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Political Religion’ Ideological Incorrectness beyond ‘Political Religion’ Discourse on Nazi Ideology among Scandinavian National Socialist Intellectuals 1933-1945 Rebecca Wennberg Royal Holloway University of London Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy History Royal Holloway University of London September 2015 1 Declaration of Authorship I, Rebecca Wennberg, hereby declare that this thesis and the work presented in it is entirely my own. Where I have consulted the work of others, this is always clearly stated. Signed: ______________________ Date: ________________________ 2 Abstract The concept ‘political religion’ has become the epitome of the ‘ideological turn’ in Holocaust research: the idea of the Nazi regime’s aim to replace Christianity and let its ideology function as a ‘political religion’. But the heretical nature of National Socialism that has increasingly found its way into contemporary research remains untheorised in this context. This study seeks to address this gap by introducing the concept of ‘ideological incorrectness’ – a first step towards a re-theorisation of ‘political religion’ that acknowledges the ideological divergence and the transgressive mindset so characteristic of the Nazis. With ideological divergence in mind, this thesis approaches Nazi ideology not from its ‘generic’ centre in Nazi Germany, but from its political peripheries. Combining analyses from archival material with text based research it examines a selected group of Danish and Norwegian National Socialists who went from being leaders of small, sectarian and pan-Germanic movements in their respective home countries throughout the 1930s, to becoming high-ranked SS men following the Nazi occupation of Denmark and Norway on 9 April 1940. The study reveals that contrary to the notion that National Socialism functioned as a substitute religion for Christianity, their hostility towards Christian confessionalism made them reject the idea of a ‘political religion’. The study further demonstrates how these individuals even used this religious critique in attacks against aspects of the Nazi regime that they deemed dogmatic. The contributions of this study revolve around conceptualising an alternative angle to ‘political religion’ that assumes that contrary to ‘correctness’, individuals were often incorrect towards official ideological doctrines. This incorrectness, in turn, does not equate with a lack of Nazi conviction. Far from it, the Scandinavian Nazis in this study regarded their ‘ideological incorrectness’ as a core value of National Socialism. The study thus contributes to the understanding of National Socialism in Scandinavia 1933-1945, while at the same time suggesting broader patterns that will advance research on National Socialism more generally. 3 Acknowledgements Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Dan Stone for the continuous support of my research, for his patience, motivation, and immense knowledge. I also appreciate all the difficult questions, which incented me to widen my research from various perspectives. I have been lucky to have a supervisor who cared so much about my work, and for that, I am deeply grateful. I would also like to extend a thank you to all members of staff at the Royal Holloway Department of History, especially to Helen Graham and Rudolf Muhs for their support throughout my time at Royal Holloway. A special thanks goes to the undergraduate students I taught at Royal Holloway, for an inspiring experience that motivated me immensely in my own research. Finally, I thank my fellow Ph.D.-colleagues at Royal Holloway for the stimulating discussions and experiences we have shared throughout the years. In particular, I thank Becky Jinks and Michelle Gordon for your support and invaluable friendship. My gratitude further goes to John T. Lauridsen and Jakob Kyril Meile at the Royal Library in Copenhagen who provided me an opportunity to join their team as visiting scholar, and who gave access to the archives and research facilities. I am also grateful for the support I have received from the extremely friendly staff during my archival research at the Danish and Norwegian national archives. I would also like to thank Prof. Matthew Feldman, Teesside University, for his academic support in providing me the opportunity to communicate my research in various publications and conferences. These experiences have contributed tremendously to the completion of the thesis. My research would not have been possible without the financial assistance of the Reid Research Scholarship, the Friendly Hand Charitable Trust and the University of London Grant, thank you all. Last but not the least; I would like to thank my family and friends across the world for their love and encouragement throughout writing this thesis. Anders, it would not have been possible without your constant support, love and belief in me. To you, I am always grateful. My mother Anna, I thank you for everything. 4 To my uncle and friend, Jan Wennberg 5 Table of Contents Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 9 Scandinavian Heretics ................................................................................................................................. 10 Sources ........................................................................................................................................................ 16 Willing Scandinavians as Ordinary Europeans ........................................................................................... 17 Between Sacred and the Profane ................................................................................................................. 22 Scandinavian research ................................................................................................................................. 24 The Empirical Case Study ........................................................................................................................... 29 Chapter 1: Between the Sacred and the Profane: ......................................................................... 32 Holocaust between Apocalypse and Normality ........................................................................................... 34 The Europeanisation of the Holocaust Perpetrator ...................................................................................... 36 Holocaust and Transnational Studies .......................................................................................................... 37 ‘Political Religion’ ...................................................................................................................................... 42 The ‘Phenomenologist’ School ................................................................................................................... 44 Fascism and ‘Political Religion’.................................................................................................................. 48 Nazism as Transgression ............................................................................................................................. 49 Ideology and Culture ................................................................................................................................... 52 Defining Religion ........................................................................................................................................ 56 Theological Incorrectness ............................................................................................................................ 58 Cognitive Studies on Religion ..................................................................................................................... 61 Chapter 2: Beyond the Banality of ‘Political Religion’ ................................................................ 65 Hannah Arendt............................................................................................................................................. 68 Voegelin’s ‘Political Religion’ .................................................................................................................... 72 Arendt, Voegelin and Historiography ......................................................................................................... 75 Voegelin’s Critique of Postwar Historiography .......................................................................................... 78 Eichmann: Thinking and Consciousness ..................................................................................................... 81 Agency ......................................................................................................................................................... 84 Perpetrator Motivations ............................................................................................................................... 88 Chapter Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 90 Chapter 3: ‘Why Are There Several “Nazi” Groups?’ ................................................................ 93 Ejnar Vaaben ............................................................................................................................................... 95 Aage H. Andersen ....................................................................................................................................
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