Naman: a vanishing language of Malakula (Vanuatu) Pacific Linguistics 576 Pacific Linguistics is a publisher specialising in grammars and linguistic descriptions, dictionaries and other materials on languages of the Pacific, Taiwan, the Philippines, Indonesia, East Timor, southeast and south Asia, and Australia. Pacific Linguistics, established in 1963 through an initial grant from the Hunter Douglas Fund, is associated with the Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies at The Australian National University. The authors and editors of Pacific Linguistics publications are drawn from a wide range of institutions around the world. Publications are refereed by scholars with relevant expertise, who are usually not members of the editorial board. FOUNDING EDITOR: Stephen A. Wurm EDITORIAL BOARD: John Bowden, Malcolm Ross and Darrell Tryon (Managing Editors), I Wayan Arka, David Nash, Andrew Pawley, Paul Sidwell, Jane Simpson EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD: Karen Adams, Arizona State University Lillian Huang, National Taiwan Normal Alexander Adelaar, University of Melbourne University Peter Austin, School of Oriental and African Bambang Kaswanti Purwo, Universitas Atma Studies Jaya Byron Bender, University of Hawai‘i Marian Klamer, Universiteit Leiden Walter Bisang, Johannes Gutenberg- Harold Koch, The Australian National Universität Mainz University Robert Blust, University of Hawai‘i Frantisek Lichtenberk, University of David Bradley, La Trobe University Auckland Lyle Campbell, University of Utah John Lynch, University of the South Pacific James Collins, Universiti Kebangsaan Patrick McConvell, Australian Institute of Malaysia Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Bernard Comrie, Max Planck Institute for Studies Evolutionary Anthropology William McGregor, Aarhus Universitet Soenjono Dardjowidjojo, Universitas Atma Ulrike Mosel, Christian-Albrechts- Jaya Universität zu Kiel Matthew Dryer, State University of New York Claire Moyse-Faurie, Centre National de la at Buffalo Recherche Scientifique Jerold A. Edmondson, University of Texas Bernd Nothofer, Johann Wolfgang Goethe- at Arlington Universität Frankfurt am Main Nicholas Evans, University of Melbourne Ger Reesink, Universiteit Leiden Margaret Florey, Monash University Lawrence Reid, University of Hawai‘i William Foley, University of Sydney Jean-Claude Rivierre, Centre National de la Karl Franklin, Summer Institute of Recherche Scientifique Linguistics Melenaite Taumoefolau, University of Charles Grimes, Universitas Kristen Artha Auckland Wacana Kupang Tasaku Tsunoda, University of Tokyo Nikolaus Himmelmann, Ruhr-Universität John Wolff, Cornell University Bochum Elizabeth Zeitoun, Academica Sinica Naman: a vanishing language of Malakula (Vanuatu) Terry Crowley Edited by John Lynch Pacific Linguistics Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Published by Pacific Linguistics Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies The Australian National University Canberra ACT 0200 Australia Copyright in this edition is vested with Pacific Linguistics First published 2006 National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry: Terry Crowley Naman: a vanishing language of Malakula (Vanuatu) Bibliography ISBN 0 85883 565 7 1. Oceanic languages. 2. Vanuatu – Languages. 3. Malekula (Vanuatu) – Languages. I. Lynch, John (John Dominic). II. The Australian National University. Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. Pacific Linguistics. III. Title. 499.595 Cover: ‘Double-ended’ hand stencils at the Yalo cave near Tenmial, north-west Malakula. David Roe, ‘Vanuatu Rock Art’, in Joe_l Bonnemaison, Kirk Huffman, Christian Kaufmann and Darrell Tryon, eds Arts of Vanuatu (Crawford House Publishing, Bathurst), 1996, Figure 9, p.87. Copyedited by Bernadette Hince Typeset by Jeanette Coombes Cover design by Addcolour Digital Pty Ltd Printed and bound by Addcolour Digital Pty Ltd, Fyshwick, Canberra Special thanks We wish to record our great debt to Professor John Lynch, who—at a time when his own work had increased after Terry’s death—worked on all four of Terry Crowley’s Malakula volumes to bring them to publication in 2006. We thank him most sincerely. Pacific Linguistics Board Canberra, March 2006 Table of contents List of tables, maps and photographs xii Preface xiii Acknowledgements xv Abbreviations xvii Conventions in citing examples xviii Photographs xix 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Malakula: linguistic background 3 1.2 Language viability on Malakula 4 1.3 Geographical and historical background to Naman 8 1.4 Language names in central Malakula 12 1.4.1 Local naming practices 12 1.4.2 The practices of outsiders 15 1.5 Naman linguistic background 17 1.6 Previous studies of Naman 19 1.7 The present study 20 1.8 The linguistic effects on Naman of language shift 21 2 Phonology 24 2.1 Segmental contrasts 24 2.1.1 Consonants 24 2.1.2 Vowels 29 2.1.2.1 Peripheral short vowels 30 2.1.2.2 Schwa 31 2.1.2.3 Long vowels 36 2.1.3 Syllabification 37 2.1.4 Stress 39 2.2 Phonotactics 40 2.3 Morphophonemics 43 vii viii 2.3.1 Consonant degemination 43 2.3.2 T-affrication 43 2.3.3 Schwa harmony 44 2.3.4 Vowel deletion 45 2.3.5 Velar fricative deletion 45 2.4 Historical phonology 46 2.5 Spelling 54 3 Nouns and noun phrases 56 3.1 Pronouns 56 3.2 Demonstrative nouns 62 3.3 Nouns 63 3.3.1 Nominal derivation 63 3.3.1.1 Compounding 63 3.3.1.1.1 Loose compounds 63 3.3.1.1.2 Tight compounds 65 3.3.1.2 Affixation 66 3.3.1.2.1 Nominalisation 66 3.3.1.2.2 Nouns of place 67 3.3.2 Possession 69 3.3.2.1 Directly possessed nouns 69 3.3.2.2 Indirectly possessed nouns 72 3.3.2.3 The preposition nen 75 3.3.2.4 Preposed possessors 79 3.4 Noun phrase modifiers 81 3.4.1 Numerals and quantifiers 81 3.4.2 Adjectives 89 3.4.3 Demonstratives 90 3.4.4 Relative clauses 91 3.5 Coordinated noun phrases 96 4 Verbs and the verb complex 98 4.1 Verbal inflection 98 4.1.1 Subject-mood marking 98 4.1.1.1 Realis and irrealis mood 99 4.1.1.2 Subject marking 100 4.1.2 Negative marking 108 4.1.3 Third-order prefixes 112 4.1.3.1 Continuous/habitual 113 ix 4.1.3.2 Adversative 114 4.1.4 Object marking 116 4.1.5 Obligatorily reflexive verbs 119 4.2 Verbal derivation 119 4.2.1 Reduplication 120 4.2.2 Multiplicative 123 4.2.3 Transitivity 124 4.2.4 Compounding 126 4.3 The verbal complex 127 4.3.1 Post-verbal modifiers 127 4.3.1.1 Ëns ‘completive’ 128 4.3.1.2 Ve ‘incompletive’ 129 4.3.1.3 Vaas ‘continuative’ 129 4.3.1.4 Mën ‘first’ 130 4.3.1.5 Nsar ‘forever’ 131 4.3.1.6 Tabakh ‘all’ 131 4.3.1.7 Lis ‘repetitive’ 132 4.3.1.8 Usër ‘durative’ 133 4.3.1.9 Burong ‘in vain’ 133 4.3.1.10 Navon(si) ‘very’ 133 4.3.1.11 Nsi ‘necessitative’ 134 4.3.2 Nuclear serial verbs 134 5 Simple sentences 141 5.1 Non-verbal clauses 141 5.1.1 Presentative clauses 141 5.1.2 Equational clauses 142 5.1.3 Demonstrative clauses 144 5.1.4 Topic-comment clauses 146 5.2 Verbal clauses 146 5.2.1 Personal constructions 147 5.2.2 Impersonal constructions 148 5.3 Non-core constituents 149 5.3.1 Prepositional phrases 150 5.3.1.1 Uninflected prepositions 150 5.3.1.1.1 I 150 5.3.1.1.2 Nar 152 5.3.1.1.3 Usër 153 5.3.1.1.4 Rangan 154 x 5.3.1.1.5 Bavarse 154 5.3.1.1.6 Khawes 154 5.3.1.2 The nominal preposition jëkhën 155 5.3.1.3 Verbal prepositions 157 5.3.1.3.1 Bëtev (khën) 157 5.3.1.3.2 Khën 158 5.3.2 The postposition i 160 5.3.3 Benefactive phrases 161 5.3.4 Place names and locational nouns 162 5.3.5 Adverbials and other forms 166 5.3.5.1 Temporal adverbials 166 5.3.5.2 Particles 169 5.3.6 Interjections 172 5.4 Interrogative clauses 172 6 Multi-predicate sentences 176 6.1 Auxiliaries 176 6.1.1 Intentional 177 6.1.2 Desiderative and antidesiderative 178 6.1.3 Persistive 180 6.1.4 Ability and inability 181 6.1.5 Continuous/habitual 182 6.1.6 Solitariness 183 6.1.7 Inceptive 183 6.2 Serial verbs 184 6.2.1 Directional serialisation 185 6.2.2 Manner serialisation 188 6.2.3 Numerals 189 6.2.4 Iteration 190 6.3 Clausal juxtaposition 191 6.4 Coordination 192 6.5 Subordination 193 6.5.1 Clauses introduced by subordinators 194 6.5.1.1 Time clauses 194 6.5.1.2 Reason clauses 195 6.5.1.3 Place clauses 195 6.5.1.4 ‘Until’ clauses 196 6.5.1.5 Conditional clauses 197 6.5.1.6 Clauses marked by khën 198 xi 6.5.1.7 Concessive clauses 199 6.5.1.8 Excess clauses 199 6.5.2 Verbal subordinate clauses 200 6.5.2.1 Adversative 200 6.5.2.2 Quotative 201 6.5.2.3 Purposive 202 6.5.2.4 Causative 203 6.6 Discourse patterns 203 6.6.1 Fronted noun phrases 204 6.6.2 Topicalisation 205 6.6.3 The particle at 207 6.6.4 Instrumental shift 211 6.6.5 Sequence 212 6.6.5.1 Ale 213 6.6.5.2 Nau 213 6.6.5.3 Mo(no)go 214 6.6.5.4 Iv and vale 214 6.6.5.5 Tabakh 215 6.6.5.6 Merakh 215 6.6.5.7 Head-to-tail linkage 215 6.6.6 Hesitation phenomena 216 6.6.6.1 Denokh and demonstrative nouns 216 6.6.6.2 Usër 218 7 Illustrative texts 220 7.1 The confounding of the tongues on Malakula 220 7.2 The decline of the Naman language 226 7.3 The woman who tried to cheat old age 229 8 Naman lexicon 233 8.1 Introduction 233 8.2 Naman–English 235 8.3 English–Naman finderlist 266 References 285 xii Tables Table 1: Naman consonants 24 Table 2: Naman vowels 29 Table 3: Independent pronouns 56 Table 4: Direct possessive suffixes 70 Table 5: Directly possessed noun paradigms with singular pronominal possessors 72 Table 6: Possessive pronouns 73 Table 7: Basic numerals 81 Table 8: Ordinal numerals 84 Table 9: Numerals with irrealis and negative inflection 85 Table 10: Subject-mood prefixes (Set A) 100 Table 11: Subject-mood prefixes (without dual/plural marking) 102 Table 12: Realis paradigms for khël ‘dig’ and luolu ‘vomit’ 104