CALIFORNIA STATE UNIVERSITY, NORTHRIDGE

TEACHING ABOUT IFAN

TO AMERICAN SECONDARY STUDENTS

A graduate project submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in

Secondary Education

by

Mostafa Mirzaee

June, 1981 The Graduate Project of Mostafa Mirzaee is approved:

Barnabas B. Hughes, Ph.D.

RaymondJ M.cHugh, Ed. D.

California State University, Northridge

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT v

INTRODUCTION 1

CHAPTER I -- GEOGRAPHY AND HESOUP.CES 5

Geography 5

Pesources 8

CHAPTER II -- HISTORY OF IRAN 13

Pre-Islamic Period >/~ 13 ,' Post-Islamic Period 15

CHAPTER III -- SOCIETY 24

People and Language 24

Tribes 26

No-Rouz 31 .~c ,• r- Education 39

CHAPTER IV -- ECONOMY 42

Trade 42

Agriculture 43

Industry 44

Modernization 46

Oil 48

Carpets 51

iii CHAPTER V -- RELIGION 55

Early Beliefs 55

Zoroaster 56

Islam 57

Religious Minorities 68

CHAPTER VI -- ARTS, CRAFTS, LITERATURE 71

Arts 71

Crafts 78

Literature 79

CONCLUSION: IRAN HADE VISIBLE 84

BIBLIOGRAPHY 97

iv ABSTRACT

TEACHING ABOUT IRAN

TO AMERICAN SECONDARY STUDENTS

by

Mostafa Mirzaee

Master of Arts in Secondary Education

Iran has become the center of much discussion and analysis within the last few years. This project seeks to broaden and deepen the perspective of the American public about this controversial area of the world. The intent of the project has been to widen the base of knowledge of the American secondary student as well as to sharpen appreciation of the diversity and richness of the coun­ try's history and culture. In order to accomplish this task, the project discusses the geography, resources, his­ tory, society, economics, religion, and arts of Iran. To reinforce its purpose, the project includes a set of slides designed to assist in the visualization of this diverse culture.

v The objectives of the project are that the student be able to identify and explain the significance of four main phases in the development of Iran. These are the

Persian Empires, the impact of Islam, the influence of the

West, and modern (to 1976) developments in Iran.

As the Persian empire, Iran developed an unique iden­ tity which laid the foundation for the great civilization that was to follow. The influence of this civilization was to be felt throughout the entire Middle East. With the coming of Islam in the 7th century, the lifestyle, language, religion, arts, and basic values of the entire society were radically altered. Such a dramatic change came amid conquest and violence and met with strong inter­ nal resistance. However, gradually Islam was absorbed and adapted to the society and began to meet the basic needs of the people. Islam proved to be a dynamic, unifying principle within the culture for thirteen centuries.

The 20th century thrust a new and strange reality into the life of the Muslim society. Western imperialist countries discovered Iran's vast supply of "black gold"-­ the life blood of the industrial reolution underway with­ in their countries.

Gradually and subtly, complete control of the politi­ cal and economic life of the people shifted into the hands of the western powers. Control by such a strong, external force which pervaded the entire society had as radical an

vi effect on Iran as Islam had had thirteen centuries earlier.

Iran was now thrust into a central position in interna­

tional affairs--a position for which she needed to prepare

herself to cope with.

It is my hope that students, through this project

will come to appreciate the society of Iran within its

total historical and cultural context. Only a small seg­

ment of the richness of its life has been presented here.

Much more study and experience are needed to handle ade­

quately the topic. Only through a mature approach to cul­

tural diversity can people hope to live harmoniously to­

gether within the human community, sharing a planet and

its gifts.

vii INTRODUCTION

This project is a visual presentation of the most

influential contributions, ideas and facts about the his-

tory and development of Iranian society. This project is

an area study, which will help students learn about one

of the oldest parts of the world in the Middle East. The

project includes 70 slides with accompanying captions of

the pictures, maps, art works, monuments, and customs.

The intent is to prepare a media presentation on Iran

through the year 1976 that can be shown to secondary stu-

dents in one class period.

Iran is the country which has been important in al-

/most any period of its long history. /The name Iran is ,/ c derived from the ancient Iranian genitive plural, Aryanan

) or land of the Aryans.( Since about the 11th century,

B.C., Indo-European tribes have been settled in Persia,

I1 the old name for Iran. These peoples' proverbial capacity i I for assimilation, combined with their proximity to cultur- / al centers of extraordinary importance in the ancient ''\ world, has made Persia both a cultural bridge and a melt- i I i ing-pot for a variety of civilizations which its inhabi- ; I l tants have succeeded in amalgamating. I The country was known in Europe for centuries as

Persia. In 1935, the nation demanded official recogni-

1 2

tion as Iran. However, since 1949, it has accepted

Persia as an official alternative.

Iran lies in Western Asia, bordered by the U.S.S.R. to the north, Turkey and Iraq to the west, the Persian

Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the south, and Pakistan and

Afghanistan to the east. It is roughly equal to the state of Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, Colorado, and New

Mexico combined. The population is over 35 million peo­ ple. The climate is one of great extremes. In the sum­ mer, temperatures of over 55 degrees C or 130 degrees F have been recorded, but in the winter the great altitude of much of the country results in termperatures of 18 de­ grees C or 0 degrees F and below. About 50% of the popu­ lation are Persian, and speak Farsi, or Persian. Turkic­ speaking Azerbaijanis form about 27% of the population, and Kurds, Arabs, Baluchis, and Turkamans form less than

25%.

The chapter on history describes how Iran is one of the earliest civilizations in recorded history. Success­ ive civilizations have risen and fallen in this country which in the 20th century has assumed increasing import­ ance in the world because of its vast petroleum resources.

The exploitation and search for oil in Persia has brought the country into world economics and power politics. A large part of the oil in Iran is linked by pipeline to the head of the Persian Gulf where at Abadan, one of the 3

largest refineries of the world is located. Actually, Abadan is the largest refinery in the Middle East, al­ though, this is not the only refinery in Iran. Minerals other than petroleum are exported, but on a much smaller scale. Such minerals as coal, iron, copper, and chrome can be found.

Cereals (wheat, barley, and rice), sugar beets, cot­ ton, tea, and tobacco are chief crops. In addition to cereal crops, Iran produces vegetables, fruits, and nuts such as pistacios. Also, caviar is one of the main re­ sources which is exported. Art work particularly carpets, are another major resource.

Knowledge of the early inhabitants of prehistoric

Iran is limited. The earliest written records of the

Iranians are of the old Persian cuneiform inscriptions of

King Darius I in the 6th century B.C., but a long history preceded them. We know nothing of the migratiops of the

Indo-Iranians into their final homelands in India and

Iran. We can only conjecture about the circumstances of their movements from comparative philology and archaeolog~

The recent Iranian is racially the result of several thousand years of blending. The aboriginal groups mixed with the successive Aryan invaders and also with Central

Asian peoples. Augmented by later Median and Persian incursions, they created a culture that has persisted for

3,000 years. In addition, the people of the Iranian 4

plateau interbred to some extent with Westerners, the

Aramaeans, Greeks, and Arabs. . ;.u'l l((f L ( / Approximately 98% of all Iranians profess Islam, the // J'fficial religion. ~1ost of them belong to the Ja 'Fari 1 / sect (Shiet), the minority branch of Islam. Kurds, ;

{.1 Turkomans, and Arabs adhere to the majority branch of I Islam, the Sunni sect. The Shiet branch of Islam is it- \ i self split into many sects. Zoroastrians, Jews, and \ '"~ristians are recognized as official minorities.

Primary education is free and compulsory for both

sexes, but this has not been fully implemented in rural

areas. Culturally, one of the paradoxes of Persian art

is that perhaps more than any other aspect of Persian life,

it has been subjected to foreign influences. Yet it has

retained throughout history an unrnistakeable character of

its own. Nearly every element can be traced back to some

other act; and yet the bas-reliefs of Persepolis, the lus-

tre-ware of the 13th centry, the carpets, the miniatures,

the metalwork, even the crude lacquer work of the 19th

century, are as distinctive as if they were part of a

completely isolated civilization. This is also true of

literature.

It is hoped that this project may stimulate some of

its readers to help in the task of making known to the

Western world a culture and civilization which remains

extremely important and significant today. 5

CHAPTER I

GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCES

Geography

Recent geological research has shown that before

15,000 B.C., when the greater part of Europe was covered

by glaciers, the Iranian plateau was passing through a

pluvial period, during which even the high valleys were

under water. The central part of the plateau, today a

great salt desert, was then an immense lake or inland sea

into which many rivers ran from the high mountains. fos­

sil fish and shells, which have been found not only in

the desert but also in the high valleys, illustrate the physical aspect of the country as it was many thousands

of years before the Christian era.

At a period which may be put at between 10,000 and

15,000 B.C., there was a gradual change of climate, so­

called dry period. At this time prehistoric man was al­

ready living on the Iranian plateau. The oldest human

settlement to be identified in the plain is at Siyalk, near Kashan, south of Tehran.

Traces of man's first occupation have been found

there just above the virgin soil. In the central part of

the Iranian plateau, which is crossed by two inner moun­ tain ranges, lies a great desert. This desert is called

Kavir-i-Lut and is a series of mud and salt flats where 6

nothing grows or lives. However, in some places life is possible where the soil is less salty and there are true oases.

Early Life

Because of difficult situations in the land, life could develop on the plateau only in the valleys of the great peripheral ranges or in the oases. But life also made great progress on the wide plains of China and outer

Iran. The most important of these is the plain of Khuzis­ tan in the southwest, ancient Susiana, which geographical­ ly is only an extension of the M:esopotamian plain. Run­ ning up into the Zagros range, it forms another mountain­ ous area called Luristan. Susiana was a country with a very old settled urban civilization; and throughout the centuries it influenced the nomadic and semi-nomadic hill people living along its borders. When the political fron­ tiers of the Iranian Empire extended far to the west of the Zagros, it was in this plain that the great

Achaemenian capital city of Susa arose which still exists as a monumental city where a small population still lives.

Another outer plain backs up to the Elburz mountains bordering the Caspian Sea. In it are three peaks of over

15,000 ft. including Mt. Damavand, which is over 18,000 ft. and the highest mountain in the country. This high mountain barrier catches the clouds, bringing an abundant 7

rainfall to the narrow strip of extraordinarily fertile

land above the Caspian Sea. It is tropical Iran, covered

with forests, swamps, and jungles. Rice, cotton, tea,

tobacco, sugar-cane, oranges, lemons, mulberries, figs,

and pomegranates grow there and provide food for about a

third of the population.

f .-:_ .t t) I r Iran as a Crossroads

Since the country is open on all sides, it was the hub of the great lines of communication which connected

East and West. Iran was crossed by the oldest trade route,

the Silk Road, which was also the path of invasions for

centuries.

There are few rivers of any size in the country. The

only navigable river is the Karun, flowing from the Zagros

Mountains into the Shatt-al-Arab and the Persian Gulf.

Other small rivers are in the Persian Gulf and the north- west. The only lake of any size is Lake Urum'iyeh

(Reza'iye') in Azarbaijan, about six thousand feet above

sea level, with a high salt content. Other lakes are of

a temporary nature and all of them are also high in salt

content.

The range of climatic conditions over the whole

country is fairly wide. However, the characteristics of

the central plateau and its extension to Azarbaijan in the

northwest are in the main, very similar. These are a 8

small rainfall, a dry, clear atmosphere, a great range of

temperatures, and regular, sharply defined seasons. Rain­

fall varies from an annual average of 16 inches in the northwest to less than 5 inches in the southeastern des­ erts; most of this rain falls in March and April, and vir­

tually none from !-1ay to September.

Resources

The presence of mineral oil in Persia has been known at least since Achaemenid times when the ancient Persians used the escaping gas in their Zoroastrian fire temples.

Oil from seepages has also long been used in Persia for

lighting, and as a medicament for skin diseases and camel

sores. It was not, however, until the latter part of the

19th century that mineral oil became an asset of world economic importance. Its exploitation in Persia was then

included with that of other minerals, the concession for which was held by the Persian Bank Mining Rights Syndicate.

This body made two attempts, both unsuccessful, to find oil in commercial quantities, first at Bushire and then on Qishm Island. Soon afterward the numerous seepages

from Kurdistan to Fars attracted the attention of \-'1. K.

D'Arcy, a man who had made a fortune from gold mining in

Australia. In 1901, D'Arcy secured the exclusive right

for a period of sixty years to search for, develop, and

sell all natural gas, petroleum, asphalt, and oxokerite 9

throughout Persia, except in the northern provinces. He also gained exclusive right to construct oil pipelines from anywhere in Persia to the south coast. The total area of the concession was about 400,000 square miles.

In 1908 production was undertaken by the Anglo­

Persian (later the Anglo-Iranian) Oil Company, in which the British government was the majority shareholder. As world needs for petroleum grew, Iranian production multi­ plied. By the mid-1970's, Iran ranked fourth among the world's oil producers, and second in the Middle East after

Saudi Arabia. Difficulties between the Iranian govern­ ment and the oil companies occurred in 1932-1933 and again in 1951-1954, resulting first in the reduction of the con­ cession area from 480,000 square miles to 100,000 square miles and later in the nationalization of the production of oil by the Iranian government.

Control of Oil

Under an agreement in 1954, the Iranian government and the National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC) authorized a group of foreign companies to operate Iran's southern oil fields. Known collectively as the Consortium, the foreign interest was divided: 40% British, 40% American,

14% Dutch, and 6% French. The 25-year agreement, with provisions for extensions, left the NIOC responsible for all non-industrial activities in the agreement area and 10

for oil exploration and drilling throughout the country, with the government and Consortium sharing equally in the

profits.

The Petroleum Act of 1957 permitted the NIOC to di­

vide Iran into petroleum districts and to invite explora­

tion bids. Several agreements with American, Italian,

West German, and Japanese interests were concluded for

offshore drilling and conventional wells. As oil produc­

tion and revenues increased under agreements with the

Consortium and the Organization of Petroleum Exporting

Countries (OPEC) , the 1954 agreement was renegotiated in

1973. The Consortium continued technical operations under

a service contract, while NIOC assumed management respon­ sibility within the area covered by the agreement, and

NIOC controlled the Abadan refinery and an increasing

share of crude oil for export.

Importance of Oil

The principal fields are located in Khuzistan pro­ vince in southwestern Iran. Reserves are estimated at

66 billion barrels. Production of crude oil increased

from about 538 million barrels in 1963 to over 2.1 bil­

lion barrels in 1973. The average of petroleum exported

for the first nine months of 1977-1978, during the regime of Mohammad-Reza Pahlavi was around 5 billion barrels.

Under the Islamic revolutionary leadership, oil remained 11

predominant, although production in late December 1979 was

running at 3.7 million B.P.D. The chief refineries are at

Abadan and Hasjid-i-Sulaiman. Host of the exports are

routed through Abadan or the deepwater terminal at Khark

Island, built in 1965.

Natural gas occurs in enormous quantities, but much

of it is burned off. A large gas deposit was discovered

in the Persian Gulf in 1974 by a Japanese company. A pipeline was built from Behbahan to Shiraz, where various

industries use the gas. The fourth development plan

(1967-1973) included investments in a gas pipeline to

the Soviet border. The National Iranian Gas Company, a

subsidiary of NIOC, agreed to supply the Soviet Union with

large quantities of natural gas and deliveries began in

1970.

Other minerals are exported but on a smaller scale, such as coal which is chiefly used for firing bricks and cement. Other minerals are ferrous oxide, iron, lead,

zinc, chrome, turquoise, and copper. Persian carpets and

art work are important resources as well. Persian rugs and carpets have been continuously important to Europe

since at least the 16th century, and have continued to be made in Persia by the same methods and partly according to the same patterns during the whole of that period.

They are still made entirely by hand; the bulk of the yarn is hand spun, and all the weaving and knotting is still 12

done by simple and traditional hand looms. Caviar and dried nuts such as pistachios are other important re­ sources in Iran. CHAPTER II

HISTORY OF IRAN

Pre-Islamic Period

The recorded history of Iran goes back some 3,000 years and is divided at a point almost half-way into its two main divisions, the Pre-Islamic and the Islamic per­ iods. The pattern of these periods is, apart from the religious and cultural distinctions, not very different.

A major figure founded an empire and a dynasty. In the course of time, it broke up into warring factions, a new conqueror arose, and the process was repeated once more.

Little is known of the Elamites, who ruled in south­ west Iran from 4000 B.C. More significant were the Aryan tribes who invaded the north and northwest about 2000 B.C. and found kingdoms in various parts of the Iranian pla­ teau. The Medes, whose chief dynasty was the Deiocids, were ruling in Ecbatan (the modern Ramadan) as early as

750 B.C. There were certainly other Iranian Kingdoms at this time. The next dynasty to be mentioned was the

Achaemenids, who ruled in Pars or Fars, when they were called "Persians" by their Greek neighbors.

Cyrus the Great and Darius

The first great Persian monarch, Cyrus the Great, completed the conquest of Media in 550 B.C. Then in a series of campaigns under him and his successors,

13 14

Cambyses and Darius, an empire was built up which by the

end of the 6th century B.C. extended from Macedonia and

Egypt in the west to the Punjab in India in the east. Its

capital, first at Pasargad and Susa, was later moved to

the great palace of Persepolis in the north of Shiraz.

The reign of Darius was chiefly notable for the measures

he took to organize and administer his realm. There is

not much information about the personal life of Darius.

In the ancient city of Beseitun, a portion of relief

sculpture shows him to be a majestic but stocky figure.

It appears from the Persepolis treasury tablets that he had a daughter of the same name as his best loved wife.

Since the winged god of Zoroastrians (Ahuramazda) appears on top of the Darius relief, it is presumed that Darius was a Zoroastrian.

Darius III was the last Achaemenid. Without trouble he conquered Egypt but he ignored a threat from Macedonia.

In the year of his accession, Philip of Macedonia was mur­

dered, and the Macedonian throne was occupied by his dy­

namic twenty-year-old son, Alexander. In the following year, Darius marched westward to be defeated by Alexander

near Issas. Leaving his family as prisoners of war,

Darius III fled to the Caspian Sea area where he was mur­

dered a few days later by a relative. 15

Alexander the Great

Either as a drunken whim or an act of cool revenge

for the Persian burning of the Athenian acropolis,

Alexander burned down the palace of Persepolis.

Alexander's triumph was shortlived, however, for he died

of fever in 323 B.C. at the early age of thirty-two years.

His territory was divided between the two new powers of

Rome in the west and Parthia in the east by the end of the

3rd century, B.C. War among these powers continued for more than 250 years. The Parthian Empire was ripe for

collapse when the new conqueror appeared on the scene.

This was Ardashir, son of Sassan, who in 226 A.D. defeat­

ed the last of the Parthians, penetrated eastward into

India, and in the west conquered Armenia and brought his

frontier to Rome. The Sassanid ruled for more than 400 years, and its political and cultural achievements place

it on a level with the Achaemenids. The last great mon­

arch of Sassanid was Khosro Parviz and then the last king was defeated by the Arabs.

Post-Islamic Period

The third decade of the 7th century was the major

turning point in Iranian history, in which the pattern of

the country's religious, cultural and psychological de­ velopment was determined up to the present age. In 620, when Khosro Parviz had a twenty-year career of successful 16

conquest behind him, no one could possibly have foreseen that within twenty-five years not merely his dynasty but the whole fabric of Iranian life would have been engulfed and overwhelmed.

Arab conquests began after the death of Muhammad, the prophet of Islam. Yazdigird III, the last of the

Sassanian kings, was invited to embrace Islam. He con­ temptuously refused, pouring scorn on the Arabs for the practice of infanticide. Even so, the Arab conquerors might well have left Iran alone. Omar, the second

Abbasid Caliph, declared in 637, "I desire that between

Mesopotamia and the countries beyond the hills, shall be a barrier, so that the Persians shall not be able to get at us, nor we at them. The plain of Iraq suffices for our wants." But, because of Iranian raids on Khuzistan, he was forced to change his mind, and in 642 he inflicted a crushing defeat on the Iranians at the Battle of Nihavend.

This brought to an end the last national Iranian dynasty, for nearly a thousand years.

Various reasons can be adduced for the success of this invasion: It was more spiritual than material; the birth of a crusading religion in Arabia coincided with the exhaustion of a dynasty in Iran; Islam was democratic where Zoroastrianism was exclusive and feudal; four cen­ turies of independence under autocratic rule had sapped initiative and reduced the will to resist. But none of 17

these considerations fully explain the completeness with which Iran apparently succumbed to Islam.

Outside, independent Persian Dynasties were springing

up, many of them short-lived. The most important was the

Safavid (867-909), the Samanids (900-1050) and Ghaznavids

(994-1050). Finally the whole country was united during

the middle of the 11th century under the Turkish dynasty of the Seljugs, only to break up again in time to become

an easy victim to the disastrous Mongol invasions of the

13th century. Both of these invasions were periods of massacre and destruction, while the arts and sciences

flourished. But like their predecessors they were unable

to maintain the political unity of their territories for

long.

16th Century Persia

With opening of the 16th century, Iranian history

again took a strange turn. Following upon eight and a half centuries of alien rule, it emerged with a dynasty more nearly national than any since the Sassanians, and certainly comparable to it in splendor and influence.

These rulers were the Safavids.

Political and religious differences combined to set

these two against each other. Although there was constant friction and sometimes war, the disputed frontier seldom moved far outside the Mesopotamian valley. Persia, as 18

a firmly established nationalist state, had brought about the first physical split in the Islamic world. It is cer­ tainly true that Persian contacts with Europe developed considerably during this period. European influence clearly is seen in some of the art works, but of course those art works kept their own originality.

The 18th century was another period of chaos for

Persia. The Safavid dynasty came to an end in 1729, and for nearly seventy years there was civil war and tribal disorder. Order and unity was finally restored under the

Qajars, who established their capital at Tehran in 1794 and thereby launched Persia upon a new phase of her story.

The rise of the Qajar dynasty coincided with the

Napoleonic wars in Europe. For the first time since the

Sassanids fought with Rome, Persian rulers had to face the threat of European imperialism.

19th Century Persia

By this time the Western powers were beginning to abandon the cruder forms of imperialism, and were seeking economic and financial domination rather than political annexation. So the 19th century in Persia was the era of

European concession-hunting, backed only in the last re­ sort by political pressure. By the turn of the century, most of the country's natural resources were in foreign hands. In 1907 Britain and Russia actually made a formal 19

agreement in which they divided Persia into their own spheres of influence.

World War I

Persia remained passive and resentful under this treatment. The Qajar rulers were selfish and inexperienc­ ed. The mass of the people were unaware of what was de­ veloping. In June, 1914, the last king of Qajar, Ahmad, was crowned. Only a few weeks later the First World War broke out. Persia declared her neutrality, but her sym­ pathies lay with Germany, since she regarded any foe of

Russia as a friend. The entry of Turkey into the war as an ally of Germany and her violation of Persian territory in order to attack Russia, led that power also to violate

Persian soil. Moreover, fear of a Turkish attempt in the south to destroy the refinery of the Anglo-Persian Oil

Company at Abadan and the pipeline from the oilfields, led the British intervention in that area. Another reason for the presence of British troops in the south was that

Germany and Turkey both planned to send troops across

Persia to Afghanistan. As was natural, these moves and counter-moves, by the rival European powers were most try­ ing to the Persians. When Russia collapsed in 1917,

Great Britain endeavored to negotiate an agreement with

Persia which, while guaranteeing independence, would nevertheless give Great Britain much influence there. 20

The negotiations for this agreement aroused much opposi­ tion in Persia, and its ratification by the Majlis {the

Parliament) was eventually rejected. Events soon took a dramatic turn. In February 1921, Riza Khan, the able commander of the Cossack Brigade, marched on the capital.

The government fell and Riza Khan became commander-in­ chief.

In 1922, Turkey, under the leadership of Kemal

Ataturk established a republic, with Ataturk as President.

In the following year there was a movement in Persia to set up a republic and make Riza Khan president. However, the Turks' abolition of the Caliphate and certain other anti-Islamic acts aroused unfavorable feelings in Persia with the result that the idea of an Iranian republic was dropped.

The ineffectual king Ahmad, last king of the Qajar dynasty, left Persia on a visit to Europe in 1923. As he was still absent in 1925, the Majlis formally declared that the Qajar dynasty was terminated and called for the convening of a Constituent Assembly for the purpose of making the necessary changes to the constitutional laws.

In the meantime, the provisional government of the country was entrusted to Riza Khan. On the 12th of December,

1925, the Constituent Assembly declared that the constitu­ tional sovereignty of Persia was to be entrusted to the first king of the Pahlavi dynasty, Riza Shah, and to his 21 I '

male descendants, generation by generation. In April,

1926, the coronation ceremony took place. A new chapter

in Persian history had begun. t'Vorld War II

When World War II began in 1939, Iran declared her

strict neutrality from the outset. The sudden reversal

of the war situation in June, 1941, however, by the

German invasion of Russia brought the Middle East in gen­

eral and Iran in particular once again into the center of world affairs. The Western Allies, desperate to find a

means of conveying war supplies to the Soviet Union,

could see only one route open to them, the one through

Iran. Under the stress of war the usual courtesies were

ignored. After a brief propaganda campaign by Britain and

Russia aimed ostensibly against the presence of German

technicians working in Iran, on the 25th of August, 1941,

the two powers invaded the country from the north and

south. On September 16, 1941, Riza Shah, recognizing the

impossibility of his continuing to reign over an occupied

country, abdicated in favor of his son Mohammad-Riza and

left his homeland never to return. Another watershed in

Iran's history had been reached.

After the German defeat at Stalingrad the tide of war began to recede from the Middle East. This meant in practice that Iran, which had signed a tripartite treaty 22

with Britain and Russia in January, 1942, decided to join the Allies. In september, 1943, Iran declared war on

Germany. In December the three Allied leaders, Churchill,

Stalin, and Roosevelt, meeting at the Tehran Conference, issued a declaration confirming Iran's independence and promising economic aid after the war. In the meantime, the three powers had taken over the operation of the rail­ way, as well as much of the road transport of the country so that Iran was able to benefit later from the rail and road improvements carried out by the occupying forces.

At the war's end, argument centered around the ques­ tion of when the Allied forces would leave Iran. The

Americans left at the end of 1945, the last British troops moved out on March 2, 1946, while the Russians did not finally evacuate until May 9, 1946. But in the mean­ time events had taken place that were to prove vital for

Iran and significant for the rest of the world.

Post-War Development

Though the National Front of Iran incorporated within its ranks a great many different political points of view, it was not long before they were able to find common ground in opposition to the British-owned Anglo-Iranian

Oil Company. The company's monopolistic control of the

Iranian oil industry had been only momentarily jolted by the Iran-Soviet oil negotiations. The 1933 concession was 23

now seen to be inadequate and out-of-date. While succeed­

ing governments concentrated on negotiating better terms,

the National Front favored more extreme measures. When

Musaddiq, riding on a wave of nationalist fervor, became

Prime Minister in April, 1951, his first action was to

cancel the concession and nationalize the oil industry.

An increasingly high-powered series of British and

Anglo-American negotiating missions floundered on the

obstinate insistence of the elderly premier that the

operation of the oil industry must be in Iranian hands.

In October the company withdrew from its areas in the

southwest to the delight of Tehran. Husaddig then carne

into conflict with the Shah who, whatever sympathy he might feel for the general objectives of the nationalist movement, was not prepared to surrender any of his author­

ity to any man.

In August, 1953, matters carne to a head. In a suc­

cessful coup d'etat General Zahidi and the army acting on

behalf of the Shah, defeated the largely left-wing opposi­

tion, and the Shah returned to his throne. After internal

disturbances during which the Shah briefly left the coun­

try, Musaddiq was deposed in August, 1953, during a coup

supported by the United States and other Western coun­

tries. The Shah resumed control of the country. CHAPTER III

SOCIETY

People and Language

The Persian population derives from the early Aryan mass movements into the region. Little is known about the pre-Aryan peoples of Iran, who have been referred to as

Caspians or Caucasians; certainly they intermarried with and were absorbed by the Aryans. Some Arab groups enter­ ed the country during and after the 7th century, A.D., and settled in the northeast and east.

From the lOth to the 14th centuries Turkish or

Turanian tribes moved in considerable numbers. Nomadic tribes further complicated the ethnic and linguistic pic- ture. Some of them, judging from the anthropological evi- dence of their head types, may have been resident in Iran for many centuries. Others moved into the country during the Islamic era and still others have moved or have been transferred from one part of the country to another.

Some of these groups speak languages apparently acquired and not consistent with their ethnic origin.

The Persian people today display a mixture of physi­ cal characteristics. Some are "Alpines," others have

Mediterranean features and build, and still others have

Mongoloid features. The people are usually medium in sta­ ture and slight of build, with dark hair and brown or

24 25

black eyes. Complexions range from quite fair to swarthy, with general coloring similar to that of the Italians or

Greeks.

Origin of Terms

In the inscriptions of the Achaemenid rulers there are references to their family (Vishtaspa), their clan

(Achaemenid), their tribe (Parsa), and their nation

(Aryan) . From "Arya" derived "Iran" as an ethnic and geo- graphical name. From "Parsa" came the Greek word

"Persia." The word also went into Arabic lacking the let­ ter "p" as "fars," to describe the southwest of the coun­ try. Farsi then was used for the language and came into

European languages as Persian.

During the 5th and 4th centuries, B.C., Aramaic came to be widely current as the language of officialdom. This led to the curious use of the Aramaic alphabet in ideo­ grams which were read as Pahlavi. The Pahlavi interpreta­ tion of the Avesta (originally written in Old Persian) was written in this script. During the 2nd century, B.C., a proper Pahlavi alphabet was evolved, itself an adapta­ tion of the Aramaic alphabet. Finally, at a later date still, a new artificial alphabet, Pazand, was invented for the book of Avesta, and still preserves it.

Modern Language

The modern language began to evolve after the Arab 26

conquest in the 7th century of our era. For a long time,

Arabic was the only written language in Iran, and was used

for historical and scientific books, well into the 14th century. It is clear, however, that its impact on the

spoken language was not very immediate or great. For when poetry began to be written in Persian once again in

the lOth century, the mixture of Arabic was not very

large. The most obvious superficial change was the adop- tion of the Arabic alphabet. This script evolved, probab-

ly during the 5th century of our era, out of the Nabataean script, itself an offshoot of the Aramaic, and so a cousin of the Hebrew as well as the Pahlavi alphabet. It has ·--:.:~·~: -- ,~·--· continued in use up to the present day. In recent years attempts have been made to rid Persian of its Arabic ele- ment, but the magnitude and impossibility of the task is evident when it is realized that it now constitutes about seventy percent of the language. Tribes f!- ~he most important of the tribal groups which ~re widely distributed over Iran are the Kurds, Lurs,

Bakhtiari, Qashqa'i, Mamasani, Khamseh, Shahsevans, Arabs,

Baluchi, and Turkaman. The first five names are found primarily in the Zagros Mountain chain. Some tribes, including the Kurds and the Arabs, have veered toward a settled agricultural life, but the true nomads keep to a 27

pastoral economy founded on large flocks of sheep and

goats. The Kurds, Lurs, and Bakhtiari speak dialects which may be related to Old Persian or to another ancient

Indo-European language. The Arabs north of the head of

the Persian Gulf still speak Arabic. The Qashqa'i, and

the Shahsavans speak a Turkish dialect. The Baluchi of

southeastern Iran speak a dialect of Persian.

A tribe, called "eel," is divided into numerous

smaller divisions or parts, with a division either a unit

or itself subdivided into ten, twenty, or fifty smaller

groups. Such sub-tribes or clan groupings are variously

known as "tayifeh," "tireh," and "dasteh." In several

regions the tribal leader is known as the "khan" and the heads of the sub-tribes as "kalantars."

According to season the tribes move from the

"garmsir," or winter quarters to the "sardsir," or summer quarters. In the fall the tribes of the Zagros range move

down to the warm low plains along the Iraq frontier and to

the shores of the Persian Gulf to sow their cereal crops.

In the spring, leaving behind some members of the tribe to

reap the harvest, they migrate again into the highest mountain valleys where their flocks can find good grazing

throughout the summer. The seasonal migrations may cover

distances of more than 200 miles and may take weeks. The

rate of movement is dictated by the slow progress of the

flocks of sheep and goats driven by men and boys. Hean- 28

while the women and small children ride perched in precar­ ious fashion atop the baggage lashed to donkeys and camels. Each evening the tents are pitched along the side of the road.

The tribes are a law unto themselves, ruled by the strict authority of their elected or hereditary leaders.

Many of the khans are men of excellent education. Some of the current leaders were educated in Europe, while others attended colleges or universities in Iran. They usually own houses in towns or on tribal lands but spend much of their time in the tents of their tribal groups.

Tribal Customs

Polygamy is comparatively rare among the tribes, and the women are not veiled. The practice of "ta'arof" which means ceremonial courtesies, is important to the social order, since patterns of address and manner of be­ havior relate to positions on the social ladder and must be observed when people come into direct contact. The many forms of polite address constitute a formal ritual of great variety with many subtle forms of expression. Thus, one may say, "I submit to the service of your excellency that ... ;"begin a remark with the words, "This slave be- lieves that. .;"while the phrase "you and I" may be rendered as "this slave and your honor." When a person enters a room, his equals or inferiors on the social lad- 29

der will rise, bow, sit down after he is seated, and then half-rise again in a final submissive greeting. In the presence of a superior, an individual will stand erect with arms folded across his chest, alert for "commands."

Many of the educated members of the present generation scoff at these practices, but the same phrases continue to appear in their conversation, and the same mannerisms are practiced.

Personal Relations

Individual character is reflected in a number of practices. "Sha'n" denotes the relative rank and dignity of the individual: His "face" within the system of

"ta'arof." "Gheyrat," or "sacred duty," under appropriate circumstances, while "shaksiyat," or personality, relates to the personal integrity of an individual. In a proper combination these positive qualities serve to give a man a "good name" and to imply that he behaves correctly, gets on well with others, and is hospitable and generous.

Personal relations should be, as much as possible, devoid of friction, and the good person should be able to adapt to different situations. The ability to assimi­ late, so characteristic of Iranian culture, is also an im­ portant aspect of their personality. Educated Iranians blend harmoniously into any background. In France they are as French as the natives and in the United States al- 30

most indistinguishable in behavior from the Americans.

The primary importance of the family, the basic unit of the old tribal society, continues into modern times throughout all of Iran. In sociological terms, the fami- ly is described as being extended, partilineal, patrilo- cal, patriarchal, endogamous and occasionally polygamous.

The patriarch shares with the other males the responsibi- lity for the welfare of the family, and the primary con- cern of the individual in Iranian society is his family.

Recreation

Tea houses and cafes are the popular public gather- ing places where men drop in for tea, for friendly con- versation, and for a game of backgammon, and to smoke the water pipe. Tea is the Persian's favorite drink. It is served in glasses with plenty of sugar, although often the drinker holds a lump of sugar between his teeth and sips the tea through it. The custom of tea drinking seems to have come from Russia fairly recently. During the 17th and 18th centuries the Persians drank a great deal of coffee, which, however, was quite unknown in the West un- til European travelers discovered it in Turkey and Iran.

In 1652, a Mr. D. Edwards, who was a merchant trading with

Turkey, began to call himself a "coffeeman" and to import the berries 'to England, where coffee drinking soon became a fashionable fad. An Englishman who visited the coffee 31

houses of Isfahan in 1627 wrote: "The coffee, or coho, is a drink black as soot, or rather a broth, seeing that they sip it as hot as their mouth can well suffer out of small china cups. 'Tis strongly scented and somewhat bitter, distrained from berries beat into a powder and boiled with water; if sipped hot it comforts the brain, helps raw stomachs, aids digestion, expels melancholy and sleep.

However, unsavory it seems at first, it becomes pleasing and delicious enough by custom." Restaurants are, of course, to be found in every town, but Persian families nearly always eat in their own homes because of the ob- vious quality of their society. The family and home are most important for any Iranian.

No-Rouz ·v· ~ One of the most common family diversions is a holiday trip into the country. The weekly day off in Iran is

Friday. Recently there are 21 official public holidays in the year. Most of them are religious including celebra- tions of the Islamic (Arabic) New Year.

In Iran, No-Rouz Jamshidi, the universal holiday, is the only Persian holiday which has no religious connota- tions--or at least no implications confined to any parti- cular religion. The words themselves mean: No = new, Rouz = day, and Jamshidi = the Persian name for the first legendary King of Iran. As the name implies, this 32

particular holiday is rich with traditions and a sense of national history. Although the lunar calendar is used for Muslim festivals, No-Rouz is calculated by the solar calendar, adopted in ancient times and used today as the national calendar of Iran.

The Iranian calendar includes four different seasons; spring, summer, fall, and winter. It starts on the first day of spring (March 21 or 22). The first six months of the year have thirty-one days, each, the next five months have thirty days, and the last month has twenty-nine days, or thirty, if the year is a leap year. The names of the months, in order of the season are: Spring--Farvardin,

Ordibehest, Khordad; summer--Tir, Mordad, Shahrivar; fall--Mehr, Aban, Azar; winter--Dey, Bahman, and Esfand.

It doubtless seems strange to Americans to even con­ sider celebrating New Year's Day without snow, Christmas decorations, and January 1. But to Iranians it would seem even stranger to have a New Year's Day without spring flowers, outdoor picnics, and freshly sprouted grains.

Above everything, No-Rouz is a time of beginning and hope, the threshold of new life. On the first day of spring, usually March 21 or 22, the Persian winter is over, the trees are heavy with delicately colored blossoms, shrubs are covered with scented buds, and plains and meadows are gay with brilliant wild flowers. Everything is new and bright, the pure snow-fed streams run faster, and people 33

in all parts of the country are anxious to be out of doors.

This feeling of a fresh beginning is symbolically emphasized in all the celebrations and traditions connect­ ed with No-Rouz. At the exact moment of the vernal equi­ nox, the very beginning of spring when the sun passes into the zodiac sign of the Ram, the No-Rouz festivities begin.

It does not matter whether this happens in the middle of the night or during the day, for the cannons of each city and town signal the start of the celebrations. Every per­ son has been waiting for this paricular moment through weeks of preparation, purchasing, and excitement. The idea of gifts and new possessions is not relegated to clothing and money, alone. In some provinces, for in­ stance, families throw out the earthenware dishes which they have used during the previous year, replacing them with a complete set of new pottery. It is from this tra- dition that the derogatory expression arises: "There is two-year old pottery in his house," meaning that one is either very poor or very s~ingy.

During the 13 festive days, there is a great deal of visiting among families and friends. Each visit is ac­ companied by exchanges of gifts. This important aspect of

No-Rouz, exchanging greetings and gifts, can be traced back to the ancient Achaemenian court at Persepolis, built by Darius several centuries before the birth of

Christ. In those days, the Persian leaders used to ac- 34

knowledge the advent of spring by giving public audience, not only to kings and ambassadors from foreign lands, but also to craftsmen and artisans among their subjects. The royal halls were lavishly decorated with flowers and great bases of sprouting grains and grasses gathered from all corners of the land. The King would make a speech, bestowing favors to members of the court and others worth­

Y of his esteem. In return, the visitors brought gifts and tributes to their monarch. The Iranians have cele­ brated the arrival of spring for many centuries. Evidence can be found in the long rows of sculptured reliefs at

Persepolis showing groups of people from every part of the mighty Achaemenid empire bringing their tribute to the ruler of Iran on this occasion.

Preparations for No-Rouz begin well in advance. Days before the festival, each household starts to prepare the sabzeh, grains of wheat, lentil, or barley germinated in water. This is done in a variety of ways ranging from spreading germinated seeds over a simple plate to a rath­ er more complex method of growing grains on the outside of large clay jars.

Several days before No-Rouz, the small or large cities are treated to an amusing spectacle. The "man who brings happiness," the Haji Feerouz, or Uncle No-Rouz, parades through the streets, accompanied by a masked troupe of performers wearing high hats and cloaks of many 35

colors to which are fastened small bells. The troupe may include a tightrope walker, wrestlers, a trained monkey, and a dancing bear. One of them strikes two boards togetfr er and repeats:

The uncle No-Rouz has come. He comes once each year. The man who brings happiness has come. He has brought you joyfulness. Haji Feerouz has come. He has brought you sweets and candies.

End of Old Year

The last Wednesday of the old year is a special festi­ val cal~ed Chaharshanbeh-Suri (literally translated into ''last Wednesday entertaining") and calls for ceremonies and performances of very old origin. The rites and cus- toms vary somewhat from region to region, but a common and essential ceremony consists of piling at least three small heaps of shrubbery in the courtyard and set~ing them afire.

Then all the members of the family jump over the flames in turn, reciting a little rhyme of good omen:

You take the yellowness from me, I take your redness. You take the coldness from me, I take your warmth.

The fire must not be breathed upon, and the dead ashes are to be scattered at a crossroads. Certainly this custom is a survival of rites performed in very ancient times. In certain areas, women who have a person sick in their family and sometimes go out, incognito, to collect 36

the ingredients required for a special soup which, it is hoped will hasten the cure of the sick relative. They announce their mission by tapping with a spoon on a cop­ per bowl. Many children make a game of imitating these women, by covering their faces and going around with bowls to collect money or material for the "soup." In other areas, people also jump over water to cast out bad luck, women predict the future from chance snatches of conversa­ tion. Fireworks and firecrackers color the night.

For No-Rouz, household servants and minor government employees receive an extra month's wages, the house re­ ceives its spring cleaning, and everyone dresses in new clothes. On New Year's Eve a light must burn in every room in the house and a special table is prepared. The most important items on this feast table are those of.the

Haft Seen, a collection of several articles all beginning with the letter ''S" in the language of Iran. As a rule, these are: Sonbol, or hyacinth; Sabzeh, a green vegetable or pot of herbs grown from germinated seeds; Samanu, a sweet tasting paste of malt grain, prepared with green wheat; Serkeh, vinegar; Seeb, an apple; Seer, ~rlic; and

Sumaq, sumac. If people cannot find one or some of these items, they will use some other things like Senjed,

Bohemian olive; or Sekeh which means coin. Beside these items, there are colored eggs, fried fish and rice, chicken, and many kinds of sweets to make certain that 37

life itself will be sweet.

Several candles are lighted, one to represent each

member of the family, and are placed in front of a mirror,

where their reflections symbolize a bright future. Gener-

ally, there is also a bowl of water with a green leaf

floating in it, a flagon of rose water, a piece of bread,

and various fruits. Other items of good fortune are ar-

ranged on the table according to the provincial traditions.

A copy of the Koran has been added since the coming of

Islam.

These festivities continue until the 13th day,

Sizdah-Bedar (translated 13th day out) , when the ceremon-

ies are brought to an appropriate end by spending that day fli'-ft in the open country.y It is considered unlucky to stay at

home. On this day the countryside around the large cities

is covered by groups of people in high spirits, gathered

about samovars, walking in the fresh green fields, or en-

joying a rest along the banks of rivers and streams·,/

Troops of comic performers, often wearing grotesque masks

or painted faces and colorful costumes, circulate among

the groups to the great delight of young people. They

often include folk singers, dancers, acrobats, and clowns.

\By going out into the open country, one welcomes spring

and leaves all the bad luck associated with the number 13

in the lap of nature where it can do no one any harm1 On ! this day, the sabzeh, must be thrown out, if possible into 38

running water. By doing so, tradition says, the house- hold throws away all misfortune and bad luck. I On this day the young girls recite a good luck verse:

The thirteenth outside for good cheer, And before another year It will bring a husband dear, And a child in my arms.

On the return from this joyous day in the country, the No-Rouz holidays come to a close, leaving the new year free for a fresh start.

Sports

In ancient times, polo was a very popular sport in

Persia. Horseback riding and hunting were also common.

The "Zur-Khaneh" or "house of strength" is an old Iranian institution which continues to flourish both in Tehran and in the provinces. Its organization is like that of a plysical culture society. Its members, who are men only, are drawn from every occupation and social level. It is believed that the Zur-Khaneh originated in the remote per- iod when Iran was occupied by foreigners and the youth of the country trained in secret against the day when they would be able to expel the invaders.

Each Zur-Khaneh has one large room containing a pit about twenty feet square and three feet deep, a raised platform for the dummer, and a space for spectators.

About twelve men, clad only in gaily embroidered knee- length trousers, enter the pit and perform to an accompan~ 39

ment of stirring drum beats and the chanting of verses from the Shah-Nameh. They do push-ups in unison, juggle large and very heavy Indian clubs, and jump high in the air and spin about. The military origin of the Zur-

Khaneh is shown by these exercises with large wooden shields and iron bows which have links of iron chain in place of a bow string. Wrestling matches, in both Persian and European styles, are the climax and finale of each session. At the present time, wrestling, soccer, and weight-lifting are very popular sports.

Education

~ Iran's history of education dates to a very remote period. In Achaemenid times the young men were taught not only to ride and to shoot the bow, but to know the value of truth and to distinguish between good and evil. After the Arab invasion and the adoption of the Muslim religion, education was based on the Koran just as in Europe it was based on the Bible. There was no place, as in Europe, for girls in this system of education. For many centuries

Muslim priests taught in return for a very small sum of money from each parent. In schools called "maktab," the children memorized the Koran by chanting its verses in unison and learned to read and write Persian and do simple arithmetic. There were also many religious colleges, where advanced students, gathered around men renowned for 40

their learning, worked at such subjects as the interpreta­ tion of the Koran, religious law, and religious philosoph~

There were not formal examinations. Although the reli­ gious schools and colleges have largely given way to secu­ lar education, they still function, especially in the smaller towns and villages, for the training of "mullas" or clergymen.

Fairly close contact with some of the European coun­ tries was established in the early 17th century. From that time on, interest grew in foreign ideas, languages, and way of life. This influence culminated in the estab­ lishment in the 19th century of schools modeled on western schools. One of these was the Dar Al Fonun, or House of

Learning College, founded in Tehran in 1852. At first, it specialized in military subjects. Soon it broadened into the field of the liberal arts and performed a vital ser­ vice in educating the young men of the leading families.

Modern Education

Education is free in Iran. Children enter the ele­ mentary schools at seven years of age and attend for five years. At first, most of the school periods are devoted to the Persian language. Junior high school lasts for three years. At the end of the third year there is a gen­ eral examination. Near the end of the course the students can prepare for more advanced studies in senior high 41 ~ '

schools. In order to earn the high school diploma, the

students study four years in senior high schools./

The University of Tehran, established by the govern- ment in 1934, is the largest university in Iran. There

are also many other universities and colleges in Tehran

and other cities in Iran. There is also a special gen-

eral examination to enter the universities or colleges.

There always have been more applicants than the univer-

sities can accept. After 1926, the Iranian government

selected about 100 students a year to study in Europe and

the United States at the expense of the government. After

World War II, this trickle of official students was swell-

ed by a flood of those going on private means all over the world.

Iran's entry into the industrial age has been hamper-

ed by a low degree of li te:r:-,acy. Only about 45% of the

population can read. \ As one might expect, the rate is much higher in Tehran and the other large cities, while

it is much below the national average in the peasant vil-

lages and among the tribes. CHAPTER IV

ECONOMY

Trade and Travel

For centuries Persia lay at the crossroads of the

great land trade routes between Europe and Asia. But with

the development of commerce by sea, especially the open-

ing of the sea route from Western Europe to India in the

16th century, the main lines of traffic passed by n".ersla. .

The growth of the Ottoman Empire and its constant enmity with the nations of Europe, and the penetration and con-

quest of India by the British; between them, finally com-

pleted the isolation of the 1--~iddle East. For nearly four

centuries Persia remained unknown to the western world.

Even while international politics brought her once more

into s~e limelight, physical means of transport lonq re-

mained inadequate. It is only during the present century

that traveling to and in Persia become easier.

At the present day Persia is reached by road, rail,

sea, and air. From the west the Turkish and Iraqi rail- way systems, linking with those of Europe, approach but do

not cross the frontier. Before the war there was also a

rail route through Russia to Baku. The all-sea route runs

via India with the chief ports being Bushire, and

Khorramshahr. There is also an impractical road route

through Afghanistan. By far, the easiest way of reaching

42 43

Tehran is by air. Several services, American and Euro­ pean, are in regular operation.

Internal communications are developing. There are now many companies operating internal airlines between the principal cities, most of which have airfields of some kind. The road network was much developed under Reza

Shah and during World War II. The main highways run from

Tehran to Tabriz, Kermanshah, Isfahan, Bushire, and Mashad.

Regular bus services are available from Tehran northeast to Bandar Shah, east to Shahrud, south to Bandar Shahpur and Khorramshahr, and northwest to Miane. A southeast­ ward branch is planned to Kashan and Yazd. Mail, tele­ graph, and telephone (including radio and TV) have long been important and are managed by a separate government department.

Agricultural Base

Although Iran is still primarily an agricultural country, it has made the least progress in the economy.

There are two most serious obstacles: The lack of water and the system of land tenure. It must be remembered that about two-thirds of the country is barren mountain and desert. However, even of the remaining third, little more than one-fifth is actually under cultivation. There are few rivers and little rain; and so artifical irrigation is almost always required. So far, this has been supplied 44

mainly by the age-old ganat system of underground channels.

Recently, however, programs have been developed in various places for modern methods of water conservation and dis­ tribution. Soil erosion resulting from unscientific ir­ rigation and tree-felling is also a problem.

The land tenure system, by giving the peasant little personal interest in the land he works, has held back de­ velopment of the soil. Absentee landlordism is still the general rule, though a few enlightened owners have begun to set a good example. The important Agricultural College at Ramadan and Karaj (near Tehran) , has been doing useful work for a number of years. But there is still a tendency for trained men to seek office jobs in the Ministry of

Agriculture rather than practical work on the land.

Persia is to a large extent self-supporting in food­ stuffs. Most in demand are wheat, barley, rice, animal fats, milk products, sugar, tea, and a limited range of vegetables, fruit and nuts. The only meat consumed in any quantity is mutton and beef, while cows, sheep, and goats are used primarily for milk and wool.

Industries

Several important industries have grown up in con­ nection with Persia's agricultural production. The state owns several canning factories and flour mills. Mention must also be made of the efficient state-owned tobacco tariffs, exchange controls, and import quotas. Iran's chief customers and suppliers in 1976, were the United

States, Britain, India, the Soviet Union, and France.

Currency and Income

The unit of currency is the "rial," a coin containing just under one gram of fine silver, 1 rial = 100 dinars. Metallic coins are used only for small sums, with the bulk of the currency being notes issued by the National Bank.

The principal sources of revenue are income tax, di­ rect taxes, indirect taxes on oil, drinks, and so forth, profits from state monopolies, and customs receipts. In­ surance is also under strict government supervision, and most of such activities are carried out by the state Iran

Insurance Company. Like all other countries in the pro­ cess of rapid development and industrialization, Iran is faced with the problem of spiralling prices and incomes.

Modernization

During the period of 1974-1978, Iran's imports of food and live animals rose by 48.5%, beverages and tobacco by 100%, and raw non-food materials by 30%. Although ris­ ing oil wealth permitted new investment in agriculture, the agricultural sector of the economy remains the least developed area. The chief factors which limit the scale of agricultural production are (1) inadequate road and rail communications which limit access to markets; 47

(2) primitive techniques of production and poor seed; and

(3) underinvestment, which is due mainly to the low aver­

age agricultural income.

The emerging, westernized middle class has tended to

adopt new habits of consumption, changing the pattern of

demand in favor of imported goods. Foreign observers say

the increased oil wealth has caused another step backward

in agriculture in that it has encouraged people to seek

better prospects in the cities. Without doubt, a change

is apparent in the pattern of life of the rural population

of the post-oil boom. Villagers now have access to the more modern consumer goods. Mules which used to serve as

the only means of transport have been replaced by motor­

cycles. And in the village homes various manufactured household goods can be found. The village peasants who

in the 1960's were willing to be employed as casual labor­

ers in the city houses are no longer attracted by the pro­

spects of a home and a basic wage in the urban areas. In

fact, shortage of household laborers in the urban socie­

ties of Iran gave rise to imported labor from Far Eastern countries such as the Philippines.

The domestic importance of Iran's manufacturing in­

dustry began to rise above that of agriculture after the mid-1970's. The value added in manufacturing industry was

$2,877 million in 1975-1976, as against $2,504 million in

agriculture. Present day Iranian industry consists main- CHAPTER V

RELIGION

Early Beliefs

Religious beliefs in Iran have passed under many names and appeared in many different forms. Throughout the whole period of Iranian history there have been both a con­ tinuity and consistency of ideas, and a steady progress and evolution. Around 3,000 B.C., people of Iran came under the influence of Mithraism. This religion, essentially a fertility cult, seems to have been of Dravidian or South

Indian origin. By the dawn of history, it was already wel~ established in the Indus valley, in Iran and Asia Minor, and on the Mediterranean coast. It was characterized by a

Divine Pair, the Goddess Mother and the ~1ale God. Later these became identified in Iran as Anahita and Mithra. The doctrine of the conflict of good and evil, though more typ­ ical of Arian beliefs, is found in Mithraism, as is the idea of life out of death, symbolized by the sacrifice of the sacred bull. Mithraism, pure and simple, did not long survive the Arian invasions between 2,000 and 1,000 B.C., but it lived on farther to the west, and began to spread into the Roman Empire, at the same time as Christianity.

In the end, Mithraism, with its material outlook and lower moral standards, succumbed to its rival. In Iran, however, it formed the foundation of a new and purer religion of

55 56

Arian origin. The Arian invaders brought with them the worship of the elements (earth, air, light, and water) and of the "Principle of Light."

Rise of Zoroaster

It seems likely that there was no general or codified religion in Iran until the 7th century, B.C. At sometime prior to this there had developed the idea of a supreme being, Ahura Mazda, the principle of light. Ahura Mazda was coupled at first with Mithra and Anahita, and later

Ahriman, the principle of darkness, who was raised to equal status. Finally, there appears the figure of

Zoroaster, who gave his name to a reformed and integrated

Mazdaism.

Zoroaster's teachings were recorded in the Avesta, the sacred book of Zoroaster. In this new form, .Hazdaism taught the perpetual conflict of good and evil, as sym­ bolized by Ahora Mazda and Ahriman, and went further in predicting a final judgment at which the former would be victorious and would bring all the good elements into

Paradise. There was a basis of an ethical code in the duty of man to preserve himself and his environment from corruption. There were the Sassanid monarchs who set themselves to the task of re-organizing the Zoroastrian faith. For the first time, a hierarchy of clergy was established and temples were erected. 57

Beginning of Islam

At the time of the prophet Muhammad's birth (c. A.D.

570) Mecca was growing in importance. Until then it had probably been a station on the "incense route," the cara­ van route bringing the goods of the East to the Mediter­ ranean world.

The 6th century was a time of great upheaval in the

Middle East. The Bysantine and Sassanid empires were enemies and growing weak and were less able to police their trade routes. So the Bedouin, or nomadic Arabs, who exacted taxes for the caravan's safe conduct across their territory, were able to charge more and more for protec­ tion. Men now emerged among the Bedouin who themselves organized trade and caravans and reaped large profits from them. The towns at the center of such operations prospered. Among the most enterprising were the people of

Mecca. Here Quraysh, the tribe into which Mahammad was born, not only exploited their religious shrine as a place of pilgrimage, but also turned the town into a flourishing center of commerce. Muhammad grew up at a time when

Arabia, and in particular its towns, were undergoing the social and economic changes set in motion by the penetra­ tion of a mercantile economy into a nomadic world. The old tribal morality became less and less binding, while the individualistic materialism of the newly rich mercan­ tile society, with its pride in wealth and lack of concern 58

for the poor, came more and more into evidence. At the same time the values and customs of the civilizations to the east of Arabia were making themselves increasingly felt.

Muhammad's Life

As with all world religious figures, the legends sur­ rounding Muhammad are innumerable. Of his early life, only this much seems certain: His father was from the tribe of

Quraysh. The father died before the birth of Muhammad and left the family poor. By the time Muhammad was six, his mother had also died. He was taken in first by his grandfather and after his death by an uncle. According to the custom among the Meccans, Muhammad had a foster-mother, a Bedouin. No doubt, he helped tend the flocks of the nomads among whom, for a time, he lived. Even as a young man he commanded respect and trust; for he became known as

Amin, meaning the trustworthy, and was employed by a wealthy Meccan widow to oversee her trade. Later, he mar­ ried her and she remained his only wife until her death.

It was she who from the very first would never doubt his

Call, even when he,himself, was still afraid of, and un­ certain about the authenticity of, the voice he had heard announcing to him: "You are the Messenger of God."

Muhammad's Koran /

Muhammad was about forty when he had the strange ex- 59

perience. He had been in the habit of retiring to the solitude of a cave in the hill of Hira to meditate, re­ maining there for periods during which he lived an austere and simple life. Here the announcement was made to him.

Not long after this he was to hear a voice, traditionally identified as that of the Angel Gabriel, saying to him:

"Recite, in the name of thy Lord who created thee ... "

Thus were the first words of the Koran revealed to the

Prophet. From then on throughout his life he was to re­ ceive such revelations. These revelations or "recita­ tions" gathered together after his death constitute what is now the Koran, a word that is, itself, derived from the root meaning "recite." It is central to Muslim belief that the Koran was "revealed" to Muhammad. It was in no way composed by him, but was dictated to him by the Angel

Gabriel from a Book in heaven. And, therefore, every syl­ lable, every precept, every law· in it is sacred and un­ alterable. For the strict Muslim the Koran's pronounce­ ments on the proper penalties for theft, rape, murder, and its rulings on marriage, divorce, custody of children, relation to one's parents, respecting women, the giving of alms, among many things, are final and immutable because they are literally the Word and Law of God.

Spread of ~1uhammad

Muhammad began to preach in Mecca in c. A.D. 610, 60

urging his fellow-Meccans to believe in the one true God,

Allah, the Creator, to forsake all idols and false gods, and to pray for forgiveness of sins. He placed great stress on the individual's moral responsibility. He preached the resurrection of the dead, the day of judg­ ment and heaven and hell. He urged the people actively to help each other and particularly to seek to aid those in need. They were taught to free themselves of the love of wealth and, what was significant for commercial Mecca, from all forms of cheating, to lead a chaste life,to de­ sist from their barbarous practice of exposing newborn girls to death. Such should be among the ideals of a true

Muslim.

He began gradually to win converts. Apart from his wife, his earliest followers were the first caliph of

Islam, his cousin, Ali, later to become the fourth ca­ liph. As Muhammad won converts he also met with greater and greater opposition from leading families of Mecca.

Tradition records at great length the persecution which he and his followers suffered at the hands of the Meccans.

The wealthy Meccan families objected to the moral strict­ ness of his teachings, and found some of his ideas, parti­ cularly whose on the resurrection of the dead, totally un­ acceptable. They were angered by his attack on their gods, and were fearful that such attacks might lose them the lucrative trade derived from pilgrimages to the sacred 61

Meccan shrine of the Ka'ba.

All the prophets of the Old Testament are revered by

Muslims as prophets of God. So too, Christ as perhaps the greatest before Muhammad who, according to the Koran, is a prophet following on within the same tradition, acknow­ ledged and sent by the same God as the God of the Jews and the Christians. He is also the "seal of the prophets," that is the last of the prophets within the Judaic prophet­ ic tradition, sent by God to all mankind, since Jews and

Christians, according to Islam, have strayed from the ori­ ginal strict and simple faith of Abraham. Because of this,

Jews and Christians and their faiths are respected by

Muslims.

The Migration

The fortunes of Islam were now about to turn. Among the pilgrims to the Ka'ba were a number from the town of

Medina, a fertile oasis about 200 miles north of Mecca, inhabited mainly by pagan Arabs, but also by Jews. It had been plagued for a long time by internal fighting. After returning as converts to Medina and conferring with their fellow citizens, thus gaining more converts to Islam, they returned to Mecca. There they invited ~!uhammad and his followers to come to Medina, promising them protection, and requesting Muhammad to assume the role of arbitar of any disputes that might arise. Muhammad accepted and the 62

Muslims migrated to Medina. Muhammad, himself, together with Abu Bakr, later to be the first caliph of Islam, left secretly in the night while Ali lay in Muhammad's bed im­ personating him for the Meccans, fearing his strength if allied to another tribe, would have prevented his depart­ ure.

This migration, or Hegirat, in the year A.D. 622, marks the beginning of the Muslim era. It was crucial in its consequences for Huhammad and his community of followers at the time, and for world history. From being a persecuted citizen of Mecca and the prophet of a despis­ ed religious group, Muhammad, now aged 52, was to emerge as the leader of a new type of society in Arabia. The

"community of believers," bound together no longer by the old tribal ties or ties of kinship, but by a new bond that transcended these, Islam. Above all, he emerged as the acknowledged prophet of Allah, the head of a community which acknowledged that all matters of importance to the community were to be decided by Allah, through Muhammad,

His prophet.

Within ten years the prophet was to effect a total political and religious transformation of Arabia. Through negotiation or conquest by the Muslims, most of the tribes and towns of Arabia came to accept Islam. They acknow­ ledge that, "There is no God but God and Muhammad is His prophet," the key declaration of belief of the convert to 63

Islam. An accepting Allah, they accepted His rule and law on earth as revealed by His prophet. By A.D. 632, when

Muhammad died, the constantly warring tribes of Arabia had been united into that new entity--the Arabs.

Arab Empire Spreads

For a brief moment at Muhammad's death the tribes re­ volted and the new community seemed about to disintegrate.

But Abu Bakr, the first caliph, took swift action, quell­ ing the rebellion and mobilizing the tribes to carry war to the rich lands of Arabia's borders. For the tribes felt the lure of booty, the traditional right of the vanquishers in tribal society. But there was also Islam and the new-found strength they had discovered in them­ selves through their new faith. Moreover, Islam gave the

Arabs a monotheism, a faith distinct from, but not equal to the religions of either of the two world powers of the day. Then as now it enabled them to define themselves as distinct from, but equal to the great world powers. It transformed them from heathen warring tribes watching from afar as the Bysantine and Sassanid empires wore themselves out with war, into people capable of creating a vast em­ pire for themselves. Within years of Mahammad's death they had seized territories from both these empires--Iraq,

Syria, and Egypt were theirs. In less than a century the

Arab empire stretched from Spain and Morocco to the gates 64

of Constantinople and far across central Asia.

Muslim Beliefs

The Muslim believes in the existence and unity of

God, the revelation in the Koran, creation, fatalistic

providence, angels (good and bad) and prophets, the resur- rection of the body, the judgment, heaven, and hell. 1

Their creed is, "There is no God but God (Allah); Muhammad I

is the apostle of God; Ali is the vicegerent of God."

They claim that 124,000 prophets have spoken to man, and 11 I 0 ,'' ~/! fvt tr are mediators between him and God. Six of these are supe- rior, namely: Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and

M.uhammad.

One of the important rites is prayer. Five times a day are appointed for prayer: Dawn, noon, the middle of

the afternoon, sunset, and evening. Morning, noon, and evening, the "muezzin" mounts a "minaret" or the roof of a mosque, and gives the "azan" or call to prayer--"God is great! I testify that there is no God but God. Come to prayer! Come to security! Prayer is better than sleep."

The muezzin may be an educated or an ignorant man.

The preparations for prayer are elaborate. Certain

ablutions are preparative. The ablutions are performed, not by dipping the hands in a basin, but by pouring water

from the palm of the hand. The toes are also carefully rubbed with water, the ears are moistened, and the teeth 65

l \ cleaned\ A spot of ink, or other defilement, may invali- date the prayer~\ When preliminaries have been finished, the worshipper takes his position on a prayer rug, with head uncovered for men (women should cover their hair) and shoes removed, faces toward the Kebla, the Ka'ba at Mecca, and places a tablet of pressed earth from Kerbela before him. JHe holds a string of beads of the same earth in his hands. These beads number 99, according to the attributes of God. A long one at the end is called the molla; two double ones are called the caliphs. The prayer is said according to a fixed method, every motion being prescribed.

The prayer consists of certain surds of the Koran in

Arabic, which are understood by few in Persia, the same words being repeated day after day.

Their conception of prayer is that it is the render- ing of worship or the paying of a debt of service to the

Creator. It is a duty which the faithful are under obli- gation to perform. The ideas of confession and petition are not present to their ~ind. The prescribed prayer is / ./ called the "namaz." There is also the "dua," which is more in accordance with true prayer, being an expression of their desires to God. All places are regarded as suit- able for prayer. In addition to the daily prayers there are services in the mosque. These are usually held on

Friday. In front of the worshippers stands the "peesh- namaz," usually a well-known religious man, who leads 66

them and repeats passages from the Koran in Arabic. No village is without its mosque, no city without a consider­ able number of them. The furniture of the mosque is usu­ ally simple. The congregation sits on the floor, which is covered with a rough reed matting or with carpets. Women sit apart and are veiled.

Fasting from both food and drink is performed through­ out the month of Ramadan between sunrise and sunset, a very trying feat when Ramadan falls in a hot month. It is not, however, necessary for those in military service or for travelers, who must, however, make up their omis­ sions later. Charity includes fixed obligatory alms

(zakat) and voluntary (sadaga). Pilgrimage means not only the great pilgrimage or "Haj," but also voluntary pilgrim­ ages to local and national shrines. In Persia, pilgrimage to Hashhad and Qum is very popular today. The taboo against eating pork and drinking of alcohol is general amongst Persian Muslims. In many parts of Persia, both in tribal and non-tribal regions, communities of Seyyids, or reputed descendants of the prophet, enjoy remarkable re­ spect.

The Different Sects in Islam

Sunnism. The word is derived from "sunnah," meaning custom or tradition, the majority sect among the Muslims.

It is based on the Koran, the prophetic tradition. 67

Although forming a more united front than the Shiets, the

Sunnis too are divided among themselves, mainly into four

legal schools, each called after the name of its founder, and each promoting a different element of Muslim juris­

prudence. The Hanafis, are the majority of Muslims among

the Indian, Afghanistan, and Turkish. The Molikis are

found in north and west Africa. The Shafis are in lower

Egypt and the coastline of Arabia. The Hanbalis are asso­ ciated with the Wahabbis, the founders and rulers of

Saudi Arabia. The Sunnis, on the whole, allow lesser scope to the intellectual tampering with the Islamic law and thought. Often, they have been identified with the ruling ideology among the majority of Muslims. Hence, their sect can be regarded as "orthodox" Islam.

Shiesm. This means literally "followers," from the word "Shiah." They are those who believe that after the death of the prophet Muhammad, his son-in-law and cousin,

Ali, should have been his successor. Although the sect had its origin in a political dispute, Shiesm soon assum­ ed important theological and philosophical dimensions.

Its ideas were often expressed in mystical and esoteric terms. It also came to be associated with the Iranians, mainly because of their contributions to the development of the Shiah culture. The shiesm of the Twelve School is the official creed of Iran. Three of its principles re­ quire special emphasis here: First, the Imamat, or the 68

leadership of the community in its proper form, is a di­ vinely instituted position, and not, as the Sunnis claim, an elective office. Secondly, the Imams are infallible and impeccable; only Ali and his eleven male descendants had this quality. These eleven Imams have already come.

Thirdly, the twelfth Imam or the Hihdi, lives in conceal­ ment, but will return at the end of time to fill the world with justice.

Sufism. This literally means "wool" from the word

"suf," a reference to the coarse woolen frock, and there­ fore, asceticism of early Muslim hermits. According to some authorities, the word is derived from "safa," mean­ ing purity, indicating the Sufis• attachment to intro­ spection, to the inner, heartfelt devotion to God, at times in defiance of the formalistic and legalistic as­ pects of religion. The orthodox and militant Muslims take exception to Sufism, mainly for two reasons: First, they regard the Sufi asceticism and quietism as detrimental both to performance of ritual duties, and to an active, useful social life. Secondly, the Sufis believe in the possibility of nearness to God or identification and union with God. This violates the orthodox doctrine of divine transcendence.

Religious Minorities in Iran

Parsis. The Parsis follow the ancient religion of 69

Iran as reformed by their prophet Zoroaster. Very little is known about them during the period from the downfall of Persia in 642 until their arrival in India in 785.

Those Zoroastrians who remained after the Muslim conquest were called Ghebrs. Those who stayed in Iran mainly live in Yazd, Kerman, and Tehran, now. The Parsi prays at sun­ rise and sunset. On festival days he repairs the fire temple and prays before the sacred fire, which is kept constantly burning. The ethical code of Zoroastrians can be stated in three words: Humata, hukhata, and hurashta, which means good thoughts, good words, and good deeds.

Ali Allahis. They are an extreme Shiet sect found mainly among the Kurds. They hold mystical doctrines, in­ cluding belief in the deification of Ali and the transmi­ gration of souls, and have a communion service. There are degrees of initiation and of sanctity, and the adepts re­ fer to themselves as Ahl-i-Hagh, "people of the divine truth."

Christians. These are represented in Persia by the

Armenians and the Assyrians, apart from the European and

American missions. Armenians belong either to the

Gregorian or to the Uniate communion. There are Gregorian bishops at Tabriz and Isfahan, and a Uniate bishop at

Isfahan.

Jews. Persian Jewry dates back possibly to Acha~d and certainly to Sassanid times. Their best known shrine 70

is the so-called tomb of Ester at Ramadan. Their lan­ guage is a Persian dialect written in Hebrew characters.

Like the Parsis, they suffered severely. Now there are from 20,000 to 30,000 Jews in Iran.

Bahais. The leader of this movement, Bob, held a characteristic Persian medly of beliefs, partly Sufi and partly concerned with the doctrine of the Mehdi, the last

Imam. The sect developed with strong interest in non­

Islamic faiths and ethics which began to belittle meta­ physics. Bahais are numbered more than 100,000, now.

Bahaism is not recognized by the law as forming a legiti­ mate religious community. CHAPTER VI

ARTS, CRAFTS, LITERATURE

Pre-Islamic Art

The most ancient human settlement known today is at

Sialk near Kashan to the south of Tehran. Civilization was still at its most primitive there. Workmanship of pottery at Sialk is of great importance since from this point forward, between 15,000 and 10,000 B.C., research­ ers can trace transformations of type, style, and decora­ tion. At this lowest and earliest stratum of excavations at Sialk, axe blades and various other tools and utensils have been found with the first painted pottery. Pottery decoration consists simply of imitations of the patterns of woven baskets.

Also at Sialk, and most interesting for the history of intellectual evolution, is a bone handle in the form of a man, one of the earliest representations of the figure of a man in all the Near East. House construction was discovered at the period known as Sialk period II. The buildings were larger than the earlier log huts, and equipped with high doorways and walls of mud brick. Mean­ while metal was gradually adopted in the manufacture of everyday toods and utensils, although stone was still the dominant material. By the beginning of 4,000 B.C., the use of metal was widely diffused.

71 72

Many of the designs from this period trouble students.

The problem, as yet unsolved, was whether the designs had

a symbolic meaning, or whether they represented, in fact,

a prelude to writing. Whichever the answer, it is cer­

tainly true that Iranian painted pottery was contemporary

with that in neighboring Mesopotamia where a pictographic

script, the forerunner of cuneiform, was being developed.

Post-Islamic Art

The coming of Islam produced a temporary gap in the

artistic development in Iran. As it did in many other

aspects of the culture. This was partly due to the

Islamic disapproval of the arts in all forms, which ex­

pressed itself in some quarters by a ban on the representa­

tion of the human form. This ban, however, was not severe

in early Islamic times. Persian art has not survived from

this time, but Persian influences are clearly discernible

in Arab art, combined with the Bysantine tradition. The

use of haloes showed this influence. They are found in

all Arab and Persian miniature painting up to the 13th

century, when the rival influence of China began to make

itself felt.

Pre-Islamic Architecture

The history of Persian architecture began with the

Achaemenid period. The earliest monument known is the

palace of Cyrus at Pasargadae (559 B.C.) and the palace of 74

over brick as a building material. Then, it was replaced by brick. Bricks were either oven baked or sun dried.

Most of the structures that have survived are of baked brick. Sun dried brick was very susceptible to destruc­ tion from rain and snow. Yet, there probably were ten structures built of sun dried brick to every one made of baked brick.

Palaces have survived from the Achaemenid and

Sassanian periods, but from the Islamic period only frag­ mentary sections of such structures have been uncovered in archaelogical excavations. Palaces erected for these rulers were often hastily thrown up of sun dried brick and the walls were then covered with white plaster. Also, succeeding rulers strongly disliked living in a palace erected by predecessors. They built new ones for them­ selves, earlier ones were deserted and crumbled into ruin.

Symbolism had no important place in Iranian architec­ ture. During L~e Islamic centuries the dome was the most important architectural feature. Placed over the princi­ pal chamber of the mosque and above the central area of a monumental tomb, it took on a symbolic religious signi­ ficance. For this reason, domes became large in diameter and rose higher and higher into the air. Hany of these domes were clad in blue glazes, and blue became associated with religious structures. The blue and gilded domes as at Qum and Hashhad sparkle in the sun and are seen by 75

travelers long before the town itself comes into view.

During the reigning Pahlavi dynasty, some architec­

tural taste followed the so called International Style.

Others employed the decorative details and materials to

relate to the past, or because the architectural monu­

ments are carefully preserved and protected today, it is

certain that the great national heritage of famous struc­

tures will long endure.

Painting

To see Persian painting is to enter a country of

enchantment. Few other works of art in the world have

quite this splendor of romance. Were it possible to dis­

play in a gallery all the Persian masterpieces of paint-

ing, the effect would be overwhelming. It is not possibl~

however, for the simple reason that these masterpieces are

for the most part contained in the manuscripts which they

illustrate. Some of these manuscripts, the work of years,

are comparable to little galleries of paintings, but gal­

leries in which one picture only can be shown at a time.

Pre-Islamic Painting

One Persian of Sassanian times acquired legendary

fame as a painter. This was Mani, who lived in the 3rd

century A.D., and who was the founder of Manichaeism. He was not only a painter, but encouraged the art as an ad­

junct to his religion. Manichaean paintings must once 76

have been very numerous. But Manichaeism was relentlessly persecuted, and all these works have perished except for a few miniatures and a wall painting (ascribed to the 9th century) found in Central Asia by Von Le Coq, that is now in Berlin.

Post-Islamic Painting

The Arab conquest of the 7th century cut across the tradition of art. From this time onward, Persia became a part of Islam and the Persian painting became an Islamic art. Where Christianity and Buddhism have protected and fostered pictorial art as an aid to religion, Islam always sternly forbade the representation of human beings and in­ deed all living beings as an encroachment on the power of the Creator.

Chinese Influence

From the 7th century A.D. on, the strong influence of a very different art form, that of China, was felt. Its fine observation of nature, subtly-planned design, and delight in movement were imitated. Long before the

Mongol conquest of Persia, trade between China and the

Arab empire brought objects of Chinese art into ~1uslim countries, wh~re they were imitated. How familiar the

Persians were with Chinese paintings is not certain, but

Chinese art enjoyed frequent reference in literature. 78

world. Persia's great contribution was the inspired use of tilework and mosaic to cover every inch of surface.

The development of ceramic art also can be seen in the production of bowls and vases. The wide range of color was dominated by the blue and green glazes first evolved at Ray (a city to the south of Tehran) during the 12th and

13th centuries. The discovery of the technique of firing more than one color at a time enabled the potters to pro­ duce the so called Haft-Rang which means seven-colored tiles. This was much favored during the 18th and 19th centuries.

Craft Art

Persians also worked successfully on a much smaller scale. They were excellent goldsmiths and silversmiths.

Luristan, a mountainous region west of Iran inhabited at different times by Medes and other seminomadic tribes, was the home of a flourishing bronze industry that reached its peak during the 8th and 7th centuries, B.C. It produced a variety of portable objects, such as cups, bowls, wea­ pons, bridles, and articles of personal adornment that are referred to as nomad's gear. While it is not known for whom these objects were made, they form a similar group that is rooted in an old and widespread tradition of work­ ing with animal forms. This so called animal style may have originated in the Luristan region. At any rate it 80

the native tongue began to reassert its claims.

Avicenna (Abu Ali Sina)

Avicenna or Abu Ali Sina was born in Persia in 980

A.D. He was the favorite of the Samanid Prince at the early age of seventeen by his skill as a physician.

Avicenna was among the very greatest of the many illustri­ ous sons of Iran. By carrying on and developing the sci­ ence of Hippocrates and Galen and the philosophy of

Aristotle and Plato, he exercised an influence on the best minds of both East and West. Not only was he important during his lifetime, but for many generations after his death. His books were translated into Latin and remained standard works in Europe from the 12th to the 17th centur­ ies. He also was a famous poet and wrote many poems.

Ferdousi

Supreme among the poets is the auL~or of the great national epic, the Sh_ah-Nameh or Book of King. Ferdousi completed his great epic after a quarter of a century of work in 999 A.D. He found his country almost without a literature, and left Iran poems that all succeeding poets could only imitate and never surpass. Shah-Nameh perhaps stands alone in Asia as does Homer's epics in Europe. His verses are full of melody, never dulled by crude construc­ tion. The poem runs on from beginning to end like a river, in an unbroken harmony. Verse after verse pleases the ear 83

century that a national theater movement was started for the production of plays in the modern sense of the word.

Since then the theater has developed considerably. CONCLUSION

IRAN HADE VISIBLE

An essential component for an understanding of Iran

is an experience of the country and its people. A vicar­

ious experience is offered students and teachers through

the medium of the slides that accompany this project.

Each slide has its own caption. They are arranged accord­

ing to chapters of the text and numbered sequentially from

one to seventy.

Chapter I Geography and Resources

Slide No. 1. Iran lies in Western Asia, strategically and

geographically atop the Persian Gulf. The

gulf is the main door to the Middle East and

is the outlet for a major supply of petro­

leum products.

Slide No. 2. Iran is bordered by Russia to the north,

Turkey and Iraq to the west, the Persian

Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the south, and

Pakistan and Afghanistan to the east.

Slide No. 3. Iran has the Mediterranean climate of parts

of Asia Minor and the monsoon climate of

India. It also lies in subtropical lati­

tudes. All these create various kinds of

climate in different parts of the country.

84 85

Slide No. 4. In the central part of Iran is the great

desert. This desert is crossed by two

inner mountain ranges of north and west.

The major river is Karun which flows into

the Persian Gulf. The large body of water

is Lake Urumiyeh in the northwest.

Slide No. 5. The coastlands of the Caspian Sea are tropi-

cal and always green.

Slide No. 6. The coastlands are covered with forests and

swamps. A great deal of agricultural re­

sources are found in this part of Iran.

Slide No. 7. The basins and ranges of interior Iran cov­

er about 350,000 square miles of territory

that is climatically extreme in temperature.

The summers are very hot and the winters are

very cold when snow falls.

Slide No. 8. The arid lands of the interior and south

have very intense heat during their hot sea­

sons. It is mild during the winter. On the

plains at the head of the Persian Gulf, the

summers are the hottest in Iran. The air

over the coastlands of the Persian Gulf is

humid even in summer.

Slide No.9. An adequate water supply can be the main

problem of life in some areas especially

during summer. Some of the methods of ob- 86

taining water are very ancient. Modern

technology, such as dams, are helping to

supply water. Dez Dam is one close to

Tehran.

Slide No. 10. Oil is part of Iranian life and is the main

resource of the country. Most of the oil

comes from the southwest.

Chapter II -- History of Iran

Slide No. 11. Iran has more than 3,000 years of history.

Under Cyrus the Great, the Persians built

the largest empire the world had known, un­

til they were conquered by the Greeks.

Slide No. 12. This is Ishtar Gate, from the Babylonian

Empire and built in 575 B.C. The bricks

are glazed. This monument has been restor­

ed and is in the Berlin Museum at the pre­

sent time.

Slide No. 13. King Cyrus, the first king of Achaemenid,

built the city of Susa. During the

Achaemenid period it was the place at

which King Darius I had an elegant palace.

Slide No. 14. The tomb of Cyrus the Great, at Pasargad in

Susa, still remains after all these years.

Slide No. 15. The most important source of our knowledge

of Achaemenid building is the palace at 87

Persepolis, built by Darius and Xerxes, be­

tween 520 and 460 B.C. Although destroyed

by Alexander the Great, its still impress­

ive ruins permit a fairly complete recon­

struction of its original appearance.

Slide No. 16. An archer of the imperial bodyguard on the

staircase at Persepolis. This rather happy

face shows us the confidence and power of

the army.

Slide No. 17. The first Achaemenid capital was at

Pasargad and Susa. Later it was moved to

the great palace of Persepolis, north of

Shiraz.

Slide No. 18. Darius III was the last Achaemenid. In the

second year of his reign, he was defeated

by Alexander the Great. Alexander then

burned down the palace of Persepolis.

Thus, the Achaemenid dynasty came to an

end.

Slide No. 19. However, Alexander died of fever at the early age of 32. His territory was divided

between the two powers of Rome and Parthia.

War between these powers continued for more

than 250 years until the Sassanid Empire

formed in Persia. 88

Slide No. 20. In the 16th century, after eight and one­

half centuries of alien rule, the Safavid

Dynasty came to power. It was more nearly

national than any since the Sassanid.

Chapter III -- Society

Slide No. 23. This inscription repeats the same text

three times in the principal languages

spoken by the people of Darius' Empire:

Ancient Persian (ten lines), Babylonian

(seven lines) , and Elamite (eight lines).

Slide No. 24. The modern language began to evolve after

the Arab conquest. The most superficial

change was the adoption of the Arabic

alphabet. The Iranian language is called

Farsi and has 32 letters, which are read

from right to left.

Slide No. 25. There are many different tribal groups liv­

ing in Iran. Each speaks a different dia­

lect.

Slide No. 26. These are footwear worn by various tribal

and ethnic groups. They are handmade and

very functional for different areas and

places.

Slide No. 27. According to the season, some of the

tribes move from the Garmsir (winter quart- 89

ers) to the Sardsir or summer quarters.

The most famous tribal move is the

Qashqai move. Nearly 120,000 Qashqai still

follow the nomadic life. 1~~-~ Slide No. 28. Tea houses and cafes are the popular pub-

lie gathering places in Iran, where men

drop in for tea, for friendly conversation,

for a game of backgammon, and to smoke the

waterpipe, or Qalyan.

Slide No. 29. The last Wednesday of the old year is a

special festival called Chaharshanbeh-Suri.

A common ceremony is piling at least three

small heaps of shrubbery and setting them

afire. Then all the members of the family

jump over the flames in turn, saying:

My yellowness for you, Your redness for me. My coldness for you, Your warmth for me.

Slide No. 30. The man who brings happiness (Haji Feerouz)

parades through the streets wearing the

special costume. He dances and sings. He

is the symbol of No-Rouz, the Persian New

Year.

Slide No. 31. Exchanging greeting and gifts at No-Rouz is

a tradition traced back to the ancient

Achaemenid court at Persepolis, several 90

centuries before the birth of Christ.

Slide No. 32. Each household starts to prepare the

Sabzeh, grains of wheat, lentil, or barley

germinated in water. These symbolize fresh­

ness and fertility.

Slide No. 33. At New Year's time a special feast table is

set. The most important items on this

table are the Haft Seen, or seven S.

Slide No. 34. In ancient times, polo was a very popular

sport in Persia. Horseback riding and

hunting were also common. Right now, soc­

cer is the Iranian favorite sport.

Slide No. 35. Zur-Khaneh, or house of strengt?, is an old

Iranian institution and is like a physical

and cultural society. Its members wear

special embroidered, knee-length pants.

While they practice their exercises, some-

~ f<; _,_.> one plays a drum and chants the old poems.

Slide No. 36. Education is free in Iran. Unfortunately,

the degree of literacy is low in general.

It has spread in recent years.

Chapter IV -- Economy

Slide No. 37. Darius coined money for the first time in

the world, thousands of years ago in the

Achaemenid period. These are some of the 91

Sassanid coins used in their time.

Slide No. 38. The unit of currency is the Rial. Ten

rials equal one Toman. U.S. $1.00=70.5

rials.

Slide No. 39. At the present time Persia is reached by

various ways: Air, trains, and sea.

Slide No. 40. Iran remains primarily an agricultural

country. It has made the least progress in

the economy. Some of the agricultural re-

sources are rice, wheat, tea, nuts, and

vegetables.

Slide No. 41. More than 66 tons of caviar are exported

from Iran each year. The fish are caught

mostly along the shores of the Caspian Sea.

Slide No. 42. The oil production has been increasing in

recent years. Today's government has taken

direct control of the oil industry in Iran.

Slide No. 43. The Persian Gulf is not only the key to

entering the Middle East but is also the

source of oil production.

Slide No. 44. Everyday, many oil tankers anchor along the

Persian Gulf to fill their tanks with oil

and other petroleum products.

Slide No. 45. Persian carpets have been exported since

the 16th century. They have been made by

the same methods and with the same patterns, 92

for centuries.

Chapter V -- Religion

Slide No. 46. There was no general religion in Iran until

7th century B.C. Then appeared the Ahura

Mazda, the principle of light and the su­

preme being of Zoroasterian.

Slide No. 47. The Great Mosque of Samarra in Iraq is the

largest mosque in the Islamic world. It

measures 800 by 520 feet. This hugh mosque

was built between 828 and 852, but now is

in ruins.

Slide No. 48. On the north side of the Great Mosque of

Samarra stands a single, large minaret.

Although its shape is reminiscent of the

ancient ziggurats of Mesopotamia, it was

inspired not by them, but by a certain kind

of spiral tower of unknown purpose found in

Sassanid Iran.

Slide No. 49. In less than a century the Arab empire

spread from Spain and Morocco to

Constantinople and far across central Asia.

Iran also became Muslim country and built

many elaborate mosques as it changed its

religion.

Slide No. 50. Mosques are open everyday and for everyone. 93

People who do not have any place to sleep

at night, are always welcome in the mosques.

Slide No. 51. One of the important rites in Islam is

prayer, five times a day. There ~re group

prayers as well as individual prayer.

Slide No. 52. The worshipper placed a tablet of pressed

earth from Kerbela before him and holds a

string of beads made from the same earth,

in his hands.

Slide No. 53. The Koran is the holy book of Islam. The

words of the Koran were revealed to the

prophet, Muhammad, by the Angel Gabriel,

as Muslims believe.

Slide No. 54. Thousands of Muslim pilgrims continue to

make their way toward the Ka'ba and Sacred

Mosque in Mecca. This great pilgrimage is

called Haj. Pilgrimage means not only the

great pilgrimage but also the voluntary

trips to local and national shrines.

Slide No. 55. All Muslim worshippers pray while their

faces are turned toward the Kebla, the

Ka'ba, or house of God in Mecca.

Slide No. 56. Most of the Muslim people live in Asia.

and Africa. 94

Chapter VI -- Arts, Crafts, Literature

Slide No. 57. The palace at Persepolis is one of the

great works of architecture in history. It

is often called one of the wonders and the

noblest structures of the ancient world.

The whole building was designed primarily

for visual effecti it was the stage set

for ceremonial celebration and to show the

power of the king.

Slide No. 58. The dome is the most important architectur­

al feature in the Islamic mosque. Symbol­

ism had no important place in Iranian

architecture, but during the Islamic centu­

ies the dome took on a symbolic religious

meaning.

Slide No. 59. The Iranian architecture combines with

modern architecture in Persia. However,

design reflects the originality of Iranian·

work.

Slide No. 60. Long before the Mongol conquest of Persia,

there was trading between China and the

Arabs. After the coming of Islam, the

mutual influences of Persian and Chinese

art works became apparent.

Slide No. 61. Behzad is one of the great painters of the

15th century and his works are extremely 95

valuable.

Slide No. 62. In some of the Persian paintings the influ­

ence of Europe is very clear. This is

especially true during the late 18th and

also 19th centuries. Although the costumes

are not necessarily Iranian, the paintings,

themselves, both in design and style are

very Persian.

Slide No. 63. This item is one of the oldest ceramic

bowls found in Persepolis. In the olden

times the ibex design was very popular.

Slide No. 64. Persian ceramic tiles are the finest in the

world. The designs, use of color, and

glazing are quite dazzling.

Slide No. 65. This rare piece dates from the 5th and 4th

centuries, B.C., in the golden age of

Achaemenid art. The gold rhton was hand

made in the form of a winged lion.

Slide No. 66. Persian carpets and textiles are famous for

their quality of material, color, their design and being hand made. Some of these

masterpieces are works of years.

Slide No. 67. Most of the Persian textiles are still made

by the same methods and the same patterns

as they were centuries ago.

Slide No. 68. One of the famous poets in Persia is 96

Ferdousi. His book, Shah-Nameh, or Book

of King, is one of the great national epics

in Iran. Most of the poetic books in Iran

are elaborately painted and designed in

traditional ways.

Slide No. 69. Persian music may seem strange to western

ears. The reasons are in its use of quart­

ertones and the absence of harmony.

Slide No. 70. Music, singing, and dancing are anjoyed in

Iran. But dancing is confined to perform­

ers at weddings and similar social func­

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Katiraie, Mahmood. As Khesht Ta Khesht (Iran: Tehran University, 1348).