2. Control of Body Openings and Passages Muscular System ring-like sphincter muscles around eyelids, The Muscular System consists of about 700 muscle pupils, mouth, , anus organs that are typically attached to

across a to produce all voluntary usually also associated with involuntary internal sphincters movements eg. anal, urethral sphincters the design and integration of our muscles is the 3. Posture & Stability result of millions of years of evolutionary pressures sustained partial contractions

eg. new analyses (2004) indicate that the the and at any moment most of our muscles are probably at physiology of humans became adapted toward distance least partially contracted running and spear throwing about 2 M years ago resists gravity, prevents unwanted running was perhaps an adaptation for hunting à running movements prey to exhaustion

a well conditioned human can run 5 miles or more as good 4. Communication as wild dogs, zebras, anteloes and wildebeasts facial expression, hand gestures, body it would also allow us to compete with dogs and hyenas for widely dispersed carcasses language, writing, speech

eg. humans are the only primates who can launch a spear or 5. Control of Body Temperature rock overhand with speed, force, and precision

all other primates throw underarm with poor aim muscles comprise 40-50% of body mass

General Functions of Muscular System: metabolism requires lots of energy (ATP) for movement 1. movement ~25% = energy of movement ~75% = heat energy

voluntary – skeletal muscles skeletal muscles generate up to 85% of our Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 1 Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 2

body heat individual cells = endomysium fascicles = perimysium Muscle Organs: whole = epimysium almost 700 muscle organs in body epimysium also called deep as distinct from superficial fascia of skin each limb is operated by over 50 muscles not very tough and strong yet flexible, very elastic including many stabilizer muscles àcollagen fibers mostly muscle organs range from extremely small to broad very strong, rarely separated from or muscle flat sheets extends beyond muscle and attaches muscle to muscle organs consists of several kinds of tissue: bone or to other muscles

1. fibrous connective tissue (between each end is body of muscle) 2. nervous tissue 3. tough strap = (=sinews)

1. Fibrous Connective Tissue broad sheet =

Fascia (=sheets of fibrous connective tissue) are found between the skin and muscles and surrounding muscle tissue are continuous with periosteum of bones

superficial fascia lies beneath the skin elastic recoil of tendons increases power of

below this is part of muscle organ muscle (eg kangaroos and jumping animals)

forms continuous sheath (series elastic tendons are often surrounded by tendon sheath components) of tissue from endomysium to of synovial membrane bone matrix àfluid lubricates tendons to reduce friction arranged in overlapping layers: also are synovial sacs = bursae

Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 3 Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 4 scattered between tendons and muscles NT crosses to trigger contraction wherever ther is lots of friction and tension (30-40 M ACh receptors/motor end plate)

2. Nervous Tissue binding opens channelsà creates

almost all muscles in the body are under direct or 3. Muscle Tissue indirect control of the CNS, esp skeletal muscles close to half of body consists of muscle tissue

skeletal muscles are innervated by elongated cells, spindle shaped, up to 1 ft long somatic motor neurons (voluntary) = muscle fibers

skeletal muscles will not contract without very little matrix, instead embedded in framework stimulation of fibrous connective tissue

each branches into 200 or so highly contractile and elastic synaptic knobs (within a motor end plate) muscle cells stop dividing at birth (# fixed at birth) each in innervated by only one motor àbut each cell can expand greatly in volume neuron

development is affected by sex hormones each neuron typically innervates ~200 muscle

cells à males’ muscles respond better than

females’ to exercise connection between neuron and muscle cell

there are three kinds of muscle tissue: =

at motor end plate 1. striated: most abundant, voluntary most attached to two or more bones not a direct connection, synapse or gap across a joint

, Acetylcholine, is released Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 5 Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 6

all organs of the muscular system are made muscle fiber of striated muscle tissues all skeletal muscles receive ~1.25 liter of 2. smooth: internal organs; arranged in two or blood/min at rest (~1/4th total blood supply) more layers eg circular and longitudinal during heavy exercise they can use up to 11.6 produce several kinds of movements: liters/min (>3/4th ‘s of all blood)

eg. peristalsis increased demand for oxygen and glucose =slow wavelike contractions that are used to push materials down a “tube” within the body Muscle Compartments eg. segmentation =a mixing motion made by lining the digestive tract muscles of the limbs are arranged into tightly packed “compartments” eg. sphincters =involuntary (reflex) control over various internal fascia surround and enclose the muscles, and body openings blood vessels within each compartment 3. cardiac: only if the blood vessels within a compartment are main movement is: damaged blood and tissue fluid accumulate

systole/diastole à fascia prevent swelling and relief of pressure =coordinated contraction and relaxation of the chambers of the heart à blood vessels and nerves are compressed and Blood Supply to Muscles obstructed our voluntary muscles have a rich blood supply to if pressure persists for >2-4 hrs nerves begin bring needed oxygen and energy molecules to the to die cells endomysium is full of capillaries that reach every

Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 7 Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 8 intrinsic muscles are entirely contained within a particular region (both origin and insertion) Some Basic Principles of extrinsic muscles has its origin in place different Voluntary Muscle Function than insertion

1. Bones act as levers and pivots (fulcrums) eg. some muscles that move fingers

2. Muscles can only pull not push most skeletal muscles are arranged in bundles

with ends attached to two different bones any movement requires coordination of several muscles muscles pull across to produce movement eg. opposing pairs

Each muscle must attach to at least two eg. functional groups different bones on opposite sides of an articulation: prime mover

synergist (including fixators) origin – proximal, less mobile point of

attachment antagonists

body – most muscle fibers grouped here 3. Kinds of body movements: insertion – distal and more mobile point of attachment the synovial joints of the body each allow specific kinds of voluntary movements, *Usually the body of the muscle that moves a such as: part does not lie over the part it moves flexion/extension Intramuscular Injections: muscles with thick bellies commonly used when drug must be = decrease vs increase angle absorbed more slowly or is given in large doses (inc. hyperextension (beyond anatomical position) eg. deltoid, gluteus medius, vastus lateralis supination/pronation = rotate outward vs inward intrinsic vs extrinsic muscles:

Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 9 Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 10

adduction/abduction = toward vs away from median origin and insertion (sternocleidomastoid) levator/depressor = produces upward vs downward movement number of origins (biceps, triceps) rotation/circumduction = pivot vs describe cone shape (deltoid, trapezius) eversion/inversion = turns sole outward vs inward action (flexors, extensors) dorsiflexion/plantarflexion = toes up vs toes down flexes foot vs extends foot at ankle joint

other kinds of muscle movements:

tensor = makes body part more rigid

sphincter =decreases size of opening (orbicularis); voluntary or smooth muscles

4. are named in several ways:

direction of muscle fibers (rectus, transverse, oblique)

location (temporalis, orbicularis oris)

size (maximus, minimus)

Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 11 Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 12 flexes fingers flexor digitorum Examples of extends fingers extensor digitorum Human Muscle Groups: E. Muscles that move thigh

Muscles of the Appendages abduct/adduct abduct thigh tensor fascia latae A. Muscles that move the pectoral girdle adduct thigh adductor longus adductor magnus levate/depress gracilis levates & depresses scapula trapezius flex/extend depresses scapula latissimus dorsi flexors sartorius several movements of scapula pectoralis major rectus femoris tensor fascia latae B. Muscles that move the upper arm extensors gluteus maximus biceps femoris

adduct/abduct semitendinosus abduct arm deltoid semimembranosus adduct arm pectoralis major latissimus dorsi F. Muscles that move lower leg flex/extend flexors pectoralis major flexors biceps femoris extensors latissimus dorsi semitendinosus semimembranosus C. Muscles that move forearm sartorius

flex/extend extensors rectus femoris flexors biceps brachii vastus lateralis brachialis vastus medialis brachioradialis extensor triceps brachii G. Muscles that move foot

D. Muscles that move wrist and fingers dorsiflex/plantarflex dorsiflexors tibialis anterior flexes wrist flexor carpi radialis flexor carpi ulnaris plantarflexors gastrocnemius extends wrist extensor carpi radialis soleus extensor carpi ulnaris

Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 13 Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 14

Head and Trunk Muscles C. Muscles of the Abdominal Wall

layers external oblique A. Muscles of the head and neck internal oblique sphincters: orbicularis oculi (close eye)

transversus abdominis orbicularis oris (close mouth)

rectus abdominis (linea alba) chewing: closes jaw masseter temporalis Hernia orbicularis oris occurs because of weakness in body wall may cause rupture opens jaw platysma visceral organs protrude through opening

facial expression: frontalis (raise eyebrows) wall is weak because of spaces between bundles of muscle fibers

orbicularis oculi (squint) undue pressure on abdominal viscera may force a portion of

parietal peritoneum and intestine through these weak spots orbicularis oris (purse , pout, kiss)

eg. heavy lifting can create up to 1,500 lbs pressure/ extrinsic eye muscles 3 pairs for each eye for voluntary eye sq “ in abdominal cavity (~100x’s normal pressure) movements most common at inguinal area, also diaphragm & naval head movement sternocleidomastoid (flexes head, turns head) women rarely get inguinal hernias trapezius (extends head)

B. Breathing Muscles

inspiration contract diaphragm

external intercostals (elevates cage)

expiration relax diaphragm

internal intercostals (depresses rib cage)

Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 15 Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 16 Muscle Cell Anatomy & Function some can stretch up to 3 times their normal (mainly ) length

General Properties of Skeletal Muscle Cells elasticity can recoil when not being stretched muscle cells are highly specialized to have several distinctive properties: General Structure of Skeletal Muscle Cells

excitability (responsiveness) several nuclei (skeletal muscle) respond with electrical changes = impulse skeletal muscles are formed when embryonic cells fuse together

conductivity some of these embryonic cells remain in the adult and can electrical signal travels throughout the muscle replace damaged muscle fibers to some degree (=satellite cell cells)

since muscle cells are not myelinated the impulse lots of mitochondria for energy generation travels much slower than on cell some cell structures have taken on new functions: T-tubule system helps to get impulse into cell and around the cell membrane = sarcolemma contractility can shorten substantially when stimulated cytoplasm = sarcoplasm

most cells can shorten to almost half their ER = length T tubules all cells contract to some degree, but muscle cells are much stronger and contract much tube or tunnel-like infoldings of sarcolemma more efficiently open to cell surface extend into muscle cell eg calf muscles can support 1 ton surround sarcoplasmic reticulum

extensibility Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 17 Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 18

Myofibrils the proteins and are found in all cells most of muscle cell is filled with myofibrils function in cell motility, cell division and transport regularly overlapping filaments (in striated mm) of materials throughout the cell

surrounded by SR myofilaments are arranged into SR in turn surrounded by T-Tubules

myofibrils consists of packets of:

a. thick filaments à myosin

each filament consists of several 100 molecules of myosin

each myosin molecule is shaped like a golf club with heads directed outward

b. thin filaments à actin, troponin, tropomyosin

one type of actin (G-actin) contains active sites

when myofibrils are relaxed, tropomyosin blocks these active sites

each tropomyosin has a binding troponin molecule attached to it

c. elastic filaments à titin (=connectin)

springy protein run through core of thick filaments

help keep thick and thin filaments aligned with each other

help cell recoil to resting length when stretched

[myosin and actin = contractile proteins

tropomyosin and troponin = regulatory proteins] Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 19 Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 20 Muscle Cell Contraction: causes cross bridges of myosin filaments to rotate to different angles and move thin filaments forward

1. nerve impulse arrives at neuromuscular junction ATP is needed for both attachment and release of each myosin head 2. ACh is released and diffuses across synapse muscles shorten up to 60% (ave=35-50%) one cycle results in ~1% shortening 3. binds to receptor on sarcolemma and initiates an so many cycles are involved impulse Relaxation 4. impulse travels across sarcolemma and into T tubules 1. ACh is rapidly broken down by ACh esterase

5. impulse triggers release of Ca++ from SR à stops generation of muscle action potential

Cholinesterase inhibitors in some pesticides bind to AchE and 6. Ca++ binds to troponin which moves tropomyosin prevent it from degrading

away from actin binding sites à causes spastic = a state of continual contraction may affect diaphragm and cause suffocation acts as a switch: 2. When stimulus stops, Ca++ ions reenter SR ++ without Ca à prevents interaction between actin & myosin à keeps [Ca++] 10,000 lower in sarcoplasm than in SR

with Ca++ à allows interaction 3. Troponin moves back in to block interaction of

actin and myosin, muscle cell relaxes 7. Myosin binds with actin in ratchet-like mechanism

pulls thin filaments toward thick filaments

8. Thick & thin filaments telescope into each other

causing shortening of muscle fibers

= contraction

requires lots of ATP:

Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 21 Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 22

++ too many Mg ions or too few Ca ions can prevent the autoimmune disease: attacks ACh receptors release of ACh

Botulism toxin – blocks release of Ach shortage of ACh receptors prevents fibers from contracting àparalysis black widow toxin – stimulates massive release of Ach mostly women, 20-50 yrs old àintense cramping & spasms nicotine - mimics Ach damage leads to easy fatigue and weakness on exertion àprolonges hyperactivity atropine, curare - prevents Ach from binding to receptors àparalysis often, eyes are affected with drooping eyelids and double vission nerve gas and related organophosphates inhibit cholinesterase muscle cant respond to continuing stimuli; difficulty swallowing or speaking are comon especially of diaphragm, leads to respiratory failure

Muscular Dystrophy (muscle destroying diseases)

Physiological Cause: sarcolemma deteriorates

some are fatal, others have little impact on life expectancy

Duchenes: sex linked recessive trait; usually inherited but can occur spontaneously

Symptoms: muscle stiffness, difficulty relaxing muscles, muscle weakness, difficulty walking, drooping eyelids, progresive muscle wasting progresses from extremities upward

most die by 20 yrs old

biotech trying to replace gene that makes missing protein

Myasthenia Gravis (‘Heavy weakness’)

weakness of skeletal muscles,

esp face and neck muscles: drooping eyelids difficulty talking and swallowing

Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 23 Biol 2401: Anatomy & Physiology I: Muscular System; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2016.3 24