An Examination of Competitive Balance and Dominance within Interscholastic Football James E. Johnson1 Beau F. Scott1 Allison K. Manwell1 1Ball State University Interscholastic football has the highest participation rates among high school students in the United States. The popularity and nostalgic connection of football is widespread, but competitive balance is often challenged due to differing characteristics of high schools. This study utilized the theory of distributive justice and data from high school athletic associations in all 50 states and District of Columbia to consider which variables (public/private status, school population, rural/urban location, geographical region, and policies) may impact dominance at the state-championship level of interscholastic football. The results confirmed that traditionally strong private schools generally located in the Midwest and Northeast win state titles at disproportionately high rates. The public/private variable was found to be the most impactful variable under investigation. The findings of the study also challenged the effectiveness of existing policies designed to curb private school success. These results can serve pragmatic efforts to ensure competitive balance within interscholastic football. he colloquialism of a level playing More broadly defined, competitive field is often used to describe the balance is characterized by a relatively Tconcept of competitive balance equal opportunity to be competitive with (Monahan, 2012). Taken literally, this teams who have similar characteristics notion would ensure the playing surface (Johnson, Giannoulakis, & Scott, 2017; has the same specifications for both Johnson, Pierce, Tracy, & Haworth, teams competing in a particular sport. 2014; Johnson, Tracy, & Pierce, 2015). Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 21 Competitive balance is particularly claim that professional football is their important in interscholastic athletics, favorite sport, while another 10% claim where teams vie to be state champions that collegiate football is their favorite by competing against schools of similar (Shannon-Missal, 2016). Moreover, size. The policies implemented by due primarily to a $27 billion television interscholastic state athletic associations contract that the NFL signed with Fox, help to shape interscholastic competitive CBS, and ESPN in 2011, NFL franchise balance, but such policies are varied values are at an all-time high with an from state to state and are often average team value of $2.34 billion scrutinized by stakeholders (Johnson et (Badenhausen, 2011; Forbes 2016). al., 2015). With more than 7.5 million Popular culture is influenced by students competing in interscholastic interscholastic football as well. The sport (NFHS, 2016) and countless other success of films such as Varsity Blues parents, administrators, and coaches (1999; $52,885,587 gross; IMBD 2017a), committing resources, competitive Remember the Titans (2000; $115,648,585 balance is critical to maintain integrity gross; IMBD 2017b), and Friday Night and equal opportunities for success. Lights (2004; $61,188,085 gross; IMBD American football (hereafter football) 2017c) demonstrated the mass appeal is the most played interscholastic of a sport experienced by millions of sport in the United States (US), with high school students, parents, coaches, 1,083,308 participants in 2015-2016 and community members. H. B. (NFHS, 2016). This number dwarfs Bissinger’s book by the same name, the participation number for the Friday Night Lights (1999), is a story about second most popular sport, track a Texas high school football team who and field, which attracted 591,133 demonstrates why football is revered by participants. The discrepancy between communities across the US. Bissinger football and other interscholastic sports wrote, “Odessa is the setting for this demonstrates the immense popularity book, but it could be anyplace in this that interscholastic football holds vast land where, on a Friday night, a set in the US. In fact, Howard (2011) of spindly stadium lights rises to the reported that interscholastic football heavens to so powerfully, and so briefly, attracted over 160 million fans annually: ignite the darkness” (p. 16). These types a number which tops attendance at of stories reveal the sentimental and collegiate and professional football nostalgic connection people and have games combined. The popularity of with interscholastic football. interscholastic football is certainly helped by the more commercialized presence Purpose of professional and collegiate football. With interscholastic football’s Approximately 33% of Americans attendance and participation rates far Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 22 exceeding intercollegiate and professional Maxcy (2003) explained that competitive football combined, as well as the balance is either an analysis of parity inconsistent approaches and critiques over time (ACB), or an investigation of of competitive balance policies across the effect of competitive balance on the US, it is curious why interscholastic fans utilizing the uncertainty of outcome football competitive balance research hypothesis (UOH; Rottenberg, 1956). is rare. In the few studies that have The most contemporary theoretical examined interscholastic competitive approaches originated from early work balance, specific sports are seldom of UOH theory applied to Major discussed. Research on football is League Baseball (MLB; Neale, 1964). overdue, given that football is the most According to UOH, if the outcome played and attended interscholastic of a game is uncertain because wealth sport, and particularly because and talent are evenly distributed, fans dominance of private schools is will enjoy the game and continue to routinely under scrutiny (Johnson et attend. Without competitive balance al., 2017). Moreover, because the most policies or labor restrictions, however, recent research suggests that a handful the wealthiest teams in the largest of school characteristics likely impact markets would be most successful, competitive balance, and the theoretical eliminating the uncertainty of outcome foundation of distributive justice has and fan interest. The principles of the been established in other interscholastic UOH have been studied extensively in competitive balance research (see professional sports because variables forthcoming literature), these factors such as attendance and revenue are warrant examination. Therefore, the readily available, and the financial purpose of this study is to examine implications can be great (Humphreys, competitive balance and dominance 2002; McEwen & Metz, 2016; Zimbalist, in US interscholastic football. The 2002, 2003). Professional team research following literature review serves as a has focused on assessing effectiveness framework to support this purpose. of specific competitive balance policies such as revenue sharing, salary caps, Approaches to Competitive Balance parity scheduling, relocation restrictions Given its popularity in both and outcome-dependent draft order participation and consumption, (Caporale & Collier, 2015; Sanderson ensuring football’s competitive balance & Siegfried, 2003). For example, is paramount (Johnson et al., 2017). professional golf uses handicaps. Weight Fortunately, evaluating competitive classes in boxing and wrestling serve a balance is rooted in decades of work that similar purpose. Within intercollegiate originated with economic considerations sport, variables such as scholarship at the professional level. Fort and restrictions and conference alignment Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Five, Issue One Johnson et al, 2019 23 have impacted competitive balance school athletic directors, the primary (Dittmore & Crow, 2010). Sanderson mission of interscholastic sport is on and Siegfriend (2003) aptly noted that development (physical and social), health, every sport at every level has some form social interaction and life skills of the of competitive balance policy, and most student-athlete (Blackburn, Forsyth, are strongly aligned with the UOH. Olson, & Whitehead, 2013). The motives In a robust review of competitive for competitive balance are more broadly balance measures that spans over forty defined in amateur sport than for the years and began with Sloane (1976), economic purposes of competitive Evans (2014) noted there have been balance in professional sport. Although three general categories used to assess competitive balance is applied at every competitive balance. First, measures of level of sport and generally adheres to closeness between leagues are known as the economic considerations of the measures of concentration. These analyses UOH for professional teams (Evans, typically measure a league as a whole to 2014), policies at the interscholastic determine the relative performance of level differ greatly (Johnson et al., the entire group of teams rather than any 2017). The social, psychological, and one particular team or group of teams. developmental implications are more Ranges, standard deviations, coefficients apparent for interscholastic sport where of variation and similar measures of small high schools with hundreds of spread are used to assess concentration. students cannot reasonably be expected to Second, measures of dominance focus compete against large high schools with on individual teams or groups of teams thousands of students. Still, the majority over time. The measurements used of competitive balance