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Accommodation As a Rhetorical Principle Twenty Years After John O’Malley’S the First Jesuits (1993)

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Accommodation As a Rhetorical Principle Twenty Years After John O’Malley’S the First Jesuits (1993) journal of jesuit studies 1 (2014) 347-372 brill.com/jjs Accommodation as a Rhetorical Principle Twenty Years after John O’Malley’s The First Jesuits (1993) Stephen Schloesser Loyola University, Chicago [email protected] Abstract Twenty years after its publication, John O’Malley’s The First Jesuits (1993) can be located within a broader “postmodern” intellectual context that followed in the wake of 1989 and the consequent end of the Cold War. This context included both Stephen Toulmin’s Cosmopolis (1990), a revisionist account of the origins of “modernity,” and Homi K. Bhabha’s The Location of Culture (1994), a foundational work in post-colonial theoriza- tion of cultural hybridity. O’Malley’s thesis that early Jesuit ministries shared a common fundamental “rhetorical” dimension exemplifies Toulmin’s account of a six- teenth-century rhetorical preference for the particular, local, and timely. This rhetori- cal accommodation to the individual also informed the missionary strategies developed by Valignano and Ricci in the Far East. Ricci’s True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven (1603) can be read as a hybridizing cultural accommodation, a strategy with both promise and peril for self-identity. However, as the tumultuous (and eventually tragic) history of the Chinese Rites demonstrates, a Renaissance preference for the particular would encounter serious opposition during the seventeenth-century’s “quest for certainty” and corollary embrace of universals. Toulmin would argue, how- ever, that this “Counter-Renaissance” repudiation of accommodation did not make the sixteenth-century project any less “modern.” Rather, he would see O’Malley’s first Jesuits as exemplars of modernity’s original form—a preference for the particular and openness to hybridity which Toulmin imagined being recovered in late-twentieth- century “postmodernity.” Keywords accommodation – casuistry – Chinese Rites – cultural hybridity – rhetoric – Spiritual Exercises – Matteo Ricci – Alessandro Valignano – Stephen Toulmin © koninklijke brill nv, leiden, 2014 | doi 10.1163/22141332-00103001Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 05:59:51AM via free access <UN> 348 Schloesser It has been twenty years since the appearance of John W. O’Malley’s The First Jesuits (1993).1 Among other aims, the work countered longstanding readings of the Society of Jesus as a “Counter-Reformation” and “Tridentine” institution whose identity markers emerged from the seventeenth-century Baroque.2 By pushing the intellectual and cultural origins of the first Jesuits back to the Renaissance, O’Malley was able to reveal a very different identity and set of aspirations. He argued that every aspect of the first Jesuits’ ministries was shaped by the rhetorical principle of accommodation to one’s particular audi- ence, a principle derived from Renaissance Humanism. Opposing itself to essentialist and universalist values prized by certain strands of medieval scho- lasticism descended from Aristotle, Renaissance rhetoric privileged the thor- oughly contingent here-and-now (the existential hic et nunc) in this singular time and place. Had O’Malley’s work appeared at an earlier time, it might have experienced a less enthusiastic reception. The bias for abstract, universal, and timeless values, truths transcending all particular contingencies, has had a long run in “modernity”: from the “Scientific Revolution” and various “Enlightenments” through nineteenth-century positivism and into the post-1945 era of universal rights. Had The First Jesuits arrived in, say, 1970, the rhetorical principle of accommodation might have been seen as an interesting but marginal “pre-modern” curiosity. However, O’Malley’s work appeared within a context nicely illustrated by two other contemporaneous publications: Stephen Toulmin’s Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity (1990); and Homi K. Bhabha’s The Location of Culture (1994).3 Toulmin’s privileging of “rhetoric” and Bhabha’s theorization of “hybridity” both shared in the “postmodern” turn away from universalism and toward particularity.4 In distinct but related ways, O’Malley, Toulmin, and 1 John W. O’Malley, The First Jesuits (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993). 2 Similarly, John O’Malley’s recent work shows how little “Trent” was “Tridentine.” See O’Malley, Trent: What Happened at the Council (Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2013). 3 Stephen Toulmin, Cosmopolis: The Hidden Agenda of Modernity (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1990); Homi K. Bhabha, The Location of Culture (London: Routledge, 1994). 4 For “hybridity,” see Stephen Schloesser, “Jesuit Hybrids, Catholic Modernities, Future Pasts,” in University of San Francisco, Joan and Ralph Lane Center for Catholic Studies and Social Thought, For the City and the World: Conversations in Catholic Studies and Social Thought (San Francisco: University of San Francisco, Association of Jesuit University Presses, 2010), 114–141, at 133n15. The paradigm shift implicit in historicizing universal rights may be seen in recent studies: Samuel Moyn, The Last Utopia: Human Rights in History (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2010); Brooke A. Ackerly, Universal Human Rights in a World of Difference journal of jesuitDownloaded studies from 1 Brill.com09/24/2021 (2014) 347-372 05:59:51AM via free access <UN> Accommodation As A Rhetorical Principle 349 Bhabha exhibit family traits of what Jean-François Lyotard had reported (in 1979; 1984 English translation) as the condition of knowledge in postmoder- nity: “an incredulity towards meta-narratives.”5 Lyotard’s estimation preceded the fall of the Berlin Wall—and Toulmin’s Cosmopolis—by exactly ten years. In the following, I first sketch out notes toward an “O’Malley-Toulmin Paradigm.” I then offer a synopsis—a review for some readers and an introduc- tion for others—of O’Malley’s survey of the “rhetorical principle” in light of Toulmin’s thesis. Finally, I consider the early Jesuit missionary strategy of “accommodation” in China as an example of “hybridity.” The eventual fate of the Chinese Rites provides a vivid example of perceived conflicts between “particularity” and “objectivity.”6 Toward an O’Malley-Toulmin Paradigm7 Both O’Malley and Toulmin employ “rhetoric” as a central organizing concept. Toulmin unabashedly acknowledges his present-day interests in revising the historical narrative. Attempting to locate our own “postmodern” culture within the trajectory of the “modern period,” Toulmin argues for a periodiza- tion of modernity divided into three eras: (1) a post-medieval Renaissance era prior to 1650 that took rhetoric as its epistemological paradigm; (2) a counter- Renaissance period after 1650 (i.e., after the 1618–1648 Thirty Years’ War) that took logic as its paradigm; and (3) a “postmodern” present day (beginning (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008); Lynn Hunt, Inventing Human Rights: A History (New York: Norton, 2007). 5 Jean-François Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. Geoffrey Bennington and Bernard Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1984), xxiv; orig. Lyotard, La condition postmoderne: rapport sur le savoir (Paris: Minuit, 1979). For 1979 as a watershed moment, see Christian Caryl, Strange Rebels: 1979 and the Birth of the 21st Century (New York: Basic Books, 2013). For the dissipation of the American “New Left” around 1975 and the entry of “postmodern” theory, see Van Gosse, The Movements of the New Left, 1950–1975: A Brief History with Documents (Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2005); François Cusset, French Theory: How Foucault, Derrida, Deleuze, & Co. Transformed the Intellectual Life of the United States (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008). For the turn to micro-history, see Carlo Ginzburg, “Microhistory, Two or Three Things That I Know about It,” in Threads and Traces: True, False, Fictive, trans. Anne C. Tedeschi and John Tedeschi (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2012), 193–214 (chapter 14). 6 Compare Peter Novick, That Noble Dream: The “Objectivity Question” and the American Historical Profession (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988), esp. 415–521. 7 I use this paradigm in my “Recent Works in Jesuit Philosophy: Vicissitudes of Rhetorical Accommodation,” Journal of Jesuit Studies 1, no. 1 (2014): 105–126. journal of jesuit studies 1 (2014) 347-372 Downloaded from Brill.com09/24/2021 05:59:51AM via free access <UN> 350 Schloesser during the decade after 1965) which has retrieved rhetoric’s attention to the particular.8 Investigating a distinct yet related field, O’Malley also organizes his account of sixteenth-century Renaissance Jesuits around the concept of rheto- ric. O’Malley argues that this rhetorical principle extended far beyond the obvious reach of methods employed in preaching, teaching, and other oratori- cal crafts. Rather, it functioned as a principle of accommodation and shaped almost every aspect of Jesuit thought, action, and self-identity. O’Malley and Toulmin mutually enhance one another. O’Malley strengthens Toulmin: not only do individuals like Erasmus, Montaigne, and Shakespeare appear as distinctively “modern” in their attention to the particular; but insti- tutions as a whole (like the Society of Jesus) also adopt and propagate a “mod- ern” religious vision rooted in personal and cultural accommodation.9 Likewise, Toulmin’s thesis strengthens O’Malley’s. He argues that Renaissance Humanism ought to be seen as a distinct but not inferior form of—and not merely the antechamber to—a more genuine seventeenth-century
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