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Colombia), a Multiproxy Perspective PALAEOENVIRONMENTS AND PALAEOCLIMATES DURING THE LATE HOLOCENE IN LAKE SISCUNSÍ (COLOMBIA), A MULTIPROXY PERSPECTIVE A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Master of Science in Geology University of Regina By Yunuén Temoltzin Loranca Regina, Saskatchewan December, 2018 Copyright © 2018: Y. Temoltzin Loranca UNIVERSITY OF REGINA FACULTY OF GRADUATE STUDIES AND RESEARCH SUPERVISORY AND EXAMINING COMMITTEE Yunuén Temoltzin Loranca, candidate for the degree of Master of Science in Geology, has presented a thesis titled, Palaeoenvironments and Palaeoclimates During The Late Holocene in Lake Siscunsi (Colombia), A Multiproxy Perspective, in an oral examination held on August 20, 2018. The following committee members have found the thesis acceptable in form and content, and that the candidate demonstrated satisfactory knowledge of the subject material. External Examiner: Dr. David Sauchyn, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies Co-Supervisor: Dr. Maria Velez Caicedo, Department of Geology Co-Supervisor: Dr. Gavin Simpson, Department of Biology Committee Member: *Dr. Tsilavo Raharimahefa, Department of Geology Chair of Defense: Dr. Fernando Szechtman, Department of Mathematics & Statistics *Not present at defense Abstract This thesis provides a palaeolimnological and environmental reconstruction of the last ~2,800 years of Lake Siscunsí, located in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia. This study is mainly based on a high-resolution diatom record in combination with Chlorophyll 푎 and other analyses previously done in this lake, which include grain size, C/N, δ15N, δ13C, TOM, total carbonates and magnetic susceptibility. It consists of a review of the mid and late Holocene climates in Colombia, then it summarizes the most important findings in the palaeorecords of the three Colombian cordilleras and it briefly mentions the most significative periods of human effects. It focuses on describing the main environmental and limnological changes ocurred from ~2,854 cal yr BP until present. It describes diatom assemblage changes with the aid of the previously mentioned proxies. Diatoms were grouped by its habitat type, however the most dominant fossil diatom in this record is a new taxon, and therefore diatom guilds were used to interpret limnological changes. Four main periods of environmental and limnological changes were recorded: (1) From ~2,854 to 1,976 cal yr BP the lake was under low hydraulic energy, representing relatively dry conditions, with low nutrient levels and lacustrine algae as the main source of organic matter; (2) from ~1,976 to 1,572 cal yr BP the littoral area expanded under more humid conditions, with an increase of C and N, where C3 plants and macrophytes were important contributors of organic i matter; (3) from ~1,572 to 535 cal yr BP the driest conditions in the entire record occurred along with nutrient enrichment originated by C3 plants and CAM macrophytes; (4) from ~535 to 349 cal yr BP there was a transition to humid conditions and decreased levels of nutrients under a highly disturbed environment. These conditions continued from ~349 to the present when human impact was a modifier to Lake Siscunsí dynamics. Humid/dry episodes in the record as well as in the last decades coincide with the increases/decreases in frequency and intensity of ‘El Niño’ events in Northern South America, being this phenomenon a possible cause of the environmental conditions recorded in the lake. ii Aknowledgements I would first like to thank my supervisors, Dr. María Vélez and Dr. Gavin Simpson, for their continuous guidance, support, patience and motivation throughout the course of this research. I wish to thank Katrhyn Holper, Dr. Broxton Bird and Dr. Jaime Escobar for sharing with me the sediment samples, the isotopic and geochemical data of Lake Siscunsí. I am also indebted with Dr. Eduardo Morales for his help and guidance classifying the new diatom species, Dr. Natalia Hoyos for her time and support analyzing meteorological data, Dr. Tsilavo Raharimahefa for reviewing my thesis and Victor Vargas for his help installing the software that I used in this thesis. I am deeply grateful to the National Council of Science and Technology of Mexico (CONACyT) which provided me with the financial support needed to study at the University of Regina. I acknowledge the financial support from the Faculty of Graduate Students and Research (FGSR) through the Department of Geology in the form of scholarships. I really appreciate the teaching assistantship opportunities at the departments of Geology and International Languages. I also thank to the SAFER project for the financial support for making possible the fieldtrip to Lake Siscunsí. I would like to express my special appreciation to the Summer Science School for Young Scientists (TCJ-2009) of the Geosciences Centre of the National Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM) (Project PAPIME-PE103409) which persuaded and got me interested into the geosciences world. I wish to thank all my friends in Canada who contributed to make Regina another home for me. iii Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………...i Aknowledgements……………………………………………………………………...iii Table of contents……………………………………………………………………….iv List of figures…………………………………………………………………………...vii List of tables……………………………………………………………………………..x List of abbreviations and symbols…………………………………………………….xi CHAPTER 1. Introduction .................................................................................... 1 1.1 Study area .................................................................................................. 2 1.2 Colombian topography and climate ............................................................ 6 1.2.1 Topographical characteristics .............................................................. 6 1.2.2 Climatic characteristics ........................................................................ 7 1.3 Previous work in Lake Siscunsí .................................................................. 9 CHAPTER 2. Holocene climates in Colombia .................................................... 11 2.1 Early, Middle and late Holocene climates in the Colombian Cordilleras ... 11 2.1.1 Eastern Cordillera .............................................................................. 12 2.1.2 Central cordillera ................................................................................ 15 2.1.3 Western Cordillera ............................................................................. 17 2.1.4 General correlation of palaeoclimatic records for Colombia .............. 18 iv 2.2 Human impacts in the Colombian cordilleras ........................................... 22 2.2.1 Late Holocene Archaeological History in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia .................................................................................................... 22 2.2.2 People’s arrival to the Colombian eastern highlands ......................... 23 2.2.3 The pioneers of the Eastern Cordillera .............................................. 23 2.2.4 Cultural evidence near Lake Siscunsí ................................................ 26 CHAPTER 3. Methods and information for the analyses ................................... 28 3.1 Coring and Sampling ................................................................................ 28 3.1.1 Age model ......................................................................................... 30 3.1.2 Diatoms ............................................................................................. 30 3.1.3 Grain size .......................................................................................... 33 3.1.4 Magnetic Susceptibility ...................................................................... 34 3.1.5 Chlorophyll 푎 ...................................................................................... 35 3.1.6 Sediment Geochemistry .................................................................... 36 3.1.7 Loss on Ignition (LOI) ........................................................................ 40 3.1.8 Statistical analyses ............................................................................ 41 CHAPTER 4. Results ......................................................................................... 44 4.1 Age model ................................................................................................ 44 4.2 Diatoms .................................................................................................... 46 4.2.1 Fossil record ...................................................................................... 46 v 4.2.2 Staurosira sp. nov. ............................................................................. 52 4.2.3 Modern diatoms ................................................................................. 56 4.3 Grain size ................................................................................................. 62 4.4 Magnetic Susceptibility ............................................................................. 65 4.5 Chlorophyll 푎 ............................................................................................ 65 4.6 Sediment Geochemistry ........................................................................... 65 4.7 Loss on ignition ........................................................................................ 67 4.8 Canonical Correspondence Analysis.......................................................
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