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Kurdish Hizbullah in Turkey State Crime Series Editors: Penny Green and Tony Ward

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Kurdish Hizbullah in Turkey State Crime Series Editors: Penny Green and Tony Ward Kurdish Hizbullah in Turkey State Crime Series Editors: Penny Green and Tony Ward Pluto’s State Crime series is dedicated to understanding state crime, showcasing the best of new state crime scholarship. This is work which challenges official and legal definitions of crime, but on any reasonable definition (whether based on national and international law or a concept such as social harm) crimes condoned, committed or instigated by states dwarf most other forms of crime. Genocide, war crimes, torture, and the enormous scale of corruption that afflicts nations such as Turkey, the focus of this volume, make everyday crimes against the persons and property of European citizens appear almost trivial. This series grows out of the International State Crime Initiative’s work on advancing our understanding of state violence and corruption and of resistance to them. The series is driven by a new and sophisticated wave of state crime scholarship; one in which theoretical development drawing on a variety of social scientific traditions is informed by courageous and rigorous empirical research. Also available: State Crime: Governments, Violence and Corruption Penny Green and Tony Ward State Crime on the Margins of Empire: Rio Tinto, the War on Bougainville and Resistance to Mining Kristian Lasslett Kurdish Hizbullah in Turkey Islamism, Violence and the State Mehmet Kurt First published 2015 by İletişim Publishing, Turkey First English language edition published 2017 by Pluto Press 345 Archway Road, London N6 5AA www.plutobooks.com Copyright © Mehmet Kurt 2017 The right of Mehmet Kurt to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 978 0 7453 9934 8 Hardback ISBN 978 1 7868 0037 4 PDF eBook This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental standards of the country of origin. Typeset by Stanford DTP Services, Northampton, England Simultaneously printed in the United Kingdom and United States of America Contents Preface to the English Translation vii Acknowledgements ix Introduction 1 1 Historical Overview of Hizbullah 9 Theory, data, and methodology 9 The historical and sociological conditions of Hizbullah’s emergence 12 Imagining the ummah from the provinces: the establishment of Hizbullah 16 Ten years of violence 31 Hizbullah’s ‘transformation’ from armed organisation to social movement 39 2 The ‘Grounded’ Dimensions of Hizbullah as Islamist Organisation and Social Movement 57 Hizbullah, the individual, and daily life 57 Social segregation, minimal homogeneities, and the language of violence 77 Group belonging, religious ideology, and ethnic identity: different forms of identity within Hizbullah 93 Theoretical abstractions and conclusions 111 3 The Construction of Social Memory in the Stories and Novels of Hizbullah 115 Social memory, history, and discourse 115 Uncle Bekir, Xalet, and others: the culture of devotion and the fedais of Islam 121 ‘Şehadet (martyrdom) is a call to the generations, to the ages’: the cult of martyrdom in the discourse of Hizbullah 125 Mürtet, tağut, and the Jew: the representation of Hizbullah’s ‘others’ in stories and novels 127 vi . kurdish hizbullah in turkey Hizbullah self-perception and self-representation in stories and novels 131 Medrese-i Yusufiye: the representation of prison and prison identity 134 Conclusion 140 Appendix: The Text of the Written Interview with Hizbullah Officials 149 Notes 162 Bibliography 179 Index 185 Preface to the English Translation This book was first published in 2015 in Turkish by İletişim Publishing. It is the first ethnographic study written about the Kurdish Hizbullah. This study constitutes a sociological and historical analysis of the 35 year-long period from Hizbullah’s emergence as an illegal underground organisation in 1979 until the time of writing, when Hizbullah had been legally active for ten years, represented by a legion of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and its affiliated political party Hüda-Par. The data used in the book consist of in-depth interviews and oral history narratives gathered in 2013–14 during the field research I carried out at the Department of Sociology, Selçuk University. Hizbullah emerged with the objective of overthrowing the regime in Turkey – which it considered non-Islamic and thus illegitimate – and establishing a Sharia-based Islamic state in its place. Despite that, Hizbullah has not once targeted the Turkish state since its establishment and even positioned itself as a paramilitary force alongside the Turkish state in the first half of the 1990s when the fighting between the PKK and the Turkish state was at its most intense. Hizbullah disintegrated after the death of its leader and seizure of its archive as a result of a police operation in a villa in Beykoz, Istanbul, on 17 January 2000. Hüda-Par’s programme featured many elements in common with that of Hizbullah’s rival HDP/BDP vis-à-vis the Kurdish issue in Turkey. However, this was reversed as a result of the Kobanê protests in 2014, where Hizbullah and PKK supporters engaged in armed clashes and people from both parties were killed. The Şeyh Said Seriyyeleri (Sheikh Said Brigades), the armed wing of ‘civil’ Hizbullah, emerged during this period. As an organisation that emerged as a small provincial group of devotees before transforming into an organization that murdered its Kurdish opponents and rivals by horrific methods, and finally entering civil society by means of hundreds of associations and a political party, the case of Hizbullah offers valuable information concerning waves of violence based on religion, identity, power, and nation in the Middle East. I believe this book also constitutes a good entrance point in viii . kurdish hizbullah in turkey forming an understanding of the patterns of similar organisations in the continuously destabilising Middle East. The analyses of visual data, which comprise the last chapter of the Turkish edition of the book, have not been included in the English translation. The rest of the book remains unaltered in the present edition, except for footnotes added for the benefit of people who are not acquainted with Turkish politics or unfamiliar with Islamic terminology. Although developments following the Kobanê protests in 2014 offer much data supporting the main arguments put forward in this book, the period in question has not been incorporated into this study. Acknowledgements This book was developed from my doctoral dissertation, ‘Religion, Violence, and Belonging: A Sociological Study of Hizbullah in Turkey’, at the Department of Sociology, Selçuk University. Many individuals offered assistance and support during the several years I spent writing my dissertation and, subsequently, this book. First, I extend my sincere gratitude to my doctoral supervisors Mustafa Aydın and Marcia Inhorn for their unwavering support from the inception of this study until its publication. I am greatly indebted to Ramazan Yelken and Mahmut Kubilay Akman for their constant faith in my research and their support and advice. The preparation of the English edition of the book would not have been possible without the generous Newton Advanced Fellowship grant provided by the British Academy. I want to express my deep and sincere gratitude to Penny Green, without whose support I would not have been able to publish the English edition of my book and continue my postdoctoral studies on the subject. I also thank Tony Ward and Alex Pillen for their valuable feedback on the manuscript of this book. In addition, thanks are due to the Inter- national State Crime Initiative (ISCI) team, especially Fatima Kanji and Louise Wise for their technical and logistic support. I am ever grateful to Ruşen Çakır, H. Neşe Özgen, Fatma Müge Göcek, Mehmet Özyürek, Adnan Fırat, Yeşim Mutlu, Adnan Çelik, Hande Özkan, and all my other colleagues, friends, and students who gave their opinions, discussed my work with me, and offered valuable feedback. It has been an absolute privilege to work with the Pluto Press team, especially Anne Beech and Neda Tehrani and I thank them for their concern and support. I am grateful to my good friend and translator of the book N. Argun Çakır for his exceptionally meticulous work and insightful suggestions. Thanks are due to all my informants, whose names I cannot divulge for security reasons, for opening up their worlds to me and making this study possible. Some analyses in the book may not correspond to the x . kurdish hizbullah in turkey opinions they expressed in our interviews. However, I am confident that they will see that I have used the information they provided within the framework of scientific ethics. Mardin, 2016 Introduction Mehmet Kurt – You were Hizbullahçı,1 then who were we? (laughing) Sermest – You were punks (berduş)! (laughing) Mehmet Kurt – So why were you going to fight the punks? Sermest – There were tensions. We had received orders. They had said ‘tread on their dead bodies’. Even I had prepared myself. We tried to lure you into the school. But there was teacher X; because he was there you did not want to fight in the school. So the plan went like this. A group of us were in the schoolyard; it was only a few of us waiting there. Another group were in the backyard. The rest of the team were all in the halls. The incident was going to go down like this: those in the schoolyard were going to get into a fight with you. Then, pretending to be losing the fight, they were going to start running away toward the backyard of the halls. When you attacked them, the group in the backyard were going to come down from the top, the ones in the halls were going to come out and trap you at the stairs going down to the halls.
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