FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011

SOCIAL SHEPHERDING AND MORAL NETS AS FOUND IN SOME NOVELS BY FYODOR DOSTOEVSKY, JAMES A. MICHENER, GEORGE ORWELL, B. F. SKINNER, AND C. S. FORESTER

Ralph G. O'Sullivan Chillicothe, IL

Abstract This article uses selected passages from the Old and New Testaments to illustrate the common presence of good shepherd and moral net themes in some of the novels by Fyodor Dostoevsky, James A. Michener, George Orwell, B.F. Skinner, and C.S. Forester. Traditional sociology texts and classroom lectures rightly address such topics as normal parts of social life, but usually objectively; novelists do the same, yet with much more passion. While no "a-ha" moments, statistical data, or tests of hypotheses are offered , here, students of sociology are encouraged to follow Ogburn's advice to go '' outside traditional boundaries and sources of knowledge to find sociology and have fun doing so, because the stable templates of social organization are there to be found and made available to others.

INTRODUCTION A theologically-based reference to the good shepherd is found in New Sheep are often portrayed as Testament readings, specifically the being stupid animals, incapable of Gospels of Matthew 18:10, Luke awareness, self-direction and self- 15:3-7, and John 10:7-16 where

1 defense. When in pasture, they need Jesus is the shepherd over his to be shepherded by human or by followers. While those references domesticated guardians, leading pertain to the religion based upon them and protecting them against Jesus' ministry, he lived in times of threats. Good shepherds, then, know the Law and the Prophets (hereafter, all members of their flocks and their Old Testament). Who, then, was the peculiarities: They know the strong good shepherd for his neighbors and and the weak, the healthy and the him? A menu of people in that role unhealthy, the dominant and the would include Moses and descendent submissive. Social shepherding is the leaders, but the list would be topped process of guiding human flocks, and with God. Judaism's scriptures

1 the expression has three foundations. provide many references to God as a The first is a combination of Judaic shepherd, and two depict vivid , and Christian backgrounds that are images of his pastural and pastoral used only for infrastructures, not as responsibilities: They are in the book advocacies. The second is of Isaiah 40:11 and in Psalm 23. sociological, and the third stems from The second and sociological questions in psychology. foundation is Davis and Stazs' 1 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011 concept of a moral net (1990). A found in a variety of places, but I moral net represents the consistent have chosen locations in popular underpinnings to social structure literature. upon which human behavior and This study investigates social human interaction are based. It is shepherding in several novels by comprised of mores, beliefs, and noted authors. I first look at Fyodor norms that allow collectives and Dostoevsky's 1880/1996 The Bro­ individuals to create partitions thers Karamazov (hereafter, Brothers separating truth from lies, right from K ...). The next book is James A. wrong, good from bad, and the :Michener's (1969), appropriate from the inappropriate. A succeeded by George Orwell's moral net may have religious or Animal Farm (1946/1962b) and his secular bases, or a melding of the 1949/1961 Nineteen Eighty-Four two. Once established, it can become (hereafter, 1984). These books are an internal mechanism of social followed by B.F. Skinners' 1948/1969 control when people accept it and Walden Two (hereafter, W-2), and the treat it as their own; or, it can be selection concludes with C.S. imposed upon a population through Forester's 1955 The Good Shepherd forces of social power. Elements of (hereafter, TGS). Additional works by the net may be eternal, or they may these authors, and by others, are also be changed as events, or as leaders, cited for background material and ] require. comparisons. ·.. The third principle of origination This article represents a study of 1

comes from psychologist B.F. Skinner sociology in literature, using the f (1964/1972a). Humans have certain selected authors and novels as a ·' moral commitments to others combination of purposive and 1 [resulting in obligatory acts based on convenience samples. All of us have I existing moral nets]. Conforming or favorite data sources, paradigms, good behavior is achieved when theories, research methods, scholars appropriate moral codes are we often cite, and background internalized. Sometimes, though, the assumptions about sociology: I have morality of righteousness is nudged two. First, I believe that sociology is by those whose other-directed narrative, making it appropriate to intentions may be questionable. He speak with the judicious voice of the wonders, when does the moral or first-person singular (the "I" and the cultural designer become a despot "my''), allowing the reader to see how (Evans 1968:4 7) shedding the the writer's experiences contribute to shepherd's staff and creating the research. Second, I believe that i tyranny? A second question asks we should follow Ogburn's advice whether or not the individual accedes from 1930 when he invited us to look to the imposed modifications of the for sociology anywhere, especially new . moral nets, or maintains the realms outside tradition, and present ones that have been acceptable? our findings to others, making Answers to these questions can be sociology, I add, enjoyable to the 2 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011

researcher and the audience. After his military service as a commissioned officer, he got into THE AUTHORS legal trouble. There are several imprecise accounts of involvement A variety of novelists could have with a political organization where his been chosen for this study, but ideas membership resulted in arrest and from the ones selected offered a fair imprisonment in Katorga, part of the degree of fit and diversity of tsarist prison system that later characterization to the themes of became known as the gulag social shepherding and moral nets. archipelago under Josef Stalin. Before discussions of the novels Dostoeysky's 1861 /2008 Memoirs begin, though, I offer biographical from the House of the Dead sketches of the writers and back (hereafter, Memoirs ... ) is a report of stories. his sentence, identifying the same living conditions as Alexander Fyodor Dostoevsky (1821-1881) Solzhenitzyn's 1963 One Day in the Dostoevsky was born in Moscow, Life of Ivan Denisovich (hereafter, Russia, where his father was a One Day ... ). Both writers were physician for the poor. Sometimes his imprisoned under fluid definitions for father is portrayed as being sedition, so their books contain , demanding, and at other times a several sets of parallel ideas. One of caring and understanding parent. those thoughts is that there are two Either way, Dostoevsky's childhood types of prisoners: common and left indelible images affecting his political. Common prisoners simply literary leanings, often addressing violated criminal codes. Political conflicts in the personal and social prisoners (poles) were guilty of lives of his portrayals. The tumultuous political wrongdoing, violating the family in Brothers K... is a case in integrity of the state or its leaders' point. dictates. Dostoevsky, and later I first read during my Solzhenitzyn, were so labeled, as initial enrollment as a freshman at the was Orwell's Winston Smith in 1984. eastern Illinois university from which I Dostoevsky's Memoirs... and later graduated twice. My literature Solzhenitzyn's One Day... have classmates and I used it as a text, another point in common. Each book accompanied by a compilation of identifies one character who pays short stories by Leo Tolstoy that was particular attention to his religion. more enjoyable than Dostoevsky's Dostoevsky's Isaiah Fomich regularly reflective piece. While I maintain that conducted his Friday night Sabbath, , opinion, Brothers K... chapter on believing deeply that Judaic Law is , "The Grand Inquisitor" still captures everywhere at all times. In similar , my attention. fashion, Solzhenitzyn's Alyosha, a Brothers K... was Dostoevsky's Baptist, read The New Testament last book, and many literary analysts regularly. Suffering punishment for feel that it was his best achievement. common crimes is appropriate and 3 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011 necessary, he believed, but per­ known for their short titles. secution based on his religious Information from his autobiography identity required continued faith, (1992) and prayer, proclamation, and witnessing. from two biographers (Hayes 1984; Dostoevsky embraced Christian May 2005) reveal different yet orthodoxy and he was a monarchist complementary details about the because each provided its own style same man. Michener was raised a of predictability. The sweeping social Quaker with Presbyterian flavorings, aphorisms of late 1700s France, and but. held little affinity with any religion emerging economic and political or denomination. He was interested in ideologies . and disruptive social religion as a social institution, a movements of western Europe's mid- "religious sociologist" (Michener 1800s troubled him, fearing that they 1992:489), but chose to be identified could migrate into his homeland. as a liberal humanist. In like fashion, Religious and political conflicts were he called himself a writer rather than also prominent themes in his major an author. He became wealthy and novels. was generous with his earnings, but he never forgot the deprivations of i James A. Michener (1907-1997) childhood. He was a social activist for Raised in Doylestown, PA, worthy causes and received the Michener was born into poverty with a Presidential Medal of Freedom from clouded ancestry, and was a Gerald Ford in 1977. He wrote long childhood friend of Margaret Mead novels to relieve people from the (Michener 1992:436). He was predictable and banal contents of schooled at Swarthmore College and television shows. Many of his at Colorado State Teacher's College, renowned books, including The and received the 194 7 Pulitzer Prize Source, are layered stories of in literature for his anthology Tales of historical geography and geology, the (1946). He wrote cultural and generational conflicts, about ninety articles or stories for personal hardship and endurance, various magazines, and about fifty­ and ecological stewardship. He was five non-fiction and fiction books, praised for those sweeping and including the posthumously published ambitious efforts just as he was love story Matacumbe (2007). I own scorned for their shallow characters, and have read forty-two of those formulaic and repetitious structures, titles, including James A. Michener's and abrupt endings. USA from 1981 that he claims was He was an officer in the U.S. Navy falsely attributed to him (Michener during World War II and was 1992:471). He also wrote several stationed in the South Pacific when short stories such as "Who Is Virgil T. he began the writing career that Fry?" in 1941 that was his first literary earned literary acclaim and fortune. publication, and twelve of his books Several books later Michener turned were used for musicals, movies, and his interest to the eastern television shows. His long novels are Mediterranean after Israel had had 4 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011

some success as a nation-state­ in the 1920s. Burmese Days partially country. It is there that The Source reflects the events and ideological takes place and I isolate the book's sentiments of the area, so Larkin's tenth chapter entitled "The Law" book is a record of her where Michener paid attention to following Orwell's ghost from duty 's YHWH as the one station to duty station as she studied true God, Mosaic codes, the Talmud, the man and his literary career. and some consequences of con­ While the main characters in frontations between religions. Animal Farm and 1984 have been The Source was the second of his called ideas rather than people, just long and tiered novels, and the opposite was said of Burmese biographer May (2005:261) says it Days (Muggeridge 1962:XV), allowing was the best of Michener's own me to mention several of the parallel genre. The weaving of narrative, themes between the three books. history and control of subject matter Orwell's use of the term biarch, for became Michener's hallmark style example, identifies the social, that served him well for the cultural, political, and economic succeeding and successful novels differences between colonialists and with regional titles. local populations where the visitors were always privileged over the George Orwell (1903-1950) visited. Extending this thought to the Eric A. Blair is better known as other two novels we clearly see dual­ George Orwell, and is perhaps best class differences between privileged known for the two dystopian stories of groups and their underlings. Animal Farm and 1984. Both are Also, maintenance of private lives warnings about totalitarianism and is a form of corruption that breeds are based on the practices of unrest. British imperialism was, in Communism that he saw during the fact, anti-intellectual, and the ex­ Spanish Civil War, as revealed in his propriating leaders dictated private 1952 book Homage to Catalonia and public opinions. The new idea (henceforth Homage ...). Inklings of with great potential to rock the his discomfort emerged, however, in stability of international , his Burmese Days (1932/1962a), all was Bolshevism as mentioned leading journalist Emma Larkin several times in Burmese Days. (2005:3) to affirm a local belief that Bolshevism preached the vision of this book should begin a trilogy equality but had a hard time followed by Animal Farm and by 1984 delivering it as Orwell showed in about Burma, not an imaginary place. Homage ... Born in India into a family of The British imperialists of Burmese foreign service officers, Blair Days and others places across the continued the family tradition. After globe believed and endorsed the idea graduating from college he joined the that some people were more equal Imperial Police and was posted in than others. They created and Burma, now Myanmar, for five years promoted the inequality between 5 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011

populations, did not want social or food, clothing, military supplies, economic parity, and felt that only the money, durable goods, rest, and right people with the right ideas had constancy. There was an abundance the right to lead and control others. of despair, political suspicion, intra­ These themes permeate all three of group spies, and arrests based on Orwell's novels, and his story of allegations of defiance. There were experiences in the Spanish Civil War ideological conflicts and ambiguous cemented his anti-totalitarian warn­ group boundaries and questioned ings to the world. loyalties, as well as convenient and The Spanish Civil War (1936- immediate rule changes. 1939) was a confused international There were staged public displays event based on political ideologies of support, and efficiency was and military actions supporting replaced by manana, meaning democracy, Republicanism, Commu­ "sometime." Propaganda replaced the nism, Fascism, anti-lex-Stalinists, truth. News was censored and anti-lex-Fascists, socialists, anar­ dissidents were censured or they just chists, loyalists, Francistas, demo­ disappeared. There were vermin and cratic capitalists, Bolsheviks, there were rodents as Orwell recited Trotskyites, Christian Patriots, and the alliterative, haunting and the Popular Front (Orwell 1952). foreshadowing lyrics from a song of Michener read about the turmoil in the times: "There are rats, rats, rats. news reports, but Orwell lived them Rats as big as cats ... " and wrote them for the press. Orwell entered the war as a B.F. Skinner (1904-1990) reporter, empathized with social Burrhus Frederick Skinner, raised Communism, joined its ranks as a in economic modesty in Susque- i militiaman and eventually met hanna, PA, became a renowned and Georges Kopp. Kopp was a Russian controversial experimental psycho­ army officer later serving in British logist. His extensive curriculum vitae intelligence agencies during World (c. v.) contains a three-part auto­ War II as a spy. He is rumored to biography comprised of the 1976 have been the role model for 1984's Particulars of My Life (hereafter, O'Brien - the party man who "turned" Particulars .. .), 1979's The Shaping of Smith, had him arrested for activities a Behaviorist (hereafter, Shaping ... ), against the state, and re-socialized and from 1983 A Matter of Smith by using his innate fear of rats Consequences (hereafter, Conse­ against him. quences ... ). Orwell reports in Homage ... that a Particulars... is the first-person number of factors promoted his rapid account of his family of orientation and radical change of opinion against and schooling through his degree political Communism. There were few from Hamilton College. Shaping ... is military victories and politics were the tale of his studies at Harvard confused. There were constant University, his family of procreation, shortages of capable leadership, his early university appointments, and 6 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011 details about his sole novel. Con­ adolescent schooling that competitive sequences... is a look at the apex education is not as productive as it and seniority of his career. should be, thereby lending favor to Two other books from the 1970s, the values of cooperative education, Beyond Freedom and Dignity (1972) self-enhancement and life-long and About Behaviorism (1974), were learning opportunities that were built received well among the laity, but into the Walden Two, the community. perhaps his most renowned and W-2, the book, was written in contested book is the novel, W-2. about seven months shortly after Muggeridge's claim about Animal World War II. I will not review the Farm and 1984 are appropriate for entire plot, and I will let the reader Skinner's novel, as well. The plot is find the fairly obvious conclusion. The weak, conversations are stiff scenario, though, involves several interrogations, and it is more veterans of the war who were looking ideational- than story-based. Skinner for a peace-time alternative to the once called a colleague a "literary chaos and destruction of war in which psychologist" (1979:23), and the they had participated. Enlisting the same can be said about him as he aid and the company of a former crafted fiction with sciences of human professor, six people visited the behavior and social engineering. experimental village that one of the I have read W-2 five times, with seekers discovered. The visitors' tour three as a supplemental text in the was led by Walden Two's founder, sociology of community classes that I and in the end the guests made taught for an Illinois state university. personal decisions about its efficacy. During my doctoral program, my wife Like other Utopian novels, the worked for the experimental lab story in W-2 has an ancillary school run by the psychology presence: Skinner is expressing a department of that western Michigan belief rather than creating complex university. Many of our friends were roles, intriguing dialogues, or a behaviorists and had known Skinner, plausible plot. Skinner believed that so he and derived teaching methods creating positive, rather than were frequent topics of conversation. aversive, communities and larger Susquehanna was not prosperous, social organizations was possible. He nor were his parents during his youth. believed that then-modern society When toys broke or became too stifled rather than enhanced human worn, he and friends were forced to potential. Skinner believed that a improvise or repair the damages, more ecologically-friendly living place creating a practical orientation to was possible. Skinner believed that mechanical engineering and self­ people could govern themselves sufficiency. He was exposed in rather than being governed by others school to such classics as Henry in extremis as Orwell prophesied at David Thoreau's Walden (1854/1962) about the same time that Skinner that had a profound and long-term wrote his novel. effect. He also learned from his Skinner believed that human living 7 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011 arrangements, communities or so­ (Sternlight 1981:24). Forester was cieties are made typifying the wishes partially compensated for this anxiety or the features of their populations: when he also was sent to the war in There are no archetypes against Spain as a correspondent. Direct which all are measured. The human contact with that conflict led not to personality is also shaped according shooting or being wounded, but to to the character of the whole unit. two short novels about Spanish People who live in repressive or military history. His best-known ! aversive communities see such standalone novel is The African arrangements as normal, just as Queen (1935) but greater literary people who live in more reflective and fame came from the series about open lifestyles view them as being Horatio Hornblower, a British Navy normal. The task facing all people, officer during the Napoleanic Wars. then, is to shape living arrangements While these books are entertaining, I that maximize human potential by concentrate on Forester's TGS. creating societies where human I received my copy as a First needs and wishes are met without Edition when it was published and I interference from outsiders, while read it every several years. The book doing minimal harm to the local offers reasonable but not lurid ecology. W-2 represents a community portrayals of North Atlantic convoy that could exist on moral consensus escort duty during World War II as I with a consistent, agreeable, and was told of it a long time ago by a agreed-upon code of conduct likened U.S. Navy veteran who served in to the one conceived at Thoreau's such duty. Forester's book is a aquatic retreat. dedicated story of social shepherding, , and it topped the list of novels that I C.S. Forester (1899-1966) chose for this project. Cecil Scott Forester is the pen name of Cecil Lewis Troughton THE BOOKS AND Smith. Complete biographical ac­ SOCIAL SHEPHERDING counts are hard to find, but I found a biography and several electronic sites A novel is a work of fiction, often that provide basic data about the containing sociological principles, real , man, but no profound insights. He is people, and verifiable events. Such rumored to have had imaginary combinations of contents have been parents, but was born to real ones in called fictional reality (O'Sullivan Cairo, Egypt, where his father, like 2006) where readers are asked to Orwell's, was a minor British foreign suspend their disbelief in contrived service official. stories, enjoying them as vicarious Always agonizing over the conflict participants. I follow O'Sullivan's between his bookish self and the advice here by treating the stories as daring adventurer he wanted to be, real, and I ask the reader to do the the concern about his potential same. I also ask the reader to conduct in combat loomed high suspend time differences between 8 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011 the novels, treating them all as taking with God, but Jesus recognized place today, just as we do when we Satan's false authority, lies, and read recreational literature. tyranny. God was Jesus' good shepherd and his moral nets were "The Grand Inquisitor" from written in Holy Scriptures, so Jesus Dostoevsky's The Brothers denies Satan by kissing him and by Karamazov walking away. Much like Tolstoy's epic novel Ivan's story takes place in an auto about Russia, Brothers K ... is to be de .fe of the Spanish Inquisition with studied rather than read by a cozy fire Satan replaced by a Roman Catholic or in a warm bed. It is a long and Jesuit Cardinal and Jesus is complex story of patricide, sibling imprisoned. The priest-turned-auto­ rivalry, and philosophy, so emphasis theocrat disagrees with God over free here is centered only on the chapter will, believing that people are weak, about the grand inquisitor. As a unable to choose or think for believer in religious and political themselves, needing decisive shep­ orthodoxies, Dostoevsky has Ivan herds to guide them. Only the right Karamazov weighing competitive people with the right beliefs have the beliefs about God, Jesus, shep­ ordained right to lead and grant herding, and moral nets with his absolution for sins. Theocrats are brother, Alyosha. Any understanding favorably positioned to influence of the grand inquisitor's quest others' moral choices, including requires some knowledge of a biblical sacred allegiances, honoring saints, event, so I offer a summary of it as a personal sacrifices, and almsgiving: preamble to Dostoevsky's version of All cannot be left to chance. A broad­ the occurrence. based and forgiving religion New Testament theology tells us undermines theocratic power. that Christ was purified and expiated Ivan's world view of skepticism, in the rite of baptism by his cousin, religious doubt, and rational em­ John. Soon thereafter Jesus went into piricism differs from Alyosha's reli­ the wilderness to test the strength of gious empathy and a natural belief in his convictions where events are God. Alyoshsa sees the trans­ chronicled three times in the Gospels parencies of his brother's twin ar­ of Matthew 4:1-10, Mark 1:9-13, and guments -the Cardinal's trick and Luke 4:1-13. There Satan tried to Ivan's. Declaring "You do not believe corrupt Jesus' baptism with several in God, that's his secret" (p. 271 ), temptations. If Jesus would turn Alyosha kisses his brother and walks stones into bread, then people will away. hunger no more. If Christ would throw This story has a 1third literary himself off a cliff and live, then people presence, told about a century after will no longer question God's Brothers K... in novelist Nikos miracles. If Christ would accept Kazantzakis' The Last Temptation of earthly riches, then people will no Christ (1960). The preconditions and longer be poor. Satan was competing setting are the same as the biblical 9 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011

version. Jesus is depicted in anguish, inscribed doorway cornice and its tormented by visions of unearthly history reflects one man's drive to creatures, maws, mirages, and voices honor and preserve ancient Judaism. as Satan appears in three different Christianity's Holy Trinity -God the forms. A serpent tempts Jesus with Father, God the Son, and God the worldly pleasures, especially a Holy Spirit, overlapping like three conjugal marriage with his childhood circles in a Venn diagram- took its friend, Mary Magdalene, in her formal image in the late 4th Century, attributed role as a prostitute. Satan's A.O. Judaism, though, offers a second form is a lion, offering secular different vision of God, depicting him riches and kingdoms. Satan's third in one form with three gifts for appearance is fire, offering Jesus humanity. The Old Testament's Book omnipotence -to become God- that of Genesis identifies these offerings was claimed to be Jesus' deepest as creator, redeemer, and sanctifier; desire. By now Jesus is tired, hungry, and, a reading of Weber indicates and weak, maybe susceptible to God's presence as guardian, partner, wicked influences, when he feels and provider (Bendix 1962). God's invisible hand on his shoulder, As the chapter unfolds ancient directing him away. The good shep­ Judaism and fledgling Christianity herd of Judea was tending to a vul­ begin to clash in the common area. nerable member of the flock. The culture conflict frightens Rabbi Skinner's questions about lead­ Asher ha-Garsi, and it emboldens him ership and followership apply to to remain faithful to YHWH, his one biblical events, as well as the novels true God, by maintaining his faith in by Dostoevsky and by Kazantzakis. the three religious guy wires of his Baptism put Jesus into a dyadic moral net. relationship of reciprocity with God The Old Testament's first division who was the good shepherd and, (a Pentateuch) is called the Torah or Jesus was the faithful and pro­ "Moses' Law," containing the books of claiming scion. Jesus used his moral Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Num­ nets to survive, just as Dostoevsky's bers, and Deuteronomy. Exodus Alyosha Karamazov and Isaiah 20:1-7 and Deuteronomy 5:4-21 Fomich, and Solzhenitzyn's Alyosha contain the Ten Commandments, , the Baptist, used theirs. representing the first element of · Rabbi Asher's moral net. The second "The Law" from Michener's The is found in Leviticus and in Numbers Source where another 613 guidelines are The story takes place in Israel at found: 365 of them correspond to the Tell Makar, "The Source," as number of days in a calendar year archaeologists uncover sundry arti­ and 248 of them represent the facts in strata of the excavation and number of bones in a human body. Michener weaves separate stories The third division is the Talmud, the around the discovered remains. One encyclopedic translation of Judaism's of the old souvenirs is a piece of oral traditions on history, morality, 10 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011 and behavior norms. The Talmud is and his social obligations to family, recognized as compiled in two work, and neighbors. He believed that sections between 299 C.E./A.D. and preaching the Law and the Prophets 500 C.E./A.D. by rabinnic scholars, was a privilege and a duty, and the and Rabbi Asher was a participant rites of the Sabbath transcend time, circa 350 C.E./A.D. when the chapter place, and circumstance. takes place. " ... [W]hat is the law?" asks Rabbi Asher, and he answers, Orwell's Animal Farm and 1984 "It is doing the best we can to These two books are allegories ascertain God's intention ... " (Mich­ and warnings about the rise of ener 1969:554) through piety, study, political and economic tyrannies as and action. No matter how hard he foreseen by Orwell in Burma and in tries, Rabbi Asher's moral nets are Spain. The twin stories were not the tested when organized Christianity only clarions, though, having been comes to town. discussed a few years before the The Spanish priest Fr. Eusebius novels' arrivals. Nobel Prize arrived, supported by Christian economist Frederick A. Hayek wrote soldiers, to spread the testament of a treatise in 1944 that compared free­ Jesus, to convert, to build, and to market economies and democratic change. Michener writes that Roman politics with political economies Catholicism's ability to imbed itself derived from states' central planning into a region with skillful adaptations systems. The comparisons he made to local customs and mores were plentiful and dramatic, but we (1969:560), and Fr. Eusebius is must remember that Hayek's pub­ adept. Judaism, he says, is a lisher still sponsors political and transitional path to salvation: economic conservancy. Nonetheless, Christianity is the better way. his comments will be incorporated Judaism, he says, is based on a with Orwell's, and with Skinner's, wrathful God, whereas Christianity is later. based on a benevolent one. Animal Farm and 1984 can be Synagogues with simple adornments read either as standalone novels or need to be replaced with ornate as a pair. If the first method is basilica speaking to Christianity's selected Animal Farm is the story of God of glory. Those who were anthropomorphized farm animals shunned under the old laws are whom revolt against their owner and welcomed in the new ones. depose him. They have no agrarian, Rabbi Asher's world was crum­ marketing, or managerial skills so bling around him. The synagogue he they take the farm to near economic built was demolished. Members of his ruin. They felt that they had been flock converted. The Law was being treated unfairly by farmer Jones, so replaced. Soldiers were killing non­ they created a code of conduct, a Christians. The town was destroyed. moral net, declaring all animals to be Though faced with despair, he equal where they would share, and continued his religious commitments share alike. In the end, leadership 11 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011 emerged with differential and set in place. preferential access to power, rights, Animal Farm and 1984 capture and privileges -entitlements. The an­ and disturb the reader's curiosity. imals had re-created a system much Animal Farm's code of conduct is a like the one they had overthrown. listing of negative liberties telling the 1984 is the story of a man who animals what to think rather than a lives in a totalitarian land, Oceania, notice of positive liberty's free will. whose head of state is Big Brother. The basic items in the code are: Smith, a minor government official Whatever goes upon two legs is an like Orwell's father, works for a ,enemy; whatever goes upon four ministry where duties include legs, or has wings, is a friend; no revisionist history, distributing falsified animal shall wear clothes; no animal reports of economic progress for the shall sleep in bed; no animal shall public, . and erasing all reference to drink alcohol; no animal shall kill any those who have become non-people other animal; and, all animals are through sedition. Smith commits the equal (p. 33). Additional items include error of believing that he can have an working according to capacity (p. 37), ownlife and think for himself, so he and the prohibited use of money (p. meets a sympathetic believer who 67). gives him an underground political A formal leadership was affected tract to read; but it was a sting. A because some animals seemed more governmental official created the lie capable than others to form policy and Smith fell for it, was arrested, and to guide others in the exercise of interrogated, tortured, and repa­ their new "liberties." After Napolean triated. Smith could be viewed as the the pig ascended to power, walking sheep that went astray, lured by upright, the sheep's ditty "Four legs greener pastures, was caught by the good, two bad" was replaced with shepherd's crook, led back to the "Four legs good, two better!" (p. 41). fold, and rejoined the flock; except, The anthem Beasts of England was O'Brien had no gracious intent. replaced with Comrade Napolean (p. The second method is to read 81 ). The prohibition against money them sequentially. Animal Farm was re-remembered as unratified by represents the beginning of social all (p. 67). Those who disagreed with revolution, and 1984 represents its Napolean the pig were driven away, conclusion. If this method is chosen, scapegoated like Snowball the pig, or then the back story begins in were torn apart by his squad of guard Burmese Days during quieter times, dogs. yet only a vague vision is offered. The original code of conduct was Homage ... then needs to read as ultimately and surreptitiously changed succeeding Burmese Days but as a midst vague memory and hopeless prequel to the other two novels curiosity by many on the farm, because it depicts methods of especially Clover, the na'ive horse. revolution and what the future may Changes included sleeping in beds is bring when totalitarian Communism is approved so long as sheets are not 12 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011

used (p. 69); no animal shall kill Another novelist, Steve Berry another without good cause (p. 88), (2010:66), depicted political condi­ and alcohol shall not be drunk to tions similar to the ones in Oceania, excess (p. 103). Animal Farm's most so I borrowed and applied them to renowned expression concerns social Orwell's setting and admonitions. equality that was rephrased (p. 123) [It was a Legalist system that] to read: ALL ANIMALS ARE EQUAL believed naked force and raw terror BUT SOME ANIMALS ARE MORE were the only legitimate bases for EQUAL THAN OTHERS. 1984 power. Absolute [control], centralized extends the story. , state domination over The animals had two identifiable society, law as a penal tool, leaders -farmer Jones and Napolean surveillance, informers, dissident per­ the pig. Big Brother, though, has a secution, and political coercion were combined allusive, elusive, and its fundamental tools (p. 66). illusive presence. He is symbolic of The animals' farm dictum on good citizenship; he is never seen in equality was violated. A biarchy class public; and the social, economic, and structure had been created with political achievements under his rule Napolean the pig as the privileged are deceptive. Though shepherds, leader over the lesser animals. A neither Napolean the pig nor Big similar structure existed in Oceania Brother could be called altruistic, and but it did not evolve in the book -it their minions could now be called had already been established, in two "sheeple." biarchic forms. There were political Many of Orwell's observations party members and the pro/es, and about the political theory observed in within the party there were the Burmese Days and in Homage ... took leaders and the functionaries -the place in the futuristic novel. Reciting a O'Briens and the Smiths. few examples from earlier references, Both books were premised on the there were staged public rallies of belief that only the right people with support for Big Brother, and non­ the right ideas had the right to lead, believers disappeared without and in both stories the leaders warning or public notice after they created the rules of conduct serving were politically "outted" by the as imposed moral nets for the thought police, such as O'Brien. respective populations. The animals' News was censored, propaganda original rules were modified, and any replaced the truth, and rules were formal codes of conduct in Oceania flexible. Animal Farm's renegade would have been incidental, taking Snowball was blamed for some of the second place to its primary directive: farm's decline, and 1984's Emmanuel BIG BROTHER IS WATCHING YOU! Goldstein, "author" of the tract titled If Animal Farm, and 1984 are, The Theory and Practice of indeed, sequels, what is the segue Oligarchical Collectivism, is portrayed between them? How are Skinner's as the prime internal enemy of the questions answered? How would state -a Public Enemy Number One. Hayek explain the shift from "demo- 13 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011 cratic capitalism" to socialism where community sought its lifestyle. the equality of opportunity is overridden by an illusory equality of Skinner's Walden Two outcomes? I accidentally discovered Thoreau spent a year of frugal and Orwell's own possible answer to independent self-sufficiency living at these questions. Walden Pond, and wrote about his A local used book dealer knew experience, treating it as a two-year that I was reading about Orwell, so he venture rather than its single year. 1 sold me a paperback copy of A Skinner viewed Walden as a source Clergyman's Daughter from 1935 and of inspiration, but was also prodded I randomly found pages 73-78 by a friend to write an inspired book containing conversations about for post-World War II youth. That war,

church parish congregations' reduced say Woodhouse (1962) and Mead 1 influence over liturgy, vestments, (1970), so changed military weap- · rituals, and message. The church's onry, information technologies, inter­ bishops, they felt, had become national politics, and social rela­ heavily influenced by modernists tionships between generations that whereas the congregants preferred an improved vision of the future was established traditions. Evidence of necessary, and Skinner offered one. disaffection was measured by My reading of Walden identified a declining attendance at regular and number of principles that are found in high holy day worship services W-2. They include personal austerity, because the congregants, without unencumbered work, and honesty voice, disengaged. with self and with others. We should The animals at the farm were listen to learn, and speak so that unable to fend for themselves once others may also learn. Education Napolean the pig was seated in promotes greater familiarity with power: They acquiesced. Once power oneself and with others, not mere is centrally located it becomes facts. Science is to be applied. We institutionalized and corrupted as should practice moral and economic Lord Acton (cited in Hayek) and chastity. Involvement is preferred Hayek aver, becoming a generational over observation. Those who profess phenomenon. The pro/es of Oceania philosophy are not philosophers, also disengaged from politics, and the whereas those who work to solve politicos who dared to think for problems are. themselves, forgetting who was really Borrowing from Maslovian psycho­ in charge, met with swift, sure, and logy, the first two items help to meet a frightful justice, like Smith, entering a person's primary needs, so the type of serfdom defined with political remaining items can be met along the intention by Hayek and with economic way to something akin to self­ inflection by O'Sullivan (2002, 2010). actualization. Thoreau would not, Skinner's W-2, though, offers a obviously, have known about different method of moral acceptance. Abraham Maslow, but it is possible The members of the Walden Two that Maslow would have known about 14 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011

Thoreau, just as it is possible that enhance and protect Walden Two's Skinner would have been familiar with interests. Participation in religious the precepts of self-actualization. worship and marriage are optional. Thoreau and Skinner might have The Walden Code is the centerpiece responded to Hayek stating the of the collective's moral net. revised society would ensure The items in Walden Two's Code lifestyles of positive liberties and are not openly listed as they are in choosing for oneself, rather than Animal Farm, but they are clustered succumbing to lifestyles of dictated and explained as a combination of negative liberties. prescriptive allowances and pro­ Skinner's understanding of Wal- scriptive interdictions where health is

1 den's principles is similar to mine. He better than illness (Skinner 1948/ · wrote that no way of life is inevitable, 1962:159), and unpleasant tasks so change what you do not like. earns more labor points than pleasant Power does not ensure change but jobs (p. 159). There are ample oppor­ wisdom can. Ask only to be left alone tunities to exercise talents while to solve your own problems. Simplify pursuing new interests (p. 160), and your needs, being content with less intimate and satisfying contacts with (Skinner 1979:346). others are encouraged (p. 160). The The Walden Two community good life allows for rest and relaxation consists of nearly 1,000 residents (p. 163), and do not discuss inside

1 who chose to join the village so it is activities with outsiders (p. 163). · justly called a voluntary organization. Discuss work with others (p. 163), There are dormitories for men and for and gossip is unhealthy (p. 163). women and for boys and girls, with Managers will not discuss the Walden ' separate facilities for couples and Code outside general assemblies (p. their families. Traditional infant cribs 164-165), and recognition of excep­ are replaced by the Air Crib as tional achievements may minimize Skinner's real-life invention. Children average accomplishments (p. 169). attend an open school where Verbal gratuities and honorifics are competition is replaced with not needed (p. 171). cooperation, as is utility over rote. Skinner's own discussion of his , The packaged knowledge, packaged novel (1979) includes even more progress, tests and grading, items. Cooperation is more con­ academic honors, and ceremonial structive than competition. Positive rites of passage found in traditional reinforcers are long-lasting whereas ' schools are excluded. Closed class­ punishment is not. Experiential rooms are replaced with open ones. learning in schools is preferred over

1 Work tasks have been studied and the formality of lectures. Reducing : minimized with maximum efficiency. compulsive labor and change is Skilled professionals are encouraged meant to improve, not just modify. to work within their arts, but it is not When new members join the mandatory. Involvement in external community it is renewed, just as ' politics and economics occur solely to Walden Pond has seasonal re-births. 15 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011

New residents accept the com­ cannot be completely self-governing munity's way of life, while visitors are otherwise no intentions, goals, or free to reject it. All told, W-2 is a strategies can be made. Some forms blueprint for shared experiences with of leadership selection and circulation a horizontal gemeinschaft made are necessary. At issue then is not so possible by a commitment to the much whether a leadership will vertical gesellschaft of the Walden emerge, but how are leaders chosen Code. and what will they do with acquired Any theme-based novel will be a power? reflection of the author's opinions as Walden Two is an egalitarian shown in O'Sullivan's 2006 article on group with five levels of authority. The the portrayal of justice in the serial elected Planners make policies, novels of nine modern authors. Not determine goals, have a judicial role, only was Skinner familiar with the and review the work of supervisors.

idyllic Walden virtues, but writers of The Managers are the appointed 1 other utopian novels are discussed in sectional overseers, trained and the book's conversations. Included tested to ensure that the day-to-day are Samuel Butler who wrote about operations run smoothly and effi­ Erewhon and its locomotives, James ciently. Scientists, as the title Hilton who allowed us to visit suggests, conduct pragmatic re­ Shangri-la, and Thomas More took us search rather than pure research, just to Utopia. Skinner joins them as the young Skinner was obliged to because all these works contain the create makeshift toys and repair authors' internal debates with damaged ones. Below these divisions themselves, playing the roles of are the Workers, the average and protagonist and antagonist. Aside everyday residents of Walden Two. from the two couples who visit They are its pro/es who willingly Walden Two in the novel, there are relinquish their desires to actively three other people whose participate in· governance. And then conversations sound more like there is Frazier. Platonic challenges than casual Frazier offers opposing versions of dialogues, but that was the purpose his position in the community. He is behind their presence. Burris is the honored to be its founder and ramrod, friendly, inquisitive, and open-minded but declines the title of "leader." He university professor. Castle, another prostrates himself on a grassy knoll, college professor, is the skeptic, and like Jesus on the cross, but declares Frazier is the founder and primary that he is not Christ-like. He artfully '/ advocate of the community. Con­ deflects criticisms offered by several .' versations between them are most of the visitors, yet he refuses to i commonly about social control, self­ accept praise for the bases of the ; governance, and authority within the detours. He enjoys good academic I community. Little else is learned debates about Walden Two, and he about them. hopes to create improved commu­ Hayek argued that organizations nities, elsewhere. 16 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011

Whether or not Walden Two is as longitudes, and makes split-second pristine as Skinner declares it to be, duty assignments based on such or is as self-governing as he ever-changing conditions. Krause, the proclaims, is a matter of conjecture. pastural shepherd, must estimate the Skinner (1979:347) acknowledged submarines' tactics while putting his that his novel received mixed ship in harm's way to protect the reviews, with one of them reading: convoy. Krause, the pastoral shep­ THE NEWEST UTOPIA IS A SLAN­ herd, listens to distress signals, sug­ DER ON SOME OLD NOTIONS OF gestions of the other herders, and THE GOOD LIFE. talks to the convoy and escort ships The six visitors make their own offering advice, encouragement, and decisions about Walden Two's quality orders. of life and its freedoms, yet there is The story begins when Krause is an alluring pastural and pastoral aroused from his bed with notice of a scene early in the story. A flock of possible submarine contact, and the sheep is quietly grazing in a field, chase is on. The convoy is miles long surrounded by a symbolic string and wide to avoid bunched targets. fence that was formerly an electrified Its pace is determined by the weakest wire. Sitting and patiently watching ship so headway is slow. The four from a convenient distance is "the escort vessels have limited fuel, Bishop" -the flock's sheep dog­ limited munitions, and unlimited re- deterring strays. ·. sponsibility. One possible enemy contact Forester's The Good Shepherd expands to several, eliciting coordi­ Forester's book represents the nated attacks to inflict maximum purest selection of the good shepherd damage to others while incurring who relies on his pastoral moral net minimal damage in return. A pastural as he exercises his pastural shepherd may have to leave the flock responsibilities in a time of crisis. in order to attend a wounded or lost Psalm 23's "... Yea though I walk member, as does Krause's ship and through the valley of the shadow of another convoy vessel, attending to a death ... " may refer to herding sheep stricken ship and its crew. Pursuit is in an area populated by predatory long and arduous, and bridge wolves, but it also applies to herding watches change almost without a convoy through wolf packs of notice as Krause weighs a failed enemy submarines on the hunt to kill. marriage, an undistinguished military Krause has to know the . career, his ancestry, and his right to navigational and speed traits of each command. Kazantzakis depicts the ship under his command, the physical isolation and loneliness of characteristics of the convoy's civilian Jesus' time in the wilderness; commander, as well as the traits and Forester depicts Krause's social the foibles of the other escort ships isolation of command, surrounded by and their captains. He has exact many and plagued with doubt. locations of all the ships' latitudes and I found little biographical data to 17 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011 suggest Forester's religious affiliation could have modified MacArthur's or beliefs, but my estimate that he words to say "duty, honor, country, was an Anglican or a member of the and God" as their moral net. Maybe Church of England has several the stories' circumstances simply predicates. His father was a public required alternative styles of official, and the government has leadership, or the premise behind strong ties to the C. of E. -the TGS was completely different from reigning monarch is called "Defender the Hornblower series. of the faith." He attended Alleyns While at battle stations, the escort School that has an Anglican affiliation ships attack many enemy contacts like the Episcopal parochial school causing uncertain damage. Fuel where my wife taught when we lived levels run low and munitions are in . Worship services were part depleted. All they can do is chase the of her daily curriculum, so I anticipate enemy, without armaments to destroy that Forester was schooled in the the submerged foes. The situation ! same tradition. Also, the scriptural becomes desperate. One escort is passages that Krause recalls for damaged and requires towing. strength, wisdom, and guidance in Krause's own ship is damaged in the face of adversity come from surface combat. Krause is cold, tired, something greater than a casual hungry, and wet. The submarines familiarity with the Bible, all of which gain the advantage. lead to my speculative comparison Eventually, a guardian angel between Hornblower, Krause, and disguised as a U.S. reconnaissance Forester. Hornblower and Krause plane spots the convoy and relays its lead ships into battles, but the position and heading to a new escort similarity ends there. Hornblower is force coming to meet it. The original the staid naval officer with the "stiff­ shepherds are relieved of duty, upper lip" persona when faced with leaving the care of their flock to danger. No Divine help is requested others. The good shepherd and moral or needed in these swashbuckling net symbolisms of Forester's story adventures of English domination are self-evident, making TGS the over the oceans during the age of capstone of my presentations. sail. Having read the Hornblower books, and having read about DISCUSSIONS Forester, I believe that the adven­ turous Forester might have identified It is now time to return to with Hornblower, both adopting Gen. traditional sociology and typify my Douglas MacArthur's 1962 phrase\ selections by using and by adjusting "duty, honor, country" as their moral an online script (http://changing net. Krause, in comparison, makes minds .org/ exp Ia nations/power/three_ frequent supplications to God, dimensions_of_power.htm) that seeking strength in a time of peril. seems to be derived from Luke's Perhaps Krause represents 1974 book on social power. Leader­ Forester's reflective self, and each ship, or shepherding, according to 18 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011

this tool, is three-dimensional, con­ sively when a flock is threatened. sisting of channels or means of With these parameters set, I look at enactment, intent to help or harm some of their applications to the others, and the deliberateness of pre­ stories assessed here. or post-triggers to action. Each item is subdivided. "The Grand Inquisitor" Channeled physical leadership or This chapter in Dostoevsky's book shepherding is based on a strength or contains two plots: The symbolic prowess advantage that the leader Cardinal's temptation of Jesus and has over the led. A pastoral shep­ Ivan taunting his brother, Alyosha. herd, for example, has rods, staffs, Both antagonists use a combination and crooks to motivate or catch the of informational and emotional flock's members. Channeled infor­ channels in their arguments. The mational leadership or shepherding Cardinal and Ivan each feel he has happens when the leader knows insider's knowledge that neither something that the led do not. A Jesus nor Alyosha possess. The priest or a rabbi, for example, has Cardinal and Ivan also use emotional specialized understanding of scrip­ channels, thinking that their clever tures or religious heritage that arguments alone may sway the members of an assembly do not opinions of Jesus or Alyosha, res­ usually have. Channeled emotional pectively. Neither succeeds. leadership or shepherding depends The intentions of the Cardinal and on charisma, oration, and Ivan are to acquire power. The compassion towards others. Cardinal wants the advantage over Leadership or shepherding by God through Jesus' denial of his positive intent is the defining feature baptism and the manipulative Ivan of the good shepherd. The altruistic tries to reign over Alyosha's spiritual self helps the group or gives oneself moral nets. In so doing, the Cardinal to the group without pre-conditions. and Ivan each employ proactive Negative intent, however, character­ deliberated attacks against Jesus and ize the abusive shepherd as some­ Alyosha, who are only surrogate one who uses the group for selfish targets. If they would reject their God, purposes, caring little for harm that then all types of rewards would come may result. to them, but neither the Cardinal nor Proactive defiberateness occurs Ivan is empowered to make such when, for example, a pastoral deals, so they both fail. minister reminds a congregation of its moral nets against unspecified "The Law" temptations, sins, or evils. Reactive This chapter from Michener's book deliberateness, in comparison, identi­ also addresses a man's faith midst fies the triggered timings or circum- threats and could be viewed as

1 stances causing a leader to take retelling Jesus' temptation in the action against specified dangers. A wilderness. I chose to treat it, though, pastural shepherd responds defen- as one of Michener's profitable 19 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011

literary themes -culture conflict. cording to Judaic tradition, can take Rabbi Asher's God is sometimes place anywhere. vengeful, using punishment for specific sins and as an aversive Animal Farm and 1984 stimulus against future ones. Most of Napolean the pig's ascendancy the time though his God is a kindly accorded him the leadership of the one, the good shepherd of Isaiah and shepherding status so long as the of Psalm 23. All God asks of his rest of the animals validated him, but people are loyalty and reverence. his followers acquiesced rather than Rabbi Asher, the social shepherd, approved. Status and power was channels with the informational skills consolidated, transferred from the of a scholar who has studied Judaic many to the one. Equality for all was history and traditions, the Torah, and replaced with inequality for most. other documents. He knows the Law We do not know how Big Brother and is a co-writer of the Talmud. His came into power, if he is even a real emotional channeling reflects God's person. If he lives, he may have pastoral pro-social values and pro­ ascended the party's ranks by doing active deliberateness. All the rabbi good deeds, or he may have used asks of the residents of his town is raw force to rise in status. Many that they stay true to their faith, their readers and scholars agree though families, their work, and their that Big Brother is symbolic of the community-their moral nets. power that the party has, and that The beginning of the chapter has power is used to dictate. Remember Rabbi Asher exercising his roles as a this variation of the Golden Rule: father, a businessman, and a public "Whoever has the gold, rules," and servant. There are no specific threats Big Brother is wealthy. to the community, but circumstances Napolean the pig and Big Brother change. The chapter shifts into Rabbi channel through combinations of Asher's deliberate and reactive physical, informational, and emotional responses to the invading theology means. Intra-group dissidents are and its missionary. He engages in removed or tortured; information is non-violent debates with Fr. manipulated for public consumption; Eusebius' counter channels, his and, anthems, rallies, and news extol counter intentions, and deliberate use the two despots, not those whom they of military forces; but Rabbi Asher is lead. The self-serving, narcissistic, a meek man, incapable of physical and greedy intentions of the tyrants confrontations. When his synagogue are manifest in their deliberate and is destroyed leaving a few remnants, proactive public image campaigns when his town is razed, when with token appeasements, and harsh members of his flock defect or are reactions to those who disagree with killed, he leads remaining followers them. Napolean the pig and Big away to re-establish themselves and Brother have made themselves worship elsewhere. The Sabbath, ac- immune from public sentiment and scrutiny. 20 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011

Since these tyrants exist, we have itarian role, status, power or privi­ to remember that they exist over leges. He too must earn his labor others, and for some reason those points. He may espouse a community others allow the tyrants to exist, and with little dissent or shortcomings, but suggestions explaining this relation­ let us not forget the symbolism of "the ship have already been offered. Bishop" posted near the sheepfold. Orwell used grounded allegory to warn future generations about The Good Shepherd tyranny, just as Hayek cautioned that This book is easy to parse. The histories of tyrannies show public escorts' Cmdr. Krause was· assigned accountability is controlled from the his role by his superior officers. top-down, not inspired from the Compared to the other escort ships' bottom-up. Both contingencies captains, he is junior in experience remind us of sociological classics on but is senior in rank. His job entails elitism. complex manifestations of the three types of channeling, both types of Walden Two intent, and both types of deliberate­ The absence of a specific central ness. authority makes W-2 a little harder to Krause exercised a physical assess. W-2's Planners are elected to channel advantage over the sub­ ten year terms, and whether or not a marines because he used radar for slate of candidates is chosen by the surface detections and sonar for people or is handpicked by Frasier is underwater ones. The submarines of a matter of theory, debated by the the era relied upon line-of-sight story's visitors and Frazier. If the observations through periscope Planners are just ratified minions, lenses or surface sightings when they

1 then their appointed Managers are made themselves susceptible to · also sycophants, both owing alle­ radar contacts. Krause exercised an giance to one person over the many. information channel advantage over The Scientists are apolitical, but their the submarines because he was able creations or solutions to problems to communicate with each escort or have actual impact, as do their social convoy ship via two radios; and the opinions. submarines of the era could not do so Physical channeling does not unless they had surfaced, putting exist. There is no overt negative themselves into visual jeopardy. intent because the community was Krause exercised emotional channels established on pro-social secular when he wished all ships such principles. Proactive deliberateness benedictions as "Good luck," "Good exists in the table of organization, the hunting," or "God speed." spiel offered in visitors' tours and in Positive intent and proactive the Walden Code. Reactive coun­ deliberates are combined in his duty seling and banishment are rare. assignment -protect, at all costs, Unlike Napolean the pig and Big those who are unable to fend for ; Brother, Frazer denies any author- themselves. Negative intent is then ~ 21

I,- i FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011 joined with reactive deliberateness to Hayes, J.P. 1984. James A. attack the attackers, destroying them, Michener: A Biography. if possible. The convoy is defenseless Indianapolis, IN: Bobbs-Merrill. and Krause is its protector, its good Hayek, F.A. 1944. The Road to and dedicated shepherd. Serfdom. Washington, D.C.: The Heritage Foundation. CONCLUSION Kazantzakis, N. 1960. The Last Temptation of Christ. New York: This article used the novels of five Simon and Schuster. well-known writers to illustrate that Larkin, E. 2005. Finding George social shepherding and moral nets - Orwell in Burma. New York: both legitimate subjects in traditional Penguin Press. sociology- can be found outside Lukes, S. 197 4. Power: A Radical corporate, governmental, or cultural View. London: MacMillan. settings. I am certain that readers of May, S. 2005. Michener: A Writer's this article can find other writers and Journey. Norman, OK: University books reflecting concepts used here; of Oklahoma Press. just as others, using the same Mead, M. 1970. Culture and resources, may offer alternative or Commitment. New York: American contradictory analyses. I hope that Museum of Natural History. that such comparative and indepen­ Michener, J. A. 1941. Who is Virgil T. dent pursuits are undertaken to find Fry? The Clearing House. sociology in non-traditional places. ------. 1946. Tales of the South Pacific. New York: MacMillan. References ------. 1969. The Source. New York: Fawcett Crest. Bendix, R. 1962. : An ------. 1981. James A. Michener's Intellectual Portrait. New York: USA. New York: Crown Doubleday Anchor. Publishers. Berry, S. 2010. The Emperor's Tomb. ------. 1992. The World Is My Home. New York: Ballantine Books. New York: Random House. Davis, N.J. and C. Stasz. 1990. ------. 2007. . Gainesville, Social Control of Deviance. New FL: University of Florida Press. York: McGraw-Hill. Muggeridge, M. 1962. Introduction. Dostoevsky, F. 1861/2008. Memoirs Burmese Days. New York: Time, from the House of the Dead. New Inc. York: Oxford University Press. Ogburn, W.F. 1930. "The folkways of ------. 1996. The Brothers Karamazov. a scientific sociology." Publications 1 New York: Modern Library. of the ASA 1601-11. http://spartan. Evans, R.L. 1968. B. F. Skinner: The ac. brock.caHwards/sup/Ogburn _ Man and His Ideas. New York: 1929.html. E.P. Dutton. Orwell, G. 1931/1962a. Burmese Forester, C.S. 1955. The Good Days. New York: Time, Inc. Shepherd. Boston: Little, Brown. 22 FREE INQUIRY IN CREATIVE SOCIOLOGY Volume 39, Number 1, Spring 2011

------. 1935. A Clergyman's Daughter. Skinner, B.F. 1948/1962. Walden New York: Harcourt Brace Two. New York: MacMillan. Jovanovich. ------. 1972. Beyond Freedom and ------. 1946/1962b. Animal Farm. New Dignity. New York: Alfred A. York: Signet Classics. Knopf. ------. 1949/1961. Nineteen Eighty­ ------. 1974. About Behaviorism. New four. New York: Signet Classics. York: Alfred A. Knopf. ------. 1952. Homage to Catalonia. ------. 1976. Particulars of My Life. Orlando, FL: Harvest Books. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. O'Sullivan, R.G. 2002. "Voluntary 1979. The Shaping of a serfdom: An ideological journey Behaviorist. New York: Alfred A. into dual-class labor conflicts and Knopf. possible workers' solutions." Free ------. 1983. A Matter of Conse­ Inquiry in Creative Sociology quences. New York: Alfred A. 30: 119-133. Knopf. ------. 2006. "Fictional reality and the Solzhenitsyn, A. 1963. One Day in portrayal of social justice in the Life of Ivan Denisovich. New modern sociology and York: Signet Classics. contemporary novels." Free Sternlight, S. 1981. C S. Forester. Inquiry in Creative Sociology Boston: Twayne Publishing. 34:133-149. Thoreau, H.D. 1854/1967. Walden & ------. 2010. "No cubes: an updated Civil Disobedience. New York: look at an industrial workplace and Washington Square Press. the fate of its alienated wage­ Woodhouse, C.M. 1962. Introduction. earning employees." Free Inquiry Animal Farm. New York: Signet in Creative Sociology 38:60-72. Classics.

Buying America from the Indians Johnson v. McIntosh and the History of Native Land Rights (ISBN: 9780806142449) By: Blake A. Watson

The U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Johnson v. McIntosh established the basic principles that govern American Indian property rights to this day. The thorough backstory and analysis in this book will deepen our understanding of one of the most important cases in both federal Indian law and in American property law.

\l UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA PRESS ~ OU PRESS COM 23