An Examination of Competitive Balance and Dominance within Interscholastic Football

James E. Johnson1 Beau F. Scott1 Allison K. Manwell1

1Ball State University

Interscholastic football has the highest participation rates among high school students in the United States. The popularity and nostalgic connection of football is widespread, but competitive balance is often challenged due to differing characteristics of high schools. This study utilized the theory of distributive justice and data from high school athletic associations in all 50 states and District of Columbia to consider which variables (public/private status, school population, rural/urban location, geographical region, and policies) may impact dominance at the state-championship level of interscholastic football. The results confirmed that traditionally strong private schools generally located in the Midwest and Northeast win state titles at disproportionately high rates. The public/private variable was found to be the most impactful variable under investigation. The findings of the study also challenged the effectiveness of existing policies designed to curb private school success. These results can serve pragmatic efforts to ensure competitive balance within interscholastic football.

he colloquialism of a level playing More broadly defined, competitive field is often used to describe the balance is characterized by a relatively Tconcept of competitive balance equal opportunity to be competitive with (Monahan, 2012). Taken literally, this teams who have similar characteristics notion would ensure the playing surface (Johnson, Giannoulakis, & Scott, 2017; has the same specifications for both Johnson, Pierce, Tracy, & Haworth, teams competing in a particular sport. 2014; Johnson, Tracy, & Pierce, 2015).

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 21 Competitive balance is particularly claim that professional football is their important in interscholastic athletics, favorite sport, while another 10% claim where teams vie to be state champions that collegiate football is their favorite by competing against schools of similar (Shannon-Missal, 2016). Moreover, size. The policies implemented by due primarily to a $27 billion television interscholastic state athletic associations contract that the NFL signed with Fox, help to shape interscholastic competitive CBS, and ESPN in 2011, NFL franchise balance, but such policies are varied values are at an all-time high with an from state to state and are often average team value of $2.34 billion scrutinized by stakeholders (Johnson et (Badenhausen, 2011; Forbes 2016). al., 2015). With more than 7.5 million Popular culture is influenced by students competing in interscholastic interscholastic football as well. The sport (NFHS, 2016) and countless other success of films such as Varsity Blues parents, administrators, and coaches (1999; $52,885,587 gross; IMBD 2017a), committing resources, competitive Remember the Titans (2000; $115,648,585 balance is critical to maintain integrity gross; IMBD 2017b), and Friday Night and equal opportunities for success. Lights (2004; $61,188,085 gross; IMBD American football (hereafter football) 2017c) demonstrated the mass appeal is the most played interscholastic of a sport experienced by millions of sport in the United States (US), with high school students, parents, coaches, 1,083,308 participants in 2015-2016 and community members. H. B. (NFHS, 2016). This number dwarfs Bissinger’s book by the same name, the participation number for the Friday Night Lights (1999), is a story about second most popular sport, track a Texas high school football team who and field, which attracted 591,133 demonstrates why football is revered by participants. The discrepancy between communities across the US. Bissinger football and other interscholastic sports wrote, “Odessa is the setting for this demonstrates the immense popularity book, but it could be anyplace in this that interscholastic football holds vast land where, on a Friday night, a set in the US. In fact, Howard (2011) of spindly stadium lights rises to the reported that interscholastic football heavens to so powerfully, and so briefly, attracted over 160 million fans annually: ignite the darkness” (p. 16). These types a number which tops attendance at of stories reveal the sentimental and collegiate and professional football nostalgic connection people and have games combined. The popularity of with interscholastic football. interscholastic football is certainly helped by the more commercialized presence Purpose of professional and collegiate football. With interscholastic football’s Approximately 33% of Americans attendance and participation rates far

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 22 exceeding intercollegiate and professional Maxcy (2003) explained that competitive football combined, as well as the balance is either an analysis of parity inconsistent approaches and critiques over time (ACB), or an investigation of of competitive balance policies across the effect of competitive balance on the US, it is curious why interscholastic fans utilizing the uncertainty of outcome football competitive balance research hypothesis (UOH; Rottenberg, 1956). is rare. In the few studies that have The most contemporary theoretical examined interscholastic competitive approaches originated from early work balance, specific sports are seldom of UOH theory applied to Major discussed. Research on football is League Baseball (MLB; Neale, 1964). overdue, given that football is the most According to UOH, if the outcome played and attended interscholastic of a game is uncertain because wealth sport, and particularly because and talent are evenly distributed, fans dominance of private schools is will enjoy the game and continue to routinely under scrutiny (Johnson et attend. Without competitive balance al., 2017). Moreover, because the most policies or labor restrictions, however, recent research suggests that a handful the wealthiest teams in the largest of school characteristics likely impact markets would be most successful, competitive balance, and the theoretical eliminating the uncertainty of outcome foundation of distributive justice has and fan interest. The principles of the been established in other interscholastic UOH have been studied extensively in competitive balance research (see professional sports because variables forthcoming literature), these factors such as attendance and revenue are warrant examination. Therefore, the readily available, and the financial purpose of this study is to examine implications can be great (Humphreys, competitive balance and dominance 2002; McEwen & Metz, 2016; Zimbalist, in US interscholastic football. The 2002, 2003). Professional team research following literature review serves as a has focused on assessing effectiveness framework to support this purpose. of specific competitive balance policies such as revenue sharing, salary caps, Approaches to Competitive Balance parity scheduling, relocation restrictions Given its popularity in both and outcome-dependent draft order participation and consumption, (Caporale & Collier, 2015; Sanderson ensuring football’s competitive balance & Siegfried, 2003). For example, is paramount (Johnson et al., 2017). professional golf uses handicaps. Weight Fortunately, evaluating competitive classes in boxing and wrestling serve a balance is rooted in decades of work that similar purpose. Within intercollegiate originated with economic considerations sport, variables such as scholarship at the professional level. Fort and restrictions and conference alignment

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 23 have impacted competitive balance school athletic directors, the primary (Dittmore & Crow, 2010). Sanderson mission of interscholastic sport is on and Siegfriend (2003) aptly noted that development (physical and social), health, every sport at every level has some form social interaction and life skills of the of competitive balance policy, and most student-athlete (Blackburn, Forsyth, are strongly aligned with the UOH. Olson, & Whitehead, 2013). The motives In a robust review of competitive for competitive balance are more broadly balance measures that spans over forty defined in amateur sport than for the years and began with Sloane (1976), economic purposes of competitive Evans (2014) noted there have been balance in professional sport. Although three general categories used to assess competitive balance is applied at every competitive balance. First, measures of level of sport and generally adheres to closeness between leagues are known as the economic considerations of the measures of concentration. These analyses UOH for professional teams (Evans, typically measure a league as a whole to 2014), policies at the interscholastic determine the relative performance of level differ greatly (Johnson et al., the entire group of teams rather than any 2017). The social, psychological, and one particular team or group of teams. developmental implications are more Ranges, standard deviations, coefficients apparent for interscholastic sport where of variation and similar measures of small high schools with hundreds of spread are used to assess concentration. students cannot reasonably be expected to Second, measures of dominance focus compete against large high schools with on individual teams or groups of teams thousands of students. Still, the majority over time. The measurements used of competitive balance research does not to determine dominance are largely mention interscholastic sport and tends descriptive statistics such as number to focus largely on economic metrics as of championships, consecutive titles, dependent variables (Dobson & Goddard, lifetime achievement, etc. Third, some 2001; Evans, 2014; Fort & Maxcy, 2003; researchers have used a combination McEwen & Metz, 2016; Kaplan, Nadeau of concentration and dominance. The & Reilly, 2011; Sanderson & Siegfried, three different approaches comprise a 2003; Zimbalist, 2002, 2003). large stream of literature on competitive balance, mostly at the professional and Dominance, dynasties, and intercollegiate levels doormats. While governing bodies Unlike professional and college sport, in interscholastic sport strive for the policies of interscholastic sport are competitive balance, perennially not focused on economic success, the successful and chronically unsuccessful UOH, and fan attendance. While these athletic teams exist. The level of factors certainly are considered by high dominance refers to the quantity and

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 24 quality of success across seasons with must pass through a team, program, or repetitive high-level success yielding the franchise. Within interscholastic sport, strongest levels of dominance (Evans, identification of a dynasty is easily 2014). Athletic dominance literature captured since players graduate and are indicates that teams have relatively equal succeeded by new players. playing strengths and are otherwise In an environment with dominant balanced (Evans, 2014; Scully, 1989). teams and dynasties, doormat programs It is also understood that one of two also exist. Doormats, sometimes possible outcomes- winning or losing- referred to as cellar dynasties, are is likely (Quirk & Fort, 1992). Trandel perennially unsuccessful teams and Maxcy (2011) suggested that despite (Waterman, 2001). These teams assumptions of competitive balance a demonstrate consistent lack of success litany of factors may cause imbalance. over a prolonged time. Like successful Teams are assumed to have equal playing dynasties, doormat programs’ players strengths (Scully, 1989), which is not also must be fluctuating while the always the case, particularly when public program or franchise is consistently and private schools are considered unsuccessful. Whether a doormat or (Epstein, 2008). Two seemingly balanced a dynasty, the prolonged success of teams are not equally likely to win a interscholastic teams in a particular competition (Quirk & Fort, 1992). state calls to question the variables that Dominance often is confused with influence competitive balance. the term dynasty. However, the terms are different due to specific team Competitive Balance Factors identification. “The essential difference The variables that appear to have is whether the identity of the team implications for competitive balance matters to the measure. It does not policies or the presence of dominance matter for measures of concentration, have been examined on a limited basis. but it does matter for measures of The evidence supporting these factors is dominance” (Evans, 2014, p. 3). Thus, both empirical and anecdotal, but none a sport dynasty may be confused with a of the factors have been specifically used particular team’s long reign of winning to investigate interscholastic football at or perennial success (Waterman, 2001). the national level. Ironically, many of The key difference between a dynasty the current philosophies on competitive and a powerhouse team, however, is in balance rely on these factors to validate succession. While teams with the same implementation (Johnson et al., 2015). elite players might have a stretch of The variables include public/private success, such teams are not dynasties. status, population, rural/urban location, A dynasty must involve succession geographical region, and specific policies of players on the same team; players currently in place.

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 25 The most salient variable in the this reason, state athletic administrators competitive balance discussion is identified school size as a primary whether a high school is public or challenge to competitive balance private (Cohen, 1997; Epstein, 2008; (Johnson et al., 2017). As a result, every Johnson et al., 2014; Johnson et al., state uses some form of enrollment 2015; Johnson et al., 2017; Popke, 2012). classification system to ensure schools Traditionally, public schools are required are competing against other schools to take students from a designated of relatively the same size (Johnson geographical area funded by taxpayers. et al., 2015). Most states use pure Private schools, which include various enrollment to make classifications and religious-based parochial schools, charter determine the number of teams within schools, military schools, and others, each classification based on the number have selective admission processes and of schools in the state. For football, are generally funded through tuition. most states have 4 to 8 classifications Athletically, there is evidence that private and normally label them using number schools often win a disproportionate and letter combinations, like 1A-8A, amount of state championships relative or by other common names such as to their representation within a particular Division I or small school. However, state (Johnson et al., 2014; Popke, when populations are small, competitive 2012). There is a belief among some balance is disrupted because schools critics that private schools have inherent must balance travel with playing against advantages that public schools do not teams of the same size. Areas with (e.g., resources, personnel, facilities, lower populations generally travel further selective admission processes), which to play schools of the same size, often often result in better athletes, coaches, leaving smaller schools the choice of and teams (Epstein, 2008). Thus, some playing larger schools out of convenience policies, such as separate playoffs for or traveling long distances to play against private schools, are designed to mitigate similar sized schools (Johnson et al., these perceived advantages (Johnson et 2017). al., 2015). Rural/urban status is closely aligned Population is an obvious factor to with population. In general, urban consider for competitive balance. When populations will have larger schools, with there are more people concentrated in the exception of private schools that one area, schools are larger or more can control their enrollment through schools exist. More people generally admission requirements (Epstein, 2008; translates to more athletic talent. This Johnson et al., 2017). Urban teams premise is logical considering higher can be more selective with scheduling population areas tend to have larger given close proximity to many other schools, particularly public schools. For schools. Additionally, urban teams

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 26 may have access to more facilities, off- sections are known for the popularity season training options, and attendance of football. These distinctions could at private schools that would not be reveal differences relative to policy, and available in rural areas (Johnson et al., potentially connect other variables in 2017; Monahan, 2012). In a case study this study. Moreover, Johnson et al., of Indiana, Johnson et al. (2014) found (2014) indicated that geography within a that schools from urban environments or state is significant to determine success more densely populated areas won state and suggested a larger examination of championships at a disproportionately geography beyond a single state. higher rate than their percentage of The aforementioned factors representation in the state. For these contribute to the final competitive reasons, the current study identified balance factor: policy. Each state makes rural/urban as a likely variable that could decisions about what type of competitive impact football success and adopted the balance policy- beyond enrollment US Census Bureau (2015) definitions of classifications- they will implement, if rural (below 2,500), urban cluster (2,500 any. In a national examination of state – 49,999), and urban (50,000 and above). policies, Johnson et al. (2015) determined More broad than rural/urban status that 23 out of 51 states (including is geography, specifically regions of District of Columbia) implemented some the country. The US could be divided policy beyond enrollment classifications. into many different geographic sections This indicates that approximate 55% depending on the topic, but to be of states utilize a libertarian approach consistent with interscholastic sport (see forthcoming theoretical position) the current study utilized the National to competitive balance by not adopting Interscholastic Athletic Administrators specific policies and encouraging all Association (NIAAA) sections. The schools of similar size to compete NIAAA splits the United States against each other. For the states that into eight sections, and each section do adopt policies beyond enrollment corresponds to states from different classifications, there are essentially regions of the US. For example, three types of policies in place: separate Section 4 contains the Midwestern public/private playoffs, multipliers, states of IN, IL, MI, WI, and IA. While and other policies (socioeconomic and geography does have some connection success factors). to population and rural/urban status, Separate playoffs for public these geographical distinctions are broad, and private schools has been one representing differing regional values and policy specifically designed to target perspectives on competitive balance and disproportionate success of private football. For example, some sections of schools. According to Johnson et the US are known as conservative. Other al. (2015), there are at least 12 states

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 27 that have distinct playoffs for private levels of athletic prowess. Success schools, or have additional independent factors establish criteria to determine organizations for private schools. While if performance is unusually and this policy choice has been proposed in consistently high, resulting in a higher many states beyond the 12, it is clear that enrollment classification in the future. legal ramifications (Johnson et al., 2017) Indiana’s Tournament Success Factor is and competition for referees, tournament one example (Johnson et al., 2014). Both sites, and athletes is a limiting factor for private schools and public schools have separate playoffs (Popke, 2012). been moved to higher classifications The multiplier policy involves in Indiana, although private schools multiplying the real enrollment number have been impacted more (Johnson et by a designated number (between 1.3 al., 2014). Reviews of this policy are and 2) to create an inflated enrollment mixed with criticisms indicating that number used to place private schools success is punished, and reclassification in classifications (Johnson et al., 2015). is retroactive rather than proactive A multiplier is used to neutralize the (Johnson et al., 2014; Neddenriep, perceived advantages held by private 2015; Sokeland, 2012; Terlap, 2012). schools (Epstein, 2008). Multipliers for Unfortunately, interscholastic football improving competitive balance have has not been isolated when examining resulted in some success in Tennessee success factors or other policies targeting but little success in Missouri (Monahan, private schools, nor has football been 2012). Critics of multipliers suggest that investigated for the non-policy factors choice of number is arbitrary and that mentioned prior. such a policy could make circumstances more difficult for the many private Theoretical Position schools that are not athletically strong In an emerging stream of literature (James, 2007). on interscholastic competitive balance, More contemporary polices have concepts of justice and fairness eliminated targeting private schools to influence the theoretical approach more focus on other variables. For example, so than economic outcomes found a socioeconomic reducer has been in professional sport. Most notably, implemented by Oregon and Oklahoma. the theory of distributive justice (TDJ; Identifying students on free or reduced Beauchamp, 1991; Frankena, 1973; lunches can reveal the relative financial Rachels, 1989) has been effectively used strength of the school, which is often to investigate interscholastic competitive thought to significantly impact resources balance at the state and national level and athletic success (Epstein, 2008; (Johnson et al., 2017; Johnson et al., Johnson et al., 2017). Other policies 2014; Johnson et al., 2015). TDJ is an have identified disproportionately high effective theory to frame the policies

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 28 of competitive balance because it that, in the context of interscholastic proposes that justice is achieved by sport, every state applies one aspect distribution of benefits or burdens to of an egalitarian approach: enrollment groups or individuals. The distribution classifications. Essentially, large schools of resources, benefits, or punishments is tend to compete against large schools, based on a comparison of similar groups and small schools against small schools. that desire the same scarce outcome States differ in their policies beyond (e.g., reward, accomplishment). In the enrollment classifications. case of interscholastic athletics, the In contrast to an egalitarian implementation of competitive balance perspective, the libertarian approach policies is thought to impact a team’s to distributive justice involves little chances of winning a state championship administrative intervention, calling (Johnson et al., 2014). Determining for groups or individuals to adapt to a specific competitive balance policy the existing structure (Tibor, 1974). is achieved by adopting one of three The libertarian approach encourages differing perspectives within TDJ hard work and industriousness, while (Johnson et al., 2017). discouraging excuses. Less policy is An egalitarian approach suggests often the goal. For interscholastic sport, that if groups are relatively equal in this approach would accommodate states resources and opportunities, the groups that do not wish to have a competitive should be treated equally (Mullender, balance policy beyond enrollment 2009). However, if some groups are classifications. Returning to the public/ deemed to have inherent advantages, private school example, private schools the less fortunate groups should be taking a libertarian perspective could accommodated through additional argue that advantages or successes are resources or reduced expectations due to their hard work, rather than (Raphael, 1981). For example, some advantages inherent due to their private private high schools are thought to school characteristics. As Johnson et al. have advantages over public schools (2017) found through interviews with (Epstein, 2008; Johnson et al., 2015). state athletic administrators, those with a In those cases, an egalitarian position libertarian perspective regard all students would favor a policy to neutralize similarly no matter the type of school any unjust advantages by private high they attend. For example, one state schools. As Johnson et al. (2015) executive director explained; “I know our noted, such egalitarian policies exist in country has a history of counting some the form of enrollment multipliers or human beings as less than full citizens. formulas accounting for specific school We’re all one here. We all count the characteristics but are not as common as same” (p. 9). a libertarian perspective. It is noteworthy

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 29 The third perspective of distributive H1: Football teams at private schools justice is utilitarian (Havard, 1959). will win championships at a The priority of this perspective is the significantly higher percentage greatest good for the greatest number of than represented by their state people, as decisions are often the result membership percentage. of a cost/benefit analysis (DeSensi & H2: Football teams at private schools Rosenberg, 2010; Havard, 1959). If, will win significantly more state for example, policies were created with championships than football most schools in mind, there might be teams at public schools. limitations put on private schools to H3: States with policy types beyond reduce their perceived advantages. The enrollment classifications will cost of limiting/regulating a small group demonstrate less disproportionate of schools might be worth the reward of success by private schools. having competitive balance. However, if H4: Private schools from urban areas the greatest good was thought to be open will demonstrate significantly competition where the most successful more football championships than schools were perceived to challenge public schools from rural areas or and improve the less successful schools, urban clusters. the greater good might be to resist H5: There are significant differences policies that impact a specific group of between the success of public schools. The subjective interpretation and private schools based on of what constitutes the greatest good geography (i.e., NIAAA sections). makes a utilitarian approach difficult to H6: Football teams from private implement. Each of these theoretical schools will have the most success approaches to TDJ serves to shape the in high population areas. research design. RQ2: Does public/private, population, rural/urban, geography, or policy type Research Questions and Hypotheses predict state championships? Using the aforementioned literature H7: All variables investigated will as a foundation, the following research be significant predictors of state questions and hypotheses were created: football championships. RQ1: Are any of the competitive balance factors under investigation (public/ Method private status, population, rural/urban Design & Procedures classification, geography, and policy Descriptive data can indicate the type) associated with the outcome of number of titles per team, consecutive interscholastic football championship title wins, and lifetime achievement of games? a team, which is relevant to measuring dominance and competitive balance

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 30 (Evans, 2014). Rottenberg (1956) first dominance refers to statistically introduced number of championships significant and disproportionately as a measure of dominance, and since high amount of championships then Sloane (1976), Scully (1989), relative to the independent variables Syzmanski and Kypers (1999), Noll under investigation. Specifically, (1991), and Michie and Oughton championships were the dependent (2004) have described similar measures variable used to define dominance in professional sport (Evans, 2014). and refers to the highest level of Using an approach more suited to success at the interscholastic level for interscholastic athletics, the current study each enrollment classification. The utilized a similar approach as Johnson et independent variable of public/private al. (2014) in their case study on multiple school status was established on each sports in Indiana. The present study is school’s website after determining the a non-experimental descriptive design teams in the championship game. The that relied on archival interscholastic independent variable of rural/urban football data from 37 states and variables were defined using the US the District of Columbia. Due to Census Bureau’s (2015) definitions which separate playoffs or alternative athletic included three categories: rural (less than associations for private schools, 12 states 2,500), urban cluster (between 2,500 and were not considered in data collection. 50,000), and urban area (over 50,000). Additionally, data for Minnesota and A street address of a school defined its Connecticut were not available from the population and rural/urban status. The Johnson et al. (2015) study. Primarily independent variable of population was using state athletic association websites, the number of people in the town where all interscholastic state champions and the school was located according to the runners-up were collected for five US Census Bureau, and geography was consecutive years (2012-2016 seasons). divided into eight regions of the country The length of time was chosen so that as defined by the NIAAA sections (refer patterns could be detected while still to results in Table 2 for geographic allowing the data to be recent enough section information). Competitive for meaningful and contemporary balance policies were independent conclusions to be drawn. If data could variables gathered using the Johnson et not be mined from state association al. (2015) national study which, identified websites, reputable news sources from the following policies implemented each state were used. In sum, there were throughout the United States: separate 1,994 individual football teams examined. playoffs, enrollment multipliers, success The variables for each football factors, socioeconomic factors, and team were collected using online enrollment classifications. data. The dependent variable of

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 31 Data Analysis to determine if any variables under Before addressing the research investigation predicted state champions. question, data was first cross tabulated A binary logistic regression is effective (public/private, champion/runner up, when a dichotomous variable is population, rural/urban, policy type) determined by two or more independent to describe the sample and provide variables (Hilbe, 2015). The following context to the data. Cross tabulations model was examined: allow comparisons of data categories that might not be available by more Logit(dominance) = Β0 + Β1X1 + traditional descriptive analysis (Treiman, . . . + Β15X15 2009). To address RQ1 three separate analyses were conducted. For H1, Where Β0 represents the constant, Β1X1 descriptive comparisons were made public/private, Β2X2 population, Β3X3 between percentage of private schools and Β4X4 represents the dummy coded in a state (Johnson et al., 2015), and the rural/urban settings, Β5X5 through percentage of private school football Β9X9 represents the dummy coded champions. For H2 through H5, a policy types, and Β10X10 through Β15X15 hierarchical loglinear analysis (HLA) represents the dummy coded geographic was conducted to allow for detection settings. Alpha levels were set at .05. of interaction effects among nominal variables. This analysis is appropriate Results to examine lower order interaction Table 1 contains descriptive results of the variables under investigation of the dependent variable (champion/ in combination with the main effects runner up) and the independent variables (Agresti, 2013). The variables examined (public/private; population; policy; in the HLA were public/private, geographic). Noteworthy information champions/runners up, geography, and includes 75% of schools are public, policy types. Post hoc chi squares were 48.3% are from urban clusters, 65.9% conducted for significant interaction do not have competitive balance polices effects found in the HLA. For H6, an beyond enrollment classifications, Independent-samples Mann-Whitney and NIAAA Section 5 has the most U test was conducted to analyze a high school football champions. This comparison of the population by information serves to contextualize the championship outcome. A non- sample. parametric approach was necessary to Table 2 is a cross tabulation of evaluate population due to a few large public/private, population, and rural/ population centers that skewed the data urban data. Table 3 is a cross tabulation (Hollander, 2014). For RQ2 and H7 a of public/private, champions/runners binary logistic regression was conducted up, and geography (NIAAA sections).

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 32 Table 1 Descriptive Information for Dependent (DV) and Independent (IV) Variables Variable N Percent Champ/Runner Up (DV) Champion 997 50 Runner Up 997 50 Public/Private (IV) Public Schools 1510 75.7 Private Schools 484 24.3 Population – Rural/Urban (IV) Rural (below 2,500) 412 20.7 Urban Cluster (2,501-50,000) 963 48.3 Urban Area (+50,000) 619 31 Policy (IV) No Policy 1314 65.9 Multiplier 214 10.7 Success Factor 110 5.5 Socioeconomic 60 3 Combination 32 1.6 Other 264 13.2 Geographic – NIAAA Section (IV) Section 1 (CT, MA, NH, NJ, NY, MA, RI, VT) 245 12.3 Section 2 (PA, OH, WV, VA, DC, KY, DE, MD) 238 11.9 Section 3 (TN, NC, SC, GA, AL, MS, LA, FL) 143 7.2 Section 4 (IN, IL, MI, WI, IA) 336 16.9 Section 5 (MN, ND, SD, NE, KS, MS) 304 15.2 Section 6 (AK, OK, TX, NM, CO) 246 12.3 Section 7 (AZ, UT, NV, CA, HI) 202 10.1 Section 8 (WY, MT, ID, OR, WA, AL) 280 14

Descriptive results from Table 2 indicted the rural/urban results where the that as population of city/towns champions from the rural and urban increases so does the representation of cluster categories were overwhelmingly private schools earning championships. from public schools (579 public vs. 90 This point is further confirmed through private), while champions from urban

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 33 Table 2 Cross Tabulations for Public/Private Champions/Runners up by Population (displayed in decile format) and Rural/Urban Categories

Runners-up Champions Categories N Public Private N Public Private Population 0-1,235 55 52 3 63 59 4 1,236-2,404 103 100 3 97 96 1 2,405-4,411 93 88 5 106 92 14 4,412-7,778 111 105 6 89 86 3 7,779-14,689 109 98 11 90 82 8 14,690-27,555 100 83 17 100 74 26 27,556-53,433 105 74 31 97 56 41 53,434-102,346 93 61 32 104 60 44 102,347-305,625 94 51 43 105 39 66 305,626 – 2,720,546 95 32 63 104 41 63 Rural/Urban Rural 204 198 6 208 200 8 Urban Cluster 502 434 68 461 379 82 Urban Area 291 151 140 328 148 180 areas were largely private (148 public private school success were Section vs. 180 private). The geography results 2 (70 public champions vs. 49 private presented in Table 3 were relatively champions) and Section 4 (98 public consistent across the US with public champions vs. 70 private champions). schools having more champions and For H1, descriptive comparisons were runners up than private schools in every made to compare the percentages of NIAAA section. The two geographical private school state champions relative sections of the country with the most to the percentages of private schools in

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 34 Table 3 Cross Tabulations for Public/Private, Champion/Runner Up, and Geography NIAAA Section Runners-up Champions Total Section 1 Public 91 (48.7%) 96 (51.3%) 187 (CT, MA, NH, NJ, Private 31 (53.4%) 27 (46.6%) 58 NY, MA, RI, VT) Total 122 (49.8%) 123 (50.2%) 245 Section 2 Public 90 (56.3%) 70 (43.8%) 160 (PA, OH, WV, VA, Private 29 (37.2%) 49 (62.8%) 78 DC, KY, DE, MD) Total 119 (50%) 119 (50%) 238 Section 3 Public 55 (53.4%) 48 (46.6%) 103 (TN, NC, SC, GA, Private 17 (42.5%) 23 (57.5%) 40 AL, MS, LA, FL) Total 72 (50.3%) 71 (49.7%) 143 Section 4 Public 125 (56.1%) 98 (43.9%) 223 (IN, IL, MI, Private 43 (38.1%) 70 (61.9%) 113 WI, IA) Total 168 (50%) 168 (50%) 336 Section 5 Public 116 (49.4%) 119 (50.6%) 235 (MN, ND, SD, NE, Private 36 (52.2%) 33 (47.8%) 69 KS, MS) Total 152 (50%) 152 (50%) 304 Section 6 Public 116 (51.8%) 108 (48.2%) 224 (AK, OK, TX, NM, Private 7 (31.8%) 15 (68.2%) 22 CO) Total 123 (50%) 123 (50%) 246 Section 7 Public 72 (51.8%) 67 (48.2%) 139 (AZ, UT, NV, CA, Private 29 (46%) 34 (54%) 63 HI) Total 101 (50%) 101 (50%) 202 Section 8 Public 118 (49.4%) 121 (50.6%) 239 (WY, MT, ID, OR, Private 22 (53.7%) 19 (46.3%) 41 WA, AL) Total 140 (50%) 140 (50%) 280

Note: The following states had separate playoffs or did not provide data, which excluded them from the study: AZ, CT, GA, LA, MD, MN, MS, NJ, NY, NC, SC, TN, TX, VA.

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 35 each state. Data showed that of the 37 and public/private variables. Thus, the states where public and private schools HLA confirmed that private schools compete against each other for a state were in urban areas, private schools have championship, 29 states (including specific competitive balance policies D.C.) have higher numbers of private placed on them, parts of the Midwest school state champions relative to their and east coast (NIAAA sections two representation within each state, and 14 and four) have the most private schools, states had more than a 10% difference and policies differ based on state. These between private state championships results are manifest content supportive and private representation. Less than of the descriptive findings and prior 20% of schools in the U.S. are private literature. (and only 8% of students attend private More central to championships schools; National Center of Education and measures of dominance, three Statistics, 2013), while an average of 24% distinct 3-way interactions that included of football state champions are won the champ/runner up variable were by private schools. Washington, D.C. significant. For each interaction, a featured the highest amount of private post hoc chi-square was conducted to school champions with 56% despite determine variability of the statistical only 30% of their schools classified as significance within the layers. The first private. D.C. was followed by Michigan interaction, champion/runner up*rural/ (47.5% private champs – 14.61% private urban*public/private (x² [1, N = 1,994] schools), Iowa (41.67% private champs = 8.57, p < .01) indicated that the – 10.72% private schools), Pennsylvania proportion of private schools in urban (47.73% private champs – 18.29% areas (320 private, 299 public) was very private schools), Nebraska (40% private different than the proportion of private champs – 10.68% private schools), Ohio schools in rural areas (14 private, 398 (40% private champs – 14.91% private public). However, the percentage of schools), and Indiana (34.48% private private schools winning championship champs – 11.65% private schools). in each category was higher than public For H2 through H5, the HLA was schools at every level (rural = private conducted to determine interaction 57%, public 50.3%; urban cluster = effects among variables. The generating private 54.7%, public 46.6%; urban = class produced six 3-way interactions. private 55.8%, public 48.1%), indicating Three of the interactions were logical that when private schools reach the final and confirmed the descriptive results game, they are more likely to win no above. Each of those three interactions matter the rural/urban category. did not include the champion/runner up The second interaction, public/ variable, but did include a combination private*champion/runner up*geography of rural/urban, geography, policy type, (x² [1, N = 1994] = 8.57, p < .01),

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 36 suggested that in five of eight geographic schools, which was partially true. sections of the country, private school Private schools win more than public football teams tend to be the most schools for all policy types except for successful in championship games states with socioeconomic policies in despite having less private school place. However, other policies beyond representation. Table 3 displays the cross enrollment classifications, such as tabulations for the 3-way interaction and multipliers, still produce disproportionate confirms the disproportionate success of success by private schools. H4 stated private schools based on geography. that private schools in urban areas would The third interaction, public/ win significantly more championships private*champion/runner up*policy than public schools in rural areas or type (x² [1, N = 1994] = 8.57, p < .01) urban clusters. This hypothesis was indicated that for all policy types, except accepted in part because private schools for states with socioeconomic policies, win more football state championships private schools win the championship than public schools, but disproportionate game at a higher percentage than public private school success was not schools. Table 4 demonstrates the cross contingent upon urban, urban cluster, tabulations for the 3-way interaction. or rural location. H5 assumed there The findings also confirm the majority would be significant differences in the of states do not utilize competitive success of public and private schools balance policies beyond enrollment based on geographical boundaries classifications as 1,314 cases of 1,994 of the NIAAA. This hypothesis was cases were from such states. accepted as five of the eight sections Based on the results of the HLA, demonstrated private school champions most of the hypotheses were accepted. were disproportionately higher than their H2 stated that private school football state percentage representation. teams would win significantly more H6 was tested using an independent- state championships in football than samples Mann-Whitney U test because public school football teams. This population was a continuous variable and hypothesis was accepted entirely, as a non-parametric approach was required. the results demonstrate that private The results of the test did not indicate schools- regardless of variables like a difference in champions vs. runners geographic location, enrollment, or up based on population of the town/ policy implemented- win more football city in which the school existed, z = .82, state championships than do public p = .412. Champions had a mean of schools. H3 predicted that states with 1008.09, whereas runners up had a mean policies for competitive balance beyond of 986.91. Thus, H6 was rejected. enrollment classes would demonstrate Finally, for RQ2 and H7 a binary less disproportionate success by private logistic regression was conducted

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 37 Table 4 Cross Tabulations for Public/Private, Champion/Runner Up, and Policy Type Runners-up Champions Total No Policy Public 518 (52.5%) 468 (47.5%) 986 Private 139 (42.4%) 189 (57.6%) 328 Total 657 (50%) 657 (50%) 1314 Multiplier Public 90 (51.1%) 86 (48.9%) 176 Private 17 (44.7%) 21 (55.3%) 38 Total 107 (50%) 107 (50%) 214 Success Factor Public 40 (52.6%) 36 (47.4%) 76 Private 15 (44.1%) 19 (55.9%) 34 Total 55 (50%) 55 (50%) 110 Other Policy Public 135 (75.8%) 137 (77%) 272 (socioeconomic, combination) Private 43 (24.2%) 41 (23%) 84 Total 178 (50%) 178 (50%) 356 to determine if competitive balance some prior research about interscholastic variables predicted state football sport in general, as well as reveal new champions. The predictors were the information specifically about football. five competitive balance variables The importance of the public/private identified in this study (public private, variable in relation to dominance in population, rural/urban, policy type, and high school football is the most glaring geography). The criterion variable was finding from this study. Nearly every state championships. While the overall result that included examination of the predictive model was not significant,x ² public/private variable was significant. (16, N = 1994) = 11.485, p = .779, the H1 demonstrated that private schools individual variable of public/private was win disproportionately more football significant B( = .29, p = .015; see Table state championships than expected based 5). With each predictor controlled for, on their representation. The fact that the odds of winning a championship 23 states show disproportionately high increased by 34% (Exp[B] = 1.34) if private school success supports findings the school was private. Despite the by Cohen (1997), Popke (2012), and significance of the public/private Johnson et al. (2014). In some states, variable, H7 was rejected. the disproportionate success has been found to be quite large. For example, Discussion Popke (2012) reported that in California The results of this study provide 53% of all state championships went several important findings that confirm to private schools despite only 26% of

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 38 Table 5 Summary of Logistic Regression for Variables Predicting Interscholastic Football Championships Std. Variable B Wald df sig Error Public/Private 0.29 0.12 5.87 1 .015* Population 0.00 0.00 0.63 1 .429 Rural/Urban 1.43 2 .489 (Base is Rural (below 2,500) Urban Cluster (2,501- -0.14 0.12 1.40 1 .237 50,000) vs Rural Urban Area (+50,000) vs -0.08 0.16 0.28 1 .595 Rural Policy (Base is No Policy) 0.13 5 1.000 Multiplier Policy vs None 0.04 0.16 0.06 1 .802 Success Factor Policy vs -0.03 0.22 0.02 1 .898 None Socioeconomic Policy vs -0.05 0.29 0.03 1 .872 None Combination Policy vs 0.03 0.38 0.01 1 .946 None Other Policy vs None -0.02 0.17 0.01 1 .924 Geographic 0.58 7 .999 (Base is NIAA Section 1) NIAA Section 2 vs 1 -0.09 0.20 0.20 1 .653 NIAA Section 3 vs 1 -0.11 0.23 0.24 1 .627 NIAA Section 4 vs 1 -0.10 0.18 0.31 1 .579 NIAA Section 5 vs 1 -0.07 0.19 0.12 1 .728 NIAA Section 7 vs 1 -0.02 0.20 0.01 1 .923 NIAA Section 8 vs 1 -0.08 0.21 0.17 1 .681 *p<.05 schools designated private. Monahan were won by private schools with (2012) reported that as much as 70% only 16% representation. In the only of all state championships in Ohio study to examine football, Johnson

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 39 et al. (2014) investigated the success executive director noted that “football factor implemented by Indiana and its is often the monster here that affects impact on competitive balance for 15 so many other things including league consecutive years. During that time, alignment” (p. 269). These notions, football state champions included an combined with the results of this study, even split of 40 public schools and help to clarify why many states with 40 private schools. So, for football, disproportionate private school success 50% of the state championships were have created egalitarian policies, such as private schools despite only 14% of multipliers or separate public/private schools in the state designated as playoffs, with private school football private. Consequently, in the first programs at the center of the debate round of success factor enrollment (Johnson et al., 2015). reclassifications in Indiana, 10 of 17 For H2 through H5, every significant schools that were forced to move to a interaction resulting from the HLA higher class were private, which appears included the public/private variable. to support a utilitarian approach to Explicitly, the results confirmed that competitive balance in Indiana (Johnson successful private school football et al., 2017). programs were largely in urban areas, The consistent finding of private were located most prominently on the school dominance has fueled the public/ east coast and in the Midwest (NIAAA private debate for decades and caused sections two and four), and have policies a tremendous amount of pressure created specifically to neutralize their on state athletic administrators to perceived advantages. These advantages consider policies that specifically target may include “better facilities, better private schools (Johnson et al., 2015). coaching, greater access to facilities and Depending on the theoretical position of staff out of season, greater parental state administrators and associations, as involvement, and that non-boundaried well as the amount of disproportionate schools pick their students and maintain success and dominance, some states low attendance numbers to compete at act on this issue, while others do not. lower division levels” (Epstein, 2008, p. Furthermore, it is important to note that 3). However, James (2007) notes that for many states football is one of the there are many private high schools that most important drivers of competitive struggle to compete athletically, and balance policy due in part to the private many do not have football programs. school success confirmed by this study, For this reason, implementing sweeping but also due to its participation and competitive balance polices based popularity (Johnson et al., 2014). In only on private school status may be Johnson et al’s. (2017) study of state inappropriate. Thus, the implications athletic administrators, the Michigan from this study suggests that policies

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 40 should look beyond the public/private (2017) lists the top 20 most historically variable to consider location or other successful football teams in each state. factors. Specifically, private schools Within the NIAAA geographical section from urban areas in both the Eastern of the country with the largest private and Midwestern states appear to be school representation (Section 4 – IN, susceptible to competitive balance policy IL, MI, WI, IA), the same private schools implementation. Implementing such repeatedly win state championships. policy would indicate a more targeted In Illinois, ten of the top 20 football egalitarian approach to competitive programs are private schools, followed balance, which happens to be a by nine in Michigan, six in Indiana, five theoretical position many states are not in Iowa, and three in Wisconsin. This willing to adopt for political reasons numbers are higher than private school (Johnson et al., 2015). representation in each state. Ohio Perhaps the most powerful public/ had the most private schools with 11 private finding came from the logistic (55%) in the football top 20. Ohio’s regression testing RQ2 and H7. Despite representation of private schools in the the overall model not being predictive, top 20 was the highest of all states, and largely because the combination of other when combined with the states from variables did not collectively impact NIAAA section 4 distinguishes the success beyond what would be found Midwest as the center of the public/ by chance, the public/private variable private divide. Of the remaining 44 was significantly predictive. The fact states’ top 20 programs, one included that winning a championship was 34% more than seven, or 35%, private more likely for private school football schools. Wyoming and Alaska had no programs demonstrates the level of perennially successful private schools dominance exhibited by top private make the list, but Wyoming has only one schools. Although James (2007) warns private school in the state. Even states not to assume all private schools have such as Montana or Arkansas- whose strong athletic programs, it does appear state-wide school totals are made up of that private schools with traditionally less than six percent private schools- strong programs are consistently the featured multiple private school football most dominant programs in their states. programs in their top 20s. These private The private school success found schools are dynasties that provide in this study also supports the concept additional support to the private school of dynasties. Lifetime achievement dominance found in this study. of teams is an alternate measure of The practical implications from dominance in which average lifetime win the public/private findings have direct percentage is compared with other teams consequences for competitive balance. (Evans, 2014). For example, MaxPreps Due to the disproportionately high

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 41 success resulting from the perceived public/private factor as a key component advantages held by private schools of interscholastic football competitive (Epstein, 2008), many critics accuse balance. These results can also shape private schools of recruiting athletic philosophical and theoretical approaches talent (Epstein, 2008; James, 2007; to policy as empirical data now provides Johnson et al., 2015). Although every evidence that private school status is state athletic association has rules a significant factor for interscholastic prohibiting athletic recruiting, which football success. have been upheld by US Supreme Court (Johnson et al., 2015; Brentwood Variables other than public/ Academy v. Tennessee Secondary private. Beyond the public/private School Association, 2007), accusations variable, the other variables investigated of recruiting are widespread. There is in this study were not nearly as powerful. no question that talented players help This fact is most notable from the shape the success of a team. Proving regression equation where no other why players attend private schools, variable significantly aided in predicting however, is a difficult task for state success beyond the public/private athletic associations. The combination variable. Population, for example, did of strong academic and athletic not aid in distinguishing the amount programs likely plays a part, but overt of success between champions and recruiting violations are rare. Instead, runners-up despite being a logical subvert recruiting by reputation may indicator of school and athletic talent occur whereby students are attracted concentration. As noted by Johnson et to traditionally successful football al. (2017), population often determines programs, and parents appreciate the school size, which is the most salient academic prowess of top private schools variable considered by every state athletic (Johnson et al., 2015). Combine the association. For this reason, every attractiveness of athletic and academic state has enrollment classifications to strength with flexibility in admissions eliminate the influence of population procedures, and it becomes easier and school size on competitive balance. to understand how competition can It appears that enrollment classifications become imbalanced. These points help work to provide competitive balance by to explain the findings of this study – a eliminating any benefits that population clear pattern of dominance largely in might contribute. This point is even favor of the traditionally successful more pronounced given that Johnson private school football programs. Thus, et al. (2014) found little private school the results of this study can help validate success for the largest schools, indicating competitive balance, recruiting, and that large schools in large population transfer policies that acknowledge the areas likely have enough athletic talent

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 42 to neutralize any potential private may qualify as an urban cluster but retain school advantages seen in the smaller many rural characteristics. classifications. On a larger scale that encompassed The rural/urban results are more eight sections of the US, geography did impactful than those for population not appear specific enough to generate and confirm some of the findings any significant results. Although there from Johnson et al. (2014). Similar were some general patterns indicating to the schools studied in Indiana, the the east coast and Midwest have more most successful football programs, successful private schools, and in five and often many of the most successful of the eight sections of the country private schools, are found in urban private schools have more overall environments. This result is also football success, there was still a great apparent when noting the most amount of variability in the geographical successful teams in each state are findings. It may be that US geography is from larger suburbs or cities (Max too large in scope to have much impact Preps, 2017). An explanation for these on competitive balance, given that findings comes from state level athletic Johnson et al. (2014) found significant administrators who noted that access geographical differences in the state to resources, distance to competition, of Indiana alone. As Johnson et al. and wealth all generally favor urban (2017) noted, it may be more useful to schools (Johnson et al., 2017; Monahan, investigate individual states due to their 2012). Additionally, private schools varying contexts. Such an approach tend to have more success than public would be logical given the findings with schools no matter the rural/urban status rural/urban and population variables of a school. When one considers that within this study, especially since most private schools are most often found in states are largely rural with pockets of urban areas, this result is expected for urban development that generally house highly populated cities. However, the a large number of schools. This lucidity fact that private schools are also more also helps to explain why states have successful when they are in rural areas individual policies unique to their own gives further credence to the advantages geography that may not be applicable to private schools appear to have within other states. interscholastic football. It is also Lastly, policy results had some important to note that for this study the noteworthy implications that bring to urban cluster was defined as a population question their effectiveness. It appears of 2,500-50,000. There are certainly that policies specifically designed to rural parts of the country with small curb private school success could be towns between 2,500 and 10,000 that questioned. More private schools win championships in states with policies,

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 43 private schools have more success in what policies should be implemented, if every rural/urban category, and private any. Based on the results of this study, schools win more championships in five an egalitarian approach with public/ of the eight geographic sections of the private considerations should be strongly country. The exception to these findings considered in many of the states with are with socioeconomic policies, where disproportionately high private school public schools win more championships. success. However, caution must be exercised before concluding that socioeconomic Limitations / Recommendations policies are effective considering that While this study initiates the only two states have implemented exploration of competitive balance in specific socioeconomic policies aimed interscholastic football in the United at enhancing competitive balance States, there are limitations. First, (Johnson et al., 2015). Interestingly, public/private data from the Johnson socioeconomic policies are often (2015) study was used. Although this implemented in states that have large is the most recent and comprehensive rural populations with high poverty collection of such information, rates. Similarly, it is important to note educational environments are constantly the widespread libertarian view of most in flux. For example, schools could states regarding their implementation of have opened, closed, or reconfigured polices beyond enrollment classifications. since that study, and state associations This study demonstrates that private could have adopted new legislation. schools seem to be clustered in a few School changes since the 2015 study parts of the country, and therefore, could slightly influence the results. It the libertarian position appears to fit is recommended that any replication or from a national perspective. When an extension to the current study, as well as egalitarian approach is justified for policy any case studies specific to states, use the implementation it does not appear those most updated state information available, policies are largely effective in their similar to the method used in the implementation. Thus, it is particularly Johnson et al. (2014) study of Indiana. difficult to determine what the most Second, the public/private data from successful policy is across the country, Johnson (2015) could pose as a limitation or if such a supposition is possible when considering the increase in school given the vast differences in the factors choice/open enrollment policy in many examined within this research. If states. Some states have employed uncertainty of outcome and distributive voucher systems that allow low-income justice are considered, it seems students to attend private schools for reasonable to isolate specific states or free, as they would a public school overly successful programs to determine (INDOE, 2017). The National Center

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 44 for Education Statistics reports that Fall title may not have had the best or most 2016 enrollment in private elementary dominant record throughout the regular and secondary schools nationwide was season (Scully, 1989), and that a variety 55.4 million, higher than the previous of other competitive balance-related record from Fall 2013 (NCES, 2016). variables can negatively or positively Annual enrollment in private schools influence the result of a championship is projected to increase at least through contest. While competitive balance Fall 2025. These considerations could and measures of dominance in sport not only transform the public/private literature is often measured by winning composition of schools across the championships (Considine & Gallagher, country but could also call for new 2018), future research complementing research on resources available to private this study could consider more than schools, potentially leading to increased champions and runners up. Because the value of competitive balance policies. volume of teams and playoff outcomes For this reason, it is recommended that for every state does not lend itself well to future research consider these trends in a national study, utilizing more detailed their design. case studies within individual states Third, this study provides a national could explain a more complete post- overview for a specific sport but is season playoff picture. Additionally, limited in its ability to assess effectiveness re-conceptualizing what types of desired of individual state policy. Understanding outcomes are scarce within the theory each state’s historical, economic, political, of distributive justice and relative to and social contexts could call for case post-season football in different states studies specific to each state, perhaps (e.g., analysis of each level of playoff isolating the NIAAA sections or other advancement), would help to focus more specific location variables. While on each state’s understanding of the this study serves as a foundation that interscholastic public/private divide. examines a national sample, it may not be appropriate for understanding the Conclusion nuances of competitive balance policies To ensure the integrity and experience at individual state levels. for more than 1 million participants Finally, though Fort and Maxcy (2003) annually, interscholastic football note there is no single correct measure competitive balance is paramount. of competitive balance, this research is The results of this study were the first limited by examining only measures of to isolate football for examination at dominance determined by champions the national level. The overarching and runners-up. A limitation of using conclusion from this study is the championship titles as a measure of relatively strong level of dominance dominance is that the team that wins a from Midwest and east coast private

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 45 high school football programs, as Blackburn, M., Forsyth, E., Olson, J., & well as the lack of influence from Whitehead, B. (2013). NIAAA’s guide population, rural/urban, geography, and to interscholastic athletic administration. policy to predict state champions. The Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. contributions to the egalitarian branch Bissinger, B. (1990). Friday night lights: A of distributive justice, as well as other town, a team, and a dream. Boston: Da potential theoretical and philosophical Capo Press. positions associated with fair play, can Boyle v. Pennsylvania Interscholastic be used by administrators to shape Athletic Ass’n, 676 A.2d 695 (1996) interscholastic policy. The results can also Brentwood Academy v. Tennessee influence competitive balance and sport Secondary School Athletic Ass’n, 121 dominance research specific to football, S.Ct. 924 (2001) and provide additional considerations Caporale, T., & Collier, T. C. (2015). Are for recruiting and transfer policies that we getting better or are they getting acknowledge the public/private factor worse? Draft position, strength of as a key component of interscholastic schedule, and competitive balance football dominance. However, it is in the National Football League. imperative to note the unlikeliness of a Journal of Labor Resources, 36, 291–300. nationwide best practice for competitive doi:10.1007/s12122-015-9206-z balance due to the variability in a Cohen, A. (1997, December 1). plethora of factors unique to each state, Private enterprise. Athletic Business. particularly the quantity and quality of Retrieved from http://www. private school football programs and athleticbusiness.com/articles/article. their distribution throughout the US. aspx?articleid=834 &zoneid=9 DeSensi, J. T., & Rosenberg, D. References (2010). Ethics and morality in sport Agresti, A. (2013). Categorical data analysis. management. Morgantown, WV: Fitness Hoboken, NJ; Wiley-Interscience. Information Technology. Badenhausen, K. (2011). The Dittmore, S. W., & Crow, C. M. NFL signs TV deals worth $27 (2010). The influence of the Bowl billion. Forbes. Retrieved from Championship Series on competitive http://www.forbes.com/sites/ balance in college football. Journal of kurtbadenhausen/2011/12/14/ Sport Administration and Supervision, the-nfl-signs-tv-deals-worth-26- 2(1), 7–19. billion/#76f084bb2a67 Dobson, S., & Goddard, J. (2001). The Beauchamp, T. L. (1991). Philosophical economics of football. Cambridge, UK: ethics: An introduction to moral philosophy Cambridge University Press. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: McGraw- Epstein, T. L. (2008). Prep plus: Hill. Evaluating the motivations for and

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