —SUSAN SONTAG

You don’t take a photograph, you make it. —ANSEL ADAMS

here are two sides to photography. 4th centuries BCE, respectively, although First, photography is the capture and apparently without an understanding of how Tdisplay of images by means of film it was accomplished. It is clear that scientists or an electronic sensor; and, second, pho­ in the Western world from at least the time tography is the art of taking and presenting of Leonardo da Vinci (c. 1490) were aware photographs. As commonly practiced, pho­ of the camera obscura, and at some point it tography is inseparable from cameras. Of was discovered that the image quality and course, photography means “writing with intensity could be improved by enlarging the light” and writing is really the operative aperture and inserting a convex lens of the word. When photography was discovered in appropriate focal length. The portable cam­ 1839, the thing that was discovered was the era obscura, a box with a lens on one side and means for permanently capturing images. some means of viewing the image, became Cameras of various kinds had, in fact, been popular with artists as an aid in represent­ available for centuries. ing perspective in paintings. For example, The original camera, known as the cam­ the 16th-century Dutch painter Johannes era obscura (see Figure 1.1), was nothing Vermeer (1632–1675) almost certainly used more than a dark room with a small hole a camera obscura to see the correct represen­ (aperture) in one wall and an inverted image tation of perspective for his paintings. By the on the opposite wall created by light rays 19th century these devices were essentially passing through the aperture. The wonderful box cameras without photographic film. image forming property of a small aperture In the early 19th century many indi­ was noted by the philosophers Mo-Ti in viduals were experimenting with sensitized China and Aristotle in Greece in the 5th and materials that would darken when exposed 2 chapter 

FIGURE 1.1. The camera obscura was used by Reinerus Gemma-Frisius in 1544 to observe an eclipse of the sun. to light to produce fleeting images, so proper 8 hour exposure on bitumen-coated pewter. credit for the invention of photography is However, photography, as we know it, dates diffuse and controversial. Probably the first from 1839, when two men independently permanent image from nature was obtained reported processes for capturing images by Nicéphore Niépce in 1926/1927 with an in the camera obscura. Their disclosures

FIGURE 1.2. Louis Mandé Daguerre (left) and Henry Fox Talbot (right). what is photography? 3 initiated explosive developments in image The termphotography may actually have making around the world. A Frenchman, been introduced earlier by an artist named Louis Mandé Daguerre, discovered a Hercules Florence working in Brazil in 1833. method for producing a permanent image Florence, who used sensitized paper to copy on a silver surface; while, in England, Henry drawings, did not report his work, and, as a Fox Talbot created permanent images on consequence, he had little influence on the paper treated with a mixture containing sil­ development of photography. ver chloride. In Daguerre’s images, the areas For the next 160 years, silver sensitized exposed to light and properly processed paper and film coupled with the negative/ were highly reflecting; and, therefore, there positive process dominated photography, was a natural (positive) appearance, though, and it was only after the year 2000 that of course, without color (monochrome). photoelectric sensors and powerful, yet inex­ These images, which were called daguer­ pensive, computers challenged film-based rotypes, unfortunately could not easily be photography. Replacing film with sensors reproduced. However, the striking images and computer memory has not yet basically obtained by Daguerre were an instant hit, changed photography; however, computer and most contemporaries considered him manipulation of images has turned out to be to be the inventor of photography. (See a revolutionary development. Even the few Figure 1.2.) images still captured on film are now rou­ In marked contrast, Talbot’s images were tinely scanned into computers and digitized initially unpleasing because the (bright) so that they are also subject to modifica­ exposed areas were found to be dark on tion and easy reproduction and printing. If the paper. In other words, a negative image computer image manipulations were limited was produced. However, that turned out to the types of things that photographers to be a great advantage because the nega­ were already doing in the darkroom to cor­ tive could be combined with another sheet rect exposure, hold back or burn in areas, of sensitized paper and exposed to light to change contrast, etc., there would be no fun­ produce a positive copy, and that procedure damental change in photography. But now could be repeated to produce multiple cop­ the changes can be so extensive and sub­ ies. Of course, paper is translucent rather tle that the boundaries of photography are than transparent, and it was not until the continuously being tested. 1850s that transparent negatives could be It has been said that photographers obtained. reveal, while artists create. Software for Apparently, the astronomer Johann manipulating photographic images and Heinrich von Madler coined the term even creating realistic images from scratch photography in 1839 when he combined is fundamentally changing this equation. the Greek words for “light” and “to write.” Illustrators, using computer graphics, have However, the terms photography and almost unlimited ability to produce real­ photograph are usually attributed to Sir istic images of any type. Photojournalists, John Herschel, who included them in a on the other hand, must have their crea­ paper that he read to the Royal Society of tive inclinations severely limited by a London in 1839. Herschel deserves credit code of professional ethics and perhaps by for advancing photographic science by authentication software that can spot even discovering how to stabilize silver images. microscopic changes in digital images. 4 chapter 

Anyone who has viewed recent movies some photographs, but it must be tested knows that amazing things can be done to and verified by wise readers and observers. produce realistic images of things that never Questions raised by the concepts of existed. The opening scenes in The Day reality and truth in visual images are much After Tomorrow show a flight over ocean, more complex than may be thought. Later ice, and cliffs in Antarctica. It is beautiful in the book I discuss the operation of the and impressive. How was it done? A heli­ human visual system and its relation to our copter flight over those remote areas would awareness of the world. It is fair to say that be costly and dangerous, so the producer our eyes and brain create the illusion of a decided to create the scenes entirely with full-color, three-dimensional world. It is computer graphics. And what about the an illusion because the images projected magnificent scenes in the epic Troy? Does on the retinas of our eyes do not provide anyone believe that 1000 or even 100 ships enough information for the construction were constructed, or that 75,000 Greek of a unique world view. The brain fills in warriors took part in the battle? Computer- details based on a sort of automatic infer­ generated imagery (CGI) has certainly come ence system that is influenced by both the of age as we can enjoy 3D spectacles such evolution of the human brain and the expe­ as the movie The Life of Pi, mostly created rience of the individual. The result is that by Rhythm & Hues Studios, and wonder we see, at first glance, pretty much what we which scenes were actually photographed expect to see. One should also realize that in nature. We may enjoy the endless pos­ digital cameras basically compute pictures sibilities for image making, but we can no from captured light. The computation is not longer (if ever we did) believe in what the straightforward, and there is a lot of room images show. for “enhancement” of the final image. The So, ultimately, what is photography? new field of computational photography Does it matter that wrinkles can be removed is influencing the images produced by our from faces and heads can even be switched? cameras and the special effects we see in Do we care if it is easy to move an alligator movies. It is an interesting time to be alive from a zoo to a natural area or a humming­ and maybe a little disturbing as well. bird from a feeder to a flower? Some gullible observers may still marvel at how such “dif­ Further Reading ficult” photographs could be obtained. We are seeing the emergence of a new art form, Peres, M. R., Editor (2007). FOCAL but I am not sure where that leaves pho­ Encyclopedia of Photography. Amsterdam: tography. Will “pure” photography remain Elsevier. An extensive coverage of theory, when everyone has an incentive to improve applications, and science, but uneven and the images they obtain and it is so easy to already dated. do even in camera? Is there any merit in Rosenblum, N. (1997). A World History maintaining photography with minimum of Photography, 3rd Ed. New York: manipulation for recording the world as Abbeville Press. A tour of photography it is? The future will tell. In fact, “truth” is from 1839 through the film era, includ­ found in some novels and paintings and in ing both art and the technical details. What Is Photography? Peres, M. R. , Editor (2007). FOCAL Encyclopedia of Photography. Amsterdam: Elsevier. An extensive coverage of theory, applications, and science, but uneven and already dated. Rosenblum, N. (1997). A World History of Photography, 3rd Ed. New York: Abbeville Press. A tour of photography from 1839 through the film era, including both art and the technical details.

Images: What Is Perspective? Kingslake, R. (1951). Lenses in Photography. Rochester, NY: Case-Hoyt Corp., chap. 1. Solso, R. L. (1994). Cognition and the Visual Arts. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, chap. 8.

Why Does a Camera Need a Lens? Grepstad, J. , Pinhole Photography: http://jongrepstad.com/pinhole_photography/

The Simple Thin Lens and What it Does Bi-Convex lenses , Interactive JAVA Tutorial: http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/lens/bi-convex.html Fowles, G. R. (1989) Introduction to Modern Optics, 2nd Ed. New York: Dover Publ. Ronchi, V. (1991). Optics: The Science of Vision. New York: Dover Publ.

How to Make Lenses that Are Good Enough for Photography Kingslake, R. (1951). Lenses in Photography. Rochester, NY: Case-Hoyt Corp., chap. 4. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page. Gateway to most of the terms used here. For the most part it is reliable for scientific information, but use with a critical eye. When in doubt check other sources.

Coming to Terms with Real Camera Lenses Jacobson, R. E. , Ray, S. F. , Attridge, G. G. , and Axford, N. R. (2000). The Manual of Photography – Photographic and Digital Imaging. Oxford: Focal Press, chaps. 4 and 5. Kingslake, R. (1951). Lenses in Photography. Rochester, NY: Case-Hoyt Corp., chap. 4.

Wide-Angle Lenses, Fisheye Lenses, and Panoramas Fisheye lens: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisheye_lens Kingslake, R. (1989). A History of the Photographic Lens. New York: Academic Press, chap. 10, pp. 145–149. Woeste, H. (2008). Mastering Digital Panoramic Photography. Santa Barbara: Rocky Nook.

What Is an Equivalent Image? Fowles, G. R. (1975). Introduction to Modern Optics, 2nd Ed. New York: Dover Publ. Kingslake, R. (1951). Lenses in Photography. Rochester, NY: Case-Hoyt Corp. Sensors: See Glossary in: http://www.dpreview.com/glossary How to Get Very High Magnification Canon Workshop Series (1996). Close-Up & Macro Photography. Lake Success, NY: Canon USA, Inc., Camera Division. Publ. Code No. 9-01700. A classic, but somewhat dated. Covington, M. A. (1999). Astrophotography for the Amateur, 2nd Ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This book covers afocal coupling of lenses to telescopes. Frankel, F. (2002). Envisioning Science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Photography of small inanimate objects. Gerlach, J. and Gerlach, B. (2014). Close Up Photography in Nature. New York: Focal Press. One of many recent books on close-up photography. Shaw, J. (1987). John Shaw’s Closeups in Nature. New York: AMPHOTO.

Do We Need Filters Anymore? Feynman, R. P. , Leighton, R. B. , and Sand, M. (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol. I. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, Section 33-3; Vol. II, chap. 33. A discussion of polarization for students of physics. Fowles, G. R. (1989). Introduction to Modern Optics, 2nd Ed. New York: Dover Publ. A good modern optics text. Land, E. H. (1951). Some Aspects of the Development of Sheet Polarizers. Journal of the Optical Society of America, 41(12), p. 55. Dr. Land discusses the history of polarizers. Lynch, D. K. and Livingston, W. (2001). Color and Light in Nature, 2nd Ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. This is a beautiful and fascinating book.

The Limits of Human Vision Fulton, J. T. (2009). Standardized Human Eye: http://neuronresearch.net/vision/standeye.htm. Every fact you can imagine about the physical properties of the eye. Hubel, D. H. (1995). Eye, Brain, and Vision (Scientific American Library No. 22). New York: W. H. Freeman. Kolb, H. , Fernandez, E. , and Nelson, R. (2007). Webvision, The Organization of the Retina and Visual System: http://webvision.med.utah.edu/. Great overview and wonderful illustrations. Visual Acuity: http://webvision.med.utah.edu/KallSpatial.html. Everything about acuity, including eye charts and intensity effects. Wandell, B. A. (1995). Foundations of Vision. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Assoc., Inc.

How Can Color Be Managed? Color Space Conversion: http://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/color-space-conversion.htm Color Temperature: http://www.handprint.com/HP/WCL/color12.html Gouras, P. (2009). Color Vision: http://webvision.med.utah.edu/color.html Kandel, E. (2016). Reductionism in Art and Brain Science, Bringing the Two Cultures. New York: Columbia University Press. Lennie, P. (2000). Color Vision: Putting it Together. Current Biology, 10(16), pp. R589–R591. The Perception of Color: http://webvision.med.utah.edu/KallColor.html Williamson, S. J. , and Cummins, H. Z. (1983). Light and Color in Nature. New York: Wiley. Zeki, S. (1993). A Vision of the Brain. Oxford: Blackwell Science Ltd. Zeki, S. (1999). Inner Vision, An Exploration of Art and the Brain. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Image Capture and Processing Butler, R. , What’s that Noise? Part One: Shedding Some Light on the Sources of Noise: http://www.dpreview.com/articles/8189925268/what-s-that-noise-shedding-some-light-on-the-sources-of-noise Butler, R. and Rishi Sanyal, R. , Sources of Noise Part Two: Electronic Noise: http://www.dpreview.com/articles/0388507676/sources-of-noise-part-two-electronic-noise

What Is Perceived Image Quality? Palmer, S. E. (1999). Vision Science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, chap. 4. This book contains everything you might want to know about the performance of the human visual system at least up to 1999. White, L. (1990). Subjective Quality Factor. Popular Photography, November, pp. 68–75. Williams, J. B. (1990). Image Clarity: High-Resolution Photography. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann. This classic text is now dated because of its emphasis on film.

References Feynman, R. P. (1958). QED: The Strange Story of Light and Matter. Princeton: Princeton University Press Taylor, E. F. , Vokos, S. , O’Meara, J. M. , and Thornber, N. S. (1998). Teaching Feynman’s Sum-Over-Paths Quantum Theory. Computers in Physics, 12(2), pp. 190–199. Matsugasaki, S. (1991). Lippmann Color Photography. Journal of Optics, 22(6), pp. 267–273. Peres, M. R. , Editor (2007). FOCAL Encyclopedia of Photography, 4th Ed. Burlington, MA: Focal Press. Rosenblum, N. A. (1997). World History of Photography, 3rd Ed. New York: Abbeville Press Publishing. Schwall, R. E. , and Zimmerman, P. D. (1970). Lippmann Color Photography for the Undergraduate Laboratory. American Journal of Physiology, 38(11), pp. 1345–1349. Williamson, S. J. , and Cummins, H. Z. (1983). Light and Color in Nature and Art. New York: Wiley and Sons.