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Diversification booklet number 9

Sheep and for diverse products and profits

Geoff Pollott and R. Trevor Wilson

Rural Infrastructure and Agro-Industries Division Food and Organization of the United Nations Rome 2009 The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this information product do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) concerning the legal or development status of any country, , city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers, whether or not these have been patented, does not imply that these have been endorsed or recommended by FAO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

All rights reserved. and dissemination of material in this information product for educational or other non-commercial purposes are authorized without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Reproduction of material in this information product for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders. Applications for such permission should be addressed to: Chief Electronic Publishing Policy and Support Branch Communication Division FAO Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00153 Rome, or by e-mail to: [email protected]

© FAO 2009 Preface v Acknowledgements vii

Contribution of sheep and goats to sustainable livelihoods 1

Market opportunities 5 Growth in market demand for small and their products 5

Benefits of keeping sheep and goats 7 Outputs from small production 7 Dietary contribution of and milk products 8 Benefits at the household level 10

Benefits to the farming system 12 of contents Table National benefits 15

Inputs to small ruminant production systems 17 Using the right species and breed 17 Sources for replenishing stock 17 Keeping healthy 18 Supplying adequate feed and water 18 as a way of using local feeds 19 Using local materials to make livestock housing and equipment 21 Labour needs 22 Preserving livestock products 22 Adding value to livestock products 23

Support services for small ruminant production 27 Sustainable services for all 27 Access to technical and commercial information, loans and credit 29 Veterinary services 30 Access to technologies and training 31 Input supply chains 31 Markets for produce 31 Transport 32 Potential for establishing cooperatives and women’s groups 32 Food safety regulations 32 Challenges and opportunities 35

Selected further reading 37 Sources of further information and support 41

Table of contents the introductionof newincome-generatingactivities. To assistinthisrespect, support, soastoprovide farmeradvisoryandsupport activitiesrelatingto to doit’ guidelines. Readerswillneedtoseekmoreinformationortechnical TheFAO Diversificationbooklets are notintendedtobetechnical‘how small-scale farmerstodiversifyintonew income-generatingactivities? What actionsmightpolicy-makerstake tocreateenablingenvironmentsfor programme managersingovernment andnon-governmentalorganizations. TheFAO Diversification bookletsarealsotargeted topolicy-makers and ‘success factors’? benefits? What arefarmerrequirementsandconstraints? What arecritical these mightenablesmall-scalefarmerstotakeaction. What arethepotential service providerstoconsidernewincome-generatingopportunitiesandhow countries. Itishopedthatenoughinformationgiventohelpthesesupport poor small-scalefarmersandlocalcommunitiesinlow-middle-income that provideadvisory, businessandtechnicalsupportservicestoresource- Themaintarget audienceforthesebookletsarepeopleandorganizations local marketandarenotdependentonanexportmarket. enterprises aresuitableformeetingdemandonagrowing,oralreadystrong, exposure toriskandcomplexity. The products orservicesgeneratedbythe for smallholderfarmersintermsofresourcerequirements,additionalcosts, enterprises profiledintheFAO Diversificationbookletsselectedaresuitable integrated intosmallfarmstoincreaseincomesandenhancelivelihoods. The Eachbookletfocusesona farmornon-farmenterprisethatcanbe community leveltoincreasetheincomesofsmall-scalefarmers. provide decisionsupportinformationaboutopportunitiesatfarmandlocal The purposeoftheFAO Diversificationbookletsistoraiseawarenessand Preface v

Sheep and goats for diverse products and profits each booklet identifies additional sources of information, technical support and website addresses. A CD has been prepared with a full series of FAO Diversification booklets and relevant FAO technical guides, together with complementary guides on market research, financing, business planning, etc. Copies of the CD are available on request from FAO. FAO Diversification booklets can also be downloaded from the FAO Internet site. If you find this booklet of value, we would like to hear from you. Tell your colleagues and friends about it. FAO would welcome suggestions about possible changes for enhancing our next edition or regarding relevant topics for other booklets. By sharing your views and ideas with us we can provide better services to you.

vi design andlayoutofthebookletsdesktoppublishing. managed thepost-productionphaseofseries.FabioRicciundertook the of thebooklets.MartinHilmiprovidedbothtechnicalandeditorialinputs technical supportandguidance,bothduringthedevelopmentfinalization of theseries.ClareBishop-Sambrook,principaleditorseries,provided patience, commitment,andcontributionstotheproductionpost-production are alsoduetoJosefKienzle, Agro-Industries Officer, AGS, FAO, forhis support inthedevelopmentofFAO Diversificationbookletseries. Thanks Industries Division(AGS),FAO, forhisvision,encouragementandconstant Gratitude isowedtoDoyleBaker, Chief,RuralInfrastructureand Agro- Acknowledgements fortheseries booklet. Division (AGS),FAO, forprovidingdetailedreviewsandcommentsonthe Röttger, Economist,RuralInfrastructureand Agro-Industries Gratitude isowedtoFlorence Tratanac, Agro-industries Officer, and Alexandra Acknowledgements vii

Sheep and goats for diverse products and profits

Contribution of sheep and goats to sustainable livelihoods

Almost three billion people, or almost ruminants. Small-scale keep half of the world’s population, live on small ruminants for both subsistence less than US$2 per day. More than 1.2 and economic reasons and, in billion of these, or about 20 percent either role, they generally improve of the world population, live on less household livelihoods, but they have than US$1 per day. Poverty is largely, the capability to do much more. Small but by no means only, a phenomenon ruminants contribute to landless, rural of the rural areas. Effective poverty farming, peri-urban and increasingly reduction measures can only be to urban households by providing successful if the livelihoods of the food, heat, income, socio-cultural rural poor can be improved. wealth and clothing (see Figure 1). Sheep and goats belong to the They also make important indirect group of called small contributions to households through Sheep and goats for diverse products profits

FIGURE 1 Contributions to welfare ( in Aranghai Province, , that will be cured for home use and for sale as winter clothing) (Photo by R. T. Wilson)

1 FIGURE 2 Boy hearding goats in Niger (Photo: © FAO/23786/R. Lemoyne)

the use of crop by-products, farming systems. The species of integration with other farming reared (sheep or goats or enterprises, use of household wastes both) in smallholder systems differ and locally grown vegetation, soil by region, country, and ethnic and improvements and their roles religious groups. Their grazing in the social, cultural and religious preferences enable them to feed on aspects of everyday life. In particular , shrubs and other plants that they contribute to the empowerment other species of domestic animals of women and of children who tend to refuse. Their small size means often have responsibility for the they require less space than larger management, production and health animals and they are less likely to of small ruminants (see Figure 2). At damage and compact soils. They the regional and national level, sheep are easier to work with than large and goats contribute to supplying ruminants and are cheaper to buy and markets with food and non-food maintain. Moreover, under the right products with export-earning and conditions, they can be quite prolific, import-saving potential. but this fact is not well known. The Small ruminants, such as sheep range of products produced by small and goats, fit well into smallholder ruminants is easy to market because

2 their animalsmoreeffectively and for smalllivestockkeeperstouse there areconsiderableopportunities their productivepotential.Hence, scavenging, therebylosingalotof level, theyoftensurviveby and foodsecurity. At thehousehold women, othermarginalized groups livelihoods, theempowermentof the economy, ruralandperi-urban to overlooktheircontributions makers andadministrationtend goats isoftennotrealized.Policy- world, thepotentialofsheepand distributed widelythroughoutthe Although theseanimalsare demand ishigh,yetlargely unfulfilled.

toidentifytherangeofsupport • toidentifythekeyinputsinto • tohighlightthebenefitsof • threefold: Hencetheaimofthisbookletis range ofsupportservices. underpinned byacomprehensive contribution toimprovedlivelihoods, efficiently, andthusincreasetheir challenges ofserviceprovision. services requiredandthe to improveproductivity; smallholder livestocksystems keeping sheepandgoats; 3

Sheep and goats for diverse products and profits

Market opportunities

Growth in market demand in to create more sustainable for small ruminants farming systems. The rise in demand and their products for livestock products is commonly The huge demand that is predicted associated with higher levels of to arise for livestock products in disposable income and an increasing the first quarter of the 21st century, level of sophistication amongst driven almost entirely by population consumers. In such a situation, growth, rising incomes and increasing consumer demand for livestock urbanization in developing countries, products will increasingly be based presents an opportunity for small on quality as well as supply regularity livestock producers. They can exploit at a reasonable . Low these markets in order to increase may not be so critical in success as their income, employment and social disposable incomes rise. Successful development and to improve the small enterprises will need to sustainability of their . Most of know what the market requires and the increased demand will be in the be able to respond to it. Traditional larger, and still expanding, towns and markets may well continue to exist, cities and this will be of particular but these new markets represent a benefit to peri-urban farmers. challenge to small farmers who will Wherever the farms are located, the need to be well organized to capitalize successful marketing of products will on these additional opportunities. be critical. The ability to respond to market A key factor in any marketing demands is an important factor in

chain, and often overlooked by being able to make the most of new Sheep and goats for diverse products profits farmers, is consumer needs and the and expanding market outlets. This choices available to them. Producers may be in terms of the type of product must provide what is required required or for the quality standards by consumers, otherwise prices desired by new consumers of animal are likely to be low or goods will products. If small farmers want to remain unsold. Although this sounds respond to such consumer demands obvious, it needs to be addressed they may need to change the species

5 of livestock they keep as well as the and increased sustainability that products derived from them. They will follow. If farmers lack the skills may also need to change the methods required to make such an operation of processing and marketing that work effectively, an entrepreneurial they typically use. Farmers should marketing system may be a more be encouraged to adapt their farming efficient and effective operation, systems to meet consumer needs, but farmers will lose control over but will require policy and practical the pricing and marketing of their support to enable them to achieve products once they leave the farm. these changes. This may take the Innovative forms of linking producers form of training, credit, additional to markets, such as the formation of services or advice which should be strategic alliances between farmers, delivered with the target group clearly processors and supermarket chains, identified. are further options to be considered. While traditional markets in rural The nature of the product will areas will continue to be important, influence the type of marketing more modern outlets including system needed. Highly perishable supermarkets are likely to be the products transported to distant prime mechanism for delivery to markets will require a much greater meet the increased urban demand. investment in infrastructure than less In these circumstances, it is unlikely perishable products (for example, that individual small farmers will be fresh milk in comparison with salted able to respond to demand on their meat). Integrated marketing chains own. The creation of cooperative or including food processing and supply joint marketing ventures seems the to the retailer may be necessary for most likely way forward. These may and meat products. The more be owned by the farmers themselves sophisticated the supply chain, the or operated by entrepreneurs with more removed farmers are likely the necessary infrastructure and to become from the selling process. experience to make them work. Although well-trained professional -owned cooperatives have staff may be more effective in such the advantage that the farmers operations, it may represent additional themselves are in control of the risks to individual small farmers and operation and will benefit directly may make their farms less sustainable from the increased income streams in the long-term.

6 Benefits of keeping sheep and goats

Outputs from small ruminant hair (including mohair) and production and other minor ones. Economic The outputs from small ruminant and environmental benefits are animals can be grouped into products, derived from dung (which improves by-products, and indirect and soil fertility and structure) and from intangible benefits (see Table 1). nutrient recycling. Indirect benefits, Immediate products include meat representing those benefits that are and milk and their processed not the primary purpose for keeping products such as , and the animals, include control.

Table 1 Benefits from small ruminants

Products By-products Indirect benefits Intangible benefits

Reduction and spread of risk Meat from crop operations

Manure as Generation and accumulation Milk of capital

Generation of income and Skins smoothing out cash flow Weed control Fulfilling social, cultural Fibre and religious needs and

obligations Sheep and goats for diverse products profits Dung as fuel Providing status or prestige Horns and for biogas production in the immediate community

Use in sport, culture and recreation

7 Perhaps of equal importance are more varied and healthier diet than the notional outputs of wealth, status, that obtained from a pure crop system. security and the even less tangible Meat and milk and their processed social benefits of empowerment, self- products provide a more interesting esteem, pride and social interaction nutritional regime for the household and inclusion which small stock can and also supply the minor but essential engender (see Case Study 1). In many nutrients ( and vitamins) as societies livestock also have religious well as the major nutrients (protein and cultural significance. and energy) in the form of fats and . Dietary contribution of meat and Animal products that are edible milk products can contribute significantly to the Small ruminants (as indeed all improvement of household health and animals) provide the potential for a are particularly valuable for children.

CASE STUDY 1 Sheep as an economic and cultural asset in Mexico

In the Tzotzil area of Chiapas, Mexico, sheep husbandry is culturally linked to the responsibilities of the female head of the household. The sheep are kept primarily for wool production, but play a secondary role in other agricultural and cultural aspects of the household. Wool production is traditionally linked to clothes production and is associated with a considerable amount of indigenous knowledge both in sheep husbandry and in processing wool.

Sheep husbandry has a direct impact on annual household income. Tzotzil women generate direct income through the sale of sheep, fleeces, woollen clothes, woollen handicrafts and . Sheep also increase crop yields in manure-fertilized cropland, which results in increased income when the crops are sold. Sheep represent 30 percent of total income in Tzotzil .

Fleeces produced in the household, plus some bought in the market, are hand- processed into traditional Tzotzil clothes for the family. Fleeces are washed and carded, spun using a spindle, and woven by means of an ancient back-strap loom. These activities may not represent an economic use of resources, but the cultural output is a key factor in this system and sheep play an important role in this context.

Toztil women have developed their own system for measuring wool production, using subjective estimates of greasy fleece volume and quality, which correspond well with the more objective measures used in the commercial wool industry. Wool has cultural meaning, social importance and economic implications in this society. Any interventions targeting sheep husbandry have to take all these factors into account.

8 in stapledietsrelying largely on compensates fordeficiencies arising of aminoacids in meatusually high qualityprotein. The composition Meat anditsproductsaresourcesof Meat andmeatby-products diet intensifies. for amorevariedandhigherquality as incomesincreaseandthedemand will comefromdevelopingcountries the mainsourceoffuturedemand role ofanimalproductsinthediet, regional differences regardingthe Although thereareconsiderable of theproteineatenbypeople. percent oftheenergy and32percent Animal productssupplyabout17 percent) shouldbeofanimalorigin. grams dailyofwhich34(40 protein intakeforanadultis85.9 Therecommendedtotalminimum to mentaldevelopment. extend notonlytophysicalbutalso and developmentinchildrenthat also leadstodisturbancesingrowth disease. A restrictedproteinintake of thebodywhichpredisposesitto in adults,andageneralweakening high infantmortality, a fairlygoodtotalcalorieintake), inadequate proteinintakedespite in children(malnutritioncausedby in ahighincidenceofKwashiorkor Low animalproteinintakecanresult quality proteininthehumandiet. Animal productsprovidethebest almost everyone. these casesandis welltoleratedby is oftenasubstitute forcowmilkin the milkofotherspecies. bovine milk,butmanyareabletouse intolerant oflactose,especiallyin animal issmall.Somepeopleare even thoughproductionperindividual major sourceofmilkforthefamily systems, goatsandsheeparethe in manysmallmixedcroplivestock Inmanynomadic societiesand vitamin D. carotene, whichistheprecursorof (riboflavin andthiamine)of and someotherBcomplexvitamins source ofvitaminC,B12 in milk.Milkisalsousuallyagood and traceelementsarealsopresent formation. Potassium,phosphorus are importantforgrowthandbone dietary proteinandcalcium,which Milk isanimportantsourceof suitable forhumanconsumption. of domesticatedanimalisgenerally species. The milkofmanyspecies or ‘baby’ foodofallmammal human nutrition.Itistheneonatal Milk isafundamentalproductin Milk anddairyproducts sources ofsomegroupBvitamins. of zinc. These productsarealsorich in additiontoassistingtheabsorption absorption ofironfromotherfoods, is easilyabsorbedandassistswiththe cereals. Meatalsosuppliesironthat 9

Sheep and goats for diverse products and profits In addition to its value as a food, activity, not only in terms of access to milk has (and is often considered to food and cash (this may be their only have) medicinal properties. In some source of cash), but also through more societies, and for some species of subtle changes in their status. This animal, milk is also believed to have may arise from the empowerment magical properties. conferred on managers of livestock, and the sense of purpose and cultural Benefits at the household level identity that may follow, for example, through participating in training and Income and food security extension activities. The presence of sheep and goats around the home or garden can Special role in poverty alleviation provide immediate daily food Small ruminants contribute to the particularly in the form of milk and livelihoods of all their owners, but its products. Small ruminants not only particularly to the poor and otherwise provide food security through ready marginalized groups including the accessibility, but they also increase chronically sick or families that have the diversity of food and cash sources been affected by sickness (see Case and thus reduce the risk that might Study 2). This is achieved by: otherwise be associated with limited food and cash supplies. • providing food and other products Small livestock also improve directly to their owners; household assets by providing fuel, • being one of the few assets clothing and additional sources of readily available to the poor thus income. For example, value can be being crucial in maintaining added to meat by preservation and household survival during crisis; making better use of by-products • acting as an important component including the offal for food, intestines of farming systems through for sausage skins and various organs increasing the diversity of in or as traditional or production, lowering risk, and modern medical products. reducing fluctuations in cash flow especially in harsh environments; Empowering women and children • contributing to environmental Women and children are usually the objectives and the sustainable use managers, if not actually the owners, of resources through the effect of of small ruminants. They derive some manure on soil quality and water socio-economic benefits from this retention;

10 • assisting marginalized groups and Using local feedstuffs and the poor to obtain private benefits feedstuffs not suitable for from common property resources; human consumption • making the difference between Many small ruminants exist on by- survival and abject poverty products from crop production (see for various types of producers Figure 3), on tree (leaves, including pastoralists, share twigs and fruits) and on household croppers and part-time farmers; wastes. The use of these by-products • acting as a readily available for livestock feed confers a value on ‘current’ account that can rapidly them that they would not otherwise be sold when short term needs have. arise for small or medium They also contribute to the accounts of cash and as a ‘capital’ production of food and other animal account that can be accumulated products from what would otherwise for longer term and more be waste. This increases the efficiency substantial needs; of the household and farm system and • allowing and encouraging access effectively recycles waste materials. to social support networks and cultural and social well-being.

CASE STUDY 2 An AIDS orphan in Uganda

Ruth is an AIDS orphan. Both her parents died when she was 13 years old and she had to move, together with her two younger brothers, about 250 kilometres to live with her aunt and her grandmother. At 15 she is doing very well at school and was chosen to receive goats from FARM-Africa because the income from the goats would enable her to carry on with her schooling. Ruth says:

“My grandmother is now getting old and is unwell so it is important that, as well as going to school, I work to help my brothers. The goats Sheep and goats for diverse products profits will mean that the three of us can complete school as not only we will have milk for the family, we will have extra that we can sell”.

11

FIGURE 3 Sheep grazing on barley stubble (Photo ICARDA)

Benefits to the farming system caused by run-off or volatilisation. It is best that manure is composted Recycling nutrients in the soil over a period of time. This enables Small ruminants play an important role the breakdown of roughage and the in recycling nutrients in the soil. The decomposition of weed seeds that use of crop wastes as feed facilitates lose their germinative power. Harmful the return of nutrients to the soil via substances in the first stage of the production of manure and urine. decomposition are also eliminated. However, manure has to be treated The careful management and use carefully. If fresh manure has a high of manure and urine can result in roughage content, micro-organisms improved soil fertility, improved soil will have difficulty in decomposting it, structure and higher humus levels, hence there will be a loss of nutrients thereby increasing crop production.

12 Integration with crop/horticultural requirements of crops and livestock production in many situations. Arable rotations Combinations of crops and livestock on the farm, relay cropping in the in the same farming system is usually garden, or permanent tree crops mutually beneficial (see Case Study frequently include stock grazing on 3). This is caused by the recycling crop material in the field for their benefits mentioned previously, but deposits of manure and urine. also in part from the complementary

CASE STUDY 3 Mixed livestock-crop farming in the Central African High lands (Rwanda, Burundi and Eastern Zaire)

This system is characterized by intensively cultivated areas at altitudes higher than 1 500 m. Individual holding sizes are very small, averaging less than 0.9 ha (of which 0.75 ha is under food crops). The main crops are banana (mostly for brewing beer, with and dessert bananas being much less important), annual subsistence and cash crops. Haricot beans, cassava and sweet potatoes are grown in association with bananas. The many minor crops include pigeon peas, maize, sorghum, various cucumbers and gourds, groundnuts, Irish potatoes and cocoyams or taro, and a great variety of green vegetables. The aim is to provide a constant supply of food throughout the year. A few trees (mostly Cupressus and Eucalyptus) assure a supply of fuel and coffee provides cash income. Cropping patterns are influenced as much by social factors as by climate and soils.

The highlands are rarely considered to be important for livestock, but almost all families own ruminants and poultry. used to be important culturally, but the high human density (more than 600 people per km2) has resulted in greatly reduced numbers. In the past there were taboos against eating sheep meat in some areas, but these are fading and the rearing of both goats and sheep is being encouraged by the political authorities and extension agents. Animals are closely integrated in the whole system. Almost all families own at least one species of ruminant and many own three. The number of animals owned is small but varies, as does the mix of species, with ecological zone. They are used for subsistence and to generate cash.

Agricultural by-products are fed to animals by over 80 percent of owners; the type and amount of which varies seasonally including banana leaves (mostly in the short dry and rains

seasons), sweet potato vines and peelings (mostly in the long dry season) and haricot beans. Sheep and goats for diverse products profits The provision of green fodder, supplementary to grazing, is common, with many farmers growing forage for this purpose. Manure is collected and spread directly on the arable land or composted with waste produce from the farm or house.

Animal productivity is well below optimum because of poor extension services, inadequate veterinary support and a lack of market information. These problems are not insurmountable and if services could be provided, and coupled with the use of anti-erosion terraces for growing forage grasses and tree such as Leucaena leucocephala to improve animal nutrition, livestock output could be improved considerably.

13 FIGURE 4 Local housing for sheep and goats in Togo (Photo by R. T. Wilson)

Input requirements • they often do not require Where there is the potential for choice specialized housing (see Figure 4); of possible uses of resources, small • they are suited to a scavenging ruminants offer several advantages or partly scavenging production over many other enterprise options. system. The needs of sheep and goats are less than for larger livestock: Contribution to peri-urban livelihoods • the initial cost of the animals is The huge increase in the urban small; populations, many of whom have a • they can use waste household rural background and have little cash resources; to buy food, has led to a large number • they can be kept near the home; of peri-urban livestock keepers. The • they need less feed and water in systems of production rely more cut-and-carry systems; on scavenger grazing, household

14 FIGURE 5 Goats on their way to market in Mali (Photo: © FAO/10995/J. van Acker)

waste, small gardens, with purchased numbers of animals to home markets feed as a source of nutrients. In this and thereby help reduce imports. environment, farming is not the These animals, in particular, provide major occupation or source of income further downstream opportunities for the family but, nevertheless, the for processing industries based on small livestock play an important livestock products, such as milk supporting role. processing or skins. There may also be the potential to export live animals

National benefits and their products. Sheep and goats for diverse products profits Sheep and goats contribute to the This is an example of the win-win national economy by, among other situation of the small ruminant sector things, providing food. The collective whereby, not only is foreign exchange contribution of many tens or perhaps conserved by home production, but hundreds of thousands of producers also gained through supplying export of small ruminants supply very large demand (see Figure 5).

15

Inputs to small ruminant production systems

Using the right species and breed conditions add considerably to the The basic unit of production in all costs of production. The choice of livestock systems is the animal. a species, breed or type that is well Selecting or using the best genetic adapted to the total environment resource for the function the animal (climate, management, disease and is expected to fulfil and for the feed availability) saves considerably production environment is of critical on the resources that may otherwise importance. The right balance be needed to offset the choice of the between productivity and health, wrong animal (see Figure 6). fitness and adaptive traits is vital. In most farming systems breeds Sources for replenishing stock or types have already been developed All livestock systems require stock so that local livestock are adaptable to be replaced at some time in the to the local climate, system stresses production cycle. It is important to and productivity requirements. arrange this replacement in the most Where natural or man-made disasters appropriate and cost effective way. have devastated genetic resources or In many situations it is sensible to where new production requirements keep replacements from amongst have become necessary, there may be the offspring produced on the farm. a range of genetic resources suitable However, sometimes it is necessary for these conditions. to go outside the home environment, The correct choice is crucial and the purchase of stock locally and to future success and the correct of the same breed type may well be

balance between productivity and the ‘best practice’. Sheep and goats for diverse products profits ‘fitness’ must be considered very Care must be taken not to use carefully. The tendency to choose highly inbred stock that may result supposedly highly productive from the lack of introduction of new animals, while largely ignoring genes into the local population. The disease and climatic adaptation, is ‘worst practice’ may be the choice of widespread, but the costs of coping exotic or imported stock because of with new disease or environmental their high production potential with

17 FIGURE 6 Improved rams (Djallonké breed) in Togo (Photo: © FAO/19981)

no regard to their adaptation to local The availability of affordable conditions. animal medicines and the routine (prophylactic) treatment of animals Keeping livestock healthy for diseases known to be present in an The maintenance of animals in a area are important aspects of livestock healthy state is an important factor management. Hence producers need in sustainable development. Animal access to information and knowledge health is a crucial aspect of production about the correct use of medicines. and it may also have implications for human health. An animal disease Supplying adequate feed that affects or can be transferred and water to is known as a zoonose; A major objective of smallholder examples include tuberculosis (most systems is to make them as self- often transferred through drinking sustaining as possible. This means raw milk) and helminth infections that feeds and water as well as that may involve animals and humans livestock resources are available. in alternative stages of a parasitic life It may sometimes be necessary, cycle such as tapeworms. however, to buy in feedstuffs

18 FIGURE 7 Blackhead Persian sheep grazing on rangeland under Mount Meru in Tanzania (Photo by R. T. Wilson) from outside the farm that need to crops could be developed locally be appropriate in terms of quality and the growing of alternative feed and cost. If the local market does not sources should be encouraged. supply appropriate feed resources, Careful selection of plant species to policies should be introduced or provide the right balance of animal orientated towards providing locally nutrients is crucial and might need grown and processed feed resources to take into account the ecology at a realistic cost. This will help of the . Local roughage and provide a sustainable system for both carbohydrates are also important growers and livestock keepers. for ruminant systems for which by-

Better still, small stock keepers products and residues from arable Sheep and goats for diverse products profits should be encouraged to grow their crops are a useful source. own feeds by using such techniques as intercropping, alley cropping, Grazing as a way of using forage and multipurpose trees or local local feeds processing of arable crop products. Livestock obtain much of their Protein sources such as the by- nutritional need through grazing (see products of oil extraction from arable Figure 7). Not only are livestock able

19 to harvest feeds that suit their nutrient • discourage the growth or invasion requirements but they can also: of an area by unwanted plant species; • harvest material and turn it • maintain landscapes and into useful products that would particular agro-ecosystems in a otherwise be lost to agricultural way that would not otherwise be production; possible. • use natural grassland or rangeland areas that would otherwise Grazing or herding is often carried provide little or no economic out communally and in an organized benefit (see Case Study 4); fashion that brings collective benefits • encourage re-growth of beneficial to the whole community. However, plant species in ; too many animals on an area may

CASE STUDY 4 Goats and sheep as a multi-purpose species in

In the semiarid areas of West Asia and North Africa, small ruminants play a key role in the use of by-products from arable cropping and utilize a break crop in arable rotations. They also provide a valuable means to recycle nutrients in a fragile agro-ecosystem and provide additional income to households, as well as contributing to religious and cultural aspects of everyday life.

In Northern Syria fat-tailed sheep are well adapted to the local climatic and farming conditions. They tolerate heat well and graze on a range of low quality forage sources, but also respond well to supplementary feeding or improved diets. Typical farming systems for the area involve wheat, barley, lentils, vetch, local lucerne varieties and watermelons in various rotations that often include a fallow period.

Sheep and goats fit well into these farming systems and receive a variety of feeds depending on the time of year and the stage of their reproductive cycle. Low quality feeds such as straw are widely used to cover an animal’s maintenance requirements. In addition, steppe grassland, roadsides and marginal land are an important source of feed from autumn to early spring. High energy feeds such as barley and grains and industrial by-products (for example, cotton seed cake and citrus pulp) are also used to meet the nutritional needs of the animals.

The critical times of the year are winter and spring when the ewes are pregnant and lactating. The use of high quality supplements at these times helps both the animals and the natural , which can be rested and allowed to set seed. The use of improved grazing in the summer (in the form of a specially grown forage crop) also aids the use of straw stubbles and helps prevent on the fragile rangeland. Thus the rational use of a complex range of animal feeds supports sheep and goat production in a highly fragile environment.

20 lead to overgrazing. Careful attention Most smallholder livestock can should be paid to achieving the correct be kept in buildings and pens made balance between the needs of the from local materials, such as wood animals and those of the ecosystem, or sun dried bricks, thatch from local since this is critical to long-term grasses and bush poles (see Figure 8). sustainability. In particular situations These materials are usually cheap and this may require attention to questions readily available at little more than of land tenure and access rights at the cost of farm labour. Indigenous both local and national levels. does not necessarily mean basic and the scope for innovation in this area Using local materials to make is considerable. livestock housing and equipment With regard to human health, less Local materials should be used traditional materials may be necessary whenever possible. Methods from for surfaces that are in contact with foreign production systems are not food products and may harbour always appropriate and may lead to harmful bacteria or other pathogens if unsustainable practices if applied they are not cleaned properly. without adaptation. Sheep and goats for diverse products profits

FIGURE 8 A goat pen still under construction in Burkina Faso (Photo: © FAO/22152/A. Wagner)

21 Labour needs thus preventing deterioration. Livestock can be labour demanding, In some areas, meat preservation even in extensive systems if they is common, by drying, smoking have to be guarded or herded. In more or preserving as cooked products. intensive systems, labour is required Examples include hams, sausages, for cutting and carrying forage or dried meat, etc. Refrigeration or other types of feed to the livestock freezing may be necessary for some each day. Children often undertake products and is likely to become more some of these tasks, but this may necessary as consumer awareness of conflict with their formal education quality and health increases. requirements. Fresh milk is a highly perishable In addition to feeding and tending product because it is an ideal medium animals, a regular supply of labour for bacterial proliferation and is required for . This is often deteriorates quickly especially in hot carried out by women and may and unhygienic conditions. Many be combined with other domestic traditional and modern preservation activities. Care is required to ensure processes can be employed to that increased workloads do not extend the shelf-life of milk in fresh conflict with women’s other income form including refrigeration and earning activities or be detrimental to sterilization. These can be expensive their health. For example, different but the value of the product, both to methods of housing, fencing or the consumer and to the health of tethering can assist in reducing labour the nation, justifies the cost. Milk is requirements. generally conserved by traditional methods in one of four groups of Preserving livestock products products: fermented milks; Many animal products, particularly and butter oils; cheese and curds; those intended for human food, are and other milk products. Fermented highly perishable. Damp conditions or products are often the result of poor storage lead to spoilage caused natural souring; indeed this is such by bacterial infection. If the products a common product that many people are consumed immediately within who rely on milk for much of their the home, spoilage is not likely to nutrition prefer soured to fresh milk. be a problem. However, if they are Unfortunately sour milk itself is marketed outside the household it susceptible to spoiling, if kept for may be necessary to convert them to long periods, and souring does not kill a product that has a longer ‘shelf-life’, many potential pathogenic organisms,

22 FIGURE 9 In a small cheese processing plant, a woman holds a finished cheese, Honduras (Photo: © FAO/22051/G. Bizzarri) such as bacteria of tuberculosis. Adding value to livestock Whatever method of preservation products or transformation is used, all products There are many opportunities at the have a maximum shelf-life, after household level to process edible and which they may become unusable. inedible livestock products in order Many processes can be carried to improve the income of livestock out at the household level, but the enterprises. Value can be added to development of local processing fresh meat by traditional methods plants, perhaps on a cooperative of preservation, including salting, or group basis (see Figure 9) is drying and smoking. Under suitable

also an option and may be more climatic conditions of hot sun and a Sheep and goats for diverse products profits economic if there is a concentration dry atmosphere, very good quality dry of production in the local area. meat can be produced. Simple drying Further information about food is suitable for small-scale production preservation methods may be found and avoids the high capital, operating in FAO Diversification booklet No. 5 and maintenance costs of more ‘Processed foods for improved sophisticated equipment. For slightly livelihoods’ (covering a variety of foods). larger lots simple solar driers, wood

23 fired driers, etc. can be used. Flavour heavy smoking, although more can be added to dry meat by the use satisfactory in terms of preservation, of salt and spices. can have severe negative effects Smoking is less satisfactory as a on the flavour and nutritional value preservative method: light smoking of the final product. Consequently, delays the onset of spoilage by a smoking is often regarded as an relatively short period, whereas emergency measure and other

FIGURE 10 Value added products from raw milk in

Milk

Culture Condense Precipitate 1.0:1.5 1.0:1.5

Concentrate, Press Drain whey Culture boll with rice and

Dahi Mishti Doi Kheer Paneer Chhana

Chhana Coat pieces Drain whey Churn Stir murki in sugar Fresh and Sandesh Makhan Chhas stored Chhana Mix with Boll portions Chakka Lassl 1:2 1:2 weat flour, in sugar deep fry Mix with Concentrate, Concentrate, sugar Heat freeze add sugar clarify Pantooa Kulfi Basundi Shrikhand Seve in 1:4 1:5 sugar syrup Concentrate Concentrate, partially heat, Concentrate Rasogolia clot, add sugar Shrikhand vadi Mix with Seve in Heat, mix weat flour, condensed Rabri with sugar Khoa deep fry milk

Barfi Peda Kalakand Ghee Kadhi Gulab jamun Rasmalai

Source: FAO. 1990. The technology of traditional milk products in developing countries. Animal Health and Production Paper No 85. Rome.

24 products cantakemanyformssuch Adding valuetonon-food a muchwiderdistance. of productsthatcanbemarketedover valuable andcanleadtothecreation household level.Suchactivitiesare which arecommonlycarriedoutat about suchprocesses,manyof considerable indigenousknowledge raw milk(seeFigure10). There is multiplicity ofproductsismadefrom butter andghee.Insomecountriesa of productssuchascheese,yoghurt, Milkmaybeprocessed intoarange and freezing,canning. the useofrefrigeration,forchilling methods ofmeatpreservationinclude are generallypreferred.Modern traditional methodsofpreservation booklet No.8. available intheFAO Diversification the productionofhidesandskinsis of education.Furtherdetailsabout poor householdswithlimitedlevels selected, andsuitableforuseby carefully considered,appropriately The equipmentusedshouldbe value andmarkettheirownproduce. on empoweringhouseholdstoadd possible, priorityshouldbeplaced be madeintocandlesandsoap.If etc.; andanimalby-productscan clothes, belts,bags,shoes, skins maybecuredandmadeinto and madeintoyarnsorcloths;animal example: woolmaybewashed,spun as theproductionofhandicrafts,for 25

Sheep and goats for diverse products and profits

Support services for small ruminant production

Sustainable services for all been a broad sweep rather than a Small stock farmers need access targeted promotion of interventions to a range of inputs and marketing for particular groups. Livestock services. When such services are producers have usually had less planned, their long-term delivery and support than crop producers and sustainability must be considered. women are often neglected even A major aspect of sustainability is though it is frequently recognised the involvement of smallholders, that they are extremely important to particularly women, in planning and the agricultural sector and thus the managing the services. national economy of many countries. In the past the general situation The situation has changed in recent of extension and farmer support has years in some areas (see Figure 11) Sheep and goats for diverse products profits

FIGURE 11 Rural woman recieving advice on sheep fattening in Senegal (Photo: © FAO/22177/A. Casset)

27 and special services are now being breeds (see Case Study 6), improving provided for women producers (see levels of feeding, and ensuring timely Case Study 5). and focussed veterinary prophylaxis One of the greatest deterrents to the or treatment. growth of small stock production is the Once these aspects of livestock spread of animal diseases that result in keeping have been addressed, other a loss of production. The provision of weaknesses in the sector may become resources to overcome this is essential apparent such as poor marketing and through supplying appropriate breeds pricing arrangements, or the lack of of livestock including exotic or cross indigenous knowledge. These issues

CASE STUDY 5 Services for women livestock keepers in The Gambia

Women are extremely important in the socio-economic development of The Gambia. In addition to being the principal managers and decision-makers in sheep and goat husbandry, women contribute to the production of swamp and tidal rice, horticultural crops and sesame.

In the past, women have lacked access to credit facilities, inputs for their farming practices including land, and, caused by the high illiteracy rate, access to extension information. One major limitation to improving the income from small livestock was the difficulty women faced in marketing their products outside their environment.

Recent developments in tackling the issue of service provision to women livestock producers have included:

• the development of appropriate extension materials; • the establishment of demonstration sites; • the use of local extension worker-to-farmer contacts; • the promotion of farmer-to-farmer dissemination; • experience and observational learning; • a limited number of interventions.

This approach has resulted in positive benefits for women livestock keepers. They have responded well to extension messages and have set up several organizations for their mutual benefit. Women extension officers have helped to deliver acceptable extension messages. Visits to similar farms in neighbouring areas have been productive and clearly demonstrated the value of farmer-to-farmer extension. The integration of extension activities with other rural services, such as combining the use of critical inputs with access to credit, were found to be a major component of success. The use of village demonstration sites encouraged the introduction and widespread dissemination of new techniques.

28 may, however, be addressed more Many small stock keepers are easily once animal health constraints women and children who are usually have been overcome or reduced to an excluded from the regular channels acceptable level. of communication. Consequently, sheep and goat keepers may find it Access to technical and difficult to gain access to technical commercial information, information concerning livestock, loans and credit livestock services, loans, credit Small ruminant producers differ in facilities, savings mechanisms and many ways from keepers of intensive marketing possibilities. As a result, livestock or large stock. Because the likelihood of making a success their enterprises are small, they are of their enterprise and achieving the not very visible and their needs are potential benefits of their stock may often overlooked or underestimated. be limited.

CASE STUDY 6 Appropriate goat breeds in Tanzania

Sarah is the chairwoman of a women’s group in Babati, Tanzania, and a member of the Toggenburg Breeders’ Association, which FARM-Africa assists with training and marketing. She lives with her husband, children and grandchildren. Sarah started keeping goats in 1991 and has sold eleven cross-breeds. She is immensely proud of her goats and of her status as the first woman in the area to receive the new breed.

“Before, my children were under-nourished, but now they are healthy and happy because of the milk. Money from the goats enabled my eldest daughter to go to secondary school and now she is a teacher working for the government. Any extra income we get from the goats pays for schooling.”

Sarah has one Toggenburg buck and four does. They are housed in a shed with a tin roof to keep out the wild animals that live in the nearby mountains. Brick walls ensure that the animals keep warm during the colder nights. Sheep and goats for diverse products profits

The women’s group will soon establish a credit scheme. All members will put in a small amount of money and give out loans for further goat-keeping activities, thereby enabling more families to benefit from the project. Sarah is certain of the difference that the animals have made to her life as she looks around her, at her thriving children and grandchildren. “The goats have made my life very happy,” she says.

29 In view of the large number of There are many alternative forms small ruminants in many countries of delivering veterinary services. The and their potential contribution to traditional approach of government the local and national economy, veterinary service, comprising a top- it is essential that policy-makers down structure of regional and district address the issues that prevent access offices, has generally been unable to to such services by small stock deliver services to local farmers as a keepers. It may be necessary to make result of a combination of inadequate special provision for the delivery of funding, poor motivation amongst appropriate services designed for staff, and a failure of trust between the different needs of small-scale farmer and . More livestock keepers. successful health delivery strategies The provision of services, credit have involved the private sector, the and physical inputs must be sensitive use of para-vets, community animal to labour division between women health workers and pharmacy-based and men in livestock production. services. Particular attention should be paid to There is no one size fits all the ability of women to access such solution. Governments need to services and steps taken to overcome examine the question of how best any barriers they may face. to deliver veterinary services to smallholders and should not assume Veterinary services that the historical top-down approach Each species of small ruminant, is either the best or the only way. country or region has its own set of The discussion often centres on prevalent animal diseases. Whatever the provision of such services by the disease, it must be handled in a public or private services or by non- cost effective way in order to create governmental organizations (NGOs) the framework in which successful and whether farmers should pay livestock keeping can flourish. This directly for these services. may involve a combination of national The main need is often simple veterinary services, particularly for prophylaxis programmes that can diseases that need a national or even be taught and delivered at the local a transnational eradication policy (for level. More specialized veterinary example, Rift Valley Fever and Peste knowledge may be needed in only des Petit Ruminants - also known a small number of cases. In each as goat plague) coupled with locally locality it should be possible to delivered interventions. determine what are the most likely

30 processing plants. for somewhatlarger butstilllocal small-scale household useorsuitable of trainingintechniquessuitablefor activities. This may taketheform important tothesuccessofsuch and theirproducts,trainingwillbe processing andmarketinglivestock particularly thoseassociatedwith However, withnewertechniques, harnessed whereveritcanbefound. Indigenousknowledgeshouldbe and communitywell-being. issues ofcommunitydecision-making for livestockproducts,andthewider work patterns,marketopportunities effects ofsocialchangesandnew farmers aresettledormigrants,the and moderntechnologies,whether animal species,theuseofindigenous introduced recently, thechoiceof traditional enterpriseorhasbeen whether livestockkeepingisa scale livestockkeepersincludes determining trainingneedsofsmall- Factors tobeconsideredwhen and Accesstotechnologies training primary animalhealthcare. that theyareprovidedwithtrainingin extension managersshouldensure small ruminants,policy-makersand and ofchildreninthemanagement of thecloseinvolvementwomen para-vets todealwiththem.Inview disease threatsandtrainfarmers and supportingsmallholder access friends andneighbours. Encouraging in thehomeorsold orbarteredwith livestock productionisconsumed Much oftheoutputfromsmall-scale Markets forproduce sustainability ofthisprocess. local productsarecriticalforthe mechanisms andtheavailabilityof dyes andotherchemicals.Supply including freshwater, packaging, specialized equipmentorinputs products requiretheprovisionof Many optionsforprocessinglivestock Inputsupplychains role intheempowermentprocess. Skills developmentplaysacrucial could betargeted atwomen’s groups. their products,muchofthetraining and marketingofsmallruminants are involvedinhouseholdprocessing production. Forexample,ifwomen of thegenderrolesinlivestock potential traineesshouldtakeaccount programmes andidentificationof television. The designofthetraining level orremotelybyradio delivered face-to-faceatcommunity in acosteffective manner, ifitis training ismorelikelytobedelivered of smallfarmproductionmeansthat farmers’ groups. The scaleandnature NGOs, privateorganizations or central orlocalgovernmentagencies, Training maybedeliveredby 31

Sheep and goats for diverse products and profits to more formal markets is an as transporting the final products to additional means of generating cash a distant market or outlet. Existing and providing a wider outlet for local transport arrangements may surplus produce. Products need to be adequate or adaptable to the be marketed in a reliable and cost- marketing needs of small farmers. effective way. Assistance may take However, there could be special the form of market information about needs for perishable food products market opportunities, prices and including refrigerated containers for quality requirements; transaction milk or meat. Investment in such mechanisms between farmers and facilities is critical to the success buyers; transport to more distant of the small stock keeper and must markets; transporting goods to market be considered in relation to the in smaller or larger lots; product throughput and sustainability of the advertising; the use of middlemen, marketing operation. the creation of local markets; and the provision of information to potential Potential for establishing buyers about the existence of markets. cooperatives and women’s The creation of specialized groups markets, the use of agricultural shows, Livestock producer cooperatives the setting up of food fairs, as well as and women’s groups can provide the more traditional food markets, are a range of benefits to members possible outlets for surplus produce. including delivering technological More innovative methods to supply messages, sharing best practices, processing factories with bulk produce joint purchasing of inputs, collective may be an option worth pursuing for value-adding activities, product farmer groups. A major factor for a differentiation through labelling, risk successful operation of this kind is reduction, securing higher prices and that as much control of the marketing economies of scale through collective process as possible remains in the marketing, and providing access to hands of local livestock keepers. credit and savings mechanisms.

Transport Food safety regulations Transport could be a key factor in the In many parts of the world, the success of realizing the potential of commercialization of small animal sheep and goat resources. This relates products, such as milk and meat, to transporting the inputs required for are becoming subject to food safety processing livestock products as well regulations which require approved

32 livestock keeperswishingtomarket Undersuchascenario,small frequently andmorerigorously. stringent andhavetobeappliedmore will becomemorewidespread, expected thatregulatoryframeworks quality andsafetyattributes,itis become increasinglyfocusedon consumers slaughterhouses. As pasteurisation plantsorlicensed facilities forprocessing,suchas farmers andprocessors. and shouldgivesuchinformationto it alsocontrolstheirimplementation and standards, Codex Alimentarius such regulations,generallybasedon safety isresponsibleforsetting national bodyresponsibleforfood may affect theiractivities. The of thefoodsafetylegislationthat their productsmustbeinformed 33

Sheep and goats for diverse products and profits

Challenges and opportunities

There are four main technical to smallholder borrowers, weak constraints which work against financial services, and unclear successful improvements and land tenure policies. Once external sustainability in small ruminant funding is withdrawn, the continuity production and productivity: and sustainability of projects is often frustrated by absence of government • the genetic potential of support and little beneficiary indigenous livestock in need participation in the concept, design of improvement; and implementation of development • the widespread distribution initiatives. Capital investment and the of livestock diseases; provision of recurrent expenditure for • inadequate feed supplies and livestock development are very often poor animal nutrition; low, particularly in relation to the size • poor marketing infrastructure and importance of small ruminant and arrangements. populations. In many countries, government support has actually Non-technical constraints, such decreased in absolute and relative as the balance of operations and terms over recent years. Increasing management between central and population pressure, uncertain local governments, an almost rainfall, declining soil fertility, and universal absence of clear livestock traditional techniques continue to development policies and strategies, inhibit increases in animal output. the pace of privatization and the Consequently, despite the large

possibilities of cost recovery for number of small ruminants in the Sheep and goats for diverse products profits goods and services, are also important developing world, almost nowhere factors constraining the development do they produce to their potential. possibilities for sheep and goats. Nevertheless, small ruminants do Further disincentives to rapid make a substantial direct contribution development include a lack of to national and household economies, rural services and infrastructure, a and to food security. High value credit environment unsympathetic essential dietary proteins for people

35 are an important output of small private involvement in agriculture in ruminants. There is rapidly rising general. There has been a rather slow demand for livestock products private sector response to agricultural especially from the urban populations and especially livestock investment, that are escalating throughout the because there are alternative attractive world. For small stock keepers in short-term opportunities in other developing countries, there are sectors (especially transport, tourism specific markets for higher output of and construction). food products deriving from domestic The challenges to guaranteeing animals in areas where the demand food security and alleviating poverty is greatest, the cost of production is require sustained increases in lowest, and the potential for adding production and productivity. Farmers value is most favourable. Increased will respond to appropriate incentives, and more efficient production is better market access and technology therefore very important to overall transfer. The possibilities of enhancing development. farm incomes from a high value Small ruminants provide a very product should not be overlooked. suitable base for increasing the supply Strategic options to improve small of animal products. Comprehensive ruminant production include: and coherent programmes for development of small ruminant • prioritizing the development of production would seem to be the the small-scale and traditional most appropriate way to confront the sector; complex biological, technical and • continuing to re-orient the role climatic factors, and associated policy of governments in creating an issues with which these extremely appropriate enabling environment; useful animals have to contend. • making more appropriate There is also the possibility of production technology available improving the genetic potential of through research and extension; indigenous livestock for the increased • continued investment in human and more efficient production of resources development, especially milk, meat, wool and skins. These farmers; are areas where, given an appropriate • improving resource management enabling environment, there is likely by smallholder farmers; to be increased producer interest. • increasing beneficiary Current economic policies in many participation in efforts and countries now allow for much greater rewards.

36 Devendra, C&Burns,M.1983.Goatproduction inthetropics Agricultural Finance RevisitedNo.6,Rome. FAO , FAO Marketing ExtensionGuideNo.2,Rome. FAO. 2000a.Understandingandusingmarketinformation milk pr FAO. 2002.Milkproducer group resource book,apracticalguidetoassist Diversification bookletNo.5,Rome. FAO No.10, Rome. and income,byP. Crossley& T. Chamen FAO tropics Devendra, C.&McLeroy, G.B.1982.Goatandsheeppr Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau,Slough. Coop, I.E. CAB International, Wallingford. Charray, J.1992. Manual ofsheepproduction in the humidtropics of Africa. FAO FAO Shepherd, FAO MarketingExtensionGuides,Rome. . 2000b.Enahncingfarmers’ financialmanagement skills . 2004.Processed foodsforimproved livelihoods . 2005.Talking aboutmoney,byJ.Heney, Rome. . 2007.A guidetomarketingcostsandhowcalculatethem . 2008. , Longmans,Harlow. oducer groups, byJ.Draajer, Rome. 1982.Sheepandgoatproduction, Rural transportandtractionenterprisesforimproved livelihoods Selected further reading , FAO Diversificationbooklet Elsevier, Oxford. , byP. Fellows,FAO , by oduction inthe , byJ.Heney, A.W. , , by A.W. 37

Sheep and goats for diverse products and profits FAO. 1997a. Agricultural and food marketing management, by I.M. Crawford, AGS Marketing and Agribusiness Text Vol. 2, Rome.

FAO. 1997b. Marketing research and information systems, by I.M. Crawford, AGS Marketing and Agribusiness Text Vol. 4, Rome.

FAO. 1995a. The Group enterprise book, Rome.

FAO. 1995b. Harvesting of animal fibres, by O.J. Petrie, Agricultural Services Bulletin No 122, Rome.

FAO. 1994a. The group promoter’s resource book, Rome.

FAO. 1994b. Management of rural income-generating activities, Rome.

FAO. 1994c.Simple bookkeeping and business management skills, by R. Meijernik, Rome.

FAO. 1993. Sustainable animal production from small farm systems in Southeast Asia, by C. Devendra, Animal Production and Health Paper No. 106, Rome.

FAO. 1992a. Meat and meat products in human nutrition in developing countries, by A. Bender, Food and Nutrition Paper No 53, Rome.

FAO. 1992b. Sustainable livestock production in the mountain agro- ecosystem of Nepal, Animal Production and Health Paper No. 105, Rome.

FAO. 1991. Small ruminant production and the small ruminant genetic resource in tropical Africa, by R.T. Wilson, Animal Production and Health Paper No. 88, Rome.

FAO. 1990a. The technology of traditional milk products in developing countries, Animal Health and Production Paper No. 85, Rome.

38 FAO Africa, Training manualforextensionworkers,Rome. FAO Animal ProductionandHealthPaperNo.74,Rome. FAO Africa, Animal Production andHealthPaperNo.70,Rome. FAO countries, Animal Production andHealthPaperNo.107,Rome. FAO. ILRI. 1993.Traditional training manual3,Nairobi. ILRI. 1995.Smallruminantproduction techniques ILO. 2000.Rapidmarketappraisal,ILO,Geneva. London. Gatenby, R.M Animal ProductionandHealthPaperNo.40,Rome. FAO Production PaperNo39,Rome. by W.B.Tuszyski, E.A.A.Diakowska&N.S.Hall FAO Rome. countries, byJ.A.Clottey, Animal ProductionandHealthPaperNo.49, FAO Production andHealthPaperNo.58,Rome. . 1986.Smallruminantproduction inthe developingcountries, . 1988.Thedevelopmentofvillage-basedsheepproduction inWest . 1989b.SmallruminantsintheNearEastandNorth Africa . Vol.3, . 1989a.Sheepandgoatmeatproduction inthehumidtropics ofWest . 1983.Intensivesheepproduction intheNearEast . 1983a.Solarenergy insmall-scalemilkcollectionandprocessing. . 1985.Manualfortheslaughteringofsmallruminantsindeveloping 1990b.Strategiesforsustainableanimalagriculture indeveloping . 1991.Sheep, The Tropical Agriculturalist Series,Macmillan, , AddisAbaba. , AnimalHealthand , byH.Ibrahim,ILRI , byS.Economides, Animal 39

Sheep and goats for diverse products and profits Jansen, C. 2004. Goat keeping in the tropics, Agrodok 7, CTA, Wageningen.

Kolff, H. E. & Wilson, R. T. 1985. Livestock production in central Mali: The “Mouton de Case” system of smallholder sheep fattening. Agricultural Systems 16: 217-230.

Koopmans, R. 2006. Starting a cooperative: farmer controlled economic initiatives, Agrodok 38, CTA, Wageningen.

Peacock, C. 1996. Improving goat production in the tropics: a manual for development workers, Oxfam, London.

Renard, C. 1997. Crop residues in sustainable mixed crop/livestock farming systems, CAB International, Wallingford.

Steele, M. 1996. Goats, The Tropical Agriculturalist Series, Macmillan, London.

Van der Westhuysen, J.M. 1982. Mohair as a textile fibre, proceedings of the Third International Conference on Goat Production and Disease, pp. 264-267. University of Arizona, Tucson.

Wilson, R.T., Murayi, Th. & Rocha, A. 1989. Indigenous African small ruminant strains with potentially high reproductive performance, Small Ruminant Research 2: 107-144.

40 http://www.embrapa.br Fax: +6134471041 Tel: +6134484433 Brasil CEP 70770901 Brasilia Df Parqe EstacaoBiologica Central Sheepand http://www [email protected] Fax: +912565763246 Tel: +91565763325 India Uttar Pradesh Mathura 281122 P.O. Farah Makhdoom Central Institutefor Research onGoats Empresa BrasileiradePesquisa Agropecuaria (EMBRAP http://www.cswri.raj.nic.in India Rajasthan Avikanagar .cirg.res.i Sources offurther information Wool Research Institute n and support A) 41

Sheep and goats for diverse products and profits Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Animal Production and Health Division Viale delle Terme di Caracalla 00153 Rome Italy Tel: +39 06 5797 Fax: +39 06 57053152 http://www.fao.org/ag/aga/index_en.htm

FAO/WHO Food Standards CODEX Alimentarius http://www.codexalimentarius.net/web/

International Goat Association 1015 Louisiana Street Little Rock AR 72202 USA Tel: +1 501 907 2606 [email protected] http://www.iga-goatworld.org

International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) Old Naivasha Road P.O. Box 30709 Nairobi 00100, Kenya Tel: +254-2 630743 Fax: +254-2 631499 http://www.cgiar.org/ilri/

NetVet Veterinary Resources, The Electronic Zoo http://netvet.wustl.edu/

42 Notes Notes SMALL RUMINANTS, SUCH AS SHEEP AND GOATS, FIT WELL INTO SMALLHOLDER FARMING SYSTEMS. Their grazing preferences enable them to feed on weeds, shrubs and other plants that other species of domestic animals tend to refuse. Their small size means they require less space than larger animals and they are less likely to damage and compact soils. They are easier to work with than large ruminants and are cheaper to buy and maintain. Moreover, under the right conditions, they can be quite prolific. The range of products produced by small ruminants is easy to market because demand is high yet largely unfulfilled. Hence there are considerable opportunities for smallholders to use such animals more effectively and efficiently and thus increase their contribution to livelihoods.

Sheep and goats are widely distributed throughout the world, but policy-makers and administrators tend to overlook their contributions to the economy, rural and peri-urban livelihoods, the empowerment of women, other marginalized groups and food security.

Photo: © FAO/17197/G. Bizzarri