THE INTEGRATION OF E-LEARNING IN HIGHER IN THAILAND

CHANICK WANGPHANICH

A thesis in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

School of the Arts and Media

Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences

June 2013

ABSTRACT

The use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is one of the major concerns of Thailand’s educational reforms in the 21st century. As E-learning integration is rare in in Thailand, this research intends to take advantage of developments in technology through the creation of an E-learning course applied to a current music program at a Thai institution in order to challenge the traditional approach and supplement music teaching and learning. This study aims to contribute to the growing body of research in the use of ICT in the classroom, but specifically for higher music education where there have been fewer research studies in Thailand than in other subjects.

Following the development of an E-learning strategy with a series of lessons for a course: the ‘ in the Classical period’ for music students in universities, the research aims to determine the effectiveness of the use of E-learning in terms of achievement and attitude, as well as to investigate which learning outcomes in music study are the most susceptible to an E- learning approach. The research design uses a Randomized Control and Experimental Group Pretest and Posttest Design. The tools include: 1) the experimental teaching tools: the E- learning program and the traditional teaching method; and 2) the data collection tools: the ‘Achievement in music study test’; the ‘Attitude to music study test’ and the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’. The results derived from the data are calculated using a simple descriptive statistical analysis and also statistical analysis of the t-test, using SPSS statistics 18.0.

The results show that the majority of the students taking E-learning significantly increased their learning achievements and their attitude displayed more positive characteristics, similar to those taking the traditional approach. It was apparent that although E-learning could be at least as effective as the traditional approach, the computer could not replace the instructor. The results suggest that the issues of E-learning in music programs be further studied; moreover, more research needs to be conducted and attention paid to the contribution of in the development of digital content in Thailand.

i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Christine Logan for her continuous assistance, guidance and supervision during the entire research work. Without her warmest support and encouragement, my research would not have been completed in a timely manner. And I would like to gratefully acknowledge my first supervisor, Professor Robert Walker for his guidance and supervision. He is my inspiration for doing PhD in Music Education at UNSW. I would also like to thank A/Prof Manolete Mora who was invited to be my co-supervisor for his assistance and guidance.

I would like to gratefully acknowledge the support and assistance of some very special individuals in the School of Arts & Media, who are A/Prof Fabian, Dr Michelle Landford, Dr Paul Dawson, Ms Julie Miller, Ms Susan Price and Ms Jennifer Beale for their assistance and support throughout my research work.

I wish to appreciatively thank the Royal Thai Governments for giving me an opportunity to study at UNSW, Australia. I would like to gratefully acknowledge the assistance of the Thai experts who are Mr Wathit Suwansomboon, Dr Janida Tangdajahiran, Mr Sitsake Yanderm, A/Prof Chusre Wongrattana, A/Prof Dr Chanwit Tiamboomprasert, A/Prof Dr Suthiwan Pirasaksopon, Assistant/Prof Alisara Charuenvanich, Dr Jaruwat Noothong and Dr Wiwat Meesuwan for their guidance and supervision. I would also like to appreciatively thank my teachers in the Department of Western music, Faculty of Fine Arts, Srinakharinwirot University for their kindly support and assistance and providing useful information for this research work.

I also give thanks to my high school friends at Satit Prasarnmit Demonstration School, my university friends at Srinakharinwirot University and my friends in Sydney for their positive encouragement and friendships. Particularly, I wish to express my deepest thank Miss Sakuntala Anuruang for her kindness and special support.

Lastly, I wish extended my deepest thank you to my family for their unconditional love and constant encouragement, especially my dad and mum, nanny, sister and my lovely nieces.

ii TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ...... i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... ii TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... iii LIST OF FIGURES ...... vi LIST OF TABLES ...... vii LIST OF EQUATIONS ...... x

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY...... 1 1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ...... 3 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES ...... 7 1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY – OVERVIEW ...... 8 1.5 DEFINITION OF TERMS ...... 9 1.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ...... 12 1.7 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES...... 18 1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH STUDY...... 18 1.9 ORGANISATION OF THESIS ...... 19

CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ...... 21 2.1 MUSIC EDUCATION ...... 21 2.2 EDUCATION AND MUSIC ...... 26 2.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF MUSIC EDUCATION IN THAILAND ...... 32 2.4 ISSUES CONCERNING MUSIC PROGRAMS IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN THAILAND ...... 34 2.5 CURRENT CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE USE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) IN THAILAND ...... 39 2.6 USE IN THAILAND HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN DISCIPLINES APART FROM MUSIC ...... 44

CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 47 3.1 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) ...... 48 3.1.1 Electronic Learning (E-learning) ...... 48 3.1.2 Online Learning Environment versus Face-to-Face Learning Environment ...... 51 3.2 INTEGRATING INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) IN MUSIC EDUCATION ...... 55

iii 3.2.1 Historical Perspective on ICT in Music Education ...... 55 3.2.2 Research Studies on the Integration of ICT into Music Education ...... 60 3.2.3 Online Music Education ...... 85 3.2.4 Summary of Research Findings ...... 97 3.3 THE NEED FOR THIS STUDY ...... 104

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 107 4.1 POPULATION AND SAMPLE ...... 107 4.2 INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES ...... 110 4.3 RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 111 4.4 RESEARCH TOOLS AND MATERIALS ...... 114 4.4.1 The Experimental Teaching Tool ...... 114 4.4.2 Traditional Teaching Method ...... 141 4.4.3 Instructional Content ...... 142 4.5 THE DATA COLLECTION TOOLS ...... 156 4.5.1 Tools for the Data collection ...... 156 4.5.2 Evaluating for the Data collection tools ...... 159 4.6 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE ...... 164 4.7 DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES ...... 171 4.7.1 Mean and Standard Deviation ...... 171 4.7.2 t-test for the Dependent Sample ...... 172 4.7.3 t-test for the Independent Sample ...... 172

CHAPTER 5: STATISTICAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS ...... 174 5.1 ACHIEVEMENT IN MUSIC STUDY ...... 174 5.2 ATTITUDES TO MUSIC STUDY ...... 193 5.3 OPINIONS ABOUT THE E-LEARNING PROGRAM ...... 206 5.3.1 Computer Skills ...... 206 5.3.2 Satisfaction with the E-learning program (the CW elearn-music program) ...... 208 5.3.3 Opinions about teaching and learning through the E-learning program ...... 212 5.3.4 Opinions about the E-learning program for teaching and learning Music Courses .... 215 5.4 DISCUSSION OF STATISTICAL RESULTS AND ANALYSES ...... 222

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS ...... 236 6.1 CONCLUSIONS ...... 236 6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS...... 241 6.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE CW ELEARN-MUSIC PROGRAMS ...... 243

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 245

iv APPENDICES ...... 270 APPENDIX 1: COURSE OUTLINE ...... 271 APPENDIX 2: EXERCISES ...... 275 APPENDIX 3: POWERPOINT PRESENTATIONS ...... 278 Appendix 3.1: Example of Powerpoint Presentations for Classical period history ...... 278 Appendix 3.2: Example of Powerpoint Presentations for style ...... 282 Appendix 3.3: Example of Powerpoint Presentations for Classical piano music ...... 290 APPENDIX 4: DATA COLLECTION TOOLS ...... 298 Appendix 4.1: The ‘Achievement in music study test’: ...... 298 Appendix 4.2: The ‘Attitude to music study test’: ...... 315 Appendix 4.3: The ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’: ...... 317 APPENDIX 5: STATISTIC FOR EVALUTATION THE DATA COLLECTION TOOLS...... 322 Appendix 5.1: Index of Congruency ...... 322 Appendix 5.2: Item Difficulty ...... 322 Appendix 5.3: Item-test (Point-Biserial Correlation) ...... 323 Appendix 5.4: Kuder & Richardson (formula 20) ...... 323 Appendix 5.5: Mean and Standard Deviation ...... 324 Appendix 5.6: Test-retest (Pearson Product Moment Correlation) ...... 324 Appendix 5.7: Item-test (t-test for the difference between means for independent sample) 325 Appendix 5.8: Cronbach -coefficient ...... 325 Appendix 5.9: Results from the Evaluation of Each of the Data Collection Tools ...... 326 APPENDIX 6: DATA ANALYSIS RESUTLS ...... 332 Appendix 6.1: The raw data of achievement in music study ...... 332 Appendix 6.2: The t-test data of achievement in music study ...... 333 Appendix 6.3: The raw data of achievement in musical knowledge of Classical period history ...... 335 Appendix 6.4: The t-test data of achievement in musical knowledge of Classical period history ...... 336 Appendix 6.5: The raw data of achievement in musical understanding of Classical music style ...... 338 Appendix 6.6: The t-test data of achievement in musical understanding of Classical music style ...... 339 Appendix 6.7: The raw data of achievement in musical skill in playing Classical piano music . 341 Appendix 6.8: The t-test data of achievement in musical skill in playing Classical piano music ...... 342 Appendix 6.9 The raw data of attitudes to music study ...... 344 Appendix 6.10 The t-test data of attitudes to music study ...... 345

v LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1 The education system by Klausmeier & Ripple ...... 13 Figure 1.2 Theoretical framework...... 17

Figure 2.1 Three classifications of music learning outcomes ...... 24 Figure 2.2 Thailand's formal education system ...... 27 Figure 2.3 IT2010 National Information Technology Policy ...... 41 Figure 2.4 IT2010 in five strategies ...... 41

Figure 3.1 Background of the study and Literature review ...... 47

Figure 4.1 The process of this research study ...... 113 Figure 4.2 Four main steps in developing the CW elearn-music program...... 114 Figure 4.3 The structure of the CW elearn-music program ...... 121 Figure 4.4 The logo of the CW elearn-music program ...... 122 Figure 4.5 The screen template of the homepage of the CW elearn-music program ...... 122 Figure 4.6 Examples of graphics of the CW elearn-music program ...... 123 Figure 4.7 Log-in page of the CW elearn-music program ...... 130 Figure 4.8 Homepage of the CW elearn-music program ...... 131 Figure 4.9 Menu bar of the CW elearn-music program ...... 132 Figure 4.10 Navigation bar of the CW elearn-music program ...... 132 Figure 4.11 Map-site of the CW elearn-music program ...... 133 Figure 4.12 Example of Content of Classical period history ...... 134 Figure 4.13 Example of Content of Classical music style ...... 134 Figure 4.14 Example of Content of Classical piano music...... 135 Figure 4.15 Example of Exercise ...... 136 Figure 4.16 Example of the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section one ...... 137 Figure 4.17 Example of the 'Attitude to music study test' ...... 137 Figure 4.18 Example of the 'Questionnaire for the E-learning program' ...... 138 Figure 4.19 Glossary of the CW elearn-music program ...... 139 Figure 4.20 Music fundamentals of the CW elearn-music program ...... 139 Figure 4.21 Web-board of the CW elearn-music program ...... 140 Figure 4.22 Administrator Management System for the CW elearn-music program ...... 141 Figure 4.23 The components of the CW elearn-music program ...... 165 Figure 4.24 The components of the traditional teaching method ...... 166

Figure 5.1 The Pretest and the Posttest scores for the achievement in music study by each student in the Experimental group ...... 176 Figure 5.2 The Pretest and the Posttest scores for the achievement in music study by each student in the Control group ...... 177 Figure 5.3 the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the attitudes to music study by each student in the Experimental group ...... 195 Figure 5.4 the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the attitudes to music study by each student in the Control group ...... 197

vi LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Four phases for building a web-based learning event with ten steps to effective web- based learning ...... 14

Table 2.1 The use of ICT in Thailand between 2007 and 2012 ...... 39

Table 3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of online learning and face-to-face learning ...... 51 Table 3.2 Previous research studies on the integration of ICT into music education ...... 60

Table 4.1 Students in the Experimental group ...... 107 Table 4.2 Students in the Control group ...... 108 Table 4.3 Three sections of the course with different learning outcomes ...... 118 Table 4.4 Levels of appropriateness ...... 125 Table 4.5 Experts' appraisal for the CW elearn-music program ...... 125 Table 4.6 The efficiency of the CW elearn-music program (Section one: Musical knowledge of Classical period history) ...... 128 Table 4.7 The efficiency of the CW elearn-music program (Section two: Musical understanding of Classical music Style) ...... 129 Table 4.8 The efficiency of the CW elearn-music program (Section three: Musical skill in playing Classical piano music) ...... 129 Table 4.9 Scales for students’ attitudes ...... 157 Table 4.10 Scales for students’ computer skills ...... 158 Table 4.11 Scales for students’ satisfaction ...... 158 Table 4.12 Scales for students’ opinions...... 158 Table 4.13 Techniques for evaluating the characteristics of the ‘Achievement in music study test’ ...... 161 Table 4.14 Techniques for evaluating the characteristics of the ‘Attitude to music study test’ ...... 162 Table 4.15 Techniques for evaluating the characteristics of the ‘Questionnaire for the E- learning program’ ...... 163 Table 4.16 The results for evaluating the characteristics of each of the data collection tools 163 Table 4.17 The two teaching methods: the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method ...... 167 Table 4.18 The time frame of this research study ...... 169

Table 5.1 The three sections of the ‘Achievement in music study test’ ...... 174 Table 5.2 The t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the achievement in music study by the Experimental group ...... 176 Table 5.3 the t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the achievement in music study by the Control group ...... 178 Table 5.4 the t-test for independent sample comparing the Pretest scores for the achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control group ...... 179 Table 5.5 the t-test for independent sample comparing the Posttest scores for the achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups ...... 179 Table 5.6 Frequency and percentage distribution of the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the 'Achievement in music study test’ by the Experimental and the Control groups ...... 180

vii Table 5.7 The t-test for independent sample comparing the different levels of improvement in the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups ...... 181 Table 5.8 The t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for each of the three sections of achievement in music study by the Experimental group ...... 183 Table 5.9 The t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for each of the three sections of achievement in music study by the Control group ...... 184 Table 5.10 The t-test for independent sample comparing the Pretest scores for each of the three sections of achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups ...... 186 Table 5.11 The t-test for independent sample comparing the Posttest scores for each of the three sections of achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups ...... 187 Table 5.12 Frequency and percentage distribution of the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section one (musical knowledge of Classical period history) for the Experimental and the Control groups ...... 189 Table 5.13 Frequency and percentage distribution of the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section two (musical understanding of Classical music style) for the Experimental and the Control groups ...... 189 Table 5.14 Frequency and percentage distribution of the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the ‘Achievement in music study’, Section three (musical skill in playing Classical piano music) for the Experimental and the Control groups ...... 190 Table 5.15 The t-test for independent sample comparing the different levels of improvement in the Pretest and the Posttest scores for each of the three sections of the achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups ...... 191 Table 5.16 The four aspects of the ‘Attitude to music study test’ ...... 193 Table 5.17 The levels of attitudes ...... 194 Table 5.18 Students' attitudes to music study ...... 194 Table 5.19 Students' attitudes from each of the four aspects of the attitudes to music study 194 Table 5.20 The t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the attitudes to music study by the Experimental group ...... 196 Table 5.21 The t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the attitudes to music study by the Control group ...... 197 Table 5.22 The t-test for independent sample comparing the Pretest scores for the attitudes to music study between the Experimental and the Control groups ...... 198 Table 5.23 The t-test for independent sample comparing the Posttest scores for attitudes to music study between the Experimental and the Control groups ...... 199 Table 5.24 The t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for each of the four aspects of attitudes to music study by the Experimental group ...... 200 Table 5.25 The t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for each of the four aspects of attitudes to music study by the Control group ...... 201 Table 5.26 The t-test for independent sample comparing the Pretest scores for each of the fours aspects of attitudes to music study between the Experimental and the Control groups 203 Table 5.27 The t-test for independent sample comparing the Posttest scores for each of the four aspects of attitudes to music study between the Experimental and the Control groups 204 Table 5.28 The four parts of the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ ...... 206 Table 5.29 The levels of skills ...... 207 Table 5.30 Frequency and percentage distribution for students' computer skills ...... 207 Table 5.31 The levels of satisfaction ...... 209 Table 5.32 Students' satisfaction with the CW elearn-music program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ in terms of structure and content ...... 209

viii Table 5.33 Students' satisfaction with the CW elearn-music program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ in terms of presentation and design ...... 210 Table 5.34 Students' satisfaction with the CW elearn-music program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ in terms of graphics and multimedia materials ...... 211 Table 5.35 The levels of opinion ...... 212 Table 5.36 Frequency and percentage distribution of students' opinions about teaching and learning through the E-learning program ...... 213 Table 5.37 Frequency and percentage distribution of students' opinions about whether or not the computer can replace the instructor ...... 218 Table 5.38 Frequency and percentage distribution of students' opinions about learning in three kinds of learning outcomes of music study through the E-learning program ...... 220

ix LIST OF EQUATIONS

Equation 1 Research Design ...... 111 Equation 2 Efficiency Analysis (E1/E2 Efficiency Index) ...... 127 Equation 3 Mean ...... 171 Equation 4 Standard Deviation ...... 171 Equation 5 t-test for the Dependent Sample ...... 172 Equation 6 t-test for Independent Sample ...... 172 Equation 7 Index of Congruency ...... 322 Equation 8 Item Difficulty ...... 322 Equation 9 Item-test (Point-Biserial Correlation) ...... 323 Equation 10 Kuder & Richardson (formula 20) ...... 323 Equation 11 Mean and Standard Deviation ...... 324 Equation 12 Test-retest (Pearson Product Moment Correlation) ...... 324 Equation 13 Item-test (t-test for the difference between means for independent sample) 325 Equation 14 Cronbach -coefficient ...... 325

x

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

In recent decades, the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has emerged as a powerful tool to extend, facilitate and support the way that people live, work, think, learn and communicate in a knowledge-based or information society. The advancements of ICT, especially computer and Internet technology, with increasing speed, efficiency and capability have contributed effective tools in various fields, such as government, commerce, industry, society and education. Several researchers (Bransford, Brown & Cooking, 2000; Grimus, 2000; Keller & Cernerud, 2002; Kim & Bonk, 2006; Renes & Strange, 2011; Yelland, 2001) have recognised that ICT has a crucial role in the educational field for the future as it accelerates students’ learning participation, enhances educational opportunities such as information and knowledge sharing and management of the teaching and learning environment, supports interaction, communication and collaboration (Corlett, Sharples, Bull & Chan, 2005; Oliver, 2006; Draper & Brown 2004; Finder, Russell, Jamieson-Proctoc & Russell, 2007; Selwyn, 2007).

The National Association of Advisers for Computers in Education (2002: 1) noted the following benefits of Information and Communication Technology for schools and higher education institutions:

ICT can transform the way that education is delivered and open the way to a new pedagogy. It can make it easier for teachers to plan and find high quality materials and management, as well as it can help students to find out more about the subjects that they are studying. Critically, new technology can enable teachers to tailor their teaching more closely to the abilities of individual students (the National Association of Advisers for Computers in Education, 2002: 1).1

1 National Association of Advisers for Computers in Education 2002, Inspiring Change through ICT, cited in Transforming the Way We Learn, Department for Education and Skills, Univeristy of Huddersfied, UK.

1 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

Additionally, Plenderleith and Adamson (2009: 8) noted the role of technology in higher education:

ICT is commonly accepted into all aspects of the student experience of higher education, with innovation for enhancement and flexible learning, connecting areas of higher education iwth other aspects of life and work (Plenderleith & Adamson, 2009: 8).2

Particularly, internet technology as a form of online learning and distance learning is one of the fastest growing trends in higher education. Courts and Tucker (2012: 122) stated that:

The learning process is changing in all organisations, not just higher education. Collaboration, communication, accessibility and timeliness are concepts promoted in organisations of all different types and sizes and in all different kinds of industries. The inclusion of multimedia in various forms in the classroom enables educators to enhance learning environments, improve the teaching and learning experiences, and also mimic what learners will find in the workforce (Courts & Tucker, 2012: 122).3

Wise, Greenwood and Davis (2011: 117) argued, from their review of the literature, that acceptance of internet technology is increasing; additionally, competition in online learning is growing in several countries, such as USA, Canada, UK, Scottland, Australia, New Zealand, Hong Kong and Taiwan. However, utilizing the internet for music education has received very little attention from Thai music instructors, researchers and scholars. Therefore, this research study intends to examine the effectiveness of E-learning in a particular higher education setting in Thailand in order to contribute to the expanding body of knowledge about integrating E-learning in music education and to investigate and identify strategies that are perceived as motivating to music students in an online learning environment.

2 Plenderleith, J & Adamson, V 2009, ‘The Policy Landscape of Transforming’, in T Mayes, D Morrison, H Mellar, P Bullen & M Oliver (eds), Transforming Higher Education through Technology-enhanced Learning, The Higher Education Academy, York, pp. 6-18. 3 Courts, B. & Tucker, J. 2012, ‘Using Technology to Create a Dynamic Classroom Experience’, Joural of College Teaching & Learning, vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 121-127.

2 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The use of ICT has become a mainstream educational focus in the Kingdom of Thailand. The Royal Thai Government realizes the importance of ICT for achieving educational objectives and shifting Thailand’s educational settings for the digital era. The Royal Thai Government assigned the National IT Policy 2010 called IT2010 for the year 2000 – 20104 and the National ICT Master Plan (2009 – 2012)5

...to build and promote a knowledge-based or an information society by employing the effective use of ICT as an enabling tool to access information and gain knowledge through self-paced learning, to link institutions electronically to provide instructors and learners with an enriched environment in which distance resources can be made available remotely at one’s fingertips, and to meet the needs and aspirations of people for and skills upgrading regardless of age, profession and distance (p.3).

In addition, Section 63 – 69 of Chapter Nine of the National Education Act6 elucidated that “technology is a crucial means for improving the quality of teaching and learning” (pp. 21-22). It can be summarised that these policies and plans have been made so that the educational institutions, instructors and learners should become knowledgeable and skillful using technological tools. However, ICT integration in Thailand, in particular electronic learning (E- learning) is still new and not much in use because of insufficient technical staff and resources. The Royal Thai Government has, therefore, applied a political imperative to ensure that the Thai people become not only aware of ICT and its promises, but also place responsibility on instructors and administrators within educational institutions to undertake to apply ICT in an appropriate way and always to the benefit of the Thai people (Sapianchai and James, 2005: 9). More details will be described in Chapter Two: Background of the Study.

Internationally, E-learning is now considered a reliable pedagogical approach, and an effective method of educational delivery through interaction via the internet. Its components include content delivery in multiple formats, management of the learning experience and a networked community. Khan (2005: 3) identified the advantage of E-learning:

4 National Electronics and Computer Technology Centre, Ministry of Science and Technology 2001, National IT Policy In Thailand, Ministry of Information and Communication Technology, Thailand. 5 Ministry of Information and Communication Technology 2008, Second Thailand ICT Master Plan (2009 – 2012), Ministry of Information and Communication Technology, Thailand. 6 Office of the National Education Council, Ministry of Education (2000), the National Education Act of B.E. 2542, Office of the National Educational Council, Thailand.

3 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

E-learning can be viewed as an innovative approach for delivering well- designed, learner-centred, interactive and facilitated learning environment to anyone, anyplace, anytime by utilizing the attributes and resources of various digital technologies and devices along with other forms of learning materials suited for an open, flexible and distributed learning environment (Khan, 2005: 3).7

Several researchers and scholars (Biasutti, 2011; Courts & Tucker, 2012; Hill, 2002; Hofmann, 2002; Schrum, 2002; , Singleton, Hill & Koh, 2004; Rourke, 2001) indicated that E-learning enables institutions and instructors to reach new learners at a distance, increase convenience and expand educational opportunities. Since many instructors, researchers and scholars embrace new technology for teaching, a large number of instructional computer programs have appeared in educational institutions. This approach is becoming an increasingly well- known learning option, providing numerous benefits for both learners and instructors, as will be discussed in Chapter Three: Literature Review. With its benefits, most higher education institutions in Thailand have anticipated that adopting ICT infrastructures into their educational systems will facilitate enhancement and provide support for improving the quality and standard of teaching and learning.

In terms of music teaching and learning, several research studies have been conducted concerning integrating computer and internet technology into the classroom to meet specific purposes in learners’ knowledge and skill development in music teaching and learning, especially at the undergraduate level in higher education. With various styles of technological instructional tools, there are several studies (Beckstead, 2001; Brandao, Wiggins & Pain, 1999; Chan, Jones, Scanlon & Joiner, 2006; Gross, 1984; Ho, 2007; McGregor, 2007; Miller, 2004; Ryan, 2006; Savage, 2005a; Welch, Howard, Himonides & Brereton, 2005) discussing the integration of technology into music programs using, for instance, tape cassette, CD-Rom products, Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) and continuous improvement to the PowerPoint presentations with audio and visual materials, software application packages (commercial music software) and recently web-based instruction or online learning (Williams & Webster, 2008), as will be discussed in Chapter Three: Literature Review. It can be seen that the need to utilize ICT in music educational setting has become accepted internationally as a necessary and desirable part of the teaching and learning environment that instructors and learners currently operate in. Several research studies discussed in Chapter Three: Literature Review describe

7 Khan, HB 2005, Managing E-learning Strategies: Design, Delivery, Implementation and Evaluation, Information Science Publishing, USA.

4 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

how recent technological developments offer several benefits, for example: 1) presenting music to learners with a wide array of listening and learning styles; 2) instantly accessing large music information pools; 3) providing a self-paced program which can adjust to both the learning styles and rate of the learners; 4) providing immediate feedback for both cognitive and affective skills and attitudes; 5) providing help for repetitive learning tasks and materials; 6) providing an immediate means for experimentation with concepts by learners; 7) providing an immediate guide to aural concepts and terminology; and 8) providing interactive and multimedia materials to encourage and motivate learners (Brandao, Wiggins & Pain, 1999; Crow, 2006; Ho, 2007; Savage, 2007; Williams & Webster, 2008; Wise, Greenwood & Davis, 2011). However, in Thailand, while some music instructors have adopted ICT infrastructures, such as PowerPoint presentations with visual and audio materials, CD music or DVD into teaching and learning methods, international trends suggest that the ICT infrastructures should become a core component of the music classroom environment.

In Thailand, music has been designated as one of the academic programs in higher education. Several higher education institutions offer professional music courses at the undergraduate level, providing either a four-year program for music profession training and practices to become, for instance, , composers, music directors or a five-year program in a specific music profession training, together with teacher training to become a certificated teacher. In addition, music courses at the graduate level provide qualified music academicians, researchers, musicians and music professionals with programs in selected fields of music study depending on each higher education institution’s curriculum. Learners are able to develop their study skills and methodology necessary to continue a learning process throughout their musical careers, and the competence to cope with and adjust to changes in the field of music8.

Characteristically, in most higher education music programs in Thailand, students tend to have an emphasis on memorisation of content and detail from the instructor. Students are expected to listen and learn to memorise rather than learn to gain understanding. Therefore, students are not sufficiently cultivated with necessary skills for self-learning, critical thinking, problem solving and creative ability (the Office of the National Education Council, Ministry of Education, 2003: 3). Most programs, in particular music programs in most higher education institutions

8 The above statements are taken from several university websites in Thailand, including Srinakharinwirot University, Chulalongkorn University, Thammasart University, Kasetsart University, Mahidol University, Silpakorn University and Burapha University.

5 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

use a traditional lecture method which is based on a teacher-directed mode of teaching, according to instructors’ preparation and control, with limited activities and group participation. Most music instructors are mostly comfortable with their content area knowledge, so they are represented as a speaker and leader who provides details of knowledge, information, examples and experience. Students are represented as listeners who are not in a position to express his/her own ideas and opinions in a fixed classroom setting and environment. Traditionally, teaching and learning has been characterised by teaching approaches which retain a strong emphasis on memorising what is prescribed by instructors. Therefore, if students cannot always follow the instruction, it may lead to difficulty in learning and a lack of understanding and engagement in the subject. Additionally, there are sometimes limited budgets for providing teaching facilities, essential multimedia materials and components in music teaching and learning (Chandransu, 2011: 2). Using technology in the classroom has some limitations for music teaching and learning in Thailand’s higher music education system because of human resource inefficiency caused by a lack of familiarization with technology, a lack of training in this area and a lack of study regarding the use of technology in music education. Moreover, there also is a shortage of music instructors to cover the demand in teaching and learning music across the country9. Issues and problems encountered in music programs in higher education will be discussed in Chapter Two: Background of the Study.

Apart from the issues and problems mentioned above, one of the significant challenges that music instructors face today is to address these issues and problems in order to improve both the standard and quality of music programs in higher education and the level of students’ satisfaction with the curriculum and learning environment. Therefore, focusing on learners is fundamental to addressing the problems and issues in music programs in higher education, especially in Thailand. Therefore, this research study will take advantage of technological developments to challenge the traditional approach and supplement music teaching and learning for higher education in Thailand through technological instruction called E-learning. The ‘History of music in the Classical period’ is chosen as the sample case of a music subject. It is taken by upper year students. The reasons for this choice are that 1) the History of Western music is one of the core courses under the Thai 2006 Higher Education Standard for music

9 The above statements are taken from Thai Music Journal: Music Education in Thailand by Charoensuk, S 2008, available at http://krupeak.igetweb.com/index.php?mo=3&art=222374; Thai Classical Music Reviews by Pancharoen, N 2008, Classical Music: Reviews, Katecarat Press, Bangkok. These resources are written in the Thai language.

6 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

student majors in all higher education institutions in Thailand; 2) the History of Western music is one of the foundation subjects which is related to , music harmony, forms structure, performance practices, style and aesthetics. This subject helps students to understand the development of music, the circumstances and musical forms of those historical periods, and the concepts and personal styles of composers; 3) the History of Western music as delivered in Thailand is an interpretative or knowledge-based explanation subject containing numerous learning materials such as reading notes, visual and audio resources and listening guides; and 4) Thai students have often expressed a negative attitude to learning History of Western music subjects in accordance with the researcher’s own experience and also discussion with the music instructors at Srinakharinwirot University.

As the experimental part of this research study had to fit into the requirements of the one semester course, the History of music in the context of the Classical period in music is the focus for this research study. The various designs of the proposed E-learning approach offer instructors a wide variety of options in devising innovative lesson plans that can accommodate learners’ different learning styles. As well, students learn a wide variety of approaches to the acquisition of musical knowledge of Classical , musical understanding of Classical music style and musical skill in playing Classical piano music, learning at their own pace in non- intimidating environments, and may be motivated by a variety of multimedia materials and components.

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND OBJECTIVES

This research study aims to design, develop and examine an E-learning strategy with lessons for a course in the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ for higher education students studying in the field of music programs in higher education institutions, particularly in Thailand. The objectives are to examine the effectiveness of the use of an E-learning program in terms of learning achievement and attitude, as well as to examine students’ opinions about E-learning in teaching and learning music. Also, to investigate which learning outcomes in music study including knowledge, understanding and skill are the most susceptible to an E- learning approach based on students’ achievements, attitudes, opinions and personal satisfaction. To guide the investigation and subsequent data analysis, four major questions are addressed:

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1. What are the differences in students’ learning achievements in music studies between the two teaching methods (the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method)? 2. What are the differences in students’ attitudes to music studies between the two teaching methods (the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method)? 3. How susceptible are the learning outcomes in music study (knowledge, understanding and skill) to an E-learning approach? 4. Can the computer effectively replace the teacher in a music learning program?

1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY – OVERVIEW

The guidelines for this study are as follows:

1. The participants of this research study are music students at the Department of Western Music, the Faculty of Fine Arts at Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok Thailand. 2. The content integrated into both the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method is based on the History of music content approved by the University Academic Committee of Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand. The content involves: (i) musical knowledge of Classical period history, (ii) aspects of musical understanding in Classical music style and (iii) musical skill in playing Classical piano music. 3. The experimental teaching tool in this research study is a newly devised web-based instruction program without an instructor, named the CW elearn-music program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’. The CW elearn-music program was designed and developed by the researcher and validated by nine experts consisting of three experts in the area of music, three experts in the area of , and three experts in the area of educational measurement and evaluation10.

10 The three experts in the area of music are 1) Mr Wathit Suwansomboon (Head of the Department of Western music); 2) Dr Janida Tangdajahiran (Senior lecturer in Piano); 3) Mr Sitsake Yanderm (Lecturer in the History of music). The three experts in the area of educational technology are 1) Assistant/Prof Alisara Charuenvanich (Head of the Department of Educational Technology); 2) Dr Jaruwat Noothong (Deputy Director of Operation, the Centre of Educational Media and Technology; and 3) Dr Wiwat Meesuwan (Lecturer in the Department of Educational Technology). The three experts in the area of educational measurement and evaluation are 1) A/Prof Chusre Wongrattana (Head of the Department of Educational measurement and research); 2) A/Prof Dr Chanwit Tiamboomprasert (Director of Educational and Psychonological Test Bureau); and 3) A/Prof Dr Suthiwan Pirasaksopon (Vice Director of Academic Affairs of Educational and Psychological Test Bureau).

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4. The research design in this study uses a Randomized Control and Experimental Group Pretest and Posttest Design. 5. The experimental period of this research study was from the July 2010 to the October 2010. 6. The independent variables in this research study are the teaching methods, as follows:  The E-learning program  The traditional teaching method 7. The dependent variables of this research are learning outcomes of music study, as follows:  Achievement in music study  Attitudes to music study  Opinions about the E-learning program 8. The data collection tools for this research study: the ‘Achievement in music study test’, the ‘Attitude to music study test’ and the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ are designed, developed, validated and tested to measure the effectiveness on the independent variables: E-learning program and the traditional teaching method. All tools are designed and developed by the researcher and validated by six experts consisting of three experts in the area of music, and three experts in the area of educational measurement and evaluation.

The scope of this research study will be described in detail in Chapter Four: Research Methodology.

1.5 DEFINITION OF TERMS

This research study uses several terms that are defined as follows:

 Information and Communication technology:

Information and Communication technology or ICT is defined as a set of technologies and devices used for information and communication purposes to facilitate and enhance all aspects of the way people live, work, think, learn and communicate.

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 Electronic learning:

Electronic learning or E-learning, sometimes called web-based instruction, internet- based instruction or online learning is defined as the use of ICT to deliver, enhance and support information and knowledge for education and training to a remote audience using the electronic devices and Internet as the medium. E-learning can store instructional materials consisting of courses, tests, resources and communicative tools in various multimedia components and materials consisting of image, video, visual and audio, animation and video conferencing.

 Asynchronous communication:

Asynchronous communication is defined as an online communication which does not occur in real-time. Asynchronous communication used in this research study including web-board and E-mail is not an instant and real-time response.

 The E-learning program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’:

The E-learning program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ used in this research study can be defined as a research-based web instruction (without an instructor), named the CW elearn-music program. The content and learning materials are available in the web-based instruction, with asynchronous communication.

 Traditional teaching method:

Traditional teaching method for this research study is a face-to-face lecture class with directed communication and open discussion using PowerPoint presentations with audio materials and paper-based materials.

 The content of the course ‘History of Music in the Classical period':

The content particularly used for this research study includes 1) a Chronicle of the Classical period with respect to important movements that influence the patronage and function of music, characteristics of Classical period music including music devices, forms and genres, and major composers; 2) the concepts and interpretations of Classical music components, symbols, structures and languages, and the technique of music analysis; and 3) an introduction to Classical piano music, particularly by Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. The content is designed and developed based on syllabus for the History of Music by the University Academic Committee of Srinakharinwirot University in accordance with the Higher Education Standard. The content of the course ‘History of music in the Classical period’ consists of three sections with ten topics, as follows:

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1. Section one: Classical period history (musical knowledge) o Historical background (social and cultural contexts, political patterns, and economic systems) o Function of music o Major composers (Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven) 2. Section two: Classical music style (musical understanding) o Characteristics of Classical music style o Classical music forms o Classical music genres o Forms and analysis of Classical music 3. Section three: Classical piano music (musical skills) o Introduction to Classical piano music o Classical piano technique o Studying and playing Classical piano music of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven  Achievement in music study:

Achievement in music study for this research study is defined as students’ success in music learning in terms of remembering and understanding musical knowledge, demonstrated musical understanding and musical skill in playing piano related to the ‘History of music in the Classical period’. This variable is measured using the ‘Achievement in music study test’.

 Attitudes to music study:

Attitudes to music study for this research study is defined as students’ feeling for or against that may be positive or negative towards the study of the History of music itself, musical knowledge of Classical period history, musical understanding of Classical music style and musical skill in playing Classical piano music. This variable is measured using the ‘Attitude to music study test’.

 Opinions about the E-learning program:

Opinions about the E-learning program for this research study is defined as students’ like or dislike, satisfaction or otherwise and agreement or disagreement about the use of E-learning program, in terms of structure and content, presentation and design, graphic and multimedia materials, and features of E-learning. This variable is measured using the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’.

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1.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The starting point for this research study is a desire to improve, develop and enhance music teaching and learning, focusing on E-learning in higher music education in Thailand.

This research study began by clarifying the issues and problems encountered in music programs in higher education in Thailand and by reviewing related literature in discussion with the music instructors at Srinakharinwirot University. These two sources are used to determine a theoretical framework for the implementation of an E-learning approach for higher music education which assists music instructors and learners to supplement music teaching and learning, to address the issues and problems of music programs and to cope with the demands of incorporating ICT in their classroom settings. Therefore, the theoretical framework explains the structure of this research study which intends to gather data and examine the relationship and consequences between the teaching method as the independent variable and the effectiveness of the two teaching methods: the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method as the dependent variable in a specific context.

In general, different teaching methods have different effects on students’ learning and perception. Ripple (1977: 225) stated that ‘teaching method’ can be defined as formal intervention directed toward facilitating and developing skills in the students that are essential to their dealing effectively with information, knowledge and experience for the purpose of ascribing meaning and making and attaining goals. Generally, the curriculum in a teaching method is constructed around unifying themes that serve to provide a framework and a means by which knowledge is rendered worth knowing and made useful in application beyond the immediate learning situation. This basic requirement of a curriculum is to be an instructional system (specifying materials, activities, methods and conditions for the interaction of students and teachers in a behavioural setting for learning) designed for the deliberate promotion of knowledge and skills (Klausmeier & Ripple, 1971: 31; Ripple, 1977: 226). However, a successful teaching method does not reside in curriculum materials, but in how these materials are used in the interaction between students and teachers in the behavioural setting for learning, defined as the educational system (Ripple, 1977: 227). Townsend (2011: 61) stated that an education system provides a critically important foundation for the profession; however, of equal importance is the ability to apply the theory to precise, practical lesson plans that enable students to learn to achieve.

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Consequently, the two teaching methods of this research study are described based on the educational system defined and discussed by Klausmeier & Ripple (1971), as shown in Figure 1.1, designed to bring about learning according to a teacher-controlled plan, to produce an effective educational system for the class of the ‘History of music in the Classical period’, although the learning content and materials are presented in different formats as far as learning methods and material demonstrations: online and lecture methods.

First stage:

 Specific instructional objectives stated in terms of the desired Measurement tools and evaluation student achievements and other procedures: behaviours

 Student readiness (prior  To ascertain students’ learning level of motivation and intellectual abilities and other capability and behaviours for characteristics attaining the objectives)  To assess students’ previous achievements or readiness to engage in specific elements of Second stage: the instructional program

 To assess students’ progress  Specific subject matter to be during the instructional learned and the related Feedback sequence and their final instructional material, loop achievement at the end of the equipment and suppliers sequence  Specific teaching and learning  To assess student’s retention activities deal with motivation, and use of the newly acquired providing information, guiding outcomes the learning process and  To evaluate the separate ensuring retention and transfer components and the total  Organisation for instruction to system assure effective use of time, space and equipment

Student achievement

Figure 1.1 The education system by Klausmeier & Ripple Source: Learning and Human Abilities: , Klausmeier &Ripple (1971: 11)

The first teaching method in this research study is an E-learning program. Cook and Dupras (2004: 62) argued that a well-planned and a well-designed E-learning program can accommodate different student learning schedules and distance learning, which can be easily expanded and modified, facilitating effective assessment, and encouraging self-directed

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learning and is itself inherently learner centred. The present E-learning program incorporates a student-centred approach, which emphasizes students’ ability to manage and control their own learning pace and capability in self-directed learning.

Dick and Carey (1985) as cited in Jollieffe, Ritter and Steven (2001: 58) presented a model for designing web-based instruction stating that it is essential for web developers to ensure that all the parts of a typical learning event work together towards well-designed goals to produce effective web-based instruction. In this research study, the E-learning program is designed and developed as web-based instruction (without an instructor) in accordance with the Web-Based Design Model consisting of four phases for building web-based learning event by Jolliffe, Ritter and Steven (2001: 62-84), and the Web-Based Design Model consisting of ten steps to effective web-based learning by Cook and Dupras (2004: 698-707), as shown in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Four phases for building a web-based learning event with ten steps to effective web-based learning Phases Tasks Phase 1: Preparation (gather information): This stage focuses on the planning document and the basis for the development of the learning event. 1. Perform a needs analysis and specify goals and objectives  Identify what is being done and what should be done to address the problem  Establish learning goals and objectives * Clear objectives will help to define the role of E-learning for instructor’s setting Phase 2: Design (Designing materials): This stage focuses on three steps: determining the learning strategies, the design approach and the materials’ appropriate development standards. 2. Determine technological resources and the needs of the learners 3. Determine commercial software applications to develop E-learning 4. Identify barriers to be addressed in a timely manner before implementation begins Phase 3: Development (Producing materials): This stage focuses on the instructional materials developed and keying into the web delivery platform. 5. Develop content and structures with website design 6. Encourage active learning (self-assessment, reflection, self-directed learning, problem- based learning, learner interaction and feedback) 7. Facilitate and plan to encourage use by the learner  Make the website accessible and user-friendly  Provide time for learning  Motivate and remind

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Phase 4: Evaluation (Evaluating materials): This stage focuses on the evaluation and changes to determine the learning design and materials. 8. Evaluate both the content and design 9. Pilot the website before full implementation 10. Plan to monitor online communication and maintain the website by resolving technical issues, periodically verify hyperlinks, check bugs and regularly update content

The second teaching method in this research study is a traditional teaching method, defined as stated as a traditional lecture environment with directed communication and open discussion that students get used to. Some scholars (Peters & Miller, 1982: 133; Rosenshine, 1983: 339) argued that the lecture technique is efficient and effective for presenting large amounts of cognitive material to a group of students when time is limited. Therefore, the lecture setting should begin with clear statements of learning objectives in an introduction, to create interest and maintain attention. The body of the lecture presents the content in some organized manner, with directed discussion, which allows students to interact and discuss materials with the teacher leading the discussion to a conclusion.

In terms of the dependent variable, the effectiveness of the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method (described as the outcome of this research study) can be defined as the accomplishment of the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method determined from the results of students’ achievement in music study, attitudes to music study, as well as students’ opinions about the E-learning program. Several scholars (Colwell & Wing, 2004: 18; Hanley & Montgomery, 2005: 17; Leonhard & House, 1972: 175) argued that because perception is so broad about what music studies are and what can be attained, each program requires clarification of its own objectives, practices, selecting appropriate learning experiences and priorities. Therefore, the music study for this research study are determined based on the classification of music learning outcomes, in particular the cognitive domain defined and described by Leonhard and House (1972) and Colwell and Wing (2004), as well as re-conceptualized by Hanley and Montgomery (2005). The learning outcomes of music study for this research are as follows:

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 Musical knowledge:

Musical knowledge can be defined as music activities that imply the ability to interpret knowledge of terminology, facts, beliefs, trends and categories.

 Musical understanding:

Musical understanding will be defined as involving music activities that imply the ability to conceptualise, be able to apply, analyse and generalize in analytical practices.

 Musical skill:

Musical skill can be defined as music activities that imply the ability to apply the skills of fundamental knowledge in order to solve technical aspects associated with instrumental musical performance.

With the statements of the independent and the dependent variables above, the theoretical framework of this research study is determined as shown in Figure 1.2.

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Principle: Based on the instructional system of Klausmeier and Ripple (1971) Characteristics: Based on four main phases for building a web-based Dependent Variable Based on Classification of learning event by Jolliffe, Ritter and (Effectiveness of teaching music learning outcomes by Stevens (2001) with ten steps to Independent Variable (Teaching methods) methods) Leonhard and House (1972) Effective Web-based learning by Aspects: Cook and Dupras (2004)  Musical knowledge  Web-based instruction (without  Musical understanding an instructor) Achievement in Music Study  Musical skill  Self-directed learning (From the ‘Achievement in  Asynchronous communication music study test’) Process: Based on Classification of music E-learning program  Flexible time and place learning outcomes by Leonhard  Log-in record and House (1972)  Study alone through the materials Aspects: Attitudes to Music study available on the website  Subject (History of music) (From the ‘Attitude to music  Online communication  Musical knowledge study test’)  Musical understanding  Musical skill Principle: Based on the instructional system of Klausmeier and Ripple (1971) Traditional teaching Aspects: Characteristics: method Opinions about the E-learning  Satisfaction with the E-  Lecture environment (From the ‘Questionnaire for learning program  Human response, interaction and the E-learning program’)  Opinions about teaching communication and learning through the E- Process: learning program  Fixed time and place  Opinions about the E-  Class attendance learning program for  Study with the instructor, with teaching and learning music personal lecture notes courses  Face-to-face communication Figure 1.2 Theoretical framework

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1.7 RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

This research study addresses the following hypotheses:

1. There are significant differences in students’ learning achievements and attitudes in terms of musical knowledge of Classical period history, musical understanding of Classical music style and musical skill in playing Classical piano music before and after learning with the E-learning program. 2. There are significant differences in students’ learning achievements and attitudes in terms of musical knowledge of Classical period history, musical understanding of Classical music style and musical skill in playing Classical piano music before and after learning with the traditional teaching method. 3. There are significant differences in students’ achievements, students’ demonstrated level of improvement and students’ attitudes between the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method. 4. The E-learning program is an effective tool and may be able to replace the instructor in teaching and learning for the three kinds of learning outcomes in music study (knowledge, understanding and skill).

1.8 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE RESEARCH STUDY

This research study is conducted to contribute to the growing body of research in the integration of ICT into the music classroom, but especially for music programs in higher education in Thailand, where there have been few research studies, compared to those in other subjects. This research study intends to take advantage of technological developments to enhance the quality and standard of music education in Thailand, as well as to foster the educational demands of the new knowledge-based or information society.

This study initially provides a challenge to encourage music instructors in Thailand to broaden their understanding of the use of E-learning programs for their music teaching and learning, to encourage a shift from the present teacher-directed mode of teaching to a more student- centred approach, to move away from formal, textbook-based curricula towards the use of authentically internet-based materials and contexts and to create a learning environment which is based on the learner’s capability for efficiency and effectiveness, as well as to encourage them as they develop musical knowledge, understanding and skill. Moreover, this

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study contributes to enabling positive social changes in that it provides information for use and reference in developing online learning that suits learning styles of Thai students.

Although this research study is conducted for music programs in higher education in Thailand, it would, it is hoped, also be a basic starting point for further studies in ICT integration into education and music education in Thailand, as well as for examining developments in ICT integration in international music education settings.

1.9 ORGANISATION OF THESIS

This research thesis is organised into six chapters, as follows:

Chapter 1, Introduction: presents an overall introduction to the research, the statement of the problem, the research objectives and questions, the scope of the research study, definition of terms, the theoretical framework, the research hypothesis, the significance of the research study and the organization of the thesis.

Chapter 2, Background of the Study: provides a more detailed description of the background to this research study, focusing on the detailed descriptions of music education in general, and specifically in Thailand, which is the particular research location. It also describes the current issues and problems encountered in music programs in higher education in Thailand, as well as the current circumstances of the use of ICT in Thailand.

Chapter 3, Literature Review: provides an overview of the literature related to this research. The first part reviews Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in particular Electronic learning (E-learning) and the second part reviews the use of ICT in music education and research studies integrating ICT into music education, in terms of music theory and fundamentals, music history and appreciation, and music performance. Following this, the need for this research study is explained.

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Chapter 4, Research Methodology: describes the overall methodology of this research study consisting of population and sample, independent and dependent variables, research design, research tools and materials particularly the experimental teaching tool, data collection tools, research procedure and data analysis techniques including statistics for testing hypotheses.

Chapter 5, Statistical Results and Analysis: analyses and discusses students’ achievement in music study and attitudes to music study, as well as students’ opinions about the E-learning program. It commences with the results for the ‘Achievement in music study test’ as a whole comparing the Experimental and the Control groups, then with each section of this test individually. This is followed by the results for the ‘Attitude to music study test’ as a whole, then with each aspect of this test individually, and the results for the ‘Questionnaire for the E- learning program’, respectively. The last section presents a discussion of issues arising in relation to the result in relation to relevant scholarly literature.

Chapter 6, Conclusions: presents the conclusions regarding the results of the data analysis and implementation. Following this, a recommendation is offered, and a future E-learning program is suggested.

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CHAPTER 2: BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

The introduction presented in Chapter One highlighted the overall scope of the research study. This chapter will provide a more detailed background for the study, focusing on music education in general and the detailed descriptions of formal educational systems in music education, specifically in Thailand, which is the particular research locale. In addition, issues and problems encountered in music programs in higher education in Thailand, as well as current circumstances of the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and internet in Thailand are discussed.

2.1 MUSIC EDUCATION

Music has been recognised as an essential area of educational activity which can contribute towards emotional and intellectual development (Carlton, 1987: 8; Elliott, 1995: 65). Additionally, Abeles, Hoffer and Klotman (1994: 95) argued that it is essential that music study as a part of education not only serves to take account of the contemporary culture, but it also provides insight into the cultural practices of the past which leads to an enriched life and brings beauty into daily existence of the individual (Hartwig, 2008: 125). Reimer (2003: 153) also stated that the overall purpose of music education is to develop every learner’s capacity to experience and create intrinsically expressive sound quality, as well as to perceive the essentially aesthetic values of music as an art. In addition, Kokotsaki and Hallam (2007: 94) argued that the benefits of learning music include the development of social skills, gaining a love and enjoyment of music, developing a sense of achievement physical co-ordination, confidence and self-discipline (Hallam & Prince, 2000: 68), as well as increasing personal, musical and social motivation (Hargreaves, Marshall & North, 2003: 158). Colwell and Wing (2004: 12) expressed their definition of the requirements of a music education program is that it improves a student’s ability to discriminate, understand, and respond meaningfully to music. Statements and arguments in music education confirm that music education is no different and no less important to any other subject such as science, business, mathematics and law.

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Gates (2000: 649) expressed his belief in music education:

The best reason to study music is that it gives people a reliable, thorough and efficient way of becoming expert at creating, communicating and deriving meaning musically in the world of humans. Music study contributes uniquely both to the general and specialised education of people. When students study music, they intentionally engage music and music related materials and ideas to reconstruct and improve some of the skills, knowledge, evaluative insights and cognitive capacities used in musical experiences. Music study can afford an expanded means of personal efficacy and supports various abilities useful to the student in reaching several important educational goals, such as analysing documents, analysing performances and other actions, brainstorming, classifying, comparing and contrasting, creating a product, decision-making, defining context, developing and applying craftsmanship, developing personal commitment, discovering and generating patterns, evaluating, sequencing, synthesizing, valuing uniqueness and diversity (Gates, 2000: 64).11

Music has been regarded as a stand-alone subject with many facets at all levels of education, including , listening, performing and creative activities, studies in theory, history and analysis amongst other areas. As a subject, it has become increasingly rigorous with a set of educational and musical principles, practices and objectives. Questions about “what is taught?”, “how well do the students are to learn, understand and perform the content?”, “how to select musical materials and musical information?”, “how to find out the resources required to enable students to meet the standards?”, “what is a mode of procedure in which context the necessary learning should occur?” and “how to propose and encourage the public’s understanding of the program?” (Colwell & Wing, 2004: 18; Leonhard & House, 1972: 186) have been raised and considered. An important goal of music education is to provide students with substantial and appropriate music knowledge, skills and experiences and ample opportunities to discover their musical talents and abilities (Georgii-Hemming & Westvall, 2010a: 357).

However, the content of music study is so broad, each level of the music program is a study in itself and assessment is particularly difficult because music-learning outcomes are often judged and interpreted in language involving subjective assessment, aesthetic-learning and performance (Hanley & Montgomery, 2005: 17; Hanna, 2007: 7). Generally, learning outcomes of music education can be categorized into two domains, consisting of the cognitive and the affective. The cognitive domain includes those objectives dealing with the recall or recognition

11 Gates, JT 2000, ‘Why Study Music?’, in CK Madsen (ed), Vision 2020: the Housewright Symposium on the Future of Music Education, MENC, University of New York at Buffalo, New York, New York, pp. 58-78.

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of knowledge and the development of intellectual abilities and behaviour or skills appreciations (Colwell & Wing, 2004: 120; Hanna, 2007: 8; Hargreaves, Marshall & North, 2003: 149; Leonhard & House, 1972: 186; Orchs, 1976: 30; Peters & Miller, 1982: 139). The affective domain includes those objectives describing changes in interests, attitudes and values and the development of appreciation (Colwell & Wing, 2004: 123; Hanna, 2007: 8; Leonhard & House, 1972: 188).

In the present study, the cognitive domain defined by Leonhard and House (1972) and Colwell and Wing (2004) and re-conceptualized by Hanley and Montgomery (2005) can be used to classify music education into three music learning outcomes consisting of knowledge, understanding and skill, as shown in Figure 2.1. Music scholars including Hanna, 2007; Leonhard & House, 1972; Ochs, 1976; Peters & Miller, 1982 explained each of three music learning outcomes, as follows:

 Musical knowledge: the outcomes of musical activity should involve the ability in recognizing and recalling terminology, facts, beliefs, trends and categories.  Music understanding: the outcomes of music activity should involve the ability to conceptualise knowledge in order to apply, analyse and explain musical terms, structures and interpretations associated with .  Musical skill: the outcomes of musical activity should demonstrate skills and fundamental knowledge for solving technical instructions and terms associated with musical performance.

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Music Education

Knowledge Understanding Skills

Musical Literature Musical Components Musical Skills

Historical context Form Performing Composers’ lives Melody & Harmony Listening Composers’ works Rhythm Singing Evaluation Tonality Creating

Texture Reading Improvising

Figure 2.1 Three classifications of music learning outcomes Based on the Classification of music learning outcome by Leonhard & House (1972)

Leonhard and House (1972: 219) stated that musical learning should emphasize learners’ development and testing should encompass generalisations which can be used in solving musical problems. Additionally, study should be organized to provide varied musical experiences which lead to broad musical learning. The content for musical knowledge and skills necessary to provide effective instruction to students include a wide variety of factual musical knowledge as well as performance skill on various instruments (Hoffer, 1977: 38). Therefore, studying content for musical knowledge and content for music understanding should be accomplished and emphasized in a curriculum in a similar manner to studying content for musical skills. The students should regard content from musical knowledge and content from musical understanding as skills that requires practicing (Colwell & Wing, 2004: 117). When the students understand and accumulate knowledge of the concepts of music from music literature and musical components, they are able to adapt and apply that knowledge and understanding to other music areas and to perform using their musical skills (Leonhard & House, 1972: 137). Moreover, such an approach can lead to an enhancement of their musical appreciation (Leonhard & House, 1972: 136).

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Although music always exists as a source of human enjoyment and emotional release, various research studies support its additional function as a promoter of cognitive process. Many explanations have been proposed as to why music can contribute to the development of cognition as academic achievement, which is similar to mathematics, reading skills and sciences (Bowman, 2004; Hodges & O’Connell, 2005; Portowitz & Klein, 2007), as well music can influence various developments, such as motivation and emotion (Batt-Rawden & Denora, 2007; Hallam, 2010), communication, and personal and social skills (Portowitz & Klein, 2007; Regelski, 2005). Therefore, not only do students learn to foster their musical knowledge, skills and experience, but they must also learn to cooperate, be given opportunities to find their identity and become fulfilled human-beings with self-confidence, self-esteem, self-efficacy and self-regulation, and participate in social activities (Georgii-Hemming & Westvall, 2010b; Hallam, 2010; Hodges, 2005; McCarthy & Goble, 2002; McPherson & Zimmerman, 2011). Regelski (2005: 19) stated that music education should not be premised on a narrow view that excludes or alienates students from meaningful and relevant musical learning; instead, it needs to be expanded, not just to include a broader range of music, but also the idea of enabling students to appropriate musical meanings and values. Undoubtedly, it is vital to note that music’s place in the curriculum of the 21st century reflects its status as one of the core standard academic programs in both basic and higher education institutions in many countries including Thailand’s educational institutions.

Lockett (2010: 33) expressed his idea of the current environment of music education:

The role of music programs has changed in today’s educational system due to the changes of music in society. Changes in society also include the advancement of technology used for delivering lessons and the downsizing of music programs and bands. The economy has had an effect on musical organisations finding performances that come with pay. These challenges have prompted organizations to begin a dialogue to address the future of music education (Lockett, 2010: 33).12

Questions about “how to enhance music education in which students are self-taught rather than learning from others?”, “what are the modern-day roles of conservatoires, higher education institutions, and community organizations in music learning?”, “how to propose music activities to contribute to enhance self-esteem and increase motivation?”, “what constitutes being a in the digital era?”, “what can technology bring to music

12 Lockett, W 2010, ‘Student Perceptions about the Effectiveness and Quality of Online Instruction’, PhD Thesis, Capella University.

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education?”, “how do we process digital musical information?” and “how does digital information in music function in the world of computer technology?” are discussed in music education today (Hallam, 2010: 277; Hargreaves, Marshall & North, 2003: 147; Jones, 2010: 7). Therefore, music instructors not only need knowledge and skills in a variety of music styles and appropriate pedagogical expertise, they also need to be able to design a curriculum that is appropriate to the needs and interests of their students, community and society by using an appropriate educational setting such as teaching approaches, classroom settings, and instructional materials and technological tools to increase students’ knowledge and understanding that include engaging their students in learning by doing (Townsend, 2011: 38).

Townsend (2011: 38) also expressed:

It is important to note, however, that it is quite possible to plan and construct lessons on paper that satisfy the components of educational theory without having the planning result in enduring, meaningful learning. The effectiveness of any lesson plan should be measured by how well the lesson engages the students, raises achievement levels, and provides for future growth and involvement in the discipline (Townsend, 2011: 38).13

2.2 EDUCATION AND MUSIC EDUCATION IN THAILAND14

As previously stated, Thailand is facing new challenges resulting from globalization, the evolution of the knowledge-based economy, and innovative science and technology; therefore, the Royal Thai Government has become much more concerned with the development of education as a part of national reconstruction and modernization to enhance the ability of the Thai people to keep up with the rapid developments and changes associated with globalization so that they can thrive in a competitive global arena.

As Thailand is one of the developing countries, the Government has assumed responsibility for providing education as a means towards national development (Suwanvera, 2006: 249). At this moment, many well-organised and well-designed policies and frameworks of education have been assigned and translated into action. These are more systematic and intense than in the past and provide principles and challenging guidelines for the provision and development of

13 Townsend, AS 2011, Introduction to Effective Music Teaching: Artistry and Attitude, Rowman & Littlefield Publisher, Inc., USA. 14 Education and Music Education in Thailand are taken from several resources, including http://www.moe.go.th/English/, http://www.obec.go.th/, http://www.mua.go.th/. Some resources are written in Thai language.

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Thai education in order to 1) support a sense of respect for one’s own and others’ rights and duties; 2) foster self-discipline; 3) inculcate a law-abiding habit and devotion to religious and ethical principles; 4) promote an understanding of the role of a citizen in a democratic government with the King as Head of State; 5) inculcate a sense of responsibility toward the nation, the community, the family and oneself; and 6) promote consciousness of belonging to the Thai nation, as well as to the human race as a whole, to have national pride, concern for national security and an active interest in national protection (Bhangananda, 2003; Office of the National Education Commission of Thailand, 2005).

The Ministry of Education (MOE) is the main organization responsible for Thailand’s educational system. The MOE assigns and promotes all levels and categories of education, specifies educational formal policies, plans, curriculum and standards, and organizes the necessary resources to support and accomplish its goals. The MOE is also responsible for the promotion and coordination of religious affairs, arts, music, culture and sports in relation to education. Referring to the National Report Year 2004, by the MOE, the Thailand National Education Act promulgated that provision of education aims at the full development of the Thai people in all aspects consisting of physical and mental health, intellect, knowledge, morality, integrity and the pursuit of a desirable lifestyle in accordance with society and in harmony with other people (Ministry of Education, 2004). The Office of the National Education Council, Ministry of Education (2003) has proclaimed that the provision of education is based on lifelong education for all participation by all sectors in society, and continuous development of knowledge and learning processes. Formal Education in Thailand as fundamental education, is divided into two levels, consisting of basic education and higher education, as shown in Figure 2.2.

Basic Education Higher Education Level Diploma Degree Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Age 6-8 9-11 12-14 15-17 18+ Compulsory Figure 2.2 Thailand's formal education system

27 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

In order to provide a context of the research questions applying to higher education in Thailand, the educational system in Thailand will be outlined below.

Basic Education

The content of basic education is determined by Office of the Basic Education Commission (OBEC), a part of the MOE that proposes policies, plans and standards, and to develop curriculum for basic education provision. The OBEC also mobilizes resources, develops administration systems, promotes and coordinates information networks for teaching and learning, develops educational innovation, supervises the monitoring, inspection and evaluation of basic education provision, and conducts secretarial work for the Commission. Basic education is classified into two levels consisting of six learning years for primary education (stage 1 – 2) and six learning years for secondary education (stage 3 – 4). Primary education aims to develop basic knowledge and skills in reading, writing and arithmetic for daily living and to assist students in developing an understanding of the world around them, enabling them to live harmoniously and participate as active members in society. As well, secondary education is designed to provide students with knowledge and working skills suitable for their age, needs, interests and aptitudes. The aim is to give students the basic knowledge to further their education and the ability to choose ways of making themselves useful as good citizens. Students are expected to gain sufficient knowledge and skills to choose a suitable occupation and to be able to work productively with others. Based on the Basic Education Core Curriculum Year 2008, the aims are to enhance capacity of students and to attain balanced development in all respects, including physical development, knowledge and morality. The standards have been established to serve as the goals to be achieved in developing students’ quality (Bureau of Academic Affair and Educational Standard, Ministry of Education, 2008a).

Music Programs in Basic Education

Both traditional Thai music and Western music have been established and assigned as compulsory subjects of Arts Education (visual arts, music and dramatic arts) for the Basic Education Core Curriculum Year 2008 in accordance with the Basic Educational Curriculum Year 2001 for Music Contents. This subject provides a well-defined program of creative, performing, singing, listening and movement activities in order to gain increased understanding and accomplishment in music, and to gain increased acceptance of the idea that music is an essential part of everyday life. It aims to bring together intellect and feeling,

28 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

and enable personal expression, reflection and emotional development. According to the Basic Education Core Curriculum B.E. 2551 (2008), two standards have been determined as a part of Arts Education to prescribe what the students should know and be able to perform in the classroom, as follows:

Standard A2.1: Understanding and capacity for creative self-expression through music; analysis and criticism on value of music; free conveyance of feelings and thoughts on music; appreciation and application in daily life Standard A2.2: Understanding of relationship between music, history and culture; appreciation of musical works that represent cultural heritage, local wisdom and Thai and universal wisdom15

However, music instructors are responsible for the design and specific content of courses and the assessment in accordance with the standards and expectations of music learning from the Basic Education Core Curriculum. Music in the is essentially a general program to promote overall musical growth and provide general musical experience with various activities, such as singing, clapping, playing, moving and responding rhythmically and creatively, and listening to music. As well, general music continues into secondary education, but the program is characterized by gradual partitioning, accommodating divergent paths of students’ needs and interests. The program intends to enable students to appreciate music and help them to acquire musical knowledge and concepts in such as way as to develop the qualities of self-expression, creativity and aesthetic sensitivity. In addition, the fourth stage of basic education also offers a particular music education program, called the pre-college music program, providing a three-year general education with a comprehensive music program and environment to prepare young musicians to develop their musicianship, performance skills and participation in culture, music and art in order to prepare for the examinations for entry to higher music education. Moreover, this program provides an opportunity for young musicians to experience a conservatory with music facilities and discover their potential to pursue a professional career in music.

Higher Education

Higher education is Thailand’s highest level of education offering a degree or diploma program provided in universities, colleges and other education institutions (Office of the National Education Council, Ministry of Education, 2003). Higher education institutions are expected to

15 Bureau of Academic Affair and Educational Standards, Ministry of Education 2008b, Indicator and Contents in the Arts, Basic Education Core Curricula B.E.2551 (A.D.2008), Ministry of Education, Thailand, pp. 20-21.

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take leadership in 1) molding the country’s future leaders, developing high-level technology for the acceleration of economic growth, delivering academic service to society, preserving and maintain the nation’s art and culture; and 2) showing tight direction for the development of the country, giving warnings of crisis and solving problems for society (Office of the National Education Council, Ministry of Education, 2003).

The Commission on Higher Education, a part of the MOE, is the main organization responsible for designing and proposing policies, plans and standards for higher education in line with the National Scheme of Education, Religious, Art and Culture including colleges and higher education institutions. This commission organizes resources and certifies educational quality and standards in all public and private higher educational institutions. It also coordinates and encourages development of human resources, enhances capacity of all students and evaluates education provision in higher education. Based on the Higher Education Standard (Year 2006), the MOE prescribed that higher education students should have knowledge and proficiency in their own profession to create, develop, perform and apply their knowledge and skills in order to enhance themselves and their society to be competitive internationally (Ministry of Education, 2006). Additionally, the stated goal of higher education is to develop abilities that will be of significant value in employment as well as in everyday life; therefore, higher education programs should involve a thorough understanding of research and theoretical knowledge in their field and in related areas, and develop general thinking and problem solving abilities that are applicable in any context (Commission on Higher Education, 2006).

Music Programs in Higher Education

Essentially, the Commission on Higher Education has not specified a particular teaching method and assessment. The commission has provided the framework of core curriculum for each education institution to develop their own curriculum, including goals, teaching and learning activities, assessment and evaluation in order to suit the needs of the local community (Office of the National Education Council, Ministry of Education, 2003). Therefore, music instructors have responsibility for designing the music content of courses and developing the teaching and learning materials and assessment, which is approved by each University Academic Committee itself in accordance with the Higher Education Standard. Music instructors must demonstrate musical knowledge, skills and experience, utilize appropriate classroom management skills, implement effective teaching and learning techniques, use effective explanations and demonstrations, set appropriate learning objectives

30 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

and outcomes, use motivational strategies, monitor and evaluate students’ learning and communicate enthusiasm, warmth and humour.

At the undergraduate level, music provides the professional training and performance experiences that maximize the students’ abilities, foster a range of social and personal skills and enhance their love of music. Higher music education aims to produce qualified graduates with knowledge and skills in the field of music according to international standards, to prepare quality graduates to be musicians for careers as performers, composers, musicologists, directors, instructors and producers. The curriculum provides a creative environment to contribute to students’ personal well-being and social development in order to prepare qualified graduates who are able to integrate their professional growth and intellectual development with their interpersonal skills, and to enhance as musicians an awareness of music to encourage self-realization and mastery, social understanding and an appreciation of the values of musical service to our community and culture, as well as the necessity of continuous improvement in their music careers.

Higher education institutions provide music courses at the undergraduate level offering a curriculum in many fields of study, such as traditional Thai music and Western music, music education, music performance, , , music composition, music technology, music industry and music business and management. The courses have been offered by the Faculty of Education, Faculty of Fine Arts, Faculty of Humanities, Faculty of Arts, Faculty of Music and College of Music. Music students are required to complete both educational courses and performance courses through the four-year university program. However, those studying music education are required to complete a five-year university program, including teacher training, in order to become a certified teacher. Additionally, they will develop their study skills and methodology necessary to continue a learning process throughout their musical careers, and the competence to cope with and adjust to changes in the field of music16.

16 The above statements are taken from several university websites in Thailand, including Srinakharinwirot University, Chulalongkorn University, Thammasart University, Kasetsart University, Mahidol University, Silpakorn University and Burapha University. These resources are written in Thai language.

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As well, music programs at the master and the doctoral degree levels aim to produce qualified music academicians, researchers, musicians and music professionals with excellence in knowledge and skills. At the master and doctoral levels, higher education institutions provide music courses offering a curriculum in selected fields of study, for example Srinakharinwirot University offers a master in program; Chulalongkorn University offers masters in Composition and Music Education; Kasetsart University offers masters in Music Education; Mahidol University offers masters in , Music Education, , Music Business, Music Performance and Pedagogy, , Composition and Theory, Collaborative Piano, and Jazz, as well as doctoral programs in Musicology, Music Education, Music Performance and Pedagogy, Conducting and Composition and Theory; and Silpakorn University offers masters in Composition, Performance, Music Management and Ethnomusicology.

2.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF MUSIC EDUCATION IN THAILAND17

Historically, music programs have been officially designated as one of the higher education academic programs since the 1970s in both public and private higher education institutions. At the beginning, teacher colleges started to offer a degree in Bachelor of Education majoring in Music Education, particularly in Traditional Thai music and Western music, and continuously offered a degree in Bachelor of Fine Arts (Music Performance), particularly in Traditional Thai music and Western music. Nevertheless, music program were not popular in the undergraduate level of higher education at that time. This is because music programs have been designated as a part of the Arts Education curriculum in basic education; students were not taught intensely and encouraged to be more proficient in music. Moreover, the social value of music education was not well known, and parents believed that music was not one of the core subjects. It was considered one of the extra or special programs, to be learned privately after school or during the weekend. However, some parents sent their children to a school of music in order to encourage them to learn a musical instrument and participate in music activities. At that time, there were not many private music schools and independent music studios teaching music after school and their tuition fees were expensive. Therefore, students were not encouraged to love and learn music when they were children; moreover, no

17 The Historical Background of Music Education in Thailand are taken from Thai Music Journal: Music Education in Thailand by Charoensuk, S 2008, available at http://krupeak.igetweb.com/index.php?mo=3&art=222374; Thai Classical Music Reviews by Pancharoen, N 2008, Classical Music: Reviews, Katecarat Press, Bangkok, pp. 227-268. These resources are written in Thai language.

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one provided opportunities to teach, promote and encourage them to participate in music programs and activities.

Recently, learning music has become slightly more popular and fashionable in Thailand’s society due to many music activities that have emerged, such as singing competitions, competitions, marching band competitions, music camps and public concerts providing students with more participation opportunities to discover their musical abilities and show their talents. The growth of a and activity as a force in music education has greatly increased. Therefore, most students and parents realise that music can influence the individual’s learning perception, develop their personal and social skills, and express ideas and impressions. Additionally, music schools, such as the Yamaha School of Music, Robinson School of Music and Trinity College of Music as well other private music schools and independent music studios have been established to provide young Thai musicians with the opportunity to learn music of a different culture. They teach music as an extra program after school, with a variety of classes and activities. External music examination boards, such as Trinity College of Music, the Associated Board of the Royal School of Music and the Australian Music Examinations Board have emerged and offered students a certification for qualified musicians. Moreover, some secondary schools begin to open the pre-college music program for their students who are interested in entering higher music education. These issues have affected the general attitudes and interests in formal music learning amongst the Thai people.

Therefore, it can be claimed that students have more opportunity to learn music compared to the past, which has led to a steady increase in the demand for entry to the music programs in higher music education over the past few years. Moreover, many higher education institutions, such as Chulalongkorn University, Thammasart University, Kasersart University, Mohidol University, Srinakharinwirot University, Silpakorn University and Burapha University now include music as one of their academic programs and teach many areas of music study, such as music education, music performance, jazz, popular music, music composition, music technology, music business, and music industry and management, which provide students more varied activities and opportunities in music.

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2.4 ISSUES CONCERNING MUSIC PROGRAMS IN HIGHER EDUCATION IN THAILAND18

While many scholars recommend that students are taught by being actively involved, as follows this approach has not characterised music education practices in Thailand up to the present.

Burnard (2008) as cited in Wise (2008: 282) stated her view of teaching and learning:

A universal aspiration for all music instructors is to improve the quality of musical learning and its relevance to the young learners and as such she suggests that we need to rethink how an instructor’s capacity to use technology effectively matches to the students’ needs. She continues saying that a common finding across in general, and in music education research in particular, is that students need to build on their own experience and existing relationships with places and people. They need to collaborate over tasks, contribute to curriculum planning, interact with new forms of musical participation, networks and practices in adaptive learning environments (Burnard, 2008 cited in Wise, 2008: 282).19

Fosnot (1996) as cited in Webster (2011: 37) stated his view of teaching and learning:

An approach to teaching is to give students the opportunities for concrete, contextually meaningful experience through which they can search for patterns, raise their own questions and construct their own models, concepts and strategies. The classroom is seen as a mini-society, a community of learners engaged in activity, discourse and reflection (Fosnot, 2005 cited in Webster, 2011: 37).20

18 Discussion of the issues concerning music programs in higher education in Thailand is taken from Thai Music Journal: Music Education in Thailand by Charoensuk, S 2008, available at http://krupeak.igetweb.com/index.php?mo=3&art=222374; Thai Classical Music Reviews by Pancharoen, N 2008, Classical Music: Reviews, Katecarat Press, Bangkok, pp. 227-268. These resources are written in Thai language. 19 Burnard, P 2008, ‘Reframing Creativity and Technology: Promoting Pedagogic Change in Music Education’, Journal of Music, Technology and Education, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 37-55, as cited in Wise, S 2008, ‘Using ICT in the Music Room: Possible Implications for Secondary Music Teacher Training’, paper presented at the 30th Annual Conference: Innovation and Tradition, Music Education, Melbourne, 3rd-5th October. 20 Fosnot, C 1996, Constructivism: Theory, Perspectives and Practices, Teacher College Press, New York, cited in Webster, PR 2011, ‘Construction of Music Learning’, in R Cowell & P Webster (eds), MENC Handbook of Research on Music Learning Volume One: Strategies (pp. 35-83), USA: Oxford University Press, USA, pp. 35-83.

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Koopman (2007: 160) stated his view of teaching and learning:

Learning how to learn independently is a major aim of education nowadays. Achieving this requires an act of subtle balancing from the instructors. On the one hand, they must take the lead by providing their students with the knowledge and skills necessary for substantial musical development. On the other hand, instructors should allow initiative; they should take care that students increasingly come to learn by themselves (Koopman, 2007: 160).21

With this approach, the classroom gives students a sense of ownership of ideas and a sense of participation, and motivates them to create because of what they sense is a safer and less threatening environment promoting social and communication skills as students learn to discuss and negotiate with others (Leung & Wong, 2005: 10; Webster, 2011: 75). However, these strategies are rarely found in music programs in higher education in Thailand. Suwanvera (2002: 302) points out that many higher education programs including music depend on instructors with students taking lecture notes and memorise them for examination. More studies (Kongpetch, 2004; Forman, 2005) confirmed this, asserting that the way of teaching and learning remains structure-based content. Teaching and learning has been characterised by traditional teaching approaches which retain a strong emphasis on memorising what is prescribed by instructors. Moreover, traditional teaching approaches have been influenced by Buddhist-based Thai culture, beliefs and attitudes about how instructors should teach and how students should learn. Therefore, students paid high respect to the instructor as the main and only source of knowledge, regardless of other learning resources. The person-to-person teaching and learning in the traditional classroom environment has been the main instructional method for a long period of time (Siritongthaworn, Krairit, Dimmitt & Paul, 2006: 139).

Generally, traditional Thailand education is based on the ideal that education focuses on teaching, not learning. Music programs and also other programs at the level of higher education in Thailand use a traditional lecture method approach to instruction, which is a teacher-directed mode of teaching. This traditional way focuses on teaching the musical information and facts with direct informing and drilling of skills from the instructors. The role of instructors is as a speaker and leader while the role of students is as listeners in a fixed classroom setting and environment. Thai music instructors generally put emphasis on students’ development, providing details of knowledge, examples and experiences which focus on more quantitative than qualitative content within a given time. Therefore, if students cannot always

21 Koopman, C 2007, ‘Community Music as Music Education: on the Educational Potential of Community Music’, International Journal of Music Education, vol. 25, no. 2, pp. 151-163.

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follow the instruction, it may possibly lead to difficulty in learning and a lack of understanding and engagement in the topics. Moreover, there is little interaction between the instructors and the students during the class. I suggest that this leads to a lack of sufficient interest, motivation and engagement to attend the classroom, partly because students are not encouraged to actively participate in the class.

Additionally, most instructors including for music emphasize that effective teaching methods are those that enable students to learn by memorising rather than learning by gaining understanding. In teaching and learning in higher music education, students perceive instruction as having an emphasis on memorisation of content without focusing on communication and discussion to share ideas and experience. Some Thai scholars (Mulder, 1990; Nakamura, 1998; Knee, 1999; Saengboon, 2004) argued that in Thai society, the instructor’s role is to give accurate knowledge to students, and that knowledge should not be questioned or critiqued by students (Mulder, 1990; Knee, 1999). Students are considered to be inexperienced and not in a position to express their own ideas and opinions. Most Thai instructors including music believe that the accurate detailed descriptions for teaching are from their knowledge, information, examples and experience, so they intend to rely on their preparation with passive learning activities without asking or discussing with students’ ideas and experiences (Pumipuntu, 2006: 5). I suggest that this leads to the standard form of classroom interaction being a monologue, in which the instructor lectures and where the students are expected to listen, absorb the knowledge and take lecture notes. Students speak when the instructor asks questions or when the instructor allows them to discuss a particular issue. Moreover, this is regarded as insufficient and too narrow compared to the strategies of music teaching and learning today in other countries such as Australia. Therefore, students are being passively involved in learning music, and they are not sufficiently cultivated with the necessary skills for self-learning, critical thinking, problem solving and creative ability (Office of the National Education Council, Ministry of Education, 2003: 3). Sometime, this can lead to students’ low achievement in thinking ability and performance, as well as a lesser standard and quality in music programs in higher education.

In addition, most music instructors put their emphasis on musical instruments rather than detailed descriptions of music concepts and studies. Students spend most of their study time practicing their instrument. Students’ confidence about their ability to perform a task is much more than their ability to know and understand the concepts and interpretation of music.

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Moreover, outside the classroom, most Thai higher education institutions provide music communities for students to engage in musical activities collectively and share musical experience to develop their potential musical growth. In most cases, students are involved in active music-making such as performing, creating and improvising rather than in music concepts and appreciation.

Another feature of the ways in which music education is carried out in higher music education in Thailand is that there are no specific guidelines that need to be considered, no particular textbooks or fixed music repertoire. Instead, the content is developed by each instructor. Although the content and learning objectives have to be in accordance with the Higher Education Standard, the instructors’ choices of content, materials and goals are often based on their own individual competencies, experiences and interests. Therefore, music instruction sometimes relies on each instructor’s personal qualities, individual competencies and sense of innovation, rather than the content of the music curriculum itself. I suggest that this can possibly lead to a different standard and quality in music programs in higher education. Thus, the issue concerning equality in higher music education is raised, as the content, method and material seem to differ from institution to institution and from instructor to instructor.

In addition, Thai instructors and scholars (Chandransu, 2011; Charoensuk, 2008; Pancharoen, 2008) argued that there are some issues and problems encountered in teaching and learning music programs in higher education, as follows:

Music facilities and support limitations:

Higher music education has not been as well developed and supported in terms of facilities, sponsorships and research scholarship as other subjects, such as medicine, mathematics, sciences and economics. Music has always been one of the last concerns and priorities. Moreover, higher education institutions sometimes have limited budgets to provide teaching and learning facilities such as practice rooms, instructional tools and aids, special equipment and especially multimedia materials and components in music teaching and learning. Additionally, there is a shortage of musical instruments, and insufficient support to maintain musical instruments and equipment and even renovate practice rooms. Some instructors had to look for sponsors to donate musical instruments and equipment. I suggest that a lack of motivation and interaction in students’ attitude can possibly result from these problems.

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Music materials and resource limitations:

There are frequently limited music materials and resources to support both instructors’ preparation and students’ study. Most of the materials and resources such as textbooks and web pages are available in a foreign language, especially English, which is difficult for Thai students to read and understand themselves. Additionally, there is an insufficiency of Thai textbooks to cover all areas of music study. Music journals, publications, references and magazines containing all kinds of musical news are not widely issued and published. Therefore, with a lack of teaching facilitates and support as well as an insufficiency of materials and resources, students sometimes encounter learning difficulties and this may lead to a lack of motivation and engagement.

A lack of technology in music teaching and learning:

In general, Pumipuntu (2006: 2) argued that only a few Thai instructors understand E-learning and techniques for implementing E-learning technology in teaching and learning. The study by Siritongthaworn, Krairit, Dimmitt and Paul (2006) argued that computer literacy is one of the obstacles that Thai instructors may have to face when teaching with ICT-enhancing technology. The majority of instructors lack sufficient interest to place the teaching media in the E-learning system (Muangkeow, 2007: 10). Many disagree or refuse to change attitudes and teaching style from the typical teacher-centred approach (Pumipuntu, 2006: 3). Moreover, Nitungkorn (2001: 478) argued that higher education institutions have produced very few innovations because there is not enough incentive or a system to encourage faculty staff to conduct quality research especially in educational technology implementation. Most of all, many of them lack an opportunity to receive continual professional development in this area.

In terms of higher music education, because of budget limitations and issues of human resources in music such as a lack of IT expertise, a lack of an instructional designer, developer and programmer and a lack of hardware and software resources, integrating ICT is comparatively rare in music programs in higher education. Moreover, most music instructors are not expected to teach music using technology. Despite the general trend of extensive use of computers in everyday life, music education is not affected by technology. Not much attention is paid to producing online content and putting learning media into an E-learning system. Some might not have enough computer skill to utilize an E-learning system.

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Shortage of music instructors:

In addition, there is an insufficiency of music instructors to teach all areas of music study. Some higher education institutions might consider eliminating some of the music programs if instructors of those programs are not available. Conducting, Musicianship, orchestration, form and analysis are areas of music study where it is difficult to find an expert in higher education. As well, music programs are not taught in all higher education institutions in Thailand. This is because of a shortage of music instructors to cover the demands in teaching and learning music across the country. Consequently, students in some provinces in Thailand have no opportunity to learn music at the higher education level.

I will argue that the possible solutions for higher music education in Thailand are to adapt teaching and learning approaches, and to develop an effective educational tool to meet different learning style preferences and needs for music students. Therefore, in response to the rapid change driven by globalisation and to solve the issues and problems encountered in Thailand’s higher music education, online learning is now a positive alternative.

2.5 CURRENT CIRCUMSTANCES OF THE USE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) IN THAILAND

In Thailand, the overall use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) infrastructure is growing at a steady pace (Laohajaratsang, 2010; National Statistical Office, Ministry of ICT, 2012; Santipaporn & Kiatpisansakun, 2010). ICT has been recognized as an innovation with high potential, which has an important role in our lives, infiltrating every segment of Thailand society’s and economy over the last decade.

Table 2.1 The use of ICT in Thailand between 2007 and 201222 The use of ICT 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Proportion of individuals who use a 47.3% 52.8% 56.8% 61.8% 66.4% 70.2% mobile 28.2 m 31.8 m 34.8 m 38.2 m 41.4 m 44.1 m

Proportion of individuals who use a 26.8% 28.2% 29.3% 30.9% 32.0% 33.7% computer 16.0 m 16.9 m 17.9 m 19.1 m 19.9 m 21.1 m

22 The use of ICT in Thailand from 2007 to 2012 is taken from National Statistical Office, Ministry of ICT of Thailand, Available at http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nsopublish/themes/files/ict_hh55_rep.pdf. This resource is written in Thai language.

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The use of ICT 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Proportion of individuals who use 15.5% 18.2% 20.1% 22.4% 23.7% 26.5% the Internet 9.3 m 10.9 m 12.3 m 13.8 m 14.8 m 16.6 m Source: ICT Household Survey, National Statistical Office (2012)

The Thai people have steadily increased their usage of ICT, especially electronic devices and the Internet in their everyday activities. This is can be seen in Table 2.1 above, showing the number of mobile users has dramatically increased from 47.3% (28.2 million) in 2007 to 70.2% (44.1 million) in 2011. With the growing penetration of wireless devices and rapid technological developments, wireless technology has shifted the world of fixed internet access to mobile internet access. Thai users’ primary purposes for using a mobile is to receive news or information (59%), send SMS and MMS (45%), watch TV, listen to music or radio (21%), play game (18.4%), send Email (4.8%), surf the Internet (3.5%) and do mobile banking (0.6%) (National Statistical Office, Ministry of ICT, 2012). Undoubtedly, it is clear to note that the mobile internet has driven fundamental changes in the Thai mobile industry, business, individual life styles and society. The current circumstances in Thailand reveal that mobile internet users in 2010 made up 30% of the total number of mobile users. As well, the need to access the Internet anywhere and anytime by using mobile devices will grow and continue to increase tremendously (Office of the National Broadcasting and Telecommunications Commission of Thailand, 2010; Srinuan, Srinuan & Bohlin, 2011). Additionally, the number of computer and internet users has slightly increased from 26.8% (16.0 million) to 33.7% (21.1 million) and from 15.5% (9.3 million) to 26.5% (16.6 million), respectively between 2007 and 2012. Srinuan, Srinuan and Bohlin (2011: 255) stated that the number of internet users in Thailand is gradually increasing year by year. However, the Thai users’ primary purposes for accessing the Internet are to download movie, listen to music or radio (64.6%), play online and download games (64.1%), send Email (55.6%), read E-books (49.3), seek news and information (43.9%), participate in online education or learning activities (22.2%) and purchase good or service (5.4%); in addition, the number of users accessing social networking websites (42.5%) has dramatically increased (National Statistical Office, Ministry of ICT, 2012).

With the continuous development and expansion throughout the country, ICT has become more accessible and embedded in Thailand’s society and economy. The Government started the initiative in 1992 to set up the National IT Committee (NITC) and the National Electronics and Computer Technology Centre (NECTEC) in order to develop policies to apply and promote

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ICT development and utilization in the country. The National IT Policy called “IT2010” for the year 2000 – 2010 was conducted to develop and reinforce Thailand becoming a knowledge and innovation-based or an information-based society, which focused on technology employment and the effective use of ICT. The IT2010 policy framework consisted of three principles: 1) promoting innovation; 2) building human capital; and 3) strengthening information infrastructure and industry, as shown in Figure 2.3, through five major strategies as shown in Figure 2.4 (National Information Technology Committee Secretariat, Ministry of Science and Technology, 2003; National Electronics and Computer Technology Centre & National Science and Technology Development Agency, Ministry of Science and Technology, 2003; Thuvasetakul & Koanantakool, 2002).

Figure 2.3 IT2010 National Information Technology Policy Source: National ICT Policy in Thailand, Thuvasethakul and Koanantakool (2002)

Figure 2.4 IT2010 in five strategies Source: National ICT Policy in Thailand, Thuvasethakul and Koanantakool (2002)

41 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

The five major strategies of the National ICT Policy in Thailand are as follows:

1. e-Society which focuses on using IT for quality culture, public health participation and bridge the digital divide 2. e-Education which aims to move Thailand towards a knowledge-based society, and concerns issues of life-long learning, computer literacy, human resource development and virtual education 3. e-Government which emphasizes the utilization of IT within the public sector 4. e-Commerce which focuses on using IT for in finance, trading, export and tourism 5. e-Industry which promotes the utilization and development of IT within the private sector, focusing on e-manufacturing and IT-related industries.

The IT2010 policy framework called the National ICT Master Plan (2002 – 2006) was applied to strategic planning. The National ICT Master Plan (2009 – 2012) was developed to continue the policy under the IT2010, and also update with new policies to keep up with the changes in technology, society and economy (Santipaporn, 2010: 3). The National ICT Master Plan aims to develop and upgrade the economy and society, enhance the competitiveness of ICT industry, develop human resources by increasing the application of ICT in education and training, and strengthen rural communities for sustainable development (Ministry of ICT, 2008). Specifically for education, the National ICT Education Master Plan (2007-2011) was designed to 1) enable students to acquire technology literacy and information literacy at a fundamental level in order to access and make usage of ICT to investigate, collect and process information and data from various sources, as well as to create new knowledge; 2) integrate technological knowledge and information management skills to develop the ability to analyse, think creatively, solve problems and work in teams; 3) encourage students to develop positive values, attitudes and ethics as well as accountability for using ICT, which will be useful for lifelong learning and analytical processes; 4) increase students’ opportunity for using ICT for learning; 5) enable Higher Education institutions to support the student as the centre of the learning process in ICT-based learning; 6) ensure that students should have the opportunities to view the whole world through an ICT network, ICT literacy and the development of positive attitudes towards ICT; and 7) ensure that students use ICT through provision of computers and equipment adequate to the students’ needs, as well as increasing efficiency of available computers and equipment (Ministry of Education, 2007; Malisuwan & Sivaraks, 2008; Suanpang & Petocz, 2006).

42 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

Instead of the National ICT Education Master Plan, the Ministry of Education assigned the National Education Act to provide principles and challenging guidelines for the provision and development of Thai education in order to prepare all Thai people for a learning society in a digital divide. Chapter Nine of the National Education Act (2000; 29-31) was promulgated as follows:

Section 63: The State shall distribute frequencies, signal transmission devices, and other infrastructure necessary for radio broadcasting, television, telecommunication radio, and other media of communication for use in provision of formal, non-formal, and informal education and enhancement of religious, artistic, and cultural affairs as necessary. Section 64: The State shall promote and support the production and refinement of textbooks, reference books, academic books, publications, materials, and other technologies for education through acceleration of production capacity; provision of financial subsidy for production and incentives for producers; and development of technologies for education. In so doing, fair competition shall be ensured. Section 65: Steps shall be taken for personnel development for both producers and users of technologies for education so that they shall have the knowledge, capabilities, and skills required for the production and utilization of appropriate, high-quality, and efficient technologies. Section 66: Learners shall have the right to develop their capabilities for utilization of technologies for education as soon as feasible so that they shall have sufficient knowledge and skills in using these technologies for acquiring knowledge themselves on a continual lifelong basis. Section 67: The State shall promote research and development; production and refinement of technologies for education; as well as following-up, checking, and evaluating their use to ensure cost-effective and appropriate application to the learning process of the Thai people. Section 68: Financial resources shall be mobilized for the establishment of the Technology for Education Development Fund. These resources shall include state subsidies, concession fees and profits from enterprises relating to mass media and information, and communication technologies from all sectors concerned, namely, state sector, private sector, and other public organizations. Special fees shall be charged for the application of these technologies for human and social development. The criteria and procedures for distribution of the Fund for the production, research and development of technologies for education shall be as prescribed in the ministerial regulations. Section 69: The State shall establish a central unit responsible for proposing policies, plans, promotion and coordination of research, development and utilization of technologies for education, including matters relating to evaluation of the quality and efficiency of the production and application of the technologies for education.23

23 Office of the National Education Council, Ministry of Education 2000, the National Education Act B.E. 2542, Office of the National Education Council, Thailand, pp. 29-31.

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Suwanvera (2002: 311) argued that educational institutions must develop their information systems because they are basic to their function which is multifaceted. The vision and capability to cope with ICT and to use them to create opportunities and minimize threats are a major challenge for modern educational institutions.

2.6 INTERNET USE IN THAILAND HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS IN DISCIPLINES APART FROM MUSIC

In the current environment of Thailand’s higher education institutions, there is considerable knowledge about the media and technology through technical applications. Most higher education institutions have become more interested in the development and integration of E- learning as a new alternative to traditional instructional methods in order to provide different learning options, as well as to enhance their performance and support their quality of teaching and learning. In accordance with the Thailand National Education Act and the National ICT Education Master Plan, almost 80% have stated that E-learning has become one of Higher Education institutions’ missions (Laohajaratsang, 2009: 544). The styles of E-learning being widely used in Thailand include web-based instruction, web-based interactive learning environments and web-based multimedia presentations, which are types of learning that use asynchronous technologies to learn without limits of time and place (Saowapon, Laohajaratsaeng, Thammajinda & Singharajwarapan, 2001; Tunhikorn, 2001), as, for example, can be seen at Chulalongkorn University named Chula Online focusing on mathematics, languages, computer skills and business courses, Kasetsart University named KU Learning Network focuses on English language and mathematics, and Thammasart University focuses on languages and social sciences. As well Ramkhamhaeng University and Sukhothai Thamathirat University operate internet-based involving both face-to-face contact and independent study with the use of textbook, audiocassettes, radio and television etc.

The UniNet project was established in 1997 by the Commission on Higher Education to connect all public higher education institutions in Thailand. This project aimed to develop high-speed information access and to set up a distance learning network for the higher education institution system in order to 1) develop self-access learning centres; 2) develop courseware for collaborative use by university members and instruction via video conferencing; and 3) develop capable personnel in research, management and application of new learning

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technologies. The online education project named the Thailand Cyber University24 (TCU) was created under the mandate of the Commission on Higher Education in 2005 regarding the UniNet project in order to 1) assist all public and private Higher Education institutions to deliver distance learning via the internet; 2) ensure the quality of online course; and 3) promote the sharing of teaching resources and human resources (Laohajaratang, 2009; Saekow & Samson, 2011).

The TCU is a learning centre for all higher education institutions integrating and sharing their courseware, materials, library resources, such as e-journals, e-books and research papers, and e-community via chat rooms and web-boards. In line with other government policies already discussed, the mission of TCU is to extend the educational opportunities in quality and efficient ways for the Thai people who need a flexible schedule to gain knowledge at their convenience, irrespective of time or location and earn their certificates or degrees. At present, there are 42 public and private higher education institutions under the consortium of the TCU project developing their online courses and integrating their courses into the TCU web-based system. In addition, 17 of the study programs, with 716 of courses are available on the TCU system, for example Certificated program in Car Structure and Systems (in cooperation with the Faculty of Engineering, Kasertart University), Certificated program in Basic Computer (in cooperation with Computing Centre, Silpakorn University), Bachelor program in Science in Software Development (in cooperation with the Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bachelor program in Business Administration (in cooperation with Management in Tourism Industry, Naresuan University), International Graduate program in Social and Administrative Pharmacy (in cooperation with the Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Chulalongkorn University) and Master program in Arts in Knowledge Management (in cooperation with the Faculty of Education, Silpakorn University) etc. Moreover, the TUC project also provides 300 self-paced learning courses free of charge, such as Communication Computer Network by Chulalongkorn University, Differential Equation by Silpakorn University and Introduction to Economics by Naresuan University. The TCU has continuously developed in order to promote and provide for all Thai people widely and equally, both in the capital city and rural areas. The TCU also intends to increase the quality control of education resources, extending learning beyond classrooms, student-centred learning and national competitiveness. Refer to above, it appears that an online or distance learning is happening in Thailand only in

24 The detail of TCU is taken from the Thailand Cyber University Project, Office of the Higher Education Commission, Available at http://www.thaicyberu.go.th/index.php?lang=th. This resource is written in Thai language.

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limited programs and mainly at university. Moreover, there are no music courses integrated into this TCU project.

In the following chapter, the literature on the potential role of the ICT, particular E-learning, in music teaching and learning will be reviewed and discussed for enhancing music programs in higher education in Thailand.

46

CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter will review the current literature in two specific areas which are related to the previous chapter describing the particular background of this research study, as shown in Figure 3.1. The first part is a review of the literature on the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), especially electronic learning (E-learning) which is the primary experimental tool in this research, followed by the online learning environment versus the traditional face-to-face learning environment. The second part is a review of historical perspective on ICT in music education, followed by a review of research studies concerning the integration of ICT and internet technology into music education in terms of music history of appreciation, music theory and fundamentals, and instrumental music and performance. The purpose of this review is to seek an online music teaching program to be implemented as a part of this research study. In addition, the need for this research study will be explained in the last section.

Background of Study Literature Review (Research problem) (Research tool)

Music Education Information and In Thailand Communication Technology

Literature Review Research problem – Research tool

Information and Communication Technology in Music Education

Figure 3.1 Background of the study and Literature review

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3.1 INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)

3.1.1 Electronic Learning (E-learning)

Recently online learning, as evidenced from the literature in many studies in several countries, has demonstrated the potential for powerful technological tools, resources and applications to be widely affordable and equitably available. Thus far, I argue that well-designed E-learning instruction can provide many features to produce and develop an effective and efficient instructional tool to assist instructors and learners in Thailand through its capabilities for accessing, structuring, motivating and presenting information and communication for a new form of educational provision.

As indicated in several studies, E-learning is described by different terminologies for different types of learning technologies, with different capabilities, such as online learning, distance learning, visual learning, digital learning, flexible learning, web-based instruction (WBI), computer-aided instruction (CAI) and computer-based training (CBT) delivered over a network and Internet-based learning; all can be viewed as innovative approaches for building integrated teaching and learning environments and delivering instruction and knowledge to a remote audience using the electronic devices and web as the medium (Catherall, 2005: 2; Jung, 2001: 532; Rosenberg, 2001: 28; Tastle, Whilte & Shackleton, 2005: 242). Several studies stated that since 2000, E-learning is rapidly growing as an acceptable learning alternative for providing and delivering education and training (Hughes, 2005a: 69; Oh, 2003: 135), as well as changing the role of instructors, the role of learners, the interaction, the relationship between instructors and learners and classroom environment (Cain, 2004: 216; Courts & Tucker, 2012: 125; Forsyth, 1996: 28; Kim & Bonk, 2006: 23; Sharpe & Benfield, 2005: 5). E-learning does not generally change expertise but it can influence the way learners are taught. As well it can affect instructors in that they rethink what they teach, their role in teaching, the methods and strategies they use the values underpinning their general approach to teaching and learning (Forsyth, 1996: 14; Olse, 1988 as cited in Loveless, 2003: 17), and the way they deliver and communicate with each other during the instruction (Bennett & Lockyer, 2006: 237). Forsyth (1996: 33) argued that the instructor’s role becomes less instructional and more supportive and E-learning changes the role of learners from one of recipient to participant.

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Through E-learning, instructional materials consisting of courses, tests, resources and communicative tools in various multimedia components and formats including image, video, visual and audio, animation and video conferencing to increase learners’ motivation and engagement (Jolliffe, Ritter & Stevens, 2001: 206; Tinio, 2003: 7) is made possible. As discussed by Davis, Bagozzi and Warshaw (1992); Lee, Cheung and Chen (2005); Teo, Lim and Lai (1999); and Venkatesh (1999), the adoption of new technology into the classroom is predominantly determined by both extrinsic and intrinsic motivators. The great advantages of using technology in teaching and learning is that increased flexibility and convenience through materials and resources, several research studies consistently noted that technology, especially the internet, has a great deal to hold students’ interest and attention and influence students’ motivation, which is a strong predictor of success (Chang, 2005; Duchastel, 1997; Glore, 2010; Hoskins & van Hooff, 2005; Jolliffe, Ritter & Stevens, 2001; Keller & Suzuki, 2004; Martens, Gulikers & Bastiaens, 2004; Shroff, Vogel, Coombers & Lee, 2007). Tinio (2003: 7) argued that the computer with internet connectivity can increase learners’ motivation as it combines the media richness and interactivity of other devices with the opportunity to connect with real people and to participate in real world events. Additionally, some studies with discussion on the constructs of challenge, control, curiosity and fantasy within the context of online learning environments indicated that the instructional design including various types of content, creative approach, immediate feedback and interaction are the factors to improve students’ motivation (Chang, 2005: 219; Lee, Cheung & Chen, 2005: 1102; Shroff, Vogel & Coombes, 2007: 255; Wang & Reeves, 2006: 170). As online learning is promoted as a student- centred approach and independent learning, online learning places a variety of demands on students that exceed those typically experienced in a traditional teacher-centred classroom. Therefore, students who are successful in online environments often are self-motivated and self-regulated and students are able to structure their own learning and schedule (Eom, Wen & Ashill, 2006: 216). Consequently, the instructors play a crucial role in improving environmental factors including teaching and learning approaches and course design (interaction and materials) to increase students’ motivation (Cicco, 2007; Glore, 2010; Huett, 2006). They should pay attention to the following: how to provide variety and stimulate curiosity, make the course relevant and challenging, and provide positive outcomes. When designing instruction, instructors need to come from a place of learner-centredness (Fein & Logan, 2003: 47). The instruction should be designed to create a positive first impression, be readable, use visual and audio materials that are relevant and useful, and stimulate early interest so that students will be more likely to complete the instruction (Astleitner & Hufnagl, 2003; Carson, 2006; Fein & Logan, 2003; Gabrielle, 2003; Huett, 2006; Song, 2000).

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Several studies (Eggert, 2009; Lomine, 2002; Perry-MacLean, 2010; Offenholley, 2007; Restauri, 2006; West, 2010) reviewed the literature in integrating E-learning in teaching and learning in different areas of study, such as mathematics, chemistry, sciences, foreign languages, sport management and hospitality etc. and argued that the E-learning potentially offers instructors and learners many possibilities for enriching the teaching and learning process and environment compared to the traditional approach. They have argued, for example, that the ultimate effects for learners are to increase participation and engagement by utilizing the variety of multimedia presentations (Glore, 2010; Sun, Tsai, Finger, Chen & Yeh, 2006; Tinio, 2003), to encourage learners to study by themselves, which can possibly lead to increase learners’ self-confidence and self-regulation due to the calm environment without pressure, human forces and interactions (French, Hale, Johnson, Farr, 1999; Loveless, 2003; Torp, 2006). The design and production of attractive instruction including sight, sound and movement can eliminate the issue of geographical constraints of physical classrooms and time (Saba, 2005; Spector, 2009). As well, learners are able to easily retain previous information and knowledge because online learning enables them to keep materials and resources at a central location (Tinio, 2003). Instructors are able to easily develop, maintain and update their essential materials to make the instruction more accurate and useful for a longer period of time (Rosenberg, 2001), accessing and using huge world-wide resources, offering a wide-range of text, diagrams, and images with visual and audio components, including virtual reality technology (Rosenberg, 2006) in order to increase efficiency and to support students’ knowledge construction (Bennett & Lockyer, 2006). Instructors are able to develop and adapt highly imaginative and creative resources which are relatively easy to update (Bingimlas, 2009; Herring, 2004; Jolliffe, Ritter & Stevens, 2001; Khan, 1997). They assist instructors to manage their record keeping tasks, to cope electronically with the volume of paperwork that may take time away from classroom activities, and retain records of discussion that facilitate later reference, with the use of discussion boards (Bingimlas, 2009; Rosenberg, 2006). With the integration of technology in the classroom, this challenge may help prepare students for the technological demanding careers they will face once they graduate (Courts & Tucker, 2012: 125).

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3.1.2 Online Learning Environment versus Face-to-Face Learning Environment

A number of research studies (Eggert, 2009; Ellis, Goodyear, Prosser & O’Hara, 2006; Hunhueon, 2002; Martyn, 2004; Neuhauser, 2002; Restauri, 2006) have been conducted to investigate the principal differences between online learning in comparison with face-to-face learning environments, in particular the role of instructors (Bennett & Lockyer, 2006; Nicol & Anderson, 2000; Wallace, 2003), the role of learners (Wallace, 2003), learning style preferences and approaches (Aragon, Johnson & Shaik, 2002; Johnson & Aragon, 2003; Neuhauer, 2002), time and location (Aragon, Johnson & Shaik, 2002), productive contents and materials (Aragon, Johnson & Shaik, 2002; Caywood & Duckett, 2003), communicative tools (Bennett & Lockyer, 2006; Caywood & Duckett, 2003; Rovai & Barnum, 2003) and social network and community (Addis, Strudler & Grove, 2010; Cain, 2004; Kim & Bonk, 2006; Nguyen & Kira, 2000; Summers, Waigandt & Whittaker, 2005; Wallace, 2003) have been discussed. However, these two learning environments are fundamentally different (Johnson, Killion & Oomen, 2005: 2). Both online learning and face-to-face learning environments provide different characteristics and advantages for both instructors and learners. Zhang, Zhao, Zhou and Nunamaker (2004: 76) tabulated the advantages and disadvantages of online and face-to-face learning environments, as shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Advantages and disadvantages of online learning and face-to-face learning Online learning Face-to-Face learning Advantages  Education becomes a learner-  Presence of instructors centred approach; learning  Possibility of immediate becomes self-paced feedback and response  Learners become more  Familiarity between independent instructors and learners  Time and location flexibility  Students’ motivation by  Cost-effective for learners instructors  Motivates and encourages learners  Builds social relationship by the varied uses of multimedia  Cultivation of a social materials and components community  Potentially available to global audience  Unlimited access to knowledge and world-wide resources  Archival capability for knowledge reuse and sharing  Possible reduced preparation time to develop, update and maintain materials for instructors

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Online learning Face-to-Face learning Disadvantages  No immediate human response  Teacher-centred and interaction approach  Delay of immediate feedback and  Time and location response constraints  Lack of connection with instructors  Possible increased long-  Not comfortable for some people term preparation time who do not connect to the Internet for instructors  Potentially more frustration,  More expensive to anxiety and confusion deliver Source: Can E-learning Replace Classroom Learning?, Zhang, Zhao, Zhou and Nunamaker (2004: 76)

The characteristic of face-to-face learning is the physical presence of the instructors and learners, which encourages passive learning and creates a sense of human interaction and emotional support (Johnson, Aragon, Shaik & Palma-Rivas, 2000; Nguyen & Kira, 2000). As well, the most common medium is the lecture, with or without audio-visual aids (Nguyen & Kira, 2000). The main advantage of face-to-face teaching and learning is the immediate control of the learning process, classroom management and environment of learners by the instructors themselves as a teacher-centred approach, with immediate response, feedback, evaluation and discussion (Addis, Strudler & Grove, 2010; Nguyen & Kira, 2000). The learners have direct interaction with the instructors, as well they more easily get together for a period of time to discuss and share class projects and activities, work out any differences of opinion and information, and build social relationships (Hiltz & Wellman, 1997; Johnson, Aragon, Shaik & Palma-Rivas, 2000). Therefore, the interaction with the instructors and peers in the class is able to motivate interest in learning, and enhance the knowledge acquisition process. With this atmosphere of the classroom, it makes the closed relationship between the instructor- learner interaction and learner-learner interaction which can be one of the most important for teaching and learning environments according to Johnson, Aragon, Shaik & Palma-Rivas (2000); Summers, Waigandt & Whittaker (2005). The course delivery is controlled immediately by the instructors by adapting to specific learners and circumstances in the classroom environments (Nguyen & Kira, 2000) in order to encourage and motivate the learners to participate in the class. On the other hand, the major disadvantage of this teaching environment is limited access to time and place, which is available for a group of learners at a scheduled time in a specific classroom.

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In online learning, the learners require discipline and are responsible for their learning progress and activities without the presence of instructor. Some studies (Hill, 2002; Sharpe & Benfield, 2005; Song, Singleton, Hill & Koh, 2004) argued that instead of flexibility and convenience, time management is another factor identified as useful in online learning. Sharpe and Benfield (2005: 3) argued that online learning is often promoted as providing flexibility in time and pace of study where learners are able to work at a time of their choosing and devote as long as they wish to the online activities. Similarly, the study conducted by Allan (2004) explored how learners reconstruct their approaches to time management at an early stage in their program and go on to develop a range of different time management strategies so that they do not miss important interactions or fall behind with activities and assignments. The study conducted by Hill (2002) indicated that implementing strategies such as working at the same time and in the same space can have an impact on the success of the online learning process. A regular schedule can be established for engaging in the dialogue that occurs in an online context which allows the learners to improve their overall online learning experience.

On the other hand, several studies (Johnson and Aragon, 2003; Petride; 2002; Song, Singleton, Hill & Koh, 2004; Vonderwell, 2003; Woods, 2002) indicated similar results about students’ perceived weaknesses of online learning. The main disadvantage of online learning is the lack of interaction and communication with instructors and peers. The learners do not have immediate and real-time feedback on their response or a sense of human interaction and emotional support. In asynchronous online discussion, students have to wait for others to read and respond to their bulletin board postings or E-mail message. Similarly, Voderwell’s study (2003) found that the delay in immediate feedback from the instructor was one of the main weaknesses of online learning, as well as he indicated a lack of connection with the instructors, especially one-on-one relationship with the instructor is another weakness.

As discussed by Hill (2002); Song, Singleton, Hill and Koh (2004); Vonderwell (2003) and Woods (2002), the lack of a sense of community and feelings of isolation are the other disadvantages of online learning. The study by Vonderwell (2003: 82) indicated that online learners reported a lack of connection with the instructor, especially one-on-one relationship with the instructor. Another study by Woods (2002: 389) indicated that online learners reported feeling isolated from faculty as well as other learners in the online courses they had taken. He also discussed that the lack of face-to-face interactions can lead to feelings of isolation and disconnection. Hill (2002: 71) expressed her opinion that as the elapses, the feelings of isolation can grow, leaving

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learners feeling as if they are ‘all alone in cyberspace’; moreover, it can also place learners in a situation where they lose track of the interactions and conversations occurring in the online courses (Hill, 2002: 73). In addition, John, Aragon, Shaik and Palma-Rivas (2000: 46) argued that face-to-face learners received live and dynamic forms of support from the instructors while the online group received support in a form of one way static communication. Similarly, Muilenburg and Berge (2005: 38) argued the most critical barriers to online learning include social interactions, instructor issues, time and support for studies and learners’ participation. Hara & Kling (2000); Mason & Weller (2000); Song, Singleton, Hill and Koh, (2004) argued that online learning can pose obstacles to students’ learning such as technical problems with the use of technology and a lack of understanding of goals and objectives. The study conducted by Muilenburg and Berge (2005: 41) indicated that without experiences in online learning, students might also feel a lack of success which possibly affects student learning. Moreover, without the guidance of the instructors, the learners might take more time to adjust to new technological tools and procedures and to acquire relevant information with which they are not accustomed (Addis, Strudler & Grove, 2010; Moallem, 2003; Nguyen & Kira, 2000). However, Song, Singleton, Hill and Koh (2004: 68) mentioned that this can be accomplished in a variety of ways, for example 1) providing mechanisms where learners can ask questions to assist and improve their understanding of expectations; and 2) providing overviews of the tools used for the course or hands-on workshops with the technology that will be used in the online learning instruction. It is also equally important to help learners understand that problems are going to occur.

Aragon, Johnson and Shaik (2002: 242) mentioned that technologies allow more opportunities for a variety of instructional delivery techniques on a regular basis. By design, the online environment will require students to utilize reflective observation including watching, listening and thinking abilities because of the way the online materials are organized and delivered. Moreover, because of the nature and flexibility of the online approach, online learners have more opportunities to draw on these abilities than those taking a face-to-face approach. In contrast, by nature and design, a face-to-face environment can facilitate learning through more hands-on, active approaches and interactions than one can encounter in the online environment (Aragon, Johnson & Shaik, 2002: 242).

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Although some scholars do not support online learning because they do not believe it actually addresses difficult teaching and learning problems and interaction (Conlon, 1997 as cited in Johnson, Aragon, Shaik & Palma-Rivas, 2000: 30), several more recent studies have embraced online learning arguing that it is a valuable learning experience (Caywood & Duckett, 2003; Glore, 2010; Johnson, Aragon, Shaik & Palma-Rivas, 2000; Johnson, Killion & Oomen, 2005; Renes & Strange, 2011; Roval & Barnum, 2003). However, many researchers believe that online learners will have experiences and challenges that differ from their experiences in a face-to-face learning environment such as learning content in multiple formats and in motivating ways, allowing for individual focus and control, organising time and schedule, encouraging active learning and collaborative interaction.

Accordingly, I suggest that in response to rapid change driven by globalisation, educational reforms over the last decade have focused on the use of technology in developing best practices in teaching and learning, as discussed above. Moreover, a review of the literature shows that acceptance of online learning is increasing and presenting a challenge for several subjects for modern education in many countries. Therefore, it is appropriate that higher education including music programs in Thailand should be turning to online learning as a mainstream delivery medium. This may encourage greater numbers of Thai students to have opportunities for engaging, interactive and efficient new learning experiences.

3.2 INTEGRATING INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT) IN MUSIC EDUCATION

3.2.1 Historical Perspective on ICT in Music Education

With internet technology regarded as a potential delivery system for recent traditional computer functions in music instruction, it is appropriate to consider the applications of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), particularly computer technology and other digital devices in music education and their historical development.

ICT has emerged as a significant factor in music teaching and learning since the 1950s. Most music instructors and researchers at that time believed that technology brought many challenges and changes to teaching and learning approaches as well as the role of the instructors and students (Cain, 2004: 216) but the barriers included 1) cost; 2) technological

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development; 3) lack of technical skills in the use of technology; 4) lack of familiarity and experience with technology; 5) lack of study regarding the use of technology; and 6) lack of study regarding the most effective instructional strategies in actual use (Bauer, Reese & McAlloster, 2003: 290; Peters, 1984: 35). Despite these concerns, most researchers, instructors and students began to employ some sort of technology in their musical lives and experiences in order to be supportive of fundamental and practical changes and opportunities for composing music as well as teaching and learning music.

In the initial period of computer development, as well as the early period of actual instructional computing, few practical studies were conducted in music education (Berz & Bowman 1995: 17). Since the 1970s, Computer-Assisted Instruction (CAI) has been developed and accepted widely as an effective mode of music teaching and learning. It developed and evolved from imitating a classroom format for new CAI procedures. Early CAI for music teaching and learning was generally developed as a guide for instruction with a drill-and- practice program or a programmed instruction delivered on the computer (Berz & Bowman, 1995; Brandao, Wiggins & Pain, 1999; Higgins, 1992; Jonassen, 1993; Walls, 1997) particularly to teach music fundamentals, theory, ear-training and aural skills (Brandao, Wiggins & Pain, 1999; Walls, 1997). The earliest examples of CAI in music teaching and learning included the Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations (PLATO) system as a mainframe CAI system with touch sensitive panel input at the University of Illinois (Berz & Bowman, 1995; Peters, 1977; Williams & Webster, 2008), the Grade Units for Interactive Dictation Operations (GUIDO) system as a mainframe system for teaching ear training and music theory at the University of Delaware, as well as this system ran through a network for subscribers to use at the University of Akron, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale and the University of Nebraska at Omaha (Eddins, 1981; Hofstetter, 1981), and the Melodic Dictation Computerized Instruction (MEDICI) system as a CAI teaching in melodic dictation at Florida State University (Taylor, 1980). Microelectronic technology was developed to expand the scope of existing computer learning applications to improve instructional strategies and delivery. It increased the range of applications of computers by its inclusion of high-speed graphics for music notation, voice input for teaching singing and orchestral simulation for teaching orchestration and conducting. As well, microelectronic could produce music notation, generate aural stimuli, judge response and diagnose learning problems (Hofstetter, 1979: 40). Hofstetter also noted that the potential impact of microelectronic technology on music teaching and learning was certainly considerable (Hofstetter, 1979: 40). This technology was not only simpler and less

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expensive than the computer, but cost-effectiveness led to their proliferation, making them far more accessible to the students (Berz & Bowman, 1995: 21; Hofstetter, 1979: 43).

Along with the development of the Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI), digital sampling technology has been available since the early 1980s. MIDI was developed as a system of communication for the transmission of data to and from electronic musical instruments and computers (Webster 2002: 40). MIDI was increasingly used by music instructors and students for their performance and composition, sequencing and even live-performance and also provided students’ creative explorations and experiences (Beckstead, 2001: 46). In the mid 1980s, the first MIDI piano or reproducing piano was created. The MIDI piano, not a digital piano, was developed as an instrument that combines a conventional acoustic piano with MIDI technology. Specialised sensors in the MIDI piano convert all information such as notes, duration, key velocity and pedal controls of performance into MIDI data. Data can be stored for future playback (Tsao-Lim, 2006: 24). Additionally, there have been a number of new computer-based multimedia approaches providing users with a variety of high-quality digital audio and video resources. Specifically, hypermedia is defined as a computer-based system of content that is structured by access points known as ‘links’ (Bodley, 2000: 21) was developed to make instruction more adaptable to various media with less cost (Berz & Bowman, 1995: 19), and allow students to explore in a non-sequential way the content information within the system, using the tools for movement given within the system (Bodley, 2000:21). Generally, hypertext was an approach to information management in which data are connected by links that allow nonlinear or non-sequential organisation of text, while hypermedia was simply an extension of hypertext that incorporates other media in addition to text. Consequently, the orientation of hypermedia has continued to evolve with the increasing interest in graphical browser of the World Wide Web. Most of the browsers have hypertexted links. These links have been far more broadly based than discreet applications. As an earlier stage of hypermedia, there was little investigation into how internet browsers influenced the orientation of hypermedia and its use in music educational settings (Berz & Bowman, 1995: 19).

Berz and Bowman (1995: 18) identified the years since the late 1980s as ‘the period of emerging technologies’. Technological learning systems were aimed toward developing complex, content-oriented learning environments that were more instructionally flexible. These were fuelled by both improved delivery tools in terms of power, speed and flexibility,

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and advances in learning theory that were less oriented than in the past (Berz & Bowman, 1995: 18; Ross, Sullivan & Tennyson, 1992: 6). As well, Lamb (1992: 41) argued that multimedia is a form of instructional technology and may become the most common form of instructional technology to make learning an active process, stimulating, engaging and fun (Lamb, 1992: 36), and to allow students to generate, explore and refine the cognitive process of learning in music (Naughton, 1997: 114; Savage, 2007: 151). Crow (2006: 123) stated that particularly in the 21st century, powerful computers and fast internet connections have become affordable and widely available. Internet technology has provided the opportunity to explore the possibilities of transforming and sharing music teaching and learning through the computer, especially YouTube; moreover, the internet now enables enhanced music classroom practice and community understanding. Moreover, the technology’s capability to manipulate audio has meant that instructors and students can handle, create and communicate music using their computer. They can also employ music software and computer hardware operation, which does not require musical and technical skills or conceptual understanding (Crow, 2006: 123). Also, Isaacson (2002: 1) noted that the Internet provides a number of new options for learning to access the content and to interact with an instructor and other students, for example live streaming audio and video, in which pre-recorded or live media are delivered to the students; interactive video, in which cameras, microphones and monitors are installed in two or more locations and interaction can take place as video-conferencing; and web-based course management systems which provide course materials, assigned-tasks, discussion boards demonstrated in various multimedia materials and tools.

In addition, music commercial software application packages have continued to grow in number and functionality, with digital audio software among the most pervasive (Williams & Webster, 2008: 426). Music programs with notation software such as Finale25 and Sibelius26 allow musicians to compose, arrange, edit and print their own compositions. Sequencing software, such as Cakewalk Sonar27, WavePad Audio Edition Software28 and Master Track Pro29provides sound mixing, editing, recording and playback features. As well, Adobe Audition Software30 provides the professional tools to conduct video and audio productions sound and handle a wide range of audio production including recording, mixing and sound restoration.

25 Finale, Available at http://www.finalemusic.com/default.aspx 26 Sibelius. Available at http://www.sibelius.com/home/index_flash.html 27 Cakewalk Sonar, Available at http://www.cakewalk.com/products/sonar/ 28 WavePad Audio Edition Software, Available at http://www.nch.com.au/wavepad/index.html 29 Master Track Pro, Available at http://www.gvox.com/mtp.php 30 Adobe Audition Software, Available at http://www.adobe.com/products/audition.html

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Moreover, music fundamentals software, such as Morton Subotnick’s Making Music, followed by Making More Music31, Harmonic Vision’s MusicAce32, Practica Musica or Microsoft Music Instruments33 provide guided instructions, games and creative techniques in basic theory and knowledge in a musical and meaningful way, and also to test previously learned materials. These software applications have made study easy and convenient (Cain, 2004: 217), allowing instructors and students to incorporate composing, arranging, editing, sampling, sequencing and mixing activities.

Undoubtedly, with an information-based society, students today do not know a world without digital technologies. They tend to have familiarised themselves with ICT innovations. They are products of the digital age in that they have spent their lives surrounded by and using computers, the internet, video games, digital music players, mobile phones, mobile internet, and all the other digital devices and formats of what is also called the information age (Wise, Greenwood & Davis, 2011: 118). Cain (2004: 216) suggested that a change of music curriculum is necessary if the world of the classroom is going to keep pace with the world outside, and it is necessary to have a clearly defined theory which allows instructors to commit themselves intellectually to the change. In addition, Merrick (2002: 103) stated:

Music educators must make a concerted effort to upgrade their internet skills and really try to employ the numerous resources available through the Internet as part of their ongoing teaching practice. Similar to other types of music technology, the internet should be viewed as another resource that helps to extend learning at all levels in the classroom. The World Wide Web is a boundless source of information that can be accessed from any remote part of the world (Merrick, 2002: 103).34

As indicated above, internet technology is available and ready for use in music education. Therefore, music instructors, especially Thai music instructors, should in time, come to know and feel comfortable with technological tools for producing music and being supportive of the quality and character of what is taught and learned in music now and in the future (Cain, 2004; Hargreaves, Marshall & North, 2003; Savage, 2007; Williams & Webster, 2008).

31 Morton Subotnick’s Making Music, Available at http://www.creatingmusic.com/ 32 Harmonic Vision’s MusicAce, Available at http://www.harmonicvision.com/mafact.htm 33 Practica Musica, Available at http://www.ars-nova.com/pm6info/pm6features.html 34 Merrick, B 2002, ‘The Internet and Technology in Music Education – Are Teachers Adapting their Skills or Not?’, in Southcott, J & Smith, R (eds), Community of Researchers: Proceedings of the 32nd Annual Conference, Australian Association for Research in Music Education, Melbourne, pp. 99-103.

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3.2.2 Research Studies on the Integration of ICT into Music Education

The development and proliferation of ICT, especially computer and internet technology in the music classroom has been particularly rapid over the last decade and its presence has had major implications for music instructors, scholars and researchers. There have been numerous interests among music instructors in technology used to support teaching and learning in the music classroom, and potentially challenge the traditional lecture approach to music teaching and learning (Savage, 2007: 142). As this present study trials an E-learning approach dealing with the content of musical knowledge of Classical music history, musical understanding of Classical style and skill in playing Classical piano music, research studies to be discussed below incorporated the use of ICT for teaching and learning three different areas of study: 1) music appreciation and history; 2) music theory and fundamentals; and 3) instrumental music and performance in colleges and universities. These studies are important in the background of the present study as well as in the development of new applications, although some research studies are outdated now. The results of these studies are varied: some findings show significant gains in students’ achievement, attitudes and satisfaction using technology; others demonstrate that the traditional lecture approach was equally or more effective. It is essential to understand the modes of implementation of computer and internet technology in music education. Applications of technology, in music, have developed from their rudimentary, declarative and behaviouristic early forms to modern creative tools. In addition, a review of the literature will offer several ideas and many factors related to students’ and instructors’ perception of computer and online learning including students, interaction, content and technology, as shown in Table 3.2. These factors give insight into the importance of instructional design and adequate access to appropriately reliable technology which are all essential and useful as a background for designing and developing an E-learning program and conducting this research study.

Table 3.2 Previous research studies on the integration of ICT into music education Author Areas of music Contributions Aspects related to the Approaches (Year) studies (ICT instructions) present study Ajero Instrumental MIDI Guided Technology: focusing on (2007) music (piano) accompaniment vs. instruction different technologies in CAI delivering piano instruction to group piano students

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Author Areas of music Contributions Aspects related to the Approaches (Year) studies (ICT instructions) present study Arenson Chorale part- Software packages Drill and Content: focusing on (1995) writing & practice delivering the content of harmonisation program music theory Bauer Music CD-Rom Exploratory Content and interaction: (1994) appreciation program using exploratory (Strauss’s music) approach to deliver the content of music appreciation. Benson Instrumental MIDI, Videotape vs. Devices Technology: focusing on (2002) music (piano) Multimedia different technologies in computer delivering piano presentation instruction to group piano students Betts & Harmonisation & MIDI Drill and Technology: focusing on Cassidy Sight-reading accompaniment practice different devices in (2000) skills at the piano program learning instrumental music Elliott Music PowerPoint Guided Interaction: using (2003) appreciation presentation instruction PowerPoint presentation (Kamien’s music to deliver the content of appreciation music appreciation textbook) Hagen Sight-reading at Commercial Drill and Technology: focusing on (2001) the piano software packages practice different software (Finale vs. program packages in learning Harmony) instrumental music Hill Music Overhead and Devices Technology: focusing on (1972) appreciation filmstrip media comparing different learning styles between with and without technology He Note-reading CAI Guided Technology: focusing on (1995) skills instruction & different approaches Instructional between a guided game instruction and an instructional game Hinson History of Commercial Guided Content: focusing on (2004) Western Art software packages instruction delivering the content of music (OnMusic music appreciation Application) Hopkins Form and analysis CAI Guided Interaction and student: (2002) (theme variation) instruction focusing on students’ & perceptions in different Exploratory styles of learning with CAI program

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Author Areas of music Contributions Aspects related to the Approaches (Year) studies (ICT instructions) present study Hunter Music Online learning Exploration Interaction, content and (2011) appreciation program student: focusing on (jazz history) students’ satisfaction and outcome on online learning Jacobsen Music CAI Drill and Content: focusing on (1986) fundamental practice delivering the content of (notation and program music theory rhythm) Jumpeter Music CAI Flexible Content: focusing on (1980) appreciation program delivering the content of (jazz and rock) music appreciation Lockett Instrumental Online learning Exploratory Interaction, content and (2010) music (bass program student: focusing on guitar) students’ satisfaction and outcome on online learning Lin Music theory, Software packages Guided Content: focusing on (2005) music instruction, delivering the contents of appreciation & Drill and music theory and music Composition practice appreciation program & Creative program McCabe Music Online learning Exploratory Interaction, content and (2007) appreciation program student: focusing on students’ satisfaction about the interaction on online learning McGregor Music rudiments Online learning Exploratory Interaction and content: (2007) & Drill and using online learning to practice deliver the content of program music theory Pan Music Commercial Drill and Technology: focusing on (2001) fundamentals software packages practice different data input (MusicAce) program devices in learning with technology Parrish Music theory Software packages Drill and Content: focusing on (1994) (music reading (MusiCard) practice delivering the content of and aural skills) program music theory Placek Music history and CD-Rom Guided Content: focusing on (1992) musical style instruction delivering the content of characteristics music appreciation Schachter Instrumental Commercial Guided Content: focusing on (1999) music (piano) software packages instruction delivering piano (Robert Race Music & Drill and instruction for Piano Series) practice program

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Author Areas of music Contributions Aspects related to the Approaches (Year) studies (ICT instructions) present study Sterling Form and analysis Software packages Guided Content – focusing on (2002) (InForm) instruction delivering the content of and analysis Teter Music Video- audio Devices Technology: focusing on (1995) appreciation recording vs. different devices in (opera) Audio-recording learning the content of music appreciation Therrien Music theory and Commercial Flexible Content – focusing on (1997) aural training software packages program delivering music theory (Practica Musica) Tomzcak Instrumental Software packages Guided Content: focusing on (1999) music (piano) instruction delivering piano & Drill and instruction practice program Wilson Music CAI Drill and Content: focusing on (1981) fundamentals practice delivering the content of (Notation and program music theory rhythm) Wright Music Online learning Exploratory Interaction and student: (2007) appreciation program focusing on students’ satisfaction about the interaction on online learning

In order to help define a new pedagogical paradigm for integrating E-learning into music programs in higher education in Thailand, each of these research studies, as shown in the above table will be described. In general, they reveal typical research approaches, methods of curricula integration, types of interaction with the computer and unique instructional tools using digital tools and devices.

3.2.2.1 Research Studies on the Integration of ICT in Music history and Appreciation Teaching

Bodley, 2000; Bauer, 1994; Duitman, 1993; Elliott, 2003; Hill, 1972; Hinson, 2004; Jumpeter, 1980; Placek, 1992; Teter, 1995 have contributed to the literature on integration of ICT in music history and appreciation teaching and as this is the subject area of the research experimental in the present research, I will discuss them individually below.

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The studies conducted by Hill (1972) and Jumpeter (1980) are regarded as the earliest studies in the integration of ICT in music history and appreciation. Hill (1972) investigated the integration of visual aids to teach music appreciation for a course entitled ‘Introduction to Music’ for pre-college students from the general college at Gardner-Webb College, North Carolina. Hill divided students into two groups; the first group used a conventional method of lecture-discussion and class assignments, while the second group used overhead and filmstrip media as visual aids. Hill developed the visual aids consisting of 40 filmstrips with sound recordings of the basic elements of music (rhythm, pitch and melody, harmony and form) and eight filmstrips correlated with recordings of the history of music. These visual aids were made up of prints, paintings, charts, photographs and other materials. Once the devices were set up in the designated area, the students were instructed as to its use. Students access to the visual aids and viewing machine, along with the cassette-tape recordings, were controlled by the library desk under the guidance of the head librarian. The pretest and posttest were conducted to investigate students’ achievement regarding the use of visual aids for instruction. Hill found students in both groups showed similar gains in achievement after learning with different instructional methods but there was no significant difference. Those students who were taught through a concentrated exposure to visual aids showed no greater overall increase in achievement than those who were taught by the conventional methods of lecture-discussion who also made progress.

Jumpeter (1980) developed his own Computer-Assisted Instruction using Keller’s method called Personalized System of Instruction (PSI), a highly flexible program with instruction materials to help students progress through a course and provide immediate feedback on their performance. PSI was originally designed by Keller as a classroom-based method of instruction with the intention of improving student achievement (Grant & Spencer, 2003). PSI had a flexible course design and delivery and provided students with a structure that facilitates independent learning. One of the most effective features of PSI is its insistence that individual students take active responsibility for their own learning (Coldeway & Spencer, 1982). Jumpeter investigated whether the PSI could be an effective method of instruction for teaching jazz and rock portions of a music appreciation courses for college students. He divided students into two groups: the experimental group used study guides, listening tapes and mastery tests and the control group used lecture-demonstration experiences and notes given by the instructor. Materials used in this study by the experimental group consisted of study guides, listening tapes and mastery tests, while materials for the control group consisted

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of the lecture-demonstration experiences and notes given by the researcher. Jumpeter found both groups produced significant gains in learning, but no significant difference between the two groups. It may be interesting to note that although the technological approach as a part of music education has been somewhat neglected by the average music instructor because of a lack of research done to prove the worth of technology (Bauer, Reese & McAlloster, 2003: 290; Hill, 1972: 10; Peters, 1984: 35), both Hill’s and Jumpeter’s studies revealed the possibility of the use of technology could increase their students’ learning outcomes. Hill also suggested that “if music education is to continue to motivate and excite the learner, then music instructors must learn to use every appropriate device possible” (1972: 12).

Research studies conducted by Placek (1992), Duitman (1993) and Bauer (1994) utilized a CD- Rom for music students as the medium to deliver the contents of music appreciation. The study of Placek and Duitman focused on group outcomes, while Bauer focused on understanding individual students, and learning styles and success with a CD-Rom. Placek developed a CD-Rom as a tutorial that students enrolled in Music for Elementary Teachers at the University of Illinois used to review the content including music history and musical style characteristics provided after-the class lab. Placek’s program was designed for the purpose of affording students’ experience with such standard procedures in the lesson, as moving to succeeding frames, calling for judgments, and branching to HELP units. The routine task was to ask students questions such as Beethoven’s date and year of birth, asking to type the names of the open string of the violin or to fill in the missing time signature. A wrong answer caused the students press HELP. Students could learn from HINT and HELP units. Placek found that students showed a significant difference in the post-test, compared to students who did not use those tools. Additionally, Duitman’s study used a similar approach with the listening project for students who were majoring in music, theatre and art enrolled in the Music Appreciation course at Dordt College. Students were divided into two groups. Both groups received similar content in the class but received different independent listening materials: the experimental group used CD-Rom (listening and reading resources) and the control group used audio compact disc (listening). Duitman developed a CD-Rom using hypermedia approach containing listening and information resources, such as reading materials about the composition, the composers and listening quizzes. The findings indicated that students in the experimental group made a significant improvement on the posttest compared to the pretest, as did the control group. The mean improvement made be the experimental group, though not significant, was slightly higher than the mean improvement score of the control group.

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Nevertheless, both groups increased their scores substantially. He also collected qualitative data in the form of final project essays, finding that students expressed a positive attitude towards the CD-Rom instruction. Duitman claimed that hypermedia is a useful resource tool for a listening project. Duitman also concluded that “time was a critical factor in the instructional equation. Students in the hypermedia group not only spent a significant greater number of hours using the program, but they also complained more about not having enough time” (Duitman, 1993: 59). This seems to suggest that students need and want to spend more time with a hypermedia resource.

Both the Placek (1992) and Duitman (1993) studies were designed to gather music appreciation course data, such as specific musical facts directed from tests and quizzes, and general musical knowledge but not necessarily the broader understanding students may have developed, while Bauer (1994) used a more broadly designed study. Bauer developed a CD- Rom tutorial and an expository teaching method to determine whether one mode of instruction was better than the other mode in the Music Appreciation Class at Kent State University. He also collected data from the study participants about the kinds of environments that make learning more productive. Bauer’s program focused on Strauss’ music and contained nine sections: 1) ‘a Pocket guide’ to provide both general and detailed overviews of each tone poem; 2) ‘Close reading’ to provide continuous, real-time commentary and illustrations to accompany the performances; 3) ‘Master orchestrator’ to explore Strauss’ use of the ; 4) ‘Inside the score’ to provide a detailed analysis of various aspects of the tone poems; 5) ‘the Tone poem’ to describe the evolution of the Romantic tone poem and Strauss’ contribution to it; 6) ‘Pragmatic Romantic’ to examine Strauss’ life and times with musical examples; 7) ‘Prankster’s game’ to test students’ knowledge of the tone poems; 8) More reading to provide an annotated bibliography with suggestions for continuing students’ exploration of Strauss and his music; and 9) Glossary to define the musical, cultural and historical terms associated with the tone poems. Bauer found that there was no significant difference due to the results of pre/post-tests between the two groups; however, he realized that music instructors need to be aware that their classrooms are comprised of students of various learning styles for which technology might provide a means of helping certain students to more fully reach their potential in the music classroom. Bauer expressed the opinion that “the technology may possibly be a way for students to become more complete and knowledgeable musicians, developing listening skills and acquiring musical knowledge that they will be able to use throughout their lives” (Bauer, 1994: 107). Duitman’s and Bauer’s

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studies pointed out some of the possible limitations of hypermedia and expository teaching method, and attempted to determine the effects of learning style differences on the use of hypermedia and expository teaching method dealing with music appreciation content. Their instruction allowed students explore learning resources and materials independently. This information may help the design and development of this present E-learning.

The study conducted by Teter (1995) compared the effectiveness of presentation modules of opera instruction through video recordings (audio-visual files) and audio recordings (audio files) in terms of producing cognitive achievement, increasing positive attitudes, and improving the commitment of individuals to attend live opera performance by using pre/post-tests. Various multimedia materials were incorporated to teach opera for non-music students enrolled in a Music Appreciation Course (Introduction to Concert Music) at the University of Southern California. Teter divided his class into two groups consisting of the experimental group that watched and listened to opera performances, laser discs recordings with subtitles, which were projected onto a large screen, while the control group listened only to the audio portion of the same performances, and was provided with identical translations of the opera texts. The findings indicated that there was no significant difference; both groups achieved similar cognitive gains. Moreover, both the audio and the audio-video approaches to teaching opera were shown to be equally effective methods of opera instruction, but the control group showed a slightly higher positive attitude increase than did those in the experimental group. In contrast, the experimental group showed more interest to attend the live opera performance than the control group because of the influences from watching the videos. Teter argued that the multimedia materials used in this study proved to be most effective in classroom use, but the expense of such material could initially be a barrier. Although Teter’s study used the simplest instructional aids (video and audio recordings), the results showed significant gains in students’ achievement and attitude. Teter argued that “the visual element of the opera presentations appears to have contributed to this increase, albeit a narrow margin of difference” (Teter, 1995: 23). Teter attempted to determine the effects of learning style difference on the use of different media dealing with music appreciation content, particularly in operatic music. Teter’s study showed the possible limitations of the simplest tools namely video recordings and audio recording, while these are essential to the present E-learning study, to support students’ learning, appropriate media for each area of music study should be considered.

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Another listening project conducted by Bodley (2000) examined the use of a research- designed, Computer-Based Instruction system to support music appreciation instruction at an urban community college located in a moderately large city (population 500,000) in California. There were 52 volunteers participating in this study. An Interactive Listening Guide (ILG) program was intentionally designed as an interactive approach commonly used in music appreciation and music history textbooks. The ILG program provides background content and factual information (about the composer, the piece and technical terms) with a listening guide for each musical selection played. Specific visual analogies to the presentation of content, text and listening guide information were conceived and implemented in the software system. Bodley divided participants into two groups with different methods of instruction. The experimental group received the musical examples on audio compact discs which accompanied the textbook and were played using the computer’s CD-Rom controlled by the ILG program, as well the control group received instruction presented by the same instructor, using traditional media, writing on the board, reading from the textbook and listening to an audio compact disc. His findings indicated although the achievement related to musical listening did not show any distinguishable difference between the two groups, the findings revealed participants’ affective response to music, rather than the cognitive understanding of the concepts and facts. Bodley also claimed that the ILG program is effective as a tool in promoting enjoyment of the instructional experience. He concluded that “the ILG program was effective in enhancing the presentation instruction in music appreciation class in that it improved participants’ enjoyment of music listening, and their attitude towards the technological experience” (Bodley, 2000: 129). Bodley also noted that factors associated with the design and use of computer-based systems enabled students to focus more on the perception of music while listening to it. Therefore, it can be claimed that interactive listening guides could add enjoyment to future listening experiences. The achievement of this finding would be desirable for many researchers who undertake the task of designing technology for instruction.

In a study by Elliott (2003), the Microsoft PowerPoint program was used as Computer-Based Instruction for a Music Appreciation Class. Elliot developed the content and other information such as images and listening files based on Kamien’s (1998) Music Appreciation textbook and CD-ROM35. The detailed descriptions from Kamien’s textbook were demonstrated using PowerPoint presentations with visual and audio materials. Elliott investigated students’

35 Kamien, R 1998, Music: an Appreciation, McGraw-Hill Higher Education, New York.

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preferences between computer-based instruction that assist the instructor to move quickly through the material, and traditional lecture-demonstration instruction. Students received both traditional lecture-demonstration and multimedia computer-based instruction. The class received those first three units via computer presentation and the second three through traditional lectures, and they completed a survey. The results indicated that 23% of students showed a preference for the traditional lecture-demonstration method, while 77% responded that they would prefer a computer-based presentation. The findings indicated that the use of computer-based presentation did not negatively impact on the pace of instruction, and might actually help to keep students focused upon the classroom activities. Additionally, the students also indicated that the computer-based instruction was interesting, as well as it was easy to read on the computer screen. Moreover, students commented that “a visual component to the traditional lecture-demonstration model was a factor in subjects’ perception of enhanced instructor delivery, maintained interest better than traditional lectures, provided better visual information than traditional visual aids and helped them take better notes” (Elliott, 2003: 72). It may be interesting to note that PowerPoint presentation appears to be one of the most effective tools for presentation graphic slides for use in the classroom (Apperson, Laws & Specpansky, 2008). The content of the slides can reflect the educational purpose of the presentations. The use of texts and graphics on slides can be used for the creation of visually clear, dynamic and attention capturing presentations. This aid in the order and pacing of the lecture makes it easier for instructors to present clear summaries (Susskind, 2005). Moreover, this aid can be linked to online pages from where the students can download them, print them and revisit them if they need to (Szabo & Hastings, 2000). Elliott’s study is essential to the background of this present study because he pointed out some limitations of PowerPoint presentation dealing with music appreciation content. This information may help the design and development of this present traditional teaching material.

Instead of investigating the effects of technology in students’ learning achievement on music appreciation, Hinson’s study (2004) focuses on students’ attitudes towards Western , which is essential to the present study. Hinson utilized commercial software called OnMusic Appreciation36 for teaching in the music appreciation class at Catawba Valley Community College in Hickory, North Carolina. OnMusic Appreciation helps students understand and develop critical skills on selected genres, styles and periods in the Western music. The materials consisted of an interactive textbook and more than 400 full-length pieces with

36 OnMusic Appreciation, Available at http://www.connect4education.com/support/oma/index.htm

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listening guides, which allow students to explore through textbook and listening concepts. Hinson divided students into two classes; traditional and computer instruction. A pre/post test was used to compare the significant differences in attitudes between two groups of music appreciation students. Following a 14-week period of music appreciation instruction, the post- test was collected in the same manner as the pre-test, indicating that both groups expressed a positive attitude with no significant differences between the attitude levels of the two groups. However, software students reported that it was enjoyable and they had greater confidence in their abilities to complete intermediate computer tasks, such as downloading and installing software and gaining access to multimedia, as well they gave the reason to favour that mode of instruction as they could work on the course at an independent pace. Hinson (2004: 100) argued that:

The absence of significant differences in music appreciation students’ attitudes toward music resulting from the mode of instructional delivery could be attributed to the greater confidence levels of the software students in accessing multimedia. These findings suggested that as computer literacy increases within the culture any negative effects of software instruction resulting from inferior computer skills will be minimized (Hinson, 2004: 100).

3.2.2.2 Research Studies on the integration of ICT in Music Theory and Fundamentals Teaching

Several research studies integrating ICT into music theory and fundamentals classes have focused on activities for teaching and learning music notation or performing aural tests, involving recognition and dictation of rhythm patterns, musical intervals, melody patterns, chord qualities and harmonic progression, which allow the students to practice in convenient and less stressful conditions and perform without the instructors. Many researchers have contributed to the literature in this area (Arenson, 1995; Dobber, 1998; Hopkin, 2002; Jacobsen, 1986; Kuyper, 1981; Lin, 2005; Pan, 2001; Parrish, 1994; Sterling, 2002; Therrien, 1997; Wilson, 1981) will be discussed individually below.

Although the technologies were not yet advanced, the studies conducted by Kuyper (1981), Wilson (1981) and Jacobsen (1986) developed their own Computer-Assisted Instruction, with drill-and-practice programs in the area of music fundamentals. Their purpose was to determine the effectiveness of CAI program with drill-and-practice programs in the fundamentals of notation and rhythm integrated into instruction by dividing students into two groups consisting of with CAI and without CAI. Kuyper developed a computer-based teaching

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system called ‘Music Instruction System in Theory-lowa’ (MISTI). His study assessment confirmed that the system accommodated students with differing levels and proved to be a significant asset when used in an undergraduate teaching environment. In contrast, Wilson developed a sequence of CAI program to deliver the content of rhythm, melody, key signatures, scales, harmony and terminology for non-music majors in an elementary music method class. Jacobsen applied CAI for teaching music notation and rhythm in five areas consisting of note types, note names, rhythm, and key signature and counting to his music class at the University of Northern Colorado. They concluded although no significant differences were found in the gains in achievement between the two groups, the CAI method was as effective as the traditional method in increasing notational and rhythmic identification skills. As well drill-and-practice programs have been found to be successful in supporting the students to meet their individual practice needs. Wilson argued that the CAI program was a positive learning tool that could increase students’ motivation, while Jacobsen stated that the CAI program could make the instruction more interesting and retain the subject in the computer mode for the duration of the study. Additionally, they suggested that CAI method might be of more benefit if used in an ancillary fashion; therefore, music instructors should be engaged and aware of technological developments in order to produce more effective computer-assisted instruction in music education. However, Jacobsen (1986: 78) strongly believed that:

Although at best, the CAI program would be as effective as an instructor, it is impossible for the CAI program to be more effective than the teacher who designed it. The notion of replacing teachers with computer programs is unreasonable and untenable. The CAI may be more efficient, but not more effective (Jacobsen, 1986: 78).

Several studies have explored the effects of CAI with drill-and-practice programs for increasing students’ achievement in music fundamentals, decreasing learning time and motivating students, for example Parrish (1994) developed her own tutorial software package with drill- and-practice programs called MusiCard to deliver the music theory concepts for undergraduate and graduate students enrolled in a Basic Skills in Music subject at the University of Alabama. Her aim was to investigate the effectiveness of the use of computer software to teach music theory to non-musicians. MusiCard provided reinforcement for all music theory concepts with automated record keeping and integration of instruction and computer tasks, which allowed her students to drill music concepts until they felt comfortable with their knowledge. The 13 modules consisting of treble clef and keyboard position, rhythmic notation and simple meter, compound meter, bass clef and keyboard position, ledger

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lines and keyboard positions, major scales, major key signatures, visual and aural intervals, triads and the dominant seventh chord, natural and harmonic minor scales, minor key signatures, musical terms and musical forms were included in this software that followed a logical sequence of learning activities designed to build on knowledge acquired in previous modules. Parrish’s students indicated that the software packages were effective in allowing for a reduction of class time required for music theory instruction, without a concomitant reduction in music theory knowledge. They found the software to be valuable and desirable, but they were ambivalent or slightly negative towards using computer software for their music instruction. Additionally, Parrish suggested that “if more widespread use of technology was made available to students, starting in pre-school, positive attitudes towards using CAI in more varied academic settings may become the norm” (Parrish, 1994: 88). Moreover, she argued that “it was advantageous to implement computer technology to assist music teaching and learning, and thus allowed the instructors to use their expertise in a more creative manner” (Parrish, 1994: 89). It is interesting to note that Parrish’s study showed that drill-and-practice can be used as an effective supplement to traditional instruction or in combination with a program that also introduces theory concepts.

A similar instructional approach and result appeared in the study by Arenson (1995), who developed a software program with drill-and-practice programs to teach college music majors to teach chorale part-writing and harmonisation skills at the University of Delaware. Arenson argued that “although many drill-and-practice programs for teaching fundamental music skills exist, few include these more complex tasks” (Arenson, 1995: 20). Therefore, he attempted to work with software designers to develop and test a program over several years. This program allowed for the instructors to customize certain aspects of the program. The instructors could adjust the number of correct responses students must provide and the amount of time each student was allowed to complete each task. As well, the instructors could customize some aspects of the content itself. They could adjust the number of chords in particular exercises, types of questions, key signatures used, pitch input method, types of harmonic labels, and which chords could be included in the exercises. Although most of the exercises were drill-and- practice, they also created customized feedback. Arenson argued against using non-specific feedback in favour of a system that described the errors students made in greater detail, for example his typical program was able to show students if they had constructed chords using non-chord tones or tones that were beyond the range of a voice type. A survey was given to the students after the instruction, and the findings revealed that students enjoyed working

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with the program and it could increase self-efficacy. However, Arenson’s study is one of the few to consider teaching part-writing skills with targeted feedback and additional customized features. The approach required extensive programmed resources but also created a novel drill-and-practice method. As seen in these two studies, the teaching of theory and fundamentals focused on development of music skills. Their own instructional programs were developed to help students learn the basics of notation, remember melodies, learn elementary theory, discriminate melodic intervals and chords and take melodic and harmonic dictation, etc.

Hopkins (2002) utilised a customized computer-based instructional software to investigate the effectiveness of two approaches (expository and discovery) on the ability to recognize different types of theme and variation categories (ornamental variation, figural variation, modal variation and tempo variation). Hopkins developed two versions of the same software program and varied the instructional contents. The expository method (EM) presented the definitions of the different variation categories in straightforward terms with examples and explanations. The discovery method (DM) withheld the name of variation category and encouraged students to learn and find out the type from examples and explanations. Both EM and DM versions were similar in content, with examples, exercises and detailed descriptions, but one difference was the DM version did not show the actual names of four variations in order to let students seek out information themselves. Students were given the posttest immediately following the instruction. Results showed no significant difference in methods of instruction. Hopkins found that “students in the discovery approach spent more time on the program, but their practice exercises scores were higher than those in the expository approach, indicating that the subjects engaged in discovery may have taken a stronger interest in the instructional materials” (Hopkins, 2002: 139). Hopkins also found “a high and significant correlation between subjects’ abilities to recognize variation types aurally and the ability to verbalize an accurate definition” (Hopkins, 2002: 139). Hopkins’ study is noteworthy because it does not simply evaluate technology-based versus the traditional lecture method, but studies different learning approaches with the use of technology. Hopkins’s study has less to do with technology for its own sake and more to do with determining an instructional approach that maximizes learning outcomes. Therefore, it can be claimed, from his results, that technology is equally effective to use with both expository (direct) and discovery (indirect) instruction.

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Sterling (2002) considered teaching more advanced skills in analysis using a novel user interface. She developed her own software program called ‘inForm’ as the educational aid to guide students towards of an understanding of the fundamental processes of musical form for the Form and Analysis Classes at University of Maryland. Twenty pieces of music selected to be examples in this program were provided in both visual and audio formats. Students were able to structure their own learning environment by following a step-by-step process towards analysis. As well, they met twice a week to discuss the pieces of music given in class. The software allowed students to play the music at anytime from any point and be able to save them. The tutorials were divided and taught in small segments focusing on the content of formal structure and analysis including phrase, cadence, period, section, transition, coda, interpolation, binary form, ternary form, rondo, theme and variations and sonata form. After the observation and pre/post-test scores, she found that the program was helpful to many students in developing an understanding of musical form. Most of the students claimed that the CAI was a quick and more efficient process to help them understand musical concepts, especially when they lacked extensive training, and it also enhanced their ability in analysing pieces of music. They also commented that studying through the computer provided a practical model that was not always available in a classroom, in that it allowed them to learn and experiment at home. Sterling (2002: 102-103) concluded that:

The learning of musical form requires a great deal of study, and many students approach formal analysis in different ways. By using the software program ‘inForm’, student are able to tailor their own analysis procedure and gain a better understanding of musical form. By using such a CAI program, music theory students may begin to master the concepts of musical form more quickly and more efficiently, thus leading to the development of musical skills beyond those gained only in the classroom environment (Sterling, 2002: 102-103).

Sterling’s study is noteworthy because it is one of the few that considered the use of technology dealing with musical form and analysis content. This study also showed the possible limitations of the software application, which is essential to the design and development of the present E-learning program.

The study by Lin (2005) integrated software application packages to deliver the content of music theory, music appreciation and music composition for non-music colleges in Northern Taiwan. She divided students into two groups with different methods of instruction: with music technology and without music technology. In the music theory class, Alfred’s Essentials

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of Music Theory books and the software packages37 were used to introduce the basic concepts of music through concise lessons, followed by short exercises, ear-training activities and reviews. Alfred’s Accent on Composers/CD Kit38 and PGMusic’s the Pianist39 were used as the basis of instructional materials in the music appreciation class, followed by group discussion conducted to share the information learned from this class. In addition, MP3, Multimedia Project by Christopher Zavits40 and the automatic accompaniment program named Band in a Box41 were used as instructional materials in the music composition class to create the production of digital music. After adopting technology, Lin (2005: 93) found that computer students were enabled to make better progress in music learning, as well they had more satisfaction and a better learning attitude than did traditional students. Moreover, technology could increase the opportunities of employability for students, and enable them to diversify their professional skills. After analysing the data from interviews, Lin found that students had a variety of motivations for using technology that corresponded to their future learning and career development goals. It is interesting to note that Lin found that “although students demonstrated more musical improvement and a better attitude, they believed technological equipment cannot replace the importance of body language and personal interpretation instruction” (Lin, 2005: 78).

Overall, most researchers have broadened their subject matter to include the effectiveness of drill-and-practice programs and the use of ICT in music theory and fundamentals. Besides using research- developed applications as discussed above, some researchers (Dobber, 1998; Pan, 2001; Therrien, 1997) utilised commercial software packages for teaching music theory and fundamentals. For example, the research studies by Therrien (1997) and Dobber (1998) utilized Practica Musica42 as an instructional tool for teaching and learning the field of music theory and aural training at undergraduate level. Practica Musica is one of the most popular commercial music notation software programs to reinforce music fundamentals including the knowledge of lines and spaces, chord spelling, harmony and key signatures.

37 Surmani, A, Surmani, KF & Manus, M 1999, Alfred’s Essentials of Music Theory Book and Software Package, Alfred Publishing Co., USA. 38 Althouse, J & O’Reilly, J 2001, Accent on Composers/CD Kit, Alfred Publishing Co., USA. 39 PGMusic’s the Pianist, Available at http://www.pgmusic.com/index.html 40 Multimedia Project by Christopher Zavits, Available at http://www.geocities.com/prof_sais/introduction.htm 41 Band in a Box, Available at http://www.pgmusic.com/index.html 42 Practica Musica, Available at http://www.ars-nova.com/pm6info/pm6features.html

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Therrien used Practica Musica as a tutorial for undergraduate students enrolled in the Music Literacy course at Concordia University in Montreal. Students used Practica Musica to review the contents and practice of music fundamentals. Therrien divided students into two groups; the first group used a cooperative strategy working in small groups on theory and ear training skills with a piano as sound source, while the second group used a self-regulating tutorial strategy with a computer equipped with theory and ear-training software (Practica Musica) generating pre-defined theory and ear-training materials along with an immediate response to their input, in order to compare the effectiveness and the efficiency of two teaching strategies in the field of theory and aural training. The findings indicated that there were significant gains in achievement but no significant difference in the acquisition of theory and ear-training skills between students using the two teaching methods. In addition, Dobber studied not only the effect of CAI multimedia music, but also of his own multimedia software on music learning. Dobber utilized Musica Practice and Key Signatures as an outside-of-class software program for extra learning. The Key Signature software program was developed for this study, providing a program of learning and review of concepts and practice of key signatures and scales, major key, minor key and major and minor keys. Dobber divided his non-music major students enrolled in a Fundamentals of Music course at the University of Minnesota into two groups. Both groups were taught by the same instructor with the same general course goals for a music fundamentals course. The first group was instructed without the use of outside-of-class computer-aided learning software, while the second group was instructed with two programs used outside the class via independent practice by each student. A pre/post-test was conducted to investigate students’ attitude and achievement regarding the effectiveness of multimedia-aided instruction. The findings indicated significant gains in achievement by students using instructional software outside-of-class. Moreover, his students expressed their positive attitude, and agreed that the use of these two software programs was very helpful. Although Therrien’s study focused on music major students and Dobber’s study focused on non-music major students, these studies indicated that both groups showed gains in achievement in music fundamentals. Therefore, it may be interesting to note that Practica Musica was perceived to be an effective learning aid for all students who either have or have no music background.

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The study conducted by Pan (2001) was not conducted to investigate students’ achievement, but to compare two technological devices in learning music with MusicAce43 software. Pan utilised MusicAce software for non-music students enrolled in the Music Fundamentals course at the University of Alabama. The purpose was to compare the effectiveness of two different data input devices between mouse and MIDI keyboard with the MusicAce software on students’ learning achievement (knowledge of , identifying notes on the keyboard and scores on MusicAce’s game by using keyboard test and pre/post-tests (written test). Pan divided students into two groups; MIDI group (mouse and MIDI keyboard) and Virtual group (mouse). MusicAce, a commercial software package, supports instructional concepts of music reading and aural skills development, with a game format. This contains 24 lessons, followed by a suite of games that test students’ understanding of the lesson. Students interacted with the software program using either mouse or MIDI keyboard. The results revealed no significant difference in achievement between the two groups. In addition, using the mouse or the MIDI keyboard with MusicAce did not have any significant effect on students’ fingerings in keyboard tests, but the visual group was consistently faster and more accurate than the MIDI group. Pan’s study is noteworthy because after completing his research study, Pan suggested several guidelines for music instructors to integrate technology into music curricular, for example music instructors should 1) seek to identify those aspects of musical learning that are suitable for technology; 2) identify relevant computer software and acquire or develop appropriate measurement tools to evaluate the effect of specific software on students’ achievement; 3) preview computer software to ensure that the material is appropriate in content, method and style for the intended users; and 4) choose programs that contain enough variety in presentation and pace to keep students actively engaged and interested in the learning process (Pan, 2001: 116).

3.2.2.3 Research Studies on the Integration of ICT into Instrumental music and Performance Teaching

As the present study also intends to develop an E-learning approach dealing with the content of performing short pieces of Classical period piano music, a review of the literature on the integration of ICT in instrumental music and performance, in particular piano music, is essential to the background of the present study. Although many of these below studies simply consider whether or not the use of technology such as computer, MIDI technology and digital

43 MusicAce, Available at http://www.harmonicvision.com/mafact.htm

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piano can improve learning outcomes, some did start to reveal a trend towards considering alternative instructional strategies with technology.

Several studies have explored the effects of the combinations of CAI with MIDI technology upon group piano performance skills. Interestingly, when used as a technological teaching aid, MIDI technology has generally been incorporated into the music classroom and shown to be possibly equal to traditional methods and advantageous, in that it is available outside of the classroom for the practice of piano skills. Their findings indicated that when the students practiced with MIDI technology, they had access not only to accompaniment tracks, but also to a recorded performance model of what they played. They found the use of MIDI technology to have a positive effect on students’ performance (Ajero, 2007; Benson, 2002; Betts & Cassidy, 2000; Hagen, 2001; He, 1995; Schachter, 1999; Tomczak, 1999), as will be discussed below.

Betts and Cassidy (2000) conducted a study on the effect of different methods of developing harmonisation and sight-reading skills with first-year university group piano students. Students had registered for group class piano based on scheduling considerations without knowledge of experimental conditions or procedures. Piano group students in six classes included ten minutes of instruction in each of two topics: harmonisation and sight-reading tasks. The first group including three classes was taught using MIDI accompaniments during the harmonisation lesson but without MIDI during the sight-reading lesson. The second group, including three classes, was taught using MIDI accompaniments during sight-reading lessons but without MIDI during the harmonisation lesson. Subjects were videotaped twice completing two harmonisation and two sight-reading tasks. Videotapes were analysed for pitch and rhythm errors. After the instruction, Betts and Cassidy analysed the effect of MIDI accompaniment disks when limited to use during class instruction, and no significant difference was found in harmonisation and sight-reading score between the two groups. As with all research in a natural environment where truly random assignment is impossible to attain, results should be viewed with appropriate caution. It does not seem, however, that these results show MIDI to be more useful for motivating and structuring practice outside class. However, Betts and Cassidy found the MIDI accompaniment disk software is easy to use in a group setting. Therefore, they recommended more research to investigate the effect of MIDI accompaniment disks particularly in the technology’s potential for motivating and structuring practice outside the classroom setting.

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In addition, some researchers studied the efficacy of computer instruction for university group piano students. For example, He (1995) investigated the effects of two computer-based music instructional programs: 1) traditional approach program (TAP); and 2) game approach program (GAP) to teaching piano note-reading for students enrolled in keyboard and music fundamentals classes at Parkland College at Champaign, University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign, Indiana University and Purdue University at Indianapolis. The content was based on the hypothesis that subjects would be able to recognize the notes appearing on the grand staff and locate the notes with the corresponding keys on the keyboard. Therefore, the content included 1) the note letter name; 2) the note placement on the treble clef; 3) the note placement on the bass clef; 4) the note replacement on the grand staff; 5) the letter name for each key on the keyboard; 6) the note’s corresponding key on the keyboard (treble clef); 7) the note’s corresponding key on the keyboard (bass clef); and 8) the note’s corresponding key on the keyboard (grand staff). The content integrated in the TAP was developed as a tutorial, while the GAP was developed as an instructional game. The post-test was administrated was administrated to both groups after completing the instruction. The findings indicated that both groups were equally effective in enhancing note-reading skills but students in the GAP demonstrated a slightly better performance. He found that “most students had positive attitudes toward these two approach programs. Half of the students preferred learning from the computer instead of from an instructor, because the computer allowed them to study at their own pace and did not pressure them as much as teacher did” (He, 1995: 111). It is interesting to note that he believed that “an instructional game has a goal which the player wants to achieve at the end. This goal can be to achieve high scores, kill the monster, rescue the princess or guess a myth. To achieve the goal, certain rules are defined. These game rules tell the player which actions are allowed and which procedures should be followed. Moreover, the game usually involves competition” (He, 1995: 45); therefore, He argued that “using games in an instructional setting, instructors always ponder whether the particular game actually helps students learn, and whether it can produce a learning outcome which is even better than the outcome produced by traditional teaching methods” (He, 1995: 5).

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In a similar 2001 study, Hagen investigated the effectiveness of two different Computer- Assisted Instruction methods and the traditional classroom method on the ability to sight-read at the piano in terms of note and rhythm accuracy. Second-year piano class students at Florida State University were divided into three groups. The first group used Finale©44, a notation program with playback capabilities chosen as a play along rehearsal technique. Harmony©45 by Musicware was used in the second group as a program to practice chord recognition and hand position with appropriate fingering in various keys, progressing to a three-voice chord opposed by a single voice in the other hand, and the third group remained in the classroom with the instructor using a traditional method. After the instruction, Hagen found that “working with a digital accompaniment system was found to be more enjoyable means of practice”. In terms of note accuracy, the Finale© group significant out-performed the traditional group, while there was no significant difference between the Harmony© group and the traditional group. In respect to rhythmic accuracy, there were no significant differences across the groups; however, the classroom group had the highest mean score. Hagen concluded that the computer group outperformed the classroom group on note recognition and accuracy, suggesting that the computer drills and accompaniment strategies might be helpful toward improving sight playing, in contrast, the classroom group with human interaction was more effective for rhythm accuracy. Hagen pointed out that “computers may provide a useful practice environment”, however, “the importance of this finding is that sight playing can be improved with practice” (Hagen, 2001: 152).

Schachter (1999) developed Finale files of the Robert Race Music for Piano Series46, which were presented on Floppy Discs in a format commensurate with the Practice Room 1.0 and Finale were utilized to facilitate students’ evaluation of their piano practice in order to avoid rote drill and practice mistakes. The Music for Piano Series provided fundamental music concepts that enabled students to develop their music literacy knowledge and musical ideas for improvisation. The Practice Room 1.0 was a tool to learn keyboard on any MIDI instrument. The program allowed students to see graphically on their computer screen the accuracy of their performance. This enabled students to evaluate and consider solutions in order to improve the musical and expressive qualities of their performance. It also provided tempo, so students would be able to practice each piece at any tempo and gradually work up to a goal tempo. Students started practicing the right hand, with the left hand accompaniments by the

44 Finale©, Available at http://www.finalemusic.com/default.aspx 45 Harmony©, Harmony MusicLAB by Musicware Inc. 46 The Robert Race Music for Piano Series, Available at http://www.leerobertsmusic.com/

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computer, and then they practised the left hand, with the right hand notes by the computer. After that, the computer evaluated the students showing them what and how they played, in particular technical programs, dynamics, tempo, rhythm and accuracy touch. After integrating the program, Schachter found that the computer, MIDI keyboards and current music software in the structured environment of Music for Piano series created new tools which could facilitate learning, evaluation of performance and creativity. Schachter argued that the Robert Race Music for Piano Series was appropriate for the beginner and the intermediate student and expressed his conclusion that:

We have seen that the application of new technology using computer, MIDI keyboards and current music software in the structured environment of Robert Pace’s Music for Piano series creates new tools which can facilitate cognitive learning, evaluation of performance and creativity. Technology could help the piano student to learn in a new, constructive and meaningful way that carries over into all areas of student’s life. It also could help students to become their own lifelong teachers (Schachter, 1999: 103).

Tomczak (1999) compared the effectiveness of computer generated performance feedback with respect to playing melody lines of simple, short . The study was open to volunteers from the University of Cincinnati, and the researcher divided them into two groups consisting of the experimental group that received an interactive multimedia software keyboard instruction package which provided student performance feedback and audio performance of the musical pieces, while the control group received an interactive multimedia software keyboard instruction package with only audio performance of the musical piece. A Yamaha® PS-220 music interface digital instrument (MIDI) interfacial electronic keyboard which provides an instructional program in fundamental music literacy and basic performance skills, and JUMP! MUSIC SOFTWARE Piano Discovery Systems®47 for self-instruction which provides computer generated feedback and non-feedback methods were utilized in this study. The feedback provided information about students’ rhythm and note playing activity matched against the reference musical piece as determined by the MIDI capabilities of the software and the musical keyboard. However, the findings indicated that the effects of computer generated performance feedback did not make a significant difference to the performance outcomes for the different instructional methods. Tomzcak concluded that instruction in fundamental knowledge and performance activities with the use of computer generated performance feedback does not prove superior in this study. He argued that “the most important attribute

47 JUMP! MUSIC SOFTWARE Piano Discovery Systems®, Available at http://www.mediawink.com/Piano- Discovery-System-Fix.html

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discovered for this level of activity was experience in playing and practicing a musical instrument other than the piano. The only variable found to influence performance skills was previous experience on an instrument other than a keyboard” (Tomzcak, 1999: 170). He also suggested that “music instruction methods in the 21st century should be refined on the basis of sound research, and take advantage of new media if it shows effectiveness in students’ performance. Teachers should insist that research-based pedagogy be incorporated in instructional methods to understand the implications of new or proposed instructional methods” (Tomzcak, 1999: 171).

Some recent research studies have compared the effects of practicing MIDI accompaniments with other types of media, for example Ajero (2007) investigated the effects of musical instrument digital interface (MIDI) accompaniment and computer-assisted instruction technology on group piano students’ performance accuracy, and students’ learning attitudes. Undergraduate students at the University of Oklahoma were the participants. The students were divided into two groups, including the experimental group who practised with the Guide Mode on Yamaha Clavinova keyboard with MIDI accompaniment and the control group who practised with only MIDI accompaniment. A Yamaha Clavinova CVP-300 Series, a digital piano with MIDI capabilities was utilized in this study. The program instructed students to practice just the left hand, the right hand and then both hands together. Both groups were free to practice independently at their own pace, but the experimental group was required to use the Guide Mode with practicing. The Guide Mode was a function on the Yamaha Clavinova CVP- 300 series that allowed students to practice along with a MIDI file and provided students with a visual hint to play the correct key. When students did not depress the correct keys, the MIDI accompaniment stopped and guided with a key flash until the correct key was depressed. The findings indicated that both groups made significant improvement in overall accuracy from pretest to posttest. However, students who practiced with the Guide Mode and MIDI accompaniment demonstrated significant improvement in pitch accuracy compared to those who practiced with only MIDI accompaniment, while no significant difference in rhythmic accuracy and total performance accuracy was observed between both groups. Additionally, both groups expressed positive attitudes towards MIDI accompaniment and the Guide Mode. Students agreed that the Guide Mode was the most helpful part of the practice sessions, while MIDI accompaniment helped students to keep their rhythm steady. Consequently, Ajero suggested that the results include using Guide Mode to help group piano students improve in pitch accuracy during the early stages of learning new repertoire. After students feel

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comfortable with the pitches, practicing with MIDI accompaniments but without the Guide Mode may assist in the development of rhythmic continuity. Ajero also argued that:

Although CAI keyboard technology and MIDI accompaniments may motivate students to practice and lead to more successful piano study, teachers should not assume that the technology is an automatic way of improving piano performance. More time to practice with the technology outside of the classroom setting may be needed to observe any longer term effects on students’ performance (Ajero, 2007: 104).

A similar study conducted by Benson (2002) analysed the effects of various types of instructional media on group piano student in terms of performance and attitude. Subjects were instructed in one of three conditions consisting of use of 1) MIDI sequenced recording; 2) videotape; and 3) multimedia computer presentations. A comparison of the different media utilised in each class found no significant difference in improving performance accuracy. Although there were no significant differences in performance accuracy between groups, students’ attitude toward the practice sessions and performance material were influenced by the use of media in practice. Moreover, the group that listened to a MIDI recording as a model identified it as the aspect of practice that helped them the most. Benson’s study showed the possible limitations of the tools namely, MIDI sequenced recording, videotape and multimedia computer, while these are essential to the present E-learning student to assist students’ learning appropriate media for each area of music study should be considered.

As researchers establish the effectiveness of technology use in music curricula, some studies provide invaluable information to help instructors take advantage of the extensive technology available in specific educational settings. For example, the study on the strengths and weaknesses of software and other multimedia technology conducted by Chao (1997) explored and examined music software and music videos for college beginning class piano students. He provided critical information to music instructors, especially piano instructors, regarding the availability of technological supplementary aids for students, including music software and videos. Cho indicated both software and video were able to be used outside the classroom to enhance music related knowledge learned in the classroom. This is no effective substitute for class presentations and immediate, face-to-face interaction between teacher and students. Rather, the desire was to demonstrate that students could gain valuable knowledge from exposure to music software and video, and deficiencies in piano skills and music fundamentals might be overcome by using these technological supplementary aids. Cho also found that both

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software and video provided an environment in which student interaction with multimedia could foster a lifelong interest in music.

In 2006, Tsao-Lim in her review of the literature in the use of technology in music performance found that independent piano teachers are currently interested in the use of technology integrated into their piano curricula. The survey was sent to 400 independent piano teachers at the Music Teachers National Association’s (MTNA) membership to seek information on the implementation of technology in their curricula, investigating the purposes and methods of using different types of technology, successes and limitations in the use of technology, and factors hindering the incorporation of technology into independent piano studios. The purpose was to examine the extent to which selected independent piano teachers with 12 or more pre- college students incorporated technology into their curriculum, particularly the use of computer and keyboard technologies, software, accompaniment disks (MIDI/CD) and the Internet. Another purpose was to provide information on teachers’ attitudes toward the use of technologies in private piano curricula. The surveys returned from 76 independent piano teachers with 12 or more students reported using one or more forms of technology in their curricula. The surveys showed that 47 teachers used computers in their teaching, 47 used keyboard technology, 44 used accompaniment disks and 16 used the Internet for their instruction. Additionally, 62% of the 76 teachers employed two or more forms of technology in their instruction. Digital keyboard technology was the primary teaching tool for 36% of the 47 keyboard users. Computer-assisted instruction software received much wider usage: 91% of 47 computer users) than notation sequencing and accompaniment application software (51%). Although 93% of 47 teachers had Internet access, only 36% taught with the technology. Most of the 76 teachers mentioned the positive pedagogical impact of technology use in their instruction, and they listed workshops, seminars and colleagues as the foremost resources for acquiring knowledge of music technology.

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3.2.3 Online Music Education

Purely online learning is a fairly recent development in the field of music education (Hopkins, 2003). According to Williams and Webster (2008: 411):

Many instructors have now started to develop online resources for formal courses taught at their institutions. These materials are often available only to students enrolled in their classes by password access. Such course materials might be designed for students in residence or perhaps as part of a distance learning program of study. Extensive use of multimedia resources, such as sound files, graphics and digital movies becomes common (Williams & Webster, 2008: 411).48

Music instructors, researchers and scholars have become more aware of the internet’s possibilities and have started to explore its use in music teaching and learning. The advantages of using the internet are various, for example the internet allows music instructors to expand the horizons of students beyond a single classroom, breaking down traditional time and distance constraints (Bauer & Daugherty, 2001: 32). Williams and Webster (2008: 37) pointed out that the instructors can utilize text information, graphics, animation, sound effects, music and movies available on the web servers in order to develop their own learning materials and can support links embedded within the materials. Moreover, software applications and online communication tools have advanced to a level that allows music instructors to teach either an individual or a group lesson at a distance. Instructors are also able to assign students music lessons and tasks from a centrally located classroom while students can be scattered nationally and internationally. Examples of schools offering online music education include Pepperdine University, Seton Hall University and Michigan State University. Students can study with instructors from prestigious music schools such as Berklee School of Music, Boston University and website like Bass Player Magazine Online (Lockett, 2010: 53). Specially, music schools such as Berklee College of Music and Boston University have began to use online education both in recognition of the needs of the increasing population of non-traditional students. Another example is found in Indiana University. Music Fundamental Online (MFO) is conducted to deliver the content for music rudiments, aural skills and harmony for pre-college students to improve the preparation of incoming music majors (Chuang, 2000; Isaacson, 2002).

48 Williams, DB & Webster, PR 2008, Experiencing Music Technology, Schirmer Cengage Learning, Canada.

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Tsao-Lim (2006: 61) argued from her review of the literature revealed that an increasing number of websites offering interactive music instruction are available on the Internet. Several websites provide students an alternative to self-directed instruction. Areas of music include music fundamentals, basic music theory, instrumental music lesson such as guitar and piano and history of western music. Some lessons are strictly website, while others offer the option for downloads. Fees are required but some offer free instruction. Bresler (2007: 1311) stated:

We can take a piano lesson with a live teacher on the Web who can hear us play at the same time we play, and can talk with us about our performance in a way that is not dissimilar to what a piano teacher might do with students who study piano in person (Bresler, 2007: 1311).49

Students can view performance over the Internet and acquire a sense of music phrasing while watching performance. Students also can talk with and see instructors through various interactive media if additional guidance is needed. Also, computer technologies and digital devices offer convenient access to a range of knowledge such as music notation, music sequencing, composition and editing tools, recording systems as well as access to the global network of information on the World Wide Web. Instructors and students often use technologies to get the information they need from each other, rather than from traditional institutions. YouTube and similar sites are also a significant factor in teaching and learning in the classroom today as well as in students’ private lives. Many instructors and students now no longer purchase CDs and simply show a performance clip from YouTube or other available sites. In addition, most of the information available on the internet, such as e-journals, e- books, newsletter articles and conference proceedings are current and up-to-date, easily accessible and available to the public. Music technology has even changed the way individuals listen to music and the way music is stored. Students are able to download musical sheets, listen to music and view musical performance over the internet, as well as to exchange documents and share multimedia resources. (Thwaites, 2008: 250). In addition, most instructors require that students submit musical assignments using music notation software. Musical notation software is now so commonplace that the thought of submitting hand written scores for eventual publication seems dated (Webster, 2007: 1311).

49 Bresler, L 2007, International Handbook of Research in Arts Education, NY: Springer, New York.

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Salavuo’s study (2006) investigated online music communities, and revealed that online music- based communities, populated by members with varying expertise and interest areas, are prevalent and significant. He explained that these online communities are diverse in purpose and their identities are dual-natured. Salavuo (2006: 256) stated:

Online communities in the field of music are, on the one hand, knowledge communities, since they include members with a wide range of expertise who are seeking and sharing knowledge. On the other hand, these communities are musical communities, where distributing one’s own music and listening to the music of one’s peers have great importance (Salavuo, 2006: 256).50

These music-related online communities have created a new culture of listening, reviewing, creating and distributing music. Anyone from around the world with internet access, and capabilities to produce music in digital format, can in principle distribute their music globally. Salavuo reported websites such as SoundClick51, GarageBand52, iCompositions53 and Audiostreet.net54 are some of the most commonly used online music communities. He discovered through web-based surveys that many of the users of the aforementioned sites were capable of writing songs and , singing to playing in an active band and using computer instead of traditional instruments to make music. The increasing number of people using and accessing these music-related websites is significant, therefore studies that analyse these populations may be useful. These websites may have qualities that can be adapted for a technological learning environment. Salavuo also suggested that music instructors should be aware of the possibilities the online communities offer in terms of collaborative, on-demand based reciprocal learning and social searching of information.

With these advantages, using the internet for delivery and support for authentic music and music education is becoming increasingly common at the higher education level, and most music instructors are charged with the responsibility of preparing students for a world of technology-enhanced musical experience. The internet has developed as an interactive learning and discovery tool in three different environments including 1) completely online without face-to-face interaction; 2) as a hybrid course where the class frequently meets face-

50 Salavuo, M 2006, ‘Open and Informal Online Communities as Forums of Collaborative Musical Activities and Learning’, British Journal of Music Education, vol. 23, issue 3, pp. 253 – 271. 51 SoundClick, Available at http://www.soundclick.com/ 52 GarageBand, Available at http://www.apple.com/au/ilife/garageband/ 53 iCompositions, Available at http://www.icompositions.com/ 54 Audiostreet.net, Available at http://www.561media.com/

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to-face in addition to the online component; and 3) as a face-to-face course with integrated web-based support materials and activities (Horton, 2000).

Bennett (2010: 21) in her review of the literature on purely online music and distance education revealed that a wealth of information on new technologies is used to enhance music teaching and learning. Deal and Taylor’s study (1999) conducted a survey on the status of, plans for and attitudes toward distance education using interactive video and web-based instruction among 104 administrators of college and university music departments accredited by National Association of School of Music (NASM). All participations reported using computer at school for administrative tasks. Moreover, the survey revealed that 73% of the participants were using computers for music applications at either school or home. Despite this widespread use of computers by music administrators and faculty, only nine participants reported offering web-based programs. However, many of the participants expressed positive attitudes toward delivering instruction over the Internet, although they were not convinced as to the adaptability of specific music programs to web-based delivery. The 104 participants reported that a total of 51 distance courses were being offered or planned at 40 of the music units surveyed. Of these 51 courses, 27 were web-based, with remaining courses intended for delivery by interactive video. Moreover, several research studies on music have been facilitated in distance education online since the early 2000s. For example, McGregor (2007) discussed the particular effects on students’ achievement in music fundamentals through the online program.

McGregor’s study (2007) integrated technology as the educational aid to deliver music rudiments for the content of melody, harmony, rhythm and tempo for college students at South-western College. McGregor designed and developed an online musical rudiments course with drill-and-practice programs. She divided students into two groups consisting of on- campus and online groups to examine the effects of different learning methods on students’ demonstrated level of cognition. The on-campus group met three times a week by accessing the textbook website and CD-Rom without interactive exercises, while the online group was free to study and complete their assigned task within a given week. The online group accessed the tutorials through the Internet option, and did online quizzes and interactive exercises, which provide a diverse range of activity types, such as basic terminology matching and tapping different tempos by hitting the space bar. However, the online group was encouraged to review any points that were challenging or particularly useful to them. The findings

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indicated that the comparison of the pretest and the posttest between the two groups supports that students in the online group were able to significantly improve their understanding of musical terminology with the use of interactive musical exercises, suggesting that the online group performing minimally better than the on-campus group. As well, the finding from the survey revealed that students appreciated the repeatability of the online course. McGregor’s study showed the possible limitations of online music learning, which are essential to the design and development of the present E-learning program. McGregor argued that using technology in teaching offers many advantages to the students. McGregor (2007: 21) also stated that:

Technology could motivate students to participate in the instruction and also address diverse learning styles. Students were more engaged in this technological instruction; it deepened their understanding of the content. Moreover, the technology allowed them to review the tutorials, repeat the exercises and learn from their mistakes in a safe environment which was creative, flexible and interactive (McGregor, 2007: 21).

Besides teaching music theory and fundamentals, the researchers (Eakes, 2009: Hunter, 2011; McCabe, 2007; Wright, 2007) developed their own online programs for their music appreciation classes. Wright (2007) determined that significant differences existed between online and face-to-face Texas music appreciation students concerning student satisfaction about course design, student-peer interaction and student-instructor interaction, comparing the characteristics of online and face-to-face music appreciation courses. They identified the most useful communication modes between students and instructors finding that there was no significant difference in students’ satisfaction about course design, student-peer interaction and student-instructor interaction between those two instructional modes. The course was taken either online or in a traditional classroom; students were very satisfied with their musical appreciation class. However, online students also considered schedule flexibility as a factor in students’ satisfaction. In addition, E-mail was considered to be the most helpful out- of-class communication with their instructor. A similar result found in Bauer’s study (2001). Bauer conducted a case study during a summer music education course with twelve undergraduate students to determine students’ attitudes towards web-enhanced learning, and perceptions of the use of Internet tools. The class met regularly face-to-face and online tools were used for course assignments, assessments and communication. Data indicated that students were moderately comfortable using the Internet prior to the study; they were particularly comfortable using Email. Students accessed Internet resources more frequently from campus computer labs followed by access at home. Students strongly agreed that the

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Internet contained valuable resources for music education. They liked the asynchronous aspects of learning valuing being able to access course materials at times that fit their own lifestyle and personal schedule. This may be concluded that the Internet tools used in this course helped them to learn more effectively. In my opinion, Wright’s and Bauer’s studies are remarkable because few research studies have been conducted regarding students’ satisfaction about interaction in online music learning. This is because the issue of interaction is one of the biggest weaknesses of online learning due to the lack of real-time human interaction and response.

Additionally, McCabe (2007) developed her own online program to investigate the effect of collaborative instruction on students’ demonstrated levels of cognition in an online music appreciation course. She investigated whether levels of cognition differed according to the instructional styles (collaborative and non-collaborative), class group size (small group of five, large group discussions and independent learning environment), and students’ self-reported satisfaction with course assignments. However, McCabe found that students preferred to work independently. They did favour a variety of instructional strategies implemented throughout the course. This could be because students had different learning styles, and they had a large amount of material presented in different ways. Furthermore, implementing a variety of instructional strategies might also influence the students’ self-reported levels of course satisfaction. However, these two studies were conducted to survey students’ satisfaction and preference for types of instruction and communication modes, and appropriate groups, rather than students’ achievement.

Music researchers and instructors are making great efforts to keep abreast of the latest advancements and incorporate them into music curricula (Taso-Lim, 2006: 64). Several recent studies in online music programs have emerged every year, for example the study conducted by Eakes (2009) investigated whether differences exist with regard to music achievement, music self-concept (general music ability, singing, playing instruments, reading music, composing, listening and moving to music) or student course satisfaction among students enrolled in different sections of an undergraduate Music Appreciation Course at a public college in south-eastern United States. Eakes was interested to compare outcomes from students enrolled in four different sections of a music appreciation course taught from chronological or sociocultural approaches in online or face-to-face formats. The chronological approach was rooted in the Western art music tradition. Students accessed a study of musical

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elements and proceeded with musical examples in a text-based descriptive format, accompanying textbook anthology CD through six areas consisting of Medieval, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic and Contemporary. The sociocultural approach was based on the four functions of art in society articulated by Sporre55 (1997) including enjoyment, political and social commentary, therapy and artefact. Music literature examples for the sociocultural approach originated from the Western art music canon, from non-Western cultures, and from contemporary genres and styles. The instructor selected some musical examples and students determined additional musical selections for study. Instruction about musical elements occurred throughout the course but was not presented as an isolated unit. Additionally, Sociocultural students used the textbook and ancillary materials in addition to supplementary articles and music examples provided by the instructor, so they did not follow the chronological order of chapters as presented in the text. In terms of instructional formats, students enrolled in the face-to-face section attended class twice a week, while students enrolled in online sections participated in instruction and assessment entirely through WebCT. The results indicated that students studying through the sociocultural approach scored higher than those in chronological approach across all measures, with significantly higher outcomes on music achievement and course satisfaction. Although, there was no significant difference in students’ music self-concept (general music ability, singing, playing instruments, reading music, composing, listening and moving to music) between two different curricular approaches, face-to-face students showed significantly higher outcomes on the listen skills than online students, while results for other concepts had no significant difference. Instructional format was a significant factor for chronological students. Face-to-face, chronological students scored significantly higher than online, chronological students on achievement and course satisfaction. Eakes concluded that both face-to-face and online instructional formats were appropriate for delivering music appreciation courses. In addition, the sociocultural curriculum was a valid approach to music appreciation, in some instances producing stronger results than the traditional chronological approach. Students studied music appreciation with enjoyment and direct experience rather than in logical order of periods (Eake, 2009: 109). Eakes’s experiment is a noteworthy research study because it investigated not only online versus the traditional lecture method, but studied different learning style approaches in teaching and learning music appreciation between an online and a lecture method. The term learning styles refer to individuals’ characteristics and preferred ways of gathering, organising and thinking about knowledge and information. Each student has specific learning style or a

55 Sporre D. (1997), the Functions of Art, in D. Sporre (Ed), Reality through the Arts, Prentice Hall, New Jersey

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set of preferences; therefore, instructions should be designed to best accommodate all students (Bolliger & Supanakorn, 2010: 471). This design has contributed to the experimental design of the current study.

Lockett’s study (2010) explored the effects of an online program upon musical performance skills. Lockett investigated the similarities and differences in students’ satisfaction, quality and outcome (cognitive and affective) between how online instrumental music students perceive the effectiveness of online learning (via communication tools) as opposed to traditional face- to-face learning. The participants for this study were students enrolled in an Instrumental Music Class that specializes in bass guitar at the Music Academy in North Carolina. Lockett explored the perceptions and experiences of students between E-learning and traditional classroom instrumental instruction; therefore, students had to complete one or more instrumental music classes in a traditional setting, and one or more in E-learning setting. The survey and interview were used to gather the data. The results revealed that face-to-face and online learning had differences in student expectations, but also shared similarities. In face-to- face learning, more instructor interaction and hands-on training were expected, while online learning, learning through the instruction and technology by using communication software, such as Skype and iChat were the pertinent factors needed for it to be successful. The findings indicated that no significant difference between face-to-face and online learning in terms of both effectiveness and quality of instruction. The specific instrument did not impact on the effectiveness of the music lessons. Students expressed the view that the online learning environment provided them to be more independent and self-directed pathway and had a less structured environment imposed upon them, but they also preferred the fulfilment obtained by social contact with other members of the learning community. However, they enjoyed the flexibility afforded with online learning. Additionally, the factors affecting the decision in choosing face-to-face or online learning included the reputation of the instructors, scheduling and cost. Lockett’s study confirmed that real-time communication software is at least as effective as face-to-face instruction. He pointed out that it is similar to face-to-face instruction in some respects but there is no human contact.

Hunter’s (2011) recent research study to examine the experiences of students enrolled in the online course of Jazz History at Community colleges in the South-western United States. Hunter utilized WebCT as a digital learning tool and the online classroom gateway for students to explore the online education environment, for the study of cultural and social contributions

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to the evolution of American jazz and popular music from the mid-1800s to the present Facebook, Youtube, Twitter and other social networking formats were used as online communication with students. Hunter’s website consisted of three main areas including homepage, lessons and evaluations. When students accessed the homepage, they had several units from which to choose. Each unit had a picture and a link with a unit title or information. When students clicked on the unit link, they were taken to the lessons included in the unit and course content that corresponded to their textbook and study questions. The quizzes and final exam were interactive as well as structured. While students could explore and interact with learning modules in an unstructured way, questions on the quiz relating directly to course content and activities were structured and had correct and incorrect answers. During the course, students were required to visit YouTube and explore YouTube videos of jazz artists for their lessons, assignments, quizzes and final exam. Hunter surveyed the students before the course began and observed them in the online space through the duration of the course. Six students also participated in interviews during and after the course. The findings suggested that the students’ behaviours and abilities to navigate the online course were influenced by their pre-existing media habits. These students also stated the reasons for enrolling in the online course were because of convenience and schedule flexibility and that informed their actions and behaviours in the class. The findings also revealed that perceived positive student engagement did not contribute to a democratic learning environment but rather to ease and convenience in the online class. As well, the data indicated that students’ behaviour in their future lives would not be affected by the online course in that their learning experiences were not influential enough to alter or inform their behaviour in society. Hunter found an interesting finding that:

Students had many opportunities for participation in this online course. Their participation was sometimes supported by the online environment, as in the case of YouTube postings. Students expressed their enjoyment through freedom of expression by hearing their various YouTube links, commenting on them and touting them to their classmates. Due to this freedom, the YouTube assignment was where students seemed to flourish and showed their individuality (Hunter, 2011: 164).

Hunter used WebCT and YouTube to encourage students and used Facebook and Twitter to communicate with others. They know how to incorporate these systems and networks. Therefore, it is interesting to claim that the procedure of aids has a potential impact on the way students engage and participate with the knowledge being mediated. Hunter’s website allowed students to explore their learning without structure and controlling.

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Recent advances in computer technology, high-bandwidth storage devices and high-speed networks have made it possible to provide real-time multimedia interaction and services over the internet. Real-time transport of live video or videoconferencing is the predominant part of real-time multimedia. It is a live, two-way, interactive electronic means of communication. Two or more people in different geographic locations can engage in face-to-face audio and visual exchanged using a camera, a sound speaker, a microphone, computer hardware and software, video monitor and a telecommunications link (Tait & Blaiklock, 2005: 2). Integrated Services Digital Network and Internet Protocol are currently the most commonly used types of connection for videoconferencing (Callinan, 2005: 41). Lancaster (2007: 4) also stated that there have been a few developments in flexible delivery modes among music providers in various parts of the world. The most significant of them include computer-mediated learning in real-time, collaborations between the institutions to deliver joint programs, satellite campus and virtual operations. The real-time videoconferencing link via the internet protocol is fast, efficient, cheap and accessible (Callinan, 2005: 42; Lancaster, 2007: 5). In addition, Lancaster (2007: 6) also stated that in some countries, institutions and colleges have applied real-time videoconferencing technology to link campuses in different locations with a single teacher on another (or even the same) campus.

In the USA, the application of videoconferencing has appeared at the Manhattan School of Music. This school has been a continued leader in facilitating its faculty’s instructional abilities to be accessed via videoconferencing around the world both in one-on-one and master class experiences. For example, Chris Rodrigues, a jazz guitarist, presented a master class for students in New York and Ottawa, Willaim Preucil, a concert master of the Cleveland Orchestra, presented a master class to distance students, and Glen Dicterow, a concert master of the New York Philharmonic, presented a master class to distance students (Dye, 2007: 42). In addition, violinist Pinchas Zuckerman often uses videoconferencing to contact with his students at the Manhattan School of Music when he has commitments elsewhere. He also participates in distance master classes with other institutions, including McGrill University, Oklahoma University and the New World Symphony in Florida. Zuckerman argued that videoconferencing can be used successfully to teach instrumental music, conduct master classes and produce collaborative performances (Callinan, 2002: 16). The study conducted by Dammers (2009), a professional trumpet player, utilised internet-based videoconferencing to teach trumpet lessons in the suburbs of a Midwestern North American city. He found that the technical quality even initially was good enough to give clear feedback. As teacher and student

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became more familiar with the format, technical shortcomings such as disconnection or delay became less of a distraction. Another conducted by Orman and Whitaker (2010) compared time usage during face-to-face learning in North America university campus and synchronous distance music lessons (tuba and saxophone) via laptop. None of them had taken lessons on their instruments beforehand and they had no experience of online teaching. Data consisted of digital recordings of each lesson and assessment forms. The findings revealed that teacher modelling and off-task behaviour occurred significantly more often during face-to-face lessons. On the other hand, student performance and eye contact increased during distance lessons.

In Finland, Brandstorm, Wiklund and Lundstrom (2012) studied 11 distance master classes with Classical musicians and teachers (nine from Helsinki and two from LTU). The instruments were violin, cello, French horn, vocals and chamber music. The equipment was a videoconference system designed by Tandberg (MXT Edge 95), with an extra speaker and microphone. The findings from the interview indicated that the online master classes mostly worked well. Most teachers were interested and very positively surprised with the use of videoconferencing; however, some technical shortcomings occurred such as the sound being delayed. Additionally, most teachers mentioned that a challenge for them was to analyse strengths and weaknesses and then to give students the clearest feedback as possible; therefore, they preferred to place the camera a little to one side to be able to watch the fingering and how the instrument was held. In term of students, they expressed difficulty findings the direction in their performance and to realise for whom they were performing. They argued that to perform at the camera was strange. However, Brandstorm, Wiklund and Lundstrom (2012: 9) argued that it is not possible to determine that distance music education is better than face-to-face teaching. Online teaching offers new ways to organise music education. At relative low cost, the students can be given the opportunity to meet the very best instrumentalists and pedagogues in the world.

In Australia, Sydney Conservatorium of music had been host to the VideoLink learning project, established in 2000 by clarinettist Mark Walton in response to the need for regional students to have early and regular links with quality teaching from Sydney Conservatorium. VideoLink makes it possible for teachers in Sydney to provide individual instrumental instruction via videoconferencing to student. The greatest advantage of this concept is that it provides access, removing some of the problem of isolation experienced in regional New South Wales and reducing some of the distinctions that exist between city and country areas. Callinan found

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that having a class with a teacher from Sydney conservatorium highly motivates the students involved (Callinan, 2002: 151). Additionally, the Riverina Conservatorium has also taken the VideoLink project in order to link advanced students at the Riverina Conservatorium with teachers at Sydney Conservatorium such as Mark Walton (clarinet), Jeanell Carrigan (piano), Phillippa Paige (violin) and Emma Knott (flute) and to connect staff from the Riverina Conservatorium with students in remote areas beyond the regional base. The study conducted by Callinan (2005) observed the use of VideoLink and found that technological issues had a large impact on the lessons. Some of the difficulties experienced included the costs involved, the onus on participants to be organised, the inability to fully assess students’ playing because of issues such as sound quality and lack of detail in picture quality, the tendency for the connection to fail, the difficulties caused by time delay, the difficulties of scheduling lesson, time constraints and the lack of control that teachers had over the teaching space at the remote end (Callinan, 2005: 45).

As discussed above, videoconferencing can be particularly useful in providing expertise in teaching and providing students a feeling of immediate contact. It can allow for continuous teaching and offer a diversity of experience (Badenhorst & Axmann, 2002). Mulcahy (1999) as cited in Nakashima (2009: 51) expressed that:

Computer, the internet, online course, interactive video conferencing and satellite communications systems have increased the possibilities and potential for making the size and location of instruction relevant as far as its capacity to provide access to educational programming and resources (Mulcahy, 1999 as cited in Nakashima, 2009: 51).56

However, the adaption of music programs to online education remains controversial. There are many issues that do need to be critically investigated. Sound and picture quality and lack of delay are critical to the success of real-time videoconferencing program for music lessons. Binovec as cited in Tait and Blaiklock (2005: 4) argued that without high resolution speakers, the sound may be ‘far from perfect’, limiting demonstrations. As well, with fast broadband connections, the delay is possibly overcome (Tait & Blaiklock, 2005: 4). Callinan (2005: 46) argued that real-time conferencing is still early days for music education. It may be anticipated that more studies will emerge as the medium becomes more widely used and understanding

56 Mulcahy, D 2002, ‘Future Directions for Rural Schools: is the Virtual School the Way to do?’, the Morning Watch, vol. 27, no. 1-2, pp. 1-14, as cited in Nakashima, J 2009, ‘Experiencing Music 2200 Online: a Critical Case Study of the Curriculum Transfer Process’, PhD Thesis, Memorial University of Newfoundland.

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of videoconferencing will grow. The nature of teaching will inevitably change and develop as the technology improves and becomes more accessible (Callinan, 2005: 46).

3.2.4 Summary of Research Findings

From a review of the literature discussed above, it can be claimed that technology has become an important part of music education. Technological developments have brought with them practical changes in music curriculum as instructors have incorporated hardware and software or even internet technology into their teaching. Most of the above research studies especially online learning showed their flexible instructions which could allow their students to participate actively in the learning process, gaining confidence while developing critical thinking and problems-solving skills. Some studies were limited in musical quality and effectiveness due to a lack of advanced programming tools and software programs. Simple subject-matter such as music theory and music fundamentals became primary learning topics in the 1980s. In the following decades, as programming techniques and digital devices improved, a greater variety of topics were incorporated into several approaches such as drill- and-practice programs, guided instruction and exploratory programs to cover broader areas in music education.

Most of the above research studies were conducted with either research-developed applications or commercial software packages to meet the purpose of expanding students’ knowledge and skill development through various approaches to technological instruction (Ajero, 2007; Arenson, 1995; Bauer, 1994; Benson, 2002; Betts & Cassidy, 2000; Dobber, 1998; Duitman, 1993; Elliott, 2003; Hagen, 2001; Hill, 1972; Hinson, 2004; Jacobsen, 1986; Jumpeter, 1980; Lin, 2005; Lockett, 2010; McGregor, 2007; Pan, 2001; Parrish, 1994; Placek, 1992; Schachter, 1999; Sterling, 2002; Therrien, 1997; Tomzcak, 1999; Wilson, 1981; Wright, 2007) examining possible teaching and learning approaches to the use of technology to succeed in their music teaching and learning goals, and to make their course more interesting and accessible to their students (Eakes, 2009; He, 1995; Hopkins, 2002; Hunter, 2011; McCabe, 2007). Similarly, their technological format enables students to reach their academic goals in a way and time that fits their individual needs and capacity. These music instructors and researchers are making great efforts to keep abreast of the latest advancements and incorporate them into their curricula.

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In terms of acquired knowledge and increased learning ability, although most research studies demonstrated no significant effects when compared to a traditional lecture method, they found that technological applications are almost all at least as effective as traditional lecture methods. Research studies were conducted to determine the effects of using technology in the music classroom, with varied results. However, none of these studies seem to assert that the use of technology is decidedly better in outcome than the traditional teaching method. Some studies showed a positive effect of using technology over traditional instruction displayed through higher student performance scores and motivation. Some studies showed no significant difference and some negative effects of using technology; however, in general, there was an overall positive effect with its use. The findings indicated that incorporation of technology and multimedia presentations is often credited with quickly focusing students’ attention, providing more motivation and engagement, offering learning flexibility and better learning outcomes. The findings also revealed that student perceptions are influenced by several factors, such as creativity, relevance, convenience, flexibility and the need for self- discipline.

In addition, a review of the literature discussed above also revealed computer and internet technology integrated into the field of music education are generally developed with different approaches and different purposes, for example:

Drill-and-practice programs

The computer began to spread within an educational field, it was initially seen as a way to implement drill-and-practice programs. The traditional drill-and-practice was firstly evolved from Skinner’s (1986) mechanical programmed instruction teaching machine which has been used continuously, since, taking full advantages of technological developments and multimedia materials (Niederhauser & Stoddart, 2001: 18). Drill-and-practice programs are developed as a sequence of activity, providing the students with the opportunity to exercise and practice, and to receive responses, feedback and sometimes remediation on tasks and performance (Alessi & Trollip, 1991; Brandao, Wiggins & Pain, 1999; Mockler, Dologite & Gartenfield, 2000; Vazquez-Abad & LaFleur, 1990; Williams & Webster, 2008). Several research studies (McGregor, 2007; Pan, 2001; Parrish, 1994; Williams & Webster, 2008) indicated that the effectiveness of technological instruction with a drill-and-practice program is to increase achievement, decrease learning time and motivate students. This approach does not focus on teaching new concepts but generally involves repetition of activities and tasks to complete,

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usually by means of a more interactive approach to motivate the students until the sequence is spontaneous (Brandao, Wiggins & Pain, 1999: 2) thereby assisting the students to improve and reinforce the previously learned concepts and skills. Most music instructors believe that efficient and accurate practice is necessary for success in learning music theory and fundamentals; the technological instruction developed in this approach focused on teaching music theory, music fundamentals, ear-training skills, instrument instruction and specific skill development (Brandao, Wiggins & Pain, 1999; Chuang, 2000; Isaacson, 2002; Williams & Webster, 2008).

Flexible practice programs

In the early 1990s, drill-and-practice programs began to offer more flexible options allowing students to adjust the content and pace. They offered comprehensive approaches with multiple tasks, online tutoring for music concepts and flexible learning environments (Tsao- Lim, 2006: 28). Flexible practice programs aim to develop a specific skill (Sterling, 2002: 15) but the programs add features that allow use by both the instructors and students seeking self- improvement (Williams & Webster, 2008: 409). Flexible practice programs allow the instructors to manipulate the program to meet the students’ need or a specific teaching style, while the students can control settings for the exercises. Menus and dialog boxes allow students to choose the settings for a series of experiences and practices that best suit their needs (Webster, 1998: 64). In a similar way, the instructors can use these features to create a tailor-made curriculum for the instruction. These flexible options allow students to work with more musical materials, while giving the program more depth of content. Practica Musica offers both a drill-and-practice and a flexible practice program. The program provides drills on sight-reading, scales, intervals and chords in four levels of difficulty, and allows the instructors to tailor exercises in accordance with the students’ and the instructors’ needs for various assessments. Students can practice their specific needs while immediate feedback helps them to master the concepts and gain an understanding as to what mistakes are being made and how to fix them (Dobber, 1998; Sterling, 2002; Therrien, 1997).

Guided instruction programs or Tutorials

Guided instruction programs are developed to present students with information, knowledge and experience in a lecture format (Sterling, 2002: 16), which includes ongoing guidance in the form of tutorials presented in a sequential pattern that leads the students through various steps and levels of knowledge, from basic to more advanced information (Lsao-Lim, 2006: 28).

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Guided instruction frequently does not include much interactivity (Williams & Webster, 2008: 420). Students proceed through musical materials in a predetermined and logical sequence. This approach is presented through demonstrations using text, image, audio, graphic, video, animation or combinations of them in order to motivate the students to participate with the instruction and test the acquisition of their knowledge and skills (Willaims & Webster, 2008: 420). The most prevalent subjects of guided instruction music software focus on teaching musical instruments, especially piano and guitar (Ester, 1992; Green, 2003; Teter, 1995; Tomczak, 1999). An example of guided instruction titled ‘Easy Guitar’ (Green, 2003) is designed for college guitar players. This program consists of five sections. The first section contains a brief introduction to the acoustic and electronic guitar; the second section covers the fundamentals of reading music; the third and fourth sections include 16 basic and eight advanced lessons, most of them including video; and the last section contains a brief history of the instrument including different styles of playing and a guitar trivia game. This program is designed to provide guitar instructional assistance to the students. In that sense, it serves as a virtual instructor. It is not designed to replace the conventional method of instruction, but to function as a complementary reinforcement which guides the students through the learning process. The materials are presented by level of complexity and may contain related games to evaluate students’ learning. The program can be very imaginative and entertaining (Webster, 1998: 64; Williams & Webster, 2008: 410).

Creative programs

Folkestad, Hargreaves and Lindstromg (1998: 83) stated that the study by Bamberger in 1977 was one of the first that used computers to investigate the compositional process. She experimented with a computer-based composition system as a means for studying the decision-making process in melody writing. Since then, an increasing interest in the use of computers and music technology to explore creative programs has resulted in several studies in this area such as a study on composition strategies in computer-based music-making by Folkestad, Hargreaves and Lindstrom (1998), a study on creative thinking processes in adolescent computer-based composition by Seddon and O’Neill (2003) and the study on collaborative computer-mediated music composition in cyberspace by Seddon (2006), etc. Creative programs offer the students lessons in creative control with the opportunities to either create and compose music or assist in practicing music. Digital audio and MIDI technology are often used with this approach. Manchester (2002: 12) argued that composing requires advanced thinking skills and he stated the example of his creative program that:

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The program normally provides several activities that allow students to mix and match or manipulate various melodic and rhythmic patterns, and combine melodic motives into a variety of forms. Students can gain a unique understanding of what goes into creating a new work of art and become more discriminating in their listening to and performance of music (Manchester, 2002: 12).

Webster (1998: 64) explained that “the idea of this approach is to encourage students to create music by providing an opportunity to compose with graphic representation or improvise original music with accompaniments provided by the software. Additionally, creative programs might offer a construction kit for creating symbols, signs, images and works that demonstrate the organisation of the music. Students are given a great deal of creative control” (Webster, 1998: 64). The focus of this category of software is on music composition and improvisation (Webster, 1998: 64).

Exploratory program

Exploratory programs are developed as discovery-learning, encouraging the students to create music or explore resources about a particular topic in a free way, moving from one topic to another in any approach, called hypermedia (Webster, 1998: 64). Tsao-Lim (2006: 29) stated that exploratory programs allow students considerable freedom in navigating and manipulating their content by missing a variety of media such as audio CDs, video and MIDI devices. Several studies that specifically involved music and exploratory programs or hypermedia have been conducted since the early 1990s, such as the study on wind instruments by Adams (1990), the study on hypermedia listening station by Hughes (1991) and the study on hypermedia listening experience by Sigurjonsson (1991), etc. Exploratory programs are less about mastering a particular skill, and more about gathering information and knowledge about topics through reading, listening and creating music through composition or improvisation (Williams & Webster, 2008: 410). Webster (1998: 64) stated that:

Exploratory programs do not expect the students to work in a linear fashion from the beginning of the program to the end. Students learn based on their own interests and pace. The software is organised in chapters or units of instruction with content between chapters inter-related. Links to a glossary of terms is common as are connections to relevant content found on World Wide Web resources (Webster, 1998: 64).57

57 Webster, PR 1998, Young Children and Music Technology, Research Studies in Music Education, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 61-67.

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In one of the exploratory programs provided, students explore masterpieces, study musical techniques and learn about musicians and historical background, for example, Beethoven’s 5th: the Multimedia Symphony (Tsao-Lim, 2006: 29) gives students the opportunity to explore the information about the 5th Symphony of Beethoven. The program delves into a particular work of music from multiple perspectives, giving an overview of Beethoven’s life, a formal analysis of the 5th Symphony, a complete recording of the work with written commentary, an introduction to each instrument in the orchestra and a set of games. The recording can be played for additional information and the score can be viewed in short segments as the music plays. A glossary of musical terms is also included. Students can base their study around an area of the 5th Symphony and the instruments that are likely to be found there. The focus of this category of software is on music history and appreciation, and listening experiences (Webster, 1998: 64).

Instructional game or game software

With the increasing popularity of computer games in the past decade, students have become interested in simulation and gaming technology. Instructional games are similar to drill-and- practice programs but the difference is the competence level required of students to participate effectively. Bound by rules, games require competitive interaction to achieve specified targets that depend on abilities and skills and often involve chance and an imaginary setting. Quinn (1994) as cited in Amory, Naicker, Vincent and Adams (1999: 312) argued that instructional games need to combine fun elements with aspects of instructional design and system design that include motivational, learning and interactive components. Regarding several studies (Denis & Jouvelot, 2005; Gifford, 2002; Lau, 2008), they argued that incorporating instructional games provides an enjoyable and conducive learning condition, and often aids in motivating the students. Webster (1998: 64) explained the example of his instructional game that:

The emphasis is placed on basic skill development and knowledge of the music elements such as melody or rhythm. This is done in competitive way, often allowing more than one student to have turns at the correct answers. Sometimes the games are more like adventures in which a single student is asked to solve a puzzle or arrive at some defined plateau. Such adventures often have music tasks to solve on the way to the ending goal (Webster, 1998: 64).

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This approach generally makes extensive use of graphics and animation to accompany its many uses of sound to make it more interesting and challenging, and also to persuade the students to practice their skills (Williams & Webster, 2008: 410). Amory, Naicker, Vincent and Adams suggested that “three elements including fantasy, curiosity and challenge can contribute to the fun in a game. It might sometimes contain elements of exploration and creative categories. Therefore, it can be claimed that this approach is the most motivational and attractive software for music teaching and learning, especially for young students” (Amory, Naicker, Vincent & Adams: 1999: 312).

Teacher resources

Teacher resources in music proposed by Williams and Webster are developed as sources of knowledge, containing information and materials for music teaching and learning to help integrate technological materials into the curriculum. Resources are designed to assist instructors in preparing, maintaining and updating class materials and providing support in the teaching and learning process (Williams & Webster, 2008: 410). For example, lesson plans and materials are provided with multimedia resources, such as audio and visual files, video and images to help explain a teaching approach. Music sheets and other worksheets may be provided that can be printed out and distributed to students. In addition, this approach can be described as a structural presentation of information and materials, which has the purpose of knowledge development. It can shift inventories of reading materials, audio files and images from different stores and resources to a central location. One of the examples of such a resource is Oxford Music Online58 offering extensive and easily searchable online music resources, providing numerous articles on composers, performers, conductors, instruments and notation, forms and genres and individual works.

Although each category of resources has a different role and learning style offering music instructors invaluable resources in devising lesson plans to accommodate different learning styles in students, they all aim to facilitate efficiency and effective music teaching and learning in order to reinforce musical knowledge and skills, and to enhance students’ learning experiences through the use of a variety of multimedia integrated into the program. Whether or not computer technology is used as tool to support the instruction or as a truly integrated part of instruction, it is important to determine the purpose, role, approach and effect that the use of technology has on students’ learning. This is because technological instruction could be

58 Oxford Music Online, Available at http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com

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a long-term effort involving professional growth through stages of entry, adoption, adaption, appropriation and invention, as well as a long-term transformation of teaching through technology demonstrated in the form of distance and lifelong music learning (Bauer, Reese & McAllister, 2003: 300). In addition, the potential impact of technological instruction may be implicative and transformative. The implicative impact involves the completion of tasks and activities with increased efficiency when new technologies are used, while the transformative impact involves a qualitative change in how people think, act and react (Beckstead, 2001; Burge, 1993; Kiesler, 1992). With the understanding of how instructors and researchers in the past incorporated the use of technology in their curricula, as well as the universal aspiration for music instructors to improve the quality of music teaching and learning and its relevance to students by rethinking how music instructors’ capacity to use technology effectively matches the students’ needs (Burnard, 2008; Savage, 2005b), music instructors and researchers today continue to investigate new technologies and ways to maximize their potential as teaching and learning tools.

3.3 THE NEED FOR THIS STUDY

A review of the literature revealed that the role of music programs has changed in today’s educational setting in line with changes in technology. Students have been familiar with the use of ICT which could facilitate and expand their musical understanding, and enhance their performing, composing and listening. In general the literature shows that students were more motivated to learn with music technology, which they found interesting, flexible and independent. Therefore, a review of the literature is important to the background of the study because this present study explores the use of E-learning program for teaching and learning in three areas of music study related to the content of History of music in the Classical period, for the particular needs of the music curriculum in Thailand. Particularly, Eake’s (2009), Lin’s (2005), Lockett’s (2010) and McGregor’s (2007) studies are most essential and influential in the design, content and conduct of my research study. These studies developed an online music learning program, in which their programs showed a successful design and implementation. The ways to design and the modes of implementation are appropriate for my intended purposes of an E-learning program association with a course at Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand. Moreover, their research design and evaluating tools or data collection tools, especially McGregor’s study (2007) are closed aligned with my desired research design and

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study. In addition, Elliott’s study (2010) is one of the most essential to develop my instructional materials for the traditional teaching method in my research study.

Thus far, I hypothesise that E-learning can be used as an educational tool in music education; as well as it may possibly provide benefits over a traditional learning method due to flexibility, convenience, self-regulation and multimedia integration. Regarding previous research studies, it has already existed and has been shown to be technically possible; however, there are no comparative studies conducted about the appropriate use of technology between the three contents including 1) music appreciation and history; 2) music theory and fundamentals; and 3) instrumental music and performance. Moreover, there have been no research studies conducted to date regarding teaching and learning online in higher music education in Thailand. As well, no research study exists that examines which cognitive domains of learning outcomes in music study are the most susceptible to teaching via an E-learning approach through experimentation with the same sample participants. Additionally, there have been no research studies conducted regarding the comparison of online and face-to-face formats in Thailand higher music education, as well as no research studies exploring students’ perspectives of online music learning particularly in terms of perceived strengths and weaknesses. Moreover, the lack of study regarding the most effective instructional strategies in actual use by instructors continues to be an important issue.

Therefore, this research study takes advantage of technological developments and multimedia presentation to design and develop a new E-learning program for higher music education in Thailand in order to address some issues and problems encountered in higher music education, as discussed in Chapter 2: Background of the Study, in particular to challenge the traditional approach and supplement music teaching and learning in Thailand higher music education, and to foster quality music teaching and learning with the use of technology. This research study will focus on the integration of an E-learning program for three different learning outcomes of music study namely knowledge, understanding and skill. The purpose is to determine the effectiveness of the use of the E-learning program in terms of learning achievement and attitude, as well as to examine students’ opinions and satisfaction about the use of E-learning program in order to investigate which learning outcomes of music study (knowledge, understanding and skill) are the most susceptible to an E-learning approach.

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As earlier discussed, drill-and-practice programs have been used for instruction to teach music theory and fundamentals, listening projects were often integrated into instruction to teach music appreciation and music history; and MIDI technology have been integrated into the instructions to teach piano skills. For this research study, the E-learning program will be developed as web-based instruction (without the instructor). The program contains features of guided instruction and an exploratory program for students to work online independently. The purpose is to 1) guide the students towards a logical process in understanding the chronicle of Classical period music (Guided instruction); and 2) aid the students towards a better understanding through freedom in navigating, accessing and manipulating additional resources of information in support of their cooperative study (Exploratory program). The E-learning program will not require any special features and equipment because the researcher desires to develop the program as a flexible learning program which allows students to learn anytime and anywhere. To possibly address the issue of a lack of face-to-face interaction, the researcher will always follow-up all E-learning students, update them any news and announcement and remind assignment dates of submission in order to reduce their feeling of isolation.

The program will provide three challenges consisting of offering a multimedia environment, supporting both interactive communication and access to additional information. The three main parts of this program consist of 1) music history in the Classical period as a study for musical knowledge; 2) music theory and formal analysis in the Classical music style as a study for musical understanding; and 3) piano performance in the repertory of Classical music as a study of musical skill. The researcher will provide 1) a variety of content information and format including audio and visual presentation and printed materials as a PDF file; 2) sharing of information and experience through asynchronous communication, such as web-board and Email; and 3) quick access to additional resources of information and knowledge in support of students’ cooperative study. Therefore, students will learn all three aspects of this music study through the materials in a logical sequence and discover other resources related to their study around the E-learning program as well as additional world-wide materials available on the Internet.

The instructional design and materials of the E-learning program for this research study and an overview of the research methodology will be described in the Chapter 4: Research Methodology.

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CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The literature review presented in Chapter 3 highlighted ICT, especially the computer and internet technology as a pedagogical approach for teaching and learning music. It is possible that online learning may provide some benefits over a traditional approach for the particular issues of higher music education in Thailand. This chapter will explain the research methodology for this study in terms of 1) population and sample; 2) independent and dependent variables; 3) research design; 4) research tools and materials; 5) data collection tool; 6) research procedure used in data collection; and 7) data analysis techniques (statistics for testing hypotheses).

4.1 POPULATION AND SAMPLE

Population

The participants of this research study were higher education music students at the Department of Western Music, the Faculty of Fine Arts at Srinakharinwirot University, Bangkok, Thailand.

Sample

The sample participants for this research study were 45 students enrolled in a course on the History of Western music in Semester 1, 2010, with 25 students placed in the Experimental group and 20 students placed in the Control group. For these 45 students, information was collected about gender, GPA, musical instruments, areas of study and musical experiences, as shown in Table 4.1 and Table 4.2.

Table 4.1 Students in the Experimental group The Experimental group (the E-learning program): Student Musical Gender GPA Instruments Areas of Study No. Experiences* 1 F 3.60 Piano Classical Music 10 2 F 2.80 Violin Music Business 8

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Student Musical Gender GPA Instruments Areas of Study No. Experiences* 3 M 2.17 Clarinet Classical Music 6 4 F 3.95 Piano Music Business 15 5 M 3.02 Voice Music Business 5 6 F 3.01 Voice Classical Music 13 7 F 3.00 Voice Music Business 5 8 F 3.78 Viola Classical Music 6 9 M 3.21 Trumpet Classical Music 8 10 M 2.80 Percussion Classical Music 7 11 M 3.00 Euphonium Music Education 10 12 F 3.30 Flute Music Education 9 13 F 3.43 Guitar Music Education 5 14 F 3.41 Violin Music Education 5 15 M 3.56 Piano Music Education 7 16 F 3.56 Voice Music Education 10 17 M 2.98 Guitar Music Education 8 18 F 3.50 Violin Music Education 8 19 M 3.30 Violin Music Education 6 20 M 3.13 Saxophone Music Education 6 21 M 3.14 Voice Music Education 7 22 F 3.40 Violin Classical Music 10 23 M 3.30 Guitar Classical Music 5 24 F 2.70 Guitar Music Business 7 25 M 2.79 Bass Music Business 7 *Musical experiences refer to the number of years that students engaged with theoretical and practical music study.

Table 4.2 Students in the Control group The Control group (Traditional teaching method): Student Musical Gender GPA Instruments Areas of Study No. Experiences* 1 F 3.53 Voice Classical Music 5 2 M 3.15 Trombone Classical Music 7 3 M 3.00 Percussion Music Business 7 4 F 2.65 Bass Classical Music 6

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Student Musical Gender GPA Instruments Areas of Study No. Experiences* 5 F 3.83 Piano Classical Music 15 6 M 2.70 Voice Music Education 7 7 M 3.03 Violin Music Education 7 8 M 3.23 Violin Classical Music 7 9 F 3.33 Clarinet Classical Music 9 10 M 2.65 Trombone Music Education 6 11 M 2.83 Saxophone Music Education 13 12 M 3.18 Guitar Jazz Music 10 13 F 3.28 Violin Music Education 6 14 M 2.90 Piano Jazz Music 7 15 M 2.65 Guitar Music Business 5 16 F 3.29 Piano Jazz Music 10 17 M 3.01 Clarinet Classical Music 6 18 F 3.55 Voice Music Education 6 19 F 2.93 Violin Music Education 5 20 F 2.83 Guitar Music Education 7 *Musical experiences refer to the number of years that students engaged with theoretical and practical music study.

Although there are four kinds of participants, the History of Western music is core subject of the undergraduate music program that all students must enrol in before completing the degree. Students who participated in this investigation were not required or expected to have any previous musical knowledge of Classical period history, musical understanding of Classical style or skill in playing Classical piano music, however, they were asked to be participants for this research. The course is an introductory one in Western music for students with little Classical music history, Classical music style and Classical piano music background. The content was developed based on the syllabus for the History of Western music; however, advanced content was not included in the syllabus. Both groups studied similar content, received similar materials and undertook similar assessments but with the different teaching methods and presentation of material. The Experimental group studied using the E-learning program with online communication, and the Control group studied with the traditional teaching method with directed communication and open discussion.

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4.2 INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES

Independent Variables

The independent variables in this research study are the teaching methods namely:

1. The E-learning program (the CW elearn-music program) 2. The traditional teaching method

Dependent Variables

The dependent variables in this research are as follows:

1. Achievement in music study  Achievement in musical knowledge of Classical period history  Achievement in musical understanding of Classical music style  Achievement in musical skill in playing Classical piano music 2. Attitudes to music study  Attitude towards the study of the History of music (Subject)  Attitude towards learning knowledge of Classical period history  Attitude towards learning understanding of Classical music style  Attitude towards learning skill in playing Classical piano music 3. Opinions about the E-learning program  Satisfaction with the E-learning program  Opinions about teaching and learning through the E-learning program  Opinions about the E-learning program for teaching and learning music courses

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4.3 RESEARCH DESIGN

A Randomized Control and Experimental Group Pretest and Posttest Design (Bordens & Abbott, 2008: 105), as shown in Equation 1 was developed for comparing students’ learning achievements and attitudes in music studies relating to the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ between the Experimental and the Control groups.

Equation 1 Research Design

A Randomized Control and Experimental Group Pretest and Posttest Design

E(R) T1E x T2E

C(R) T1C . T2C

Where:

E = Experimental group

C = Control group

R = Randomization

x = Treatment (the E-learning program)

. = Other treatment (the traditional teaching method)

T1 = Pretest

T2 = Posttest

In this study, a Randomized Control and Experimental Group Pretest and Posttest Design process consisted of seven steps to produce the examination as shown in Figure 4.1

1. The sample of 45 students was divided into two groups by using a Simple Random Sampling technique (Borden& Abbott, 2008: 271), consisting of the Experimental group (N = 25) that studied through the E-learning program, and the Control group (N = 20) that studied through the traditional teaching method. Each student was chosen randomly and entirely by chance. 2. Both groups were given similar data collection tools namely the ‘Achievement in music study test’ and the ‘Attitude to music study test’ as the Pretest.

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3. Both groups studied similar content and received similar materials but with the different teaching methods.  The Experimental group was taught only using the E-learning program and communicated by asynchronous communicative tools such as web-board and personal email.  The Control group was taught by the traditional teaching method, receiving a face-to-face lecture environment with face-to-face communication. 4. Both groups were given similar data collection tools namely the ‘Achievement in music study test’ and the ‘Attitude to music study test’ as the Posttest. 5. Prior learning was compared with learning acquired from this program for both the E- learning program and the traditional teaching method cohorts using the t-test for dependent sample (Ferguson, 1981: 180) as follows:  The Experimental group: prior knowledge versus post-experience knowledge acquired during the E-learning program.  The Control group: prior knowledge versus post-experience knowledge acquired during the traditional teaching method. 6. The overall learning from the E-learning program was compared with that of the traditional teaching program by using the t-test for independent sample (Popham & Sirotnik, 1973: 139). 7. The ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ was given to only the Experimental group in order to measure students’ opinions about the E-learning program by using a simple descriptive statistical analysis including frequency and percentage distribution (Moore, McCabe & Craig, 2009: 13), mean (Hopkins, Stanley & Hopkins, 1990: 30) and standard deviation (Hopkins, Stanley & Hopkins, 1990: 37).

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Pretest

The ‘Achievement in music study test’ The ‘Attitude to music study test’

Experimental group Control group

E-learning program Traditional teaching method Online communication Face-to-face communication

The ‘Questionnaire for the Posttest E-learning program’ The ‘Achievement in music study test’ The ‘Attitude to music study test’

Investigation

1. What are the differences in students’ learning achievements in music studies between the

two teaching methods (the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method)?

2. What are the differences in students’ attitudes to music studies between the two teaching methods (the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method)? 3. How susceptible are the learning outcomes in music study (knowledge, understanding and skill) to an E-learning approach? 4 . Can the computer effectively replace the teacher in a music learning program?

Figure 4.1 The process of this research study

In this research study, the researcher was responsible for three positions: developer, instructor and researcher. As a developer, I had to design and develop an E-learning program which matches with Thai music students’ learning styles and preferences. As an instructor, I had to determine the course design and learning content, prepare the materials and conduct both instructional formats: the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method. As a researcher, I had to examine the evidence to determine whether the use of an E-learning program is effective for music programs in higher music education in Thailand.

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4.4 RESEARCH TOOLS AND MATERIALS

4.4.1 The Experimental Teaching Tool

The program entitled the CW elearn-music program was designed by the researcher as web- based instruction (WBI) predicated on the desire of the researcher to design and develop an instructional program that used ideas, concepts and details from the traditional teaching method (traditional lecture method), while adapting it to an E-learning format. The CW elearn- music program was purely web-based instruction without an instructor created to offer Thai music students a method of using their critical thinking skills and their ability in self-regulation, self-paced, self-directed learning and discipline in an interactive computer environment. It requires only a computer keyboard, a mouse and a speaker to interact with the program.

4.4.1.1 E-learning construction

Four main steps were involved in designing and developing the CW elearn-music program. It is based on the Web-Based Design Model consisting of four phases for building a web-based learning event by Jolliffe, Ritter and Steven59 and the Web-Based Design Model consisting of ten steps to effective web-based learning by Cook and Dupras60, as shown in Figure 4.2. Additionally, two functions consisting of the learning content and the E-learning program design were the essential factors in the development of the CW elearn-music program.

Preparation

Design

Modification

Development

Evaluation

Figure 4.2 Four main steps in developing the CW elearn-music program

59 Jolliffe, A, Ritter, J & Stevens, D 2001, The Online Learning Handbook: Development and Using Web- Based Learning, Kogan Page, London, pp. 62-84. 60 Cook, DA & Dupras, DM 2004, A Practical Guide to Developing Effective Web-Based Learning, Journal of General Internal Medicine, vol. 19, issue 6, pp. 698-707.

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Preparation Phase

Cook and Dupras (2004: 698) suggested that the preparation step involved in developing the web-based learning is to perform a needs analysis and specify goals and objectives. As well, Jolliffe, Ritter and Stevens (2001: 68) argued that preparing well-developed E-learning materials take a great deal of time, uses substantial resources and can be quite costly. Therefore, the preparation for the content, resources and web information and documents was generally the first step in developing the CW elearn-music program. This step was designed to collect and accumulate the basic information and documents. Special equipment and software regarding the learning design and materials the researcher was going to develop was required. Moreover, this step involved identifying the characteristics of learners, specifying the intended objectives for the instruction, specifying the relevant features of the learning environment and developing instructional content, materials and activities that will ensure learning.

In terms of the content, because one of the purposes of this research study was to investigate which learning outcomes of music study including knowledge, understanding and skill are the most susceptible to an E-learning approach, the course design and content used for this study had to be specially arranged by the researcher in order to cover these learning outcomes. The learning content and materials for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ for both the E- learning program and the traditional teaching method was developed in accordance with the instructional system defined and described by Klausmeier and Ripple61. The complete course outline, presented in Appendix 1, was discussed and recommended by three music lecturers62 at the Department of Western music, the Faculty of Fine Arts, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand. This special course of the History of music including Classical period history, Classical music style and Classical piano music aimed to give students the opportunity to experience the chronicle of the Classical period with respect to important movements that influence the patronage and function of music, characteristics of music, music devices, forms, genres and major composers focusing on musical knowledge of Classical period history. Additionally, the course provided the concepts and interpretations of music components, symbols, structures and languages, as well as the techniques of musical analysis. This focused on musical

61 Klausmeier, HJ & Ripple, RE 1971, Learning and Human Abilities: Educational Psychology, Harper & Row, New York, p. 11. 62 The three lecturers are 1) Mr Wathit Suwansomboon (Head of the Department of Western music); 2) Dr Janida Tangdajahiran (Senior lecturer in Piano); and 3) Mr Sitsake Yanderm (Lecturer in the History of Music).

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understanding of Classical music style. As well, the course provided an introduction to Classical piano music, particularly by Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. This focused on musical skill in playing Classical piano music. As students had different levels of piano skill, the researcher provided basic fundamentals in reading piano notation, body posture and piano techniques for students who had a low level of this skill.

Jolliffe, Ritter and Stevens (2001: 67) suggested that developing new E-learning materials is a major task involving design, development, delivery and evaluation to ensure their effectiveness. Therefore, clear objectives help define the role of E-learning (Cook & Dupras, 2004: 699). In terms of the E-learning program design, the researcher studied the concepts, theories and related literature about teaching and learning on internet technology in order to 1) determine students’ perceived educational needs and preferences; and 2) determine an appropriate E-learning program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’, which provides details regarding what Thai students have to achieve and the standard required. Additionally, the researcher studied and selected commercial software packages to design and develop the website. A host was chosen in order to register and publish the program and apply for the domain name. The software package used to design and develop the website was Adobe Creative Suite 4 (CS4)63. JAVA script and PHP language were used to develop the database system.

Design Phase

The second step involved in developing the CW elearn-music program was to design the content and the structure. This step involved determining technical materials, resources and needs for the students, determining commercial software applications to develop the E- learning and identifying possible issues and barriers considering for example, issues such as “have they participated in an online course before?”, “are they comfortable using the internet?”, If they will complete the curriculum from home, what computer system do they use, and what is the computers’ capacity?, and “do they have high-speed internet access?” toned to be addressed in a timely manner before implementation begins (Cook & Dupras, 2004: 699-700).

63 Adobe Creative Suite 4, Available at http://www.adobe.com/products/creativesuite.html

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In terms of the content, the researcher designed and established the content regarding the goals and objectives of the course and the research study. The content was identified, arranged and placed in an appropriate sequence in accordance with guidelines included in music textbooks, such as a History of Western Music64; Music in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: the Oxford History of Western Music65; an Outline History of Western Music66; Music: an Appreciation67; Studying Music History: Learning, Reasoning and Writing about Music History and Literature68; The Enjoyment of Music: an Introduction to Perceptive Listening69; Music in Theory and Practice70; the Complete Musician: an Integrated Approach to Tonal Theory, Analysis and Listening71; Techniques and Materials of Tonal Music with an Introduction to Twentieth-Century Techniques72; Harmony, Melody & Composition73; the Piano Handbook74; the Everything Piano Book with CD75, Music: an Appreciation on Western Music76, Civilization in the West77 and Western Civilization: the Continuing Experiment78.

Jolliffe, Ritter and Stevens (2001: 197) argued that the use of multimedia materials is one of the great attractions of web-based learning. The appropriate use of multimedia materials can clarify issues and show examples and concepts that would take a great deal of text to explain to learners. The importance of incorporating a variety of tactics to gain students’ attention through the use of interesting graphics, animation, video or several kinds of events that introduce incongruity or conflict (Keller & Suzuki, 2004: 231). Cook and Dupras (2004: 700) also argued that multimedia can necessarily improve satisfaction, and enrich the teaching and

64 Burkholder, JP, Grout, DJ & Oalisca, CV 2009, A History of Western Music, W.W. Norton & Company, USA. 65 Taruskin, R 2009, Music in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries: the Oxford History of Western Music, Oxford University Press, Oxford. 66 Wold, MW, Martin, G, Miller, J & Cykler, E 1997, An Outline History of Western Music, McGraw-Hill, Boston. 67 Kamien, R 1998, Music: an Appreciation, McGraw-Hill, New York. 68 Poultney, D 1996, Studying Music History: Learning, Reasoning and Writing about Music History and Literature, Prentice-Hall, USA. 69 Machlis, J & Forney, K 2003, The Enjoyment of Music: an Introduction to Perceptive Listening, w.w. Norton & Company, New York. 70 Benward, B 1985, Music in Theory and Practice, Wm. C. Brown Publishers, USA. 71 Laitz, S 2003, The Complete Musician: an Integrated Approach to Tonal Theory, Analysis and Listening, Oxford University Press, New York. 72 Benjamin, T, Horvit, M, Nelson, R 1998, Techniques and Materials of Tonal Music with an Introduction to Twentieth-Century Techniques, Wadsworth Publishing Company, USA. 73 Sturman, P 1983, Harmony, Melody & Composition, Longman Group Limited, Singapore. 74 Humphries, C 2002, The Piano Handbook, La Backbeat Book, San Francisco. 75 Copp, EA 2009, The Everything Piano Book with CD, Adams Media, USA. 76 Suttarajit, N 2006, Music: an Appreciation on Western Music, Chula Press, Bangkok. 77 Kishlansky, M, Geary, P & O’Brien, P 1998, Civilization in the West, Longman, USA. 78 Noble, T, Strauss, B, Osheim, D, Neuschel, K, Cohen, W & Roberts, D 2002, Western Civilization: the Continuing Experiment, Houghton Mifflin Company, USA.

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learning experience. Therefore, the researcher selected and reviewed relevant materials and resources, such text files, images, illustrations, photographs, animation and video integrated into the content from textbooks and the internet resources. The photographs from other resources such as website and textbooks were cited in their original sources in order to avoid copyright issues.

In addition, the researcher considered and attempted to strengthen the content with different learning outcomes of music study. Therefore, the researcher arranged and determined three sections which contain three learning outcomes consisting of knowledge, understanding and skill in playing piano for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’, as shown in Table 4.3. The content was approved by three music lecturers in order to check the validity of the content and the appropriateness of lessons and sequences in each section.

Table 4.3 Three sections of the course with different learning outcomes Topics Duration Forms of assessment Section 1: Musical knowledge of Classical period history Week  Multiple choice  Topic 1: Historical background 1 - 4 o Social and cultural context o Political patterns o Economic systems  Topic 2: Function of music  Topic 3: Major composers o Franz Joseph Haydn (1732 – 1809) o Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 – 1791) o Ludwig van Beethoven (1770 – 1827) Section 2: Musical understanding of Classical music style Week  Multiple choice  Topic 4: Characteristics of Classical music style 5 - 9  Analytical o Melody and Harmony practices

o Time o Dynamic marks and articulation o Texture o Instrumentation  Topic 5: Classical music forms o Sonata-allegro form o Theme and variations o Minuet and trio o Rondo form

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Topics Duration Forms of assessment  Topic 6: Classical music genres o Opera o Sonata o String quartet o Concerto o Symphony  Topic 7: Form and analysis of Classical music o Formal structure o Melodic structure o Harmonic structure o Rhythmic structure o Characteristics of sound Section 3: Musical skill in playing Classical piano music Week  Short-answer  Topic 8: Introduction to piano music 10 - 14  Performance o Music fundamentals for piano demonstrations o Body posture o Hand position and Finger action  Topic 9: Classical piano techniques o Legato and staccato o Fingering o Left hand techniques (accompaniment) o Right hand techniques o Pedaling  Topic 10: Studying and playing piano music of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven

In addition, exercises were designed and developed, as shown in Appendix 2, to measure students’ comprehension and understanding of the materials studied in each of nine lessons. The researcher conducted five short-answer questions for each lesson based on the detailed descriptions of each topic. Each of nine exercises was recommended and approved by the three experts in music and three experts in educational measurement and evaluation79.

79 The three experts in music and three experts in educational measurement and evaluation 1) Mr Wathit Suwansomboon (Head of the Department of Western music); 2) Dr Janida Tangdajahiran (Senior lecturer in Piano); 3) Mr Sitsake Yanderm (Lecturer in the History of Music); 4) A/Prof Chusre Wongrattana (Head of the Department of Educational measurement and research); 5) A/Prof Dr Chanwit Tiamboomprasert (Director of Educational and Psychonological test Bureau); and 6) A/Prof Dr Suthiwan Pirasaksopon (Vice Director of Academic Affairs of Educational and Psychological Test Bureau).

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Jolliffe, Ritter and Stevens (2001: 230) argued that without a route map, a direction and a list of places to visit, as a developer of an E-learning program, the journey may be unsatisfactory. The developer may miss sites along the route and, worse still, the developer may never know when and if the final destination has been reached. Therefore, drawing a flowchart is an essential task to help link all the information that together makes up the E-learning program. It also helps to get back on track after yet another distraction (Jolliffe, Ritter & Stevens, 2001: 230). Cook & Dupras (2004: 701) argued that poorly structured E-learning programs are unattractive, inefficient and confusing, and described the characteristics of effectively designed E-learning as 1) clear and consistent page organization; 2) wise use of space; 3) concise text; 4) clear and consistent navigation; and 5) clear and consistent hyperlinks.

In terms of the E-learning program design, a flowchart was developed in a graphical format utilizing the content, sequence and navigation that had been identified in order to clearly represent the hierarchies, structures and steps in the materials that the researcher was going to incorporate, as shown in Figure 4.3. Following this, the storyboard was developed and written directly from the flowchart to ensure the learning materials are developed according to the correct specifications.

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Cover page: Log-in page Useful Links Link to world-wide resources

Map-Site Homepage News and Announcement

Contents Web-board Resources

Glossary Lessons Exercises Tests

Music Lesson 1 Exercise 1 Fundamentals

Lesson 2 Exercise 2 The ‘Achievement in Music Pitch study test’, Section one

Time Lesson 3 Exercise 3

Scale Lesson 4 Exercise 4

Interval

Lesson 5 Exercise 5

Chord

Lesson 6 Exercise 6 The ‘Achievement in Music study test’, Section two

Lesson 7 Exercise 7 The ‘Achievement in Music study test’, Section three

Lesson 8 Exercise 8 The ‘Attitude to Music study test’

Lesson 9 Exercise 9 The ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’

Figure 4.3 The structure of the CW elearn-music program

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After structuring the program, an appropriate instructional sequence, hyperlinks and navigation needed to be determined and approved by three music lecturers and three experts in educational technology80 in order to check the structure of the CW elearn-music program. Following this, the researcher started drawing the logo for the CW elearn-music program, as shown in Figure 4.4, the screen templates for the homepage and web pages, as shown in Figure 4.5, and other graphics and the multimedia materials and components that would be needed were designed and identified, as shown in Figure 4.6.

Figure 4.4 The logo of the CW elearn-music program

Figure 4.5 The screen template of the homepage of the CW elearn-music program

80 The three experts in music and three experts in educational technology are 1) Mr Wathit Suwansomboon (Head of the Department of Western music); 2) Dr Janida Tangdajahiran (Senior lecturer in piano); 3) Mr Sitsake Yanderm (Lecturer in the History of music); 4) Assistant Professor Alisara Charuenvanich (Head of the Department of Educational Technology); 5) Dr Jaruwat Noothong (Deputy Director of Operation, the Centre of Educational Media and Technology); and 6) Dr Wiwat Meesuwan (Lecturer at the Department of Educational Technology).

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Figure 4.6 Examples of graphics of the CW elearn-music program

The host and domain named http://www.elearn-music.com was applied for and accomplished. The domain name ‘elearn-music.com’ was secured for this research study. It was implemented as a Web-based Instruction using Hosting Lotus81, which is an Internet hosting service that provides space on a server and allows individuals to create their own website accessible through the World Wide Web.

Development Phase

Cook and Dupras (2004: 700) explain that the key to effective E-learning is to design and develop structure and content hand-in-hand with website design. In this phase, all resources and materials are placed into the various templates using the storyboard as a guide. The text materials are created, keyed in, edited, proofread, formatted, assembled, tested and eventually published, and as well, other non-text components of the learning event, such as images, charts, tables, graphics, video, audio and animation files should also be completed and placed into the templates (Jolliffe, Ritter & Stevens, 2001: 217).

The third step was to develop the interactive learning program. This required the use of different software application packages and occasional codings. The detailed descriptions and learning materials, such as text files, graphics, figures, tables and photographs in each lesson for the content were typed and collected in Microsoft Office Word 2007 files, which would be easily integrated into the program, and converted to Portable Document Format (PDF file), which would be easy for students to download.

81 Hosting Lotus, Available at http://www.hostinglotus.com/

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Adobe Illustrator CS4 was used to create and develop graphics and animations, as well as to design the layout and type the test message, which could be exported into Adobe Flash CS4. Adobe Flash CS4 was used to develop all the multimedia materials and components, such as visual and audio files and interactive functions, such as controlling the movement of animation and sound effects. Images and photographs were edited using Adobe Photoshop CS4 and Adobe Illustrator CS4. Music scores were written and edited using Sibelius 6. Sound and video files were edited and converted to an appropriate file using Adobe Media Encoder CS4. Most of coding was completed using Adobe Dreamweaver CS4, which provides the code for JAVA script and PHP language. Adobe Dreamweaver CS4 was the main software to integrate all the details and functions into the website.

Jolliffe, Ritter and Stevens (2001: 247) suggested that web-based learning should be tested from as many different computers, with as many different configurations, as possible. If the event is to be accessed over the public internet, the developer will need to verify acceptable performance when accessed by computers with differing modem speeds and, it applicable, different computer platforms. Therefore, the CW elearn-music program was tested using various web browsers including Microsoft Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox and Safari in order to find bugs, correct any design flaws and any broken links, which were discovered and had repaired. The researcher attempted to make the program accessible and user-friendly, providing flexible scheduling to motivate students, and to encourage a positive attitude towards learning the ‘History of music in the Classical period’, while identifying clearly the work required that students can expect to learn during the instruction. Additionally, a brief introduction to the instruction was developed consisting of the CW elearn-music program starter-guide, course outlines, course descriptions and schedule.

Evaluation Phase (Evaluating materials)

After the development phase is completed, the website needs to be reviewed, evaluated and maintained through particular techniques and design, hyperlinks, navigation, content and materials (Jolliffe, Ritter & Stevens, 2001; Cook & Dupras, 2004). Jolliffe, Ritter and Stevens (2001: 246) also suggested that the responsibility for evaluating the learning materials generally lies with the instructional developer and the subject-matter expert. It can also help to have an independent person review the text, who will read it solely for the purposes of catching any errors that may have been missed by those who are more concerned with the actual content itself. Moreover, the materials need to be checked for accuracy and to ensure

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they are free of any grammatical, spelling or logical errors. Likewise, media, illustrations and other materials need to be reviewed to ensure they are current and accurate. Therefore, the last step involved in developing the CW elearn-music program was evaluation. This included two main steps: 1) validation by experts; and 2) examination by students.

Validation by Experts

Firstly, the CW elearn-music program was validated by nine experts82 in order to verify appropriateness in terms of content, computer presentation and design, font, audio and visual materials, navigation and interaction. The evaluation contains six aspects with a five-level rating scale for each aspect. The rating scale ranges from 1 indicating lowest appropriateness to 5 indicating highest appropriateness, as shown in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4 Levels of appropriateness Apparent limits Real limits Levels of appropriateness 5 4.51 – 5.00 Highest appropriate 4 3.51 – 4.50 High appropriate 3 2.51 – 3.50 Moderate 2 1.51 – 2.50 Low appropriate 1 1.00 – 1.50 Lowest appropriate

Table 4.5 Experts' appraisal for the CW elearn-music program Level of Aspects SD Appropriateness 1 Content  Section one: Classical period history 4.210 0.417 High  Section two: Classical music style 4.175 0.390 High  Section three: Classical piano music 4.175 0.390 High 2 Design and presentation 4.407 0.496 High 3 Font 4.175 0.475 High 4 Audio and Visual materials 4.316 0.471 High

82 The nine experts are 1) Mr Wathit Suwansomboon (Head of the Department of Western music); 2) Dr Janida Tangdajahiran (Senior lecturer in piano); 3) Mr Sitsake Yanderm (Lecturer in the History of music); 4) A/Prof Chusre Wongrattana (Head of the Department of Educational measurement and research); 5) A/Prof Dr Chanwit Tiamboomprasert (Director of Educational and Psychonological test Bureau); 6) A/Prof Dr Suthiwan Pirasaksopon (Vice Director of Academic Affairs of Educational and Psychological Test Bureau); 7) Assistant/Prof Alisara Charuenvanich (Head of the Department of Educational Technology); 8) Dr Jaruwat Noothong (Deputy Director of Operation, the Centre of Educational Media and Technology); and 9) Dr Wiwat Meesuwan (Lecturer in the Department of Educational Technology).

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Level of Aspects SD Appropriateness 5 Navigation 4.186 0.402 High 6 Interaction 4.142 0.363 High

Table 4.5 displays a mean score, with a standard deviation of experts’ judgment for the CW elearn-music program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’. The statistical analysis was computed using SPSS Statistics 18.0. All items on this evaluation show a mean score of 4.0 or higher, indicating that experts agreed that the content, design and presentation, font, audio and visual materials, navigation and interaction of the CW elearn-music program were high in appropriateness. The content was arranged in accordance with the guidances and materials from the three experts in music. This matched the purposes of the course. However, all problems that were identified were corrected and modified based on the experts’ comments and recommendations. The problems and issues included, for example, fonts are too small, some web pages are not linked consistently, navigation does not work properly, and large images and video files take a long time to load.

In addition, the brief introduction to instruction including the CW elearn-music program starter-guide, course outlines, course descriptions and schedule were approved by the three experts in music and three experts in education technology83.

Examination by Students

Subsequently, the CW elearn-music program was examined by students who were invited to participate in this program. There were 24 students who showed their interest in participating in order to verify the efficiency of the CW elearn-music program by using Test-Tryout (Ward, Stoker & Murray-Ward, 1996: 39), which consisted of three main steps, as follows:

83 The three experts in music and three experts in educational technology are 1) Mr Wathit Suwansomboon (Head of the Department of Western music); 2) Dr Janida Tangdajahiran (Senior lecturer in piano); 3) Mr Sitsake Yanderm (Lecturer in the History of music); 4) Assistant Professor Alisara Charuenvanich (Head of the Department of Educational Technology); 5) Dr Jaruwat Noothong (Deputy Director of Operation, the Centre of Educational Media and Technology); and 6) Dr Wiwat Meesuwan (Lecturer in the Department of Educational Technology).

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1. Three students checked their understanding of the content, teaching method and computer design. They were asked to make comments and recommendations for the program. All the problems that were identified were corrected and modified. 2. After modification, the CW elearn-music program was examined by another six students in order to verify their understanding of the content, teaching method and computer design. They were asked to make comments and recommendations for the program. All the problems that were identified were corrected and modified. 3. To finalize the program, another 15 students studied the CW elearn-music program and did all the assigned tasks consisting of exercises and the ‘Achievement in music studies test’ in order to check the Efficiency Analysis of the CW elearn-music program,

based on the 80/80 performance efficiency criterion or E1/E2 efficiency index (Satiman, 2007: 158), as below:

 The E1 is defined as students’ scores from the exercise for each of three sections after studying the course of the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ through the CW elearn-music program with an average score equal to and more than 80%.

 The E2 is defined as students’ scores from the ‘Achievement in music study test’ for each of three sections after studying the course of the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ through the CW elearn-music program with an average score equal to and more than 80%.

Efficiency Analysis (E1/E2 Efficiency Index) is used to examine the efficiency and proposed development of the web-based instruction. It can be explained in statistical terms as shown in Equation 2.

Equation 2 Efficiency Analysis (E1/E2 Efficiency Index)

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Where

= Efficiency index for the process in terms of the percentage score from the exercise

= Efficiency index for the result in terms of the percentage score from the ‘Achievement in music study test’ after instruction

= Sum of the exercise scores from the sample

= Sum of the ‘Achievement in music study test’ scores from the sample

N = Number of sample

A = Total scores on the exercise

B = Total scores on the ‘Achievement in music study test’

The results for efficiency of the CW elearn-music program are shown from Table 4.6 to Table 4.8.

Table 4.6 The efficiency of the CW elearn-music program (Section one: Musical knowledge of Classical period history) Exercise The Achievement of music study Efficiency (Exercise 1 – 2) (Section one) Total Total SD Percentage SD Percentage E1/E2 scores scores 10 9.46 0.99 94.60 30 24.40 2.13 81.33 94.6/81.33

Table 4.6 shows the result for the efficiency of the CW elearn-music program (Section one:

Classical period history). The obtained E1/E2 efficiency index was 94.6/81.33. This result indicates that the efficiency index for the process in terms of the percentage score from the exercise of 94.6, as well as the efficiency index for the result in terms of the percentage score from the ‘Achievement in music study’, Section one of 81.33. This was higher than the given efficiency criterion of 80/80. It can be claimed, therefore, that the lessons to increase musical knowledge of Classical period history through E-learning show efficiency.

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Table 4.7 The efficiency of the CW elearn-music program (Section two: Musical understanding of Classical music Style) Exercise The Achievement of music study Efficiency (Exercise 3 – 6) (Section two) Total Total SD Percentage SD Percentage E1/E2 scores scores 20 18.80 1.82 94 75 60.06 5.94 80.08 94/80.08

Table 4.7 shows the result for the efficiency of the CW elearn-music program (Section two:

Classical music style). The obtained E1/E2 efficiency index was 94/80.08. This result indicates that the efficiency index for the process in terms of the percentage score from the exercise of 94, as well as the efficiency index for the result in terms of the percentage score from the ‘Achievement in music study’, Section two of 80.08. This was higher than the given efficiency criterion of 80/80. It can be claimed, therefore, that the lessons to increase musical understanding of Classical style through E-learning show efficiency.

Table 4.8 The efficiency of the CW elearn-music program (Section three: Musical skill in playing Classical piano music) Exercise The Achievement of music study Efficiency (Exercise 7 – 9) (Section three) Total Total SD Percentage SD Percentage E1/E2 scores scores 15 13.66 1.44 91.06 120 96.90 11.28 80.75 91.06/80.75

Table 4.8 shows the result for the efficiency of ‘the CW elearn-music program’ (Section three:

Classical piano music). The obtained E1/E2 efficiency index was 91.06/80.75. This result indicates that the efficiency index for the result in terms of the percentage score from the exercise of 91.06, as well as the efficiency index for the process in terms of the percentage score from the ‘Achievement in music study’, Section three of 80.75. This was higher than the given efficiency criterion of 80/80. It can be claimed, therefore, that the lessons to increase musical skill in playing Classical piano music through E-learning show efficiency.

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4.4.1.2 Instructional Design (the CW elearn-music program)

In spite of its significance in Thai society, English is still learned as a foreign language. Most Thai students lack opportunities to use English in a real environment in their daily activities both in and outside the classroom. The Thai language is generally used as a medium of instruction rather than English (Boonkit, 2002). Therefore, the language contained in the CW elearn-music program was conducted in the Thai language because of the English competence of Thai music students, particularly in respect to oral, reading and writing skills which remains low.

Log-in page

The CW elearn-music program begins with a log-in page as a cover page, as shown in Figure 4.7. This E-learning program allows only the students who participated in the Experimental group to access it84. Students must log-into the system every time they access it. After successfully logging-into the CW elearn-music program, the system will record their participation and their usage time in the Administrator Management System, and go directly to the Homepage, as shown in Figure 4.8.

Figure 4.7 Log-in page of the CW elearn-music program

84 Username: examiner and Password: 19062013

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Figure 4.8 Homepage of the CW elearn-music program

Homepage

The homepage of the CW elearn-music program was designed to provide students with a detailed description and information relevant to the course and the topic ‘History of music in the Classical period’, as well as to facilitate students moving around the program to access further information. The homepage contains six main frames consisting of log-in details, menu bar, news and announcements, useful links, images and a brief description to introduce the subject ‘History of music in the Classical period’.

After successfully logging into the program, the students’ name and log-out button are shown on the top-left frame. News and announcements notify students about their assigned-tasks and share useful information and resources that are relevant to Classical music. Useful links, which is below the news and announcements frame, were provided to assist students to search for further information and references relating to the ‘History of music in the Classical period’. On the top-right frame, the menu bar was developed to assist students to go to other web pages within the program. Additionally, twenty-two photographs and a brief description, which are presented below the menu bar, were developed to introduce the ‘History of music in the Classical period’. The menu bar as shown in Figure 4.9 consists of five buttons: Home; Contents; Resources; Web-board; and the Map-site.

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Figure 4.9 Menu bar of the CW elearn-music program

The navigation bar appears on every web page on the right side. The bar was developed to assist students move around the CW elearn-music program, as shown in Figure 4.10.

Figure 4.10 Navigation bar of the CW elearn-music program

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Map-site

The Map-site was designed to demonstrate the structure and hierarchy of the CW elearn- music program, as shown in Figure 4.11. This page includes a Cover page (Log-in page), Homepage and all web pages in the program to help students move around the CW elearn- music program.

Figure 4.11 Map-site of the CW elearn-music program

Contents

The Contents provides five segments: Section one, Section two, Section three, Exercises and Tests, which are the main aspects of the CW elearn-music program. Students must complete all these materials (nine lessons in three sections) and assigned tasks (nine exercises, three sections of the ‘Achievement in music study test’, the ‘Attitude to music study test’ and the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’) within a given time.

The lessons of the CW elearn-music program, as exemplified in Figure 4.12 to Figure 4.15 provide detailed descriptions in each topic of the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ in a visual presentation (text-based content) with multimedia materials and components such as images, music scores, audio and video files, as well as a PDF file version to save and print the detailed descriptions of each lesson.

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Figure 4.12 Example of Content of Classical period history

Figure 4.13 Example of Content of Classical music style

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Figure 4.14 Example of Content of Classical piano music

The Exercises, as exemplified in Figure 4.15 provided the formative assessment questions to evaluate students’ comprehension of the material studied in each of the nine lessons of the program. The purpose is to keep students on track. Short-answer questions were presented on screen, which allowed students to type their answers in the blanks. When completing, they pressed the save button, the system records their answer and the time of submission in the Administrator Management System.

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Figure 4.15 Example of Exercise

The Tests, as exemplified in Figure 4.16 to Figure 4.18, consist of three assessments including the ‘Achievement in music study test’, the ‘Attitude to music study test’ and the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program. These are presented in difference forms of assessment, namely multiple choice questions, short answer questions with accompanying printed score excerpts and rating scale questions. When completing, students press the save button, the system records their answer and the time of submission in the Administrator Management System.

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Figure 4.16 Example of the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section one

Figure 4.17 Example of the 'Attitude to music study test'

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Figure 4.18 Example of the 'Questionnaire for the E-learning program'

Resources

The Resources for the program consist of two segments. As this is an introductory course for students inexperienced on the ‘History of music in the Classical period’, a Glossary and an explanation of Music fundamentals were provided to support students when they needed some extra information related to the course of the ‘History of music in the Classical period’. There was no requirement for the students to read through these resources provided in Thai. However, a Glossary, as shown in Figure 4.19 with musical terms, presented in alphabetical order with accompanying definitions provides brief descriptions or images that enable students to search musical terms related to the History of music.

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Figure 4.19 Glossary of the CW elearn-music program

The section on Music Fundamentals, as shown in Figure 4.20 provided detailed explanations of basic Western musical concepts, such as pitch, time, scales, intervals and chords. This function enables students to search more basic music knowledge to support their learning.

Figure 4.20 Music fundamentals of the CW elearn-music program

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Web-board

This web-board is asynchronous communication which does not occur in real-time. This function was developed to support teacher-students and student-student communication, as shown in Figure 4.21. Students are able to post their questions and answers, ideas, information and knowledge and to share and exchange their opinions, attitudes and perspectives with the instructor and other students. Additionally, if students need privacy, personal electronic mail (E-mail) is another way used to communicate with each other.

Figure 4.21 Web-board of the CW elearn-music program

Administrator Management System

The Administrator Management System, as shown in Figure 4.22 provides adjunct data recording students’ personal details, students’ answers from the Exercises and Tests, students’ progress and other participation, such as log-in time and submission date, which allowed the researcher to review the records of each student. Moreover, this system allowed the researcher to update news and announcements which were shown in the Homepage, as well as to add and edit the questions for the Exercises and Tests.

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Figure 4.22 Administrator Management System for the CW elearn-music program

4.4.2 Traditional Teaching Method

The traditional teaching method can be described as a traditional lecture environment. All learning content and materials for the traditional teaching method were designed and developed to be exactly similar to those for the E-learning program, but presented in a different format. The content for the traditional teaching method was presented using PowerPoint presentations with audio and visual files and performance demonstrations, as exemplified in Appendix 3. The PowerPoint presentations in terms of content, design and presentation, font, and audio and visual files in each lesson were checked and approved by three experts in music85.

85 The three experts in music are 1) Mr Wathit Suwansomboon (Head of the Department of Western music); 2) Dr Janida Tangdajahiran (Senior lecturer in Piano); and 3) Mr Sitsake Yanderm (Lecturer in the History of Music).

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4.4.3 Instructional Content

As this research study had to fit into the requirements of the one semester course at the introductory level of Thai students studying Western music, the content in terms of detailed descriptions, examples and materials was limited. Moreover, the content that used both the CW elearn-music program and the traditional lecture method were conducted in the Thai language. The reason is that it is difficult for Thai students to learn in English, and there is an insufficiency of Thai textbooks and resources.

Section One

Section one, entitled the study of Classical period history focuses on historical background, function of music and major composers, especially Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. Key points of each of the three topics of Classical period history are summarized below:

Topic One: Historical background

The following points outline the issues discussed:

(i) The term Classic is used to designate the 18th century, which is between 1750 and 1820. (ii) The society was a hybrid of old and new. It remained highly stratified socially, politically and economically. Birth and occupation determined wealth, privilege and quality of life as much as they had in the past. (iii) The power of religion started to wane, ceaseing to be an overriding force in many people’s minds. (iv) The important feature affecting many areas in society was the movement called the Enlightenment, is an intellectual movement that applied reason to issues of politics, economy and social relations. (v) Enlightenment thinkers such as Voltaire, Montesquieu and Rousseau concerned about the future, discussed a new world shaped by reason and knowledge, a world ruled benevolently for the benefits of all human-beings. (vi) Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia and other monarchs self-consciously tried to use Enlightenment precepts to guide their efforts at governing. (vii) The French Revolution profoundly changed political systems and social order. (viii) Significant advances in sciences and ideas and the industrial revolution made mass production possible.

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(ix) Technology transformed the economy from agriculture to manufacturing. (x) The economy was expanding and the population growing beyond previous limits, and the system of production was being restructured.

Topic Two: Function of music

The following points describe the issues discussed:

(i) Among the effects of the Enlightenment, music was changed as far as the nature of patronage, particularly regarding both the church and the courts of the aristocracy. (ii) This century spawned a rich and costly culture. Decorative architecture, especially interior design, reflected the increasing sociability of the aristocracy. (iii) In this atmosphere, entertainment became a central part of life at all levels of society. (iv) Music became a cultural passion. The string quartet made its first appearance in the 18th century, and chamber music enjoyed unparalleled popularity. Only the wealthiest could afford to stage private operas, which is one of the musical passions of this century. (v) The general rise of the middle class to an influential position brought changes in musical activities. (vi) Public concerts were performed frequently in many of the larger cities. (vii) Public concerts and private teaching provided musicians with methods to supplement their income. (viii) Music printing increased, music for amateurs has emerged, especially tutors for learning to play an instrument, books of songs and keyboard music. (ix) Music journals and magazines containing all kinds of music news were issued and published. (x) Vienna, Austria became the musical capital of Europe in the late 18th century.

Topic Three: Major composers

The following points describe the issues discussed:

Three of the world’s greatest composers including Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven worked during the 18th century. Numerous musicians were strongly affected by changes in society and in the careers of these three Classical masters. All three masters were born elsewhere, but they were drawn to Vienna to study and seek recognition.

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Franz Joseph Haydn (1732 – 1809): Rohrau, Austria

His life and career:

(i) He received his early training as a choirboy at St. Stephen’s Cathedral in Vienna, where he also studied singing, violin and harpsichord. (ii) When his voice changed, he worked as a freelance musician in Vienna, and then worked as music director for Count Karl Morzin in 1757. (iii) He gave keyboard lessons, accompanied singers, and sang or played violin or organ at three churches each Sunday, moving quickly from one to the next. (iv) In 1761, he started his career for the Esterhazys, a wealthy Hungarian noble family. His duties were to compose music, conduct performances, train and supervise musical personnel, keep the musical instruments in good condition, and provide music requested by the prince for any and all occasions. (v) In 1790, he became a freelance musician in Vienna, and moved to London in 1791.

His styles and contributions:

(i) Haydn was a pathfinder for the Classical style, a pioneer in the development of the symphony and string quartet. (ii) He frequently made his music more interesting than most composers by introducing the unexpected. Such contrasts of mood resulted from changes in texture, key, rhythm, harmony, dynamic and orchestration. (iii) He used the addition of a slow introduction to the first movement of the symphony. (iv) He often used variation technique, especially for the slow movements of symphonies and string quartets. He sought broad and immediate appeal by devising themes that seemed familiar on first hearing and by following conventions for phrasing, form and harmony. However, he was able to build a whole movement from a single main theme. (v) He used a more flexible orchestration that allowed melodies to be limited in contrasting timbres. (vi) The main source for Haydn’s idiom was the galant style, the predominant language of music by the 18th century, marked by tuneful melody in short phrases, arranged in balanced periods, over a light accompaniment.

His works:

(i) Haydn’s important works are the symphonies and string quartets, of which 104 symphonies and 83 string quartets are published.

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(ii) Keyboard works, especially 32 piano trios are a third great series of his works, and 62 sonatas occupied a relatively minor place among his compositions, and were written for amateurs to privately play for their own enjoyment. (iii) Most vocal works composed in his time at Esterhazy, including 21 operas, are increasingly performed today, 14 masses and 3 oratorios. (iv) He also composed numerous concertos for harpsichord, organ, violin, cello, horn, oboe and trumpet.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 – 1791): Salzburg, Austria

His life and career:

(i) Mozart, a remarkable child prodigy showed great creativity from infancy. (ii) He received his early training from his father, Leopold Mozart. (iii) As a boy, he became an organist, violinist and violist and an eminent pianist. At the age of 4, he also began composing. (iv) From 1761 to 1771, his talents as a performer and as a composer were displayed to almost all of Europe through tours to the important courts and musical centres. (v) In 1774, he was in Salzburg, working as either an employee with a patron or a freelance musician, and also as a musician at the Archbishop of Salzburg (vi) In 1781, he moved to Vienna and became a freelance musician, and was occupied with composing, teaching private students and selling his works to publishers.

His styles and contributions:

Mozart was greatly influenced as a youth by his father and European tours to the important courts and musical centres. As well his music was enriched from three of the greatest composers, including J.S. Bach, Handel and Haydn. Mozart was a combination of development and innateness. His idiom is unmistakable even in the composition of his childhood, but his style continued to incorporate additional features until the end.

(i) Mozart showed little interest in innovation or originality for its own sake, preferring to bring technical perfection and expressive intensity to existing models. (ii) His works conveyed a feeling of ease, grace and spontaneity, as well as balance, restraint and perfect proportion. (iii) His melodies showed lyricism, extension and subtlety in their expressiveness. (iv) He seldom repeated phrases note for note, but made changes in ornaments, rhythm, harmonic structure or dynamics. (v) He also seldom included slow introductions to his symphonies.

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(vi) His music shows dramatic use of contrast, expressive chromaticism, and richness of part-writing and masterful treatment of large-scale tonal relationships. (vii) All musical parts become equally important in chamber music.

His works:

(i) Mozart’s most popular instrumental works are the concertos, especially the 23 piano concertos, 5 violin concertos, and also concertos for other instruments, such as flute, flute and harp, oboe, clarinet, bassoon and horn. (ii) He was a master of opera, composing 20 operas, of which four were masterpieces of comic opera, including the Marriage of Figaro, Don Giovanni, Cosi fan tutte and Die Zauberflote (the Magic Flute). (iii) He wrote approximately 50 symphonies, some of which are now lost. (iv) His style is well-represented in his keyboard works, especially 17 sonatas, which have become his most popular works for piano students over the last two centuries. (v) He composed 26 string quartets, some of which are dedicated to Haydn.

Ludwig van Beethoven (1770 – 1802): Bonn, Germany

His life and career:

(i) Beethoven received his early training from his father (Johann van Beethoven) and other local musicians, such as Christian Gottlob Neefe. (ii) In 1781, he began working with Neefe as an assistant organist and entered the service of Mazimillian Franz, elector of Cologne in 1784. (iii) In 1787, he went to Vienna to perform and improvise for Mozart. And then, he came back to Bonn to be a court organist and violist. (iv) In 1792, he moved to Vienna, became a freelance musician and studied composition and counterpoint with Franz Joseph Haydn, Johann Schenk, Antonio Salieri and Johann Albrechtsberger. (v) He established himself as a pianist and composer, with the support of generous patrons. (vi) He performed in public concerts, taught wealthy students and published his compositions. (vii) Around 1796, he began to lose his hearing, and this affected his social life to a great extent. He was forced to stop performing in public, but he kept on composing and insisted on conducting his orchestral works.

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His styles and contributions:

(i) Beethoven mostly used Classical styles and technique for his earlier works. He began to compose in a new style in which the mood became more introspective. The musical language was more concentrated for his later works. (ii) He was largely responsible for freeing music from the harmonic, rhythmic and formal restraints of Classical music and for leading the way to individualism and subjective feeling in music. (iii) His music too easily gives the impression that all of it is stormy and powerful while much of it is gentle, humorous, noble or lyric. (iv) His themes were often composed from short motives that were gradually built up and expanded into full-length lyric melodies. (v) The range of pitch and dynamics were greater than ever before, so that contrasts of mood became more pronounced. (vi) He used dissonance as a functional part of his harmonic structure. (vii) Tempo, dynamic and expressive indications were marked more extensively in his music than in those of earlier compositions. (viii) He achieved a new fluency in modulation that opened new possibilities of harmonic contrast and interest. (ix) He expanded the use of polyphonic procedures in thematic development. (x) He expanded the traditional forms of the sonata and symphony to accommodate thematic materials and expressive purposes, rather than making the materials fit the forms. (xi) He adapted the development section of sonata-allegro form to be greatly expanded and become even more dramatic. (xii) He raised the piano to a new level of importance in Romantic expression.

His works:

The greater portion of his compositions revealed the characteristics found in the Romantic style, but his earlier works conform to the Classical style.

(i) Beethoven’s most popular instrumental works are the 9 symphonies, which were conceived for larger than Haydn’s and Mozart’s, and he also composed 11 overtures. (ii) Keyboard works, especially 35 piano sonatas are his natural outlet for compositional impulse.

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(iii) Several chamber works consist of 17 string quartets followed Classical models of Haydn and Mozart, 5 string trios, piano quintet, and octet for wind instruments. (iv) Most of his works are instrumental; his sense of drama is expressed in one opera titled Fidelio, and he also composed 2 masses and 1 oratorio.

Section Two

Section two, the study of Classical music style, focuses on characteristics of music style, music forms and genres, as well as a study of musical form and analysis. Key points of each of the four topics of Classical music style are summarized below:

Topic Four: Characteristics of Classical music style

The following points outline the issues discussed:

(i) 18th century music led to and was absorbed into the Classical style of Galant, which was light, graceful, elegant homophonic music characterised by simple melodies, short phrases, uncomplicated harmonies and a slower harmonic rhythm than that used in style. (ii) Melodies were short, built from repeated motives and combined into large period; mostly stepwise, but leaps of all kinds were used freely; melody was more influenced by vocal than instrumental style, ornamentation was a common feature; and cadences frequently produced a light and airy feeling (iii) All standard meters were used, but 2/4, 3/3, 4/4 and 6/8 were most common; a strong and steady pulse was maintained, but it might be tempered by ritardando or accelerando markings; and rhythmic variety was used within a single movement. (iv) All standard dynamic markings were used, but f and p were most common; crescendo and diminuendo markings and articulation markings, such as accents and sf were frequently used; and dramatic contrasts in dynamics were frequently encountered. (v) Homophonic texture was most common; Alberti bass technique was frequently used; and counterpoint was used less frequently. (vi) Harmonic movement was slower than in Baroque music. (vii) Primary triads and seventh chords were commonly used; non-chord tones and chromatic chords, such as secondary dominant, Neapolitan sixth and augmented sixth chords were plentiful; six-four chords, especially passing six-four chord were commonly used; cadences were used; modulations, especially to parallel key was commonly used.

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(viii) The orchestra grew larger; instrument design developed; and wind instruments gradually became more prominent.

Topic Five: Classical music forms

The following points outline the issues discussed:

(i) Instrumental compositions are multi-movement cycles of either three or four movements, as standard where each movement contains a difference in character, structure and tempi. (ii) Compositions with three movements tend to be fast-slow-fast, while compositions with four movements add a triple-meter dance after the slow movement. (iii) The first movement is often in a fast tempo in sonata-allegro form. (iv) Sonata form consists of three main sections including the exposition, where the themes are presented, the development, where the themes are treated in new ways; and recapitulation, where the themes return. Sonata-allegro form sometimes begins with a slow introduction often followed by a concluding section called the coda. The harmonic tension between the tonic and dominant is played out in Sonata form. (v) The second movement is usually lyrical, in a slow tempo and may be in various forms, such as theme and variations, sonata form or rondo-form. (vi) Theme and variations presents a small binary-form theme followed by variants (vii) The third movement is often a dancelike tempo in minuet (or scherzo) and trio. (viii) Minuet and trio form combines two binary-form minuets in an ABA pattern. (ix) The fourth movement is a fast and lively tempo, often in either rondo-form or sonata form (x) Rondo-form presents the principal theme that alternates with episodes, such as ABACA or ABACABA, which are often in other keys.

Topic Six: Classical music genres

The following points outline the main issues discussed:

(i) Numerous Baroque genres, such as preludes, toccatas, fugues, fantasias and keyboard dances were still composed. (ii) Opera seria was taken over from the Baroque period, though modified by Classical composers especially Christoph Willibald Gluck, and retained its fundamental structures.

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(iii) Comic operas, a powerful voice for social change in the Enlightenment came to dominate the stage and gradually replaced the opera seria of the Baroque. (iv) Instrumental compositions became more independent and gained prominence, and were written for the enjoyment of the players to be performed either alone or in a social function. (v) Two instrumental genres, the sonata and concerto, had also existed during the Baroque period, but were developed by Haydn and Mozart. (vi) The sonata referred to a work for a small number of instruments or a single one. It was not designed for concerts, but for private performance. (vii) The concerto was a work for an instrumental soloist and orchestra. It combines the soloist’s virtuosity and interpretive abilities with the orchestra’s wide range of tone colour and dynamics. (viii) The symphony and string quartet had not existed in the Baroque period but were created newly during the Classical period. (ix) The symphony originated to the late 17th century Italian opera overture called the Sinfonia. It was extended to be ambitious composition exploiting an expanded range of tone colour and dynamics and became the major orchestral genre of the 18th Century. (x) The string quartet for two violins, viola and cello became dominant. In form of chamber music, the first violin often carries most of the melodic substance, while the cello provides the bass, and the inner voices fill out the texture. It can be compared to a conversation among four lively, sensitive and intelligent people.

Topic Seven: Forms and analysis of Classical music

The following points outline the issues discussed:

(i) The aesthetic ideals of the Classical period which are clarity of thought and balanced proportions are reflected in the structure of the music itself. (ii) Analysis of instrumental compositions requires a consideration of the various musical elements which may be classified under five broad headings including formal structure (sonata-allegro form, theme and variations, minuet (scherzo) and trio and rondo-form, melodic structure (melodic contour, melodic unit and melodic development), harmonic structure (tonality, chords and cadences), rhythmic structure (time and tempo) and tonal structure (tone colour and intensity). (iii) The Symphony No.94 (Surprise Symphony) by Haydn was an example for analysis.

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Section Three

Section three, entitled the study of Classical piano music, focuses on an introduction to piano music, including music fundamentals for piano study, body position and posture, music techniques and piano music of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. Key points of each of the three topics of Classical piano music are summarized below:

Topic eight: Introduction to Classical piano music

The following points outline the issues discussed:

(i) The piano was invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori in Florence in the early 18th century. (ii) Cristofori created a keyboard instrument capable of responding to subtle changes in touch. (iii) At the beginning, the piano met with very slow acceptance, but from the 1760s, makers in Austria, Germany, France and England produced and developed the piano in increasing quality and quantities. (iv) The piano quickly evolved and became one of the most popular instruments in the 18th century. It replaced the harpsichord and clavichord as the favourite keyboard instrument. (v) The piano uses a mechanism in which the strings are struck by hammers that then drop away, allowing each string to reverberate as long as the corresponding key is held down. It allows the player to change dynamic levels, expression and other effects. (vi) Two types of piano were invented: the grand piano and the square piano. (vii) The components of a piano score include pitch, staff, clefs, accidental signs, notes and rests, time signature, key signature, bar, tempo markings, dynamic marking and other effect markings. (viii) Good posture is very important when playing the piano. (ix) The player’s back should be fairly straight and the hands, arms, wrists, shoulders and back muscles should be relaxed. The feet should be resting on the floor. The hands and forearms should be parallel to the floor, with the fingers touching the keys. (x) The bench should be high enough so that the forearms are approximately level, with a slight slant downwards, toward the keys. (xi) The body should usually be in the centre of the piano in order to move naturally and gracefully to express the musical line. (xii) In terms of the position of the hands and fingers, fingers should be curved and wrists level, in line with the hands.

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(xiii) Numbering the thumb and fingers is essential in playing the piano. The five fingers are numbered with thumbs designated 1, index fingers 2, middle fingers 3, ring fingers 4, and little fingers 5.

Topic Nine: Classical piano techniques

The following points outline the issues discussed:

(i) Legato (long and connected) and staccato (short and detached) are the techniques to press the keyboard faster or slower to control the volume. (ii) The movements of the fingers include substitution, extension, contraction and rotary techniques. (iii) The study of scales provides the most important principles of fingering. (iv) Mostly the left hand does not play the melody, but takes on the supportive role of providing the harmonic structure for the right hand melodic lines. (v) Left hand accompaniment techniques, such as chordal bass, block chords, broken chords, arpeggio bass are used to support the melody and give music more variety. (vi) The common accompaniment patterns in the 18th century consisted of chordal bass and Alberti bass which is one style of broken chord. (vii) Right hand techniques, such as echo, run, inversion and ornamentation are used to make the melody more interesting. (viii) Ornamentation, such as turns and trills is one of the characteristic techniques in 18th century music. (ix) The pedals serve as a mechanical assistant to achieve expressiveness in playing that would be difficult to do with fingering alone on the keyboard. (x) The three pedals: una corda (soft), sostenuto and sustain (damper).

Topic Ten: Study and play Classical piano music of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven

The following points outline the issues discussed:

(i) Most piano music in the 18th century was written in a homophonic texture consisting of a melodic line from the right hand and a harmonic line by left hand. (ii) Composers of the 18th century produced great numbers of keyboard works, including sonatas, fantasias, variations and minuets. (iii) Sonatas were widely regarded as the most challenging genre for performers and listeners.

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Franz Joseph Haydn (1732 – 1809):

(i) Haydn was not a concert pianist performing regularly in public, like Mozart and Beethoven. (ii) He composed numerous keyboard sonatas and trios. Both genres usually featured three movements: fast-slow-fast and focused on the expression of intimate feelings, befitting their private character. His basic dynamic markings were p and f (iii) Haydn’s early keyboard works, when he was working in Vienna (until 1764), were close to the late Baroque music in style. Most of his keyboard works were primarily for students and amateur performers. His works were written using simple techniques, for example a repeated-note figuration and profusion of ornamentation with warm emotion and without dynamic markings. His style used a cantabile melody in short phrases, in the easy-going Galant manner with accompaniment that incorporated Alberti bass figuration. (iv) His middle period keyboard works, composed when Haydn was working for the Esterhazy (1765-1794) use significantly more expressive techniques, with increasingly complex emotional mood, by using dynamic changes such as p-f-p-f and additional articulations such as staccato and staccatissimo to make the contrast, and also using a chromatic figuration to change the texture and increase emotional moods. Moreover, he began to develop an expressive personal tone, more sophisticated harmony, fluid and integrated counterpoint and original formal designs. He used arpeggio to be played on the beat and with accentuation of the top note, two notes against three and broken octaves in melodic line with accompaniments that incorporated Alberti bass and broken chord figurations. (v) His late keyboard works (1776 - 1794) showed his unique compositional practice with no restriction in his style. Haydn used the entire range of the keyboard. He often used a broken interval or an octave technique with a strong sf and dynamic changes especially crescendo and, thirty-second notes to build urgency and brilliance, an up- beat to a weak beat in a quick triple time and unprecedented modulations and transitions. Alberti bass and block chords were commonly used to accompany a harmonic line. (vi) One simple keyboard piece entitled ‘Quadrille in C major, HOB. IX:29’ is traditional dance music for keyboard. Short and easy-going in Galant style with a melodic lines and accompaniment, it uses the principal chords of C major key in staccato block patterns in Allegretto.

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Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 – 1791):

(i) Mozart was a virtuoso pianist, and his style is well-represented in his keyboard music, especially the sonata. He composed various other keyboard works, such as fantasias, variations, minuets and piano duets. His keyboard works usually featured three movements: fast-slow-fast. He used all the dynamic gradations between pp and ff. (ii) His early keyboard works (1774 – 1775) were written with the ease and grace of the Galant style, and were similar to Bach’s and Haydn’s keyboard music. His themes tended to be songlike, graceful, tasteful and elegant. He normally wrote his melodies using, for example, a series of third or octave technique, a triplet figuration and various styles of ornamentation played against moving notes, with accompaniments that incorporated arpeggio bass, Alberti bass and block chords. Dynamic markings, such as p, f and sf always used to increase the tone colour. (iii) His middle keyboard works (1776 – 1779) were enlarged and broadened. His theme was still songlike and elegant. Block chords, Alberti bass and repeated chords were commonly used for his harmonic line, while he used various styles of ornamentation to increase tone colour, as well ascending and descending notes as scales and a series of octave technique were used to be a transition. Dynamic markings were often used to change emotional moods, convey feelings and provide variety. (iv) His late keyboard works (1780 – 1788) are the greatest keyboard compositions. He used some difficult techniques. His themes were still songlike but with full texture and strong contrasts of mood by using a chord progression, a chromatic dissonance and a non-chord tone and frequent dynamic. Fermatia was used to increase confusion. Alberti bass and broken chords were commonly used in a harmonic line. (v) One simple keyboard piece entitled ‘Minute K 6 in C Major’ is a dance composition in Minuet form. The melodic and harmonic lines are played in cantabile style Andante grazioso.

Ludwig van Beethoven (1770 – 1827):

(i) Keyboard works occupied a central position in Beethoven’s work. He wrote many keyboard works such as sonatas, variations, concertos and shorter works for piano. (ii) Beethoven often used strong contrasts of style to delineate the form and broaden the expressive range. He used a broader range of markings to indicate accent, such as sf, f-p, ff-p, ff, and pp.

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(iii) His early keyboard works (1795 – 1800) reflected the styles of Haydn’s and Mozart’s keyboard music and other 18th century composers in the Galant style. He often used double octaves, various styles of ornamentation and a chromatic-note figuration in a melodic line with accompaniments that incorporated Alberti bass and arpeggio bass. His themes were elegant and strong, but rough in texture and dynamic contrast. For example, he often used sf and the sudden pp, sf by a slight rhythmic delay (agogic accent) and use of accents, such as sf on weak beats to create syncopation. Most of these works were written for amateur performers. (iv) His middle keyboard works (1801 – 1814) showed the Romantic approach with an increase in the degree of contrast and emotion, and gave a varied strength to the piano music. He used a series of sixth or octave technique and broken triplets or a triplet figuration in arpeggios, a chromatic note and a non-chord tone in a melodic line, while often used syncopated notes, and chromatic chords such as augmented sixth chord, dominant seventh chords in a harmonic line. However, Alberti bass were still used. Modulation became more adventurous. (v) His late keyboard works (1815 – 1822) were generally enlarged and broadened in proportions. A melodic line was written using a series of interval such as third, sixth or octave technique and various styles of ornamentation, especially trills. Articulations such as staccato and staccatissimo were used to increase tone colour. He commonly used descending scale or syncopated couplets of sixteenth-notes as a bridge-passage and transition. A harmonic line was written using, for example, a triple note in an arpeggio bass, and a series of interval in a block chord. Moreover, sixteenth notes are normally found in both melodic and harmonic lines. Syncopated and dotted rhythms were used. Beethoven often changed the texture to increase drama and emotional impact. (vi) One simple keyboard piece entitled ‘Ecossaise in G Major’ is in a Scottish folk dance style. Several fingering techniques are used in melodic lines with accompaniment using the principal chord of G major key in staccato broken chords in allegretto.

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4.5 THE DATA COLLECTION TOOLS

This research study utilised a quantitative method. The data collection tools including the ‘Achievement in music study test’, the ‘Attitude to music study test’ and the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ were used for quantitative analysis.

4.5.1 Tools for the Data collection

The ‘Achievement in music study test’

The ‘Achievement in music study test’ investigates students’ learning achievement in terms of remembering, understanding, applying and practicing the content of the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ (See Appendix 4.1). The test was administered to both the Experimental and the Control groups both before (Pretest) and after (Posttest) the instruction. This test comprises three sections to investigate different learning outcomes of the ‘History of music in the Classical period’. The three sections and the forms of assessment and scores for each are as follows:

1. Section one focuses on Classical period history in terms of historical background (social and cultural contexts, political patterns and economic systems), the function of music and major composers. This section contained 30 multiple-choice questions with four choices for each question. The total score was 30. A mark was given as correct, 1 and incorrect, 0 in each question. 2. Section two focuses on Classical music style in terms of the characteristics of Classical music, classical genres and forms, technique in musical analysis. This section includes two forms of assessment, as follows: 2.1. Firstly, there are 25 Multiple-choice questions with four choices for each question. The total score is 25. The mark is given as correct, 1 and incorrect, 0 in each question. 2.2. The second form has five musical analytical practices. The total score is 50, with 10 marks for each question. 3. Section three focuses on Classical piano music in terms of introduction to piano, body posture, hand position and finger action, piano techniques and major composers’ piano music, such as Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. This section included two forms of assessment, as follows: 3.1. Firstly, there are five short-answer questions. The total score is 10, which was with 2 marks for each question.

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3.2. The second form is five performance demonstrations (two scales, one sight- reading test and two pieces). The total score is 110. Marks are given in terms of body posture and fingering, accuracy of notes, steadiness of rhythm, technique, dynamics and expression. The marks were allocated by three judges86, and then calculated as an average from the three for each student. All three judges had at least eight years of piano teaching experience.

The ‘Attitude to music study test’

The ‘Attitude to music study test’ estimates students’ personal feelings for or against the subject and content itself as well as the personal way in which a student thinks and behaves towards the study of the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ (See Appendix 4.2). The test was administrated to both the Experimental and the Control groups both before (Pretest) and after (Posttest) the instruction. The test contains 40 questions with a five-level rating scale for each question. The rating scales range from 1 indicating most unfavourable to 5 indicating most favourable, as shown in Table 4.9. The test is composed of four aspects consisting of attitude towards the subject (the History of music), attitude towards learning musical knowledge of Classical period history, attitude towards learning musical understanding of Classical music style and attitude towards learning musical skill in playing Classical piano music.

Table 4.9 Scales for students’ attitudes Scale value Real limits Levels of attitudes 5 4.51 – 5.00 Most favourable 4 3.51 – 4.50 Favourable 3 2.51 – 3.50 Neutral 2 1.51 – 2.50 Unfavourable 1 1.00 – 1.50 Most unfavourable

The ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’

The ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ was administrated only to the Experimental group after the instruction. It was conducted to examine students’ opinions about the E- learning program (See Appendix 4.3). The Questionnaire was composed of four parts, as follows:

86 The three judges are 1) Miss Chanick Wangphanich (the researcher); 2) Miss Sita Bunnag (Piano lecturer at College of Music, Mahidol University); and 3) Miss Kanumporn Innate (Piano teacher at Yamaha Thailand Music School).

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1. Part one focuses on students’ computer skills. It contains six questions with a five-level rating scale for each question. The rating scales range from 1 indicating very poor to 5 indicating excellent, as shown in Table 4.10.

Table 4.10 Scales for students’ computer skills Apparent Limits Real limits Levels of skill 5 4.51 – 5.00 Excellent 4 3.51 – 4.50 Good 3 2.51 – 3.50 Average 2 1.51 – 2.50 Poor 1 1.00 – 1.50 Very poor

2. Part two focuses on students’ satisfaction with the E-learning program in terms of structures and content, presentation and design, graphics and multimedia material. It contains 35 questions with a five-level rating scale for each question. The rating scales range from 1 indicating mostly dissatisfied to 5 indicating highly satisfied, as shown in Table 4.11.

Table 4.11 Scales for students’ satisfaction Apparent Limits Real limits Levels of satisfaction 5 4.51 – 5.00 Highly satisfied 4 3.51 – 4.50 Fairly well satisfied 3 2.51 – 3.50 Satisfied 2 1.51 – 2.50 Poorly satisfied 1 1.00 – 1.50 Dissatisfied

3. Part three focuses on students’ opinions about teaching and learning through the E- learning program. It contains 15 questions with a five-level rating scale for each question. The rating scales range from 1 indicating strongly disagree to 5 indicating strongly agree, as shown in Table 4.12.

Table 4.12 Scales for students’ opinions Apparent Limits Real limits Levels of opinion 5 4.51 – 5.00 Strongly agree 4 3.51 – 4.50 Agree 3 2.51 – 3.50 Undecided 2 1.51 – 2.50 Disagree 1 1.00 – 1.50 Strongly disagree

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4. Part four focuses on students’ opinions about the E-learning program for teaching and learning music courses. It contains three open-ended questions.

4.5.2 Evaluating for the Data collection tools

Evaluation of the test is a major stage of the test construction in order to ensure that the test is valid and reliable. Adkins (1974: 31) stated that the acceptability of a test in meeting the criteria must be judged in relation to the purpose of the learning objectives and the purpose of the test. In this study, the researcher concerned two main steps involved in evaluating for the data collection tools. These two steps include 1) validation by experts; and 2) examination by students.

Validation by Experts

Adkins (1974: 31) stated that the primary requisite of a test is that it measures what it is desired to measure. Test validation is the extent to which the test serves it purposes. It is determined by systematically comparing the test items to the postulated content domain. If the test items appear, to an expert judge, to represent the domain adequately, the test possesses validity. This validation procedure is logical and rational, involving a judgment of the correspondence between the test and the underlying domain (Brown, 1976: 135). After creating as many and as varied questions for each of the data collection tools including the ‘Achievement in music study test’, the ‘Attitude to music study test’ and the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’, the validity of each item of each of the data collection tools was checked with six experts, namely three experts in music and three experts in educational measurement and evaluation87. An index of agreement between six experts’ rating was calculated by using Index of Congruency (IOC) to measure the extent to which the test serves its purpose (Wangphanich, 1980: 173), as shown in Appendix 5.1. The particular items with IOC equal to or more than 0.60 were selected.

87 The three music experts in music and three experts in educational measurement and evaluation are 1) Mr Wathit Suwansomboon (Head of the Department of Western music); 2) Dr Janida Tangdajahiran (Senior lecturer in piano); 3) Mr Sitsake Yanderm (Lecturer in the History of music); 4) A/Prof Chusre Wongrattana (Head of the Department of Educational measurement and research); 5) A/Prof Dr Chanwit Tiamboomprasert (Director of Educational and Psychonological test Bureau); and 6) A/Prof Dr Suthiwan Pirasaksopon (Vice Director of Academic Affairs of Educational and Psychological Test Bureau).

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Examination by Students

After selecting the particular items for each of the data collection tools, the tools were examined by students who already studied the ‘History of Western music’ in order to check ‘the characteristics of the test’ as described below:

1. Difficulty refers to the proportion of correct answer on the item (Thorndike, 1971: 139). Methuen (1986: 143) pointed out that the difficulty level of .20 to .80 is usually satisfactory. 2. Discrimination index refers to an index to show how sharply an item differentiates between students with high and low achievement (Thorndike & Hage, 1969: 646). Ebel and Frisbie (1991: 232) pointed out that the index of discrimination of 0.20 is usually taken as being the minimum level acceptable. 3. Reliability refers to the consistency of measurement (Gronlund & Linn, 1990: 77). Dewberry (2004: 321) pointed out that a reliability coefficient of 0.70 is usually taken as being the minimum level acceptable.

However, each of data collection tools was constructed with different forms of assessment for different purposes; therefore, the tools had different techniques for demonstrating the evaluation of the data collection tools, as follows:

The ‘Achievement in music study test’

The ‘Achievement in music study test’ was constructed to measure students’ productive knowledge, understanding and skill; therefore, the formats of this test contain multiple-choice questions, open-ended questions and performance demonstrations. The test was checked for difficulty, discrimination index and reliability. Table 4.13 below shows techniques for evaluating the characteristics of the ‘Achievement in music study test’.

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Table 4.13 Techniques for evaluating the characteristics of the ‘Achievement in music study test’ The Characteristics of the test Test Difficulty Discrimination Reliability Section one Item Difficulty Item-test (Point Kuder & Richardson, (Multiple-choice) (See Appendix 5.2) Biserial Correlation) Formula 20 (See Appendix 5.3) (See Appendix 5.4) Section two Item Difficulty Item-test (Point Kuder & Richardson, (Multiple-choice) (See Appendix 5.2) Biserial Correlation) Formula 20 (See Appendix 5.3) (See Appendix 5.4) Section two Mean score Standard deviation Test-retest (Pearson (Analytical practices) (See Appendix 5.5) (See Appendix 5.5) Product Moment Correlation) (See Appendix 5.6) Section three Mean score Standard deviation Test-retest (Pearson (Performance (See Appendix 5.5) (See Appendix 5.5) Product Moment demonstrations) Correlation) (See Appendix 5.6)

The ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section one and Section two (multiple-choice questions) was examined with 55 students who already studied the ‘History of Western music’ and showed thier interest to participate in this research study. The value of difficulty was checked using Item Difficulty (Hopkins, Stanley and Hopkins, 1990: 269) and the discrimination index was checked using Item-test (Point-Biserial Correlation) (Ferguson, 1981: 428). The particular items with the value of item difficulty from 0.20 to 0.80, and the item discrimination equal to or more than 0.20 were selected. Reliability was checked using Kuder & Richardson, formula 20 (Hopkin, Stanley & Hopkins, 1990: 133), which stated: “this technique provides a measure of the internal consistency reliability of the test. It is applicable only to tests scored dichotomously (0 or 1), one point for each correct answer and no points for an incorrect answer”.

The ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section two (analytical practices) and Section three (Performance demonstrations) were examined with 15 students who were asked to participate in evaluating the efficiency analysis of the E-learning program. The value of difficulty was based on a mean score, the discrimination index was based on a standard deviation, and reliability was checked using Test-retest method by Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient (Ebel & Frisbie, 1991: 81; Glasnapp & Poggio, 1985: 178), which stated: “this technique provides a measure of the stability of the test. This technique is essentially a

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measure for examinee reliability, an indication of how consistently examinees perform on the same set of tasks”

The ‘Attitude to music study test’

The ‘Attitude to music study test’ was constructed to measure students’ attitudes; therefore, the format of this test contains questionnaires with a five-level rating scale. This test was checked for discrimination index and reliability.

Table 4.14 Techniques for evaluating the characteristics of the ‘Attitude to music study test’ The Characteristics of the test Test Discrimination Reliability The ‘Attitude to music Item-test (t-test for the difference Cronbach α-coefficient study test’ between means for independent (See Appendix 5.8) sample) (See Appendix 5.7)

Table 4.14 shows techniques for evaluating the characteristics of the ‘Attitude to music study test’. The test was checked with 55 students who already studied the ‘History of Western music’ and showed their interest to participate in this research study. The discrimination index was checked using the t-test for the difference between means for independent sample (Ferguson, 1981: 182) in order to compare a mean score of attitude between the high group and low group for each item. The particular items with the discrimination index equal to or more than 2.00 were selected. Reliability was checked using Cronbach α-coefficient (Ebel & Frisbie, 1991: 81), which stated: “this technique provides a measure of the internal consistency and reliability of the test. It is essential to provide a reliability estimate for a measure comparing of items scored with value scales that provide response, such as ‘strongly agree’ and ‘strongly disagree’ with intermediate response options”.

The ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’

The ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ was constructed to measure students’ opinions about the E-learning program; therefore, the format of this test contains questions with a five- level rating scale. This test was checked for reliability using Cronbach α-coefficient (Ebel & Frisbie, 1991: 81).

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Table 4.15 Techniques for evaluating the characteristics of the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ The Characteristic of the test Test Reliability The ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning Cronbach α-coefficient program’ (See Appendix 5.8)

Table 4.15 shows a technique for evaluating the characteristics of the test of the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’. This questionnaire was examined with 15 students who were asked to participate in evaluating the efficiency analysis of the E-learning program.

Results from the Evaluation of each of the Data collection tools

Table 4.16 The results for evaluating the characteristics of each of the data collection tools Achievement test The Section 1 Section 2 Section 3 Attitude Characteristics Questionnaire test of the test Multiple Multiple Analytical Performance choice choice practices demonstrations Difficulty 0.20 to 0.25 to = 16.66 = 52.833 0.80 0.74 - - (total) (total) (item) (item) Discrimination 0.22 to 0.25 to 2.50 to SD = 8.10 SD = 17.85 0.74 0.73 7.89 - (total) (total) (item) (item) (item) Reliability 0.88 0.87 0.91 0.83 0.913 0.938

From Table 4.16, these results were computed using CISA (Classical Item Statistic Analysis) as shown in Appendix 5.9. Thus, it can be stated:

1. The ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section one had the value of item difficulty from 0.20 to 0.80, with the item discrimination from 0.22 to 0.74 and the reliability coefficient of 0.88. 2. The ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section two (multiple-choice) had the value of item difficulty from 0.25 to 0.74, with the item discrimination from 0.25 to 0.73 and the reliability coefficient of 0.87.

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3. The ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section two (analytical practices) shows a mean score of 16.66, with a standard deviation of 8.10 indicating that this section had the moderate value of difficulty and discrimination index, and the reliability coefficient of 0.91. 4. The ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section three shows a mean score of 52.833, with a standard deviation of 17.85 indicating that this section had the moderate value of difficulty and discrimination index, and the reliability coefficient of 0.83. 5. The ‘Attitude to music study test’ had the item discrimination from 2.50 to 7.89, with the reliability coefficient of 0.913. 6. The ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ had the reliability coefficient of 0.938.

From these results of each of the characteristics of the tests (validity, reliability, discrimination index, difficulty), it can be concluded that the tests are efficient in measuring what the researcher investigated.

4.6 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE

The course the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ was taught in the first semester of 2010; therefore, the experimental period started from the July 2010 to the October 2010. The course outline, course description, learning schedule and assessment in both groups were identical, as presented in Appendix 1. The components of two teaching methods are shown in Figure 4.23 and Figure 4.24, while the details of two teaching methods are shown in Table 4.17.

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Instructor Students

 Teaching  Learning management management  Knowledge  Study through the

management learning materials

 Consultation  Do the exercises  Feedback  Do the test

The CW elearn-music Instruction program Administration

 Contents  Web management  Exercises  Web analysis  Tests  Web validation  Learning materials  Web maintenance

Supportive tools Database system  Web boards

 Useful links  Students’  News and information Announcements  Students’ progress

 Music glossary  Log-in record  Music  Task submission record fundamentals

Figure 4.23 The components of the CW elearn-music program

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Instructor Students

 Teaching  Learning management

management  Learn from the  Knowledge instructor management  Do the exercises

 Open discussion  Do the test

 Feedback

Traditional teaching method Instruction Administration  Contents  Classroom  Exercises management  Tests  Learning materials

Paper-based Record Supportive tools

 Class attendance  Material preparation  Students’ information  Material maintenance  Students’ progress

Figure 4.24 The components of the traditional teaching method

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Table 4.17 The two teaching methods: the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method Methods E-learning program Traditional teaching method (Computer) (Lecture) Learning processes Flexible time schedule and place Fixed time schedule and place (Not allowed to attend the class) (Not allowed to access the CW elearn-music program) Materials Learning the lessons and listening Learning the lessons from to music from the materials PowerPoint presentation and available in the website listening to music from CD resources Other materials Internet-based resources and Paper-based documents, resources materials (all materials are and materials, and textbooks from integrated into the website), and the library world-wide resources in the internet Review the Materials available from the Personal lecture notes materials website Participation Check Log-in record system Class attendance Communication Asynchronous communication Face-to-face communication

The Control group (the traditional teaching approach) participated using the traditional teaching method, which was a face-to-face lecture environment directly taught by the researcher. The group met once a week for three hours for the course lecture including open communication and discussion. Students were not allowed to access the materials integrated into the CW elearn-music program. They were taught using PowerPoint presentations with visual and audio materials, and listening to music in-class, while they received other materials, such as music on CDs and paper-based exercises as homework for outside the class. Students’ participation was checked from the class attendance every week.

On the other hand, students in the Experimental group (the E-learning approach) were not allowed to attend the class. The group met for only one hour of orientation at the beginning of the course in order to explain the course outline, course description and learning method through the CW elearn-music program. After that, students would have time to explore the program, study and review the contents and materials themselves on the website at http://www.elearn-music.com. Students could also communicate with the researcher and other students through the Web-board as asynchronous communication was available on the website. Personal email was available when they had some problems, questions and discussion

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during the course. There was no requirement for the students to be logged into the website at a specific time or for a certain duration of time throughout the course. However, exercises were organized so as to encourage students to log in at least once a week, depending on the course schedule. However, the researcher followed up and kept updating any news and information, and reminding students about the submission date of assigned tasks.

Prior to the instruction starting, students received the CW elearn-music program starter-guide and subsequently their username and password at the beginning of the course. They were first prompted to register in order to provide their personal details and set up their own username and password. They had to log in to the system every time they used it in order to record their participation and their usage times. The CW elearn-music program was presented online, employing an interactive and self-directed learning strategy in place of the more typical interactions and demonstrations that occurred in the classroom to explain the terminology. The content was presented in reading visual presentations (text-based content) in multiple screens so that there was more follow through with and application of specific concepts. Students were allowed to listen and save to audio files, as well as save and print a PDF file version of the detailed descriptions of each lesson. Students were encouraged to repeat any materials that were challenging or particularly useful to them. Therefore, students needed to use their ability in self-directed learning to manage and control their learning schedule and process. They were free to complete their assigned tasks anytime within a given week. However, the researcher conveyed any news and announcements to the students through the website, which was available on the homepage in order to remind students of their tasks and submission date and share any relevant information and knowledge.

During the course, the exercise developed as homework was given to both groups at the end of each of the nine lessons. These focused on a specific topic. Students were encouraged to repeat the lessons. Each exercise had to be completed within a one week time frame before the next group of lessons. Students in the Control group received and submitted exercises directly to the researcher in the following week while students in the Experimental group completed and submitted through the online format. The time frame for exercises is presented in Table 4.18. The exercises may be found in Appendix 2.

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Table 4.18 The time frame of this research study

Assigned Sessions Topics Examinations tasks Week 1 Introduction to the Class Pre-test:  Achievement test (section 1-3)  Attitude test Week 2 Section 1: the Classical period history Exercise 1 Lesson 1: Historical background Week 3 Lesson 2: Major composers Week 4 Lesson 2 (continued): Major composers Exercise 2 Post-test:  Achievement test (section 1)

Week 5 Section 2: the Classical music style Exercise 3 Lesson 3: Characteristics of Classical music style Week 6 Lesson 4: Classical music forms Exercise 4 Week 7 Lesson 5: Classical music genres Week 8 Lesson 5 (continued): Classical music genres Exercise 5 Week 9 Lesson 6: Form and analysis of Classical music Exercise 6 Post-test:  Achievement test (section 2) Week 10 Section 3: the Classical piano music Exercise 7 Lesson 7: Introduction to Classical piano music Week 11 Lesson 8: Classical piano techniques Exercise 8 Week 12 Lesson 9: Study and play Classical piano music of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven Week 13 Lesson 9 (continued): Study and play Classical Exercise 9 Post-test: piano music of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven  Attitude test  Questionnaire Week 14 Conclusion Post-test:  Achievement test (section 3)

Table 4.18 shows the time frame of this research study, the ‘Achievement in music study test’ and the ‘Attitude to music study test’ were used for the Pretest and Posttest delivered for both groups. To begin the course, both groups were given the Pretest: the ‘Achievement in music study test’ and the ‘Attitude to music study test’ during the first week before doing the other assigned tasks. The Posttest, the ‘Achievement in music study test’ and the ‘Attitude to music

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study test’ were taken at the different times during the experimental period. The Posttest for ‘Achievement in music study test’ was divided into three sections, which were given separately at the end of each of the three sections, as well as the Posttest for ‘Attitude to music study test’ was given at the end of the course.

The ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section one, was administered after completing lessons one and two, taught during week four. Students spent 40 minutes to complete the test. Students in the Control group were given Section one in the class during the following week before starting to learn the next section, while students in the Experimental group did the test through the online format before the next group of lessons. This was followed by the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section two, given after section two (lesson three to six) had been taught or during week nine. Students spent 40 minutes to complete this test. The Control group was given Section Two in the class at the following week before start learning the next section, while the Experimental group did the test through the online format before the next group of lessons. The last section (Section three) was administrated during week 14 after completing lessons seven to nine. Because this section focused on the students’ ability in piano skills, the students were given more time to practice their piano performance. Therefore, week 14 was allocated to be the week for the Posttest for the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section three. The researcher assigned the time for each of students to have individual performance demonstrations, and each student spent 40 minutes to complete the test.

The questions for the ‘Achievement in music study test’ covered all the content of the ‘History of music in the Classical period’. As the test contains many questions that take students considerable time to complete, the researcher considered that it would be better for students to divide the ‘Achievement in music study test’ into different periods of time. The test was divided into three sections, with different forms of assessment, and administrated after each of three sections had been taught (week four, week nine and week fourteen respectively), as presented in Appendix 1. This is because students were able to review the lessons in each section with greater awareness and without feeling under pressure. As well, the duration of the test was divided into 40 minutes in each section, so that it would not take much time to complete each section.

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Additionally, the Posttest for the ‘Attitude to music study test’ was given at the end of the course in order to check students’ feeling after learning through the program. Only the experimental group was given an additional questionnaire titled ‘Questionnaire for the E- learning program’ in order to estimate their personal satisfaction and opinions about the E- learning program after study. The researcher allocated time during week 13 for students to complete the Posttest of the ‘Attitude to music study test’ and the ‘Questionnaire for the E- learning program’ because it was the last week of instruction.

4.7 DATA ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES

The statistical analyses used to test the hypotheses are as follows:

4.7.1 Mean and Standard Deviation

Mean and Standard Deviation was used to measure the mean score and standard deviation of the results of students’ achievements, students’ attitudes and students’ opinions about the E- learning program. It can be explained in statistical terms as shown in Equation 3 (Hopkins, Stanley and Hopkins, 1990:30) and Equation 4 (Hopkins, Stanley and Hopkins, 1990: 37).

Equation 3 Mean

Equation 4 Standard Deviation

Where

= Sum of all scores

N = Number of samples

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4.7.2 t-test for the Dependent Sample

The t-test for the dependent sample was used to compare the differences between the results of learning prior to (Pretest) and after the learning (Posttest), for both the Experimental group and the Control group. It can be explained in statistical terms as shown in Equation 5 (Ferguson, 1981: 180).

Equation 5 t-test for the Dependent Sample

Where

= Mean of the different scores between each pair in sample

= Standard deviation of the difference of each a pair in sample

= Population mean of paired differences N = Number of the pair of samples

4.7.3 t-test for the Independent Sample

The t-test for the independent sample was used to compare the results of both the Pretest and the Posttest in order to discover any differences between the two groups (Experimental group and Control group) at the Pretest and the Posttest stages. It can be described in statistical terms as shown in Equation 6 (Popham & Sirotnik, 1973: 139).

Equation 6 t-test for Independent Sample

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Where

= Mean scores of the Experimental group

= Mean scores of the Control group

= Variance score of the Experimental group

= Variance score of the Control group

= Number of samples in the Experimental group

= Number of samples in the Control group

The following chapter will analyse and discuss the statistical results, including students’ achievement in music study, students’ attitude to music study and students’ opinions about the E-learning program.

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CHAPTER 5: STATISTICAL RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

This chapter will present the statistical results, analyses and discussion of results in order to investigate the effectiveness of the use of E-learning program for the parameters: 1) achievement in music study; 2) attitudes to music study; and 3) opinions about the E-learning program used to gather the interpretations for the quantitative analysis in this research study. The results for the ‘Achievement in music study test’ are compared for the Experimental and the Control groups as a whole, and also each section of this test individually. The results of the ‘Attitude to music study test’ as a whole, then with each aspect of this test individually, and the results of the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ will follow. The last section presents a discussion of issues arising in relation to the results.

5.1 ACHIEVEMENT IN MUSIC STUDY

As stated, the ‘Achievement in music study test’ measured students’ learning achievement in terms of remembering and understanding musical knowledge, demonstrated musical understanding and music skill in playing piano related to the material in the course, ‘History of music in the Classical period’. The total score for the test is 225. The three sections and the forms of assessment and scores for each are shown in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 The three sections of the ‘Achievement in music study test’ Sections/Topics Learning outcomes Forms of assessment and Total scores Section One Musical knowledge 30 multiple choice questions Classical period history Total score for Section One = 30 Section Two Musical understanding 25 multiple choice questions and Classical music style 5 analytical exercises Total score for Section Two = 75 Section Three Musical skill 5 short-answer questions and Classical piano music 5 performance demonstrations Total score for Section Three = 120

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In order to compare the differences achievement in music study between the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method, the ‘Achievement in music study test’ was gathered from both the Experimental and the Control groups both before (Pretest) and after (Posttest) learning with the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method, respectively. As already stated in Chapter Four: Research Methodology, the t-test for the dependent sample (Ferguson, 1981: 180) was conducted to determine the differences comparing results as indicated in the Pretest of learning prior to and after the learning, as indicated in the Posttest, for both the Experimental group (the E-learning program) and the Control group (the traditional teaching method). Additionally, the t-test for the independent sample (Popham & Sirotnik, 1973: 139) was conducted to compare the results of both the Pretest and the Posttest in order to discover any differences between the two groups at the Pretest and the Posttest stages. The statistical analysis was computed using SPSS Statistics 18.0. The raw data and the t-test data of the ‘Achievement in music study test’ are contained in Appendix 6.1 and Appendix 6.2. The statistical terms and symbols used in this analysis are as follows:

Statistical terms Symbols Meaning Coefficient of Variation The ratio of the standard deviation to the mean

Degrees of Freedom The number of values in the final calculation of a statistic that are free to vary Frequency F The number of persons obtaining each score on a test Maximum Max The largest score Mean The arithmetic average of a distribution of scores Mean Difference A measure of statistical dispersion equal to the average absolute difference of two independent values drawn from a probability distribution Minimum Min The smallest score Number N Number of samples p-value p-value The probability of obtaining a test statistic at least as extreme as the one observed, given the null hypothesis is true Percentage % The number of ratio as a fraction of 100 Standard Deviation The average deviation between the individual scores in the distribution and the mean for the distribution

Standard Error of a The standard error of the difference between the Mean difference means of two samples t-test statistic t The t-test assesses whether the means of two groups are statistically different from each other.

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Comparison of Pretest and Posttest scores for the achievement in music study in the Experimental group

250 Pretest 212.5 212 Posttest 191 194 200 190 184.5 181.5 177 170 173 176 168.5 164 165.5 164.5 178.5 174.5 150 169.5 150.5 156.5 142 156 159.5 158.5 155 122 126.5 126.5 108 97 100 85 84 72.5 73 72 79.5 81 86.5 68 70 50 67.5 67.5 64.5 67 68 50.5 61 55.5 42.5 42 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Figure 5.1 The Pretest and the Posttest scores for the achievement in music study by each student in the Experimental group

In Figure 5.1, the line graph displays the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the achievement in music study for each student (N = 25) in the Experimental group. The Pretest scores show a range of 42 to 126.50; the Posttest scores show a range of 142 to 212.50. It is interesting to point out that the majority of students (21 of 25) were below 100 among the P retest scores, suggesting a low level of knowledge. Consequently, after learning the instruction through the CW elearn-music program, the Posttest scores were approximately three times higher than the Pretest scores for each student. Another interesting detail to note is that student no. 4 consistently had the highest scores (212.50) in the Experimental group and also this research study.

Table 5.2 The t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the achievement in music study by the Experimental group Range Items p-value Min Max Pretest 42 126.50 77.50 23.319 30.09% 95.48 2.48 24 38.50 <0.0001 Posttest 142 212.50 172.98 17.551 10.15%

The statistical analysis in Table 5.2 shows the t-test data comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the achievement in music study by the Experimental group (N = 25). The total score is 225. The t-test results are obtained: the Pretest scores show a mean score of 77.50, with a standard deviation of 23.319, and the Posttest scores show a mean score of

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172.98, with a standard deviation of 17.551. As you can see, the Posttest SD score is narrow, suggesting that most the students’ scores are close to the mean score of 172.98, whereas the Pretest has data the is more spread out. The data indicates that students’ scores developed considerably in the Posttest which increased from a mean score of 77.50 in the Pretest to a mean score of 172.98 in the Posttest, with a mean difference of 95.48 and a standard error of a mean difference of 2.48. The corresponding t-test indicates that there was a statistically significant difference between the Pretest and the Posttest scores at the <.0001 level (t = 38.50, df = 24, p = <.0001), demonstrating an increased ability to answer more questions correctly on the Posttest. Comparison of the coefficient of variation between the Pretest (30.09%) and the Posttest (10.15%) scores shows that students’ scores in the Posttest were more evenly distributed than in the Pretest scores. Results of the data demonstrate that students in the Experimental group achieved a significant greater outcome after learning the instruction through the CW elearn-music program. Therefore, it can be claimed that this learning opportunities and achievement was due to learning through the CW elearn-music program.

Comparison of Pretest and Posttest scores for the achievement in music study in the Control group

250 Pretest Posttest 199 196 188 200 183 181 169.5 173.5 175 185.5 163 162 167.5 172.5 174.5 174 150 166 163 165 156 129.5 122.5 140.5 116 101.5 100 83.5 81 81 73 59 85.5 62.5 65.5 64.5 71 50 63 61 59.5 56 61 58.5

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Figure 5.2 The Pretest and the Posttest scores for the achievement in music study by each student in the Control group

In Figure 5.2, the line graph displays the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the achievement in music study by each student (N = 20) in the Control group. The Pretest scores show a range of 56 to 129.50, and the Posttest scores show a range of 140.50 to 199. Similar to students’ score in the Experimental group, the majority of students (16 of 20) in this group were below 100

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among the Pretest scores. It can be clearly seen that after learning the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ directly with the instructor, students scored approximately three times higher on the Posttest than the Pretest for each student.

Table 5.3 the t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the achievement in music study by the Control group Range Items p-value Min Max Pretest 56 129.5 77.75 22.659 29.14% 94.975 3.466 19 27.403 <0.0001 Posttest 140.5 199 172.725 13.723 7.94%

The statistical analysis in Table 5.3 shows t-test data comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for achievement in music study by the Control group (N = 20). The total score is 225. The t-test results are obtained: the Pretest scores show a mean score of 77.75, with a standard deviation of 22.659, and the Posttest scores show a mean score of 172.725, with a standard deviation of 13.723. The Posttest SD score is narrow, suggesting that most of the students’ scores are close to the mean score of 172.725, whereas the Pretest has data that is more spread out. As we can see, there was a significant number studying the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ by the traditional teaching method who scored higher on the Posttest (a mean score of 172.725) than the Pretest (a mean score of 77.75), with a mean difference of 94.975 and a standard error of a mean difference of 3.466. The corresponding t-test indicates the results reflected a highly significant difference (t = 27.403, df = 19, p = <0.0001) between the Pretest and the Posttest scores, demonstrating an increased ability to answer more questions correctly on the Posttest. Comparison of the coefficient of variation between the Pretest (29.14%) and the Posttest (7.94%) groups shows that students’ scores in the Posttest were more evenly distributed than among the Pretest scores. It may be concluded that students reached a similar level of knowledge, understanding and skill after learning with the instruction. Therefore, results of the data demonstrated that students in the Control group also achieved a significantly greater after learning directly from the instructor.

According to the above results where 25 students participated in the Experimental group and 20 students participated in the Control group, the results show that their scores are almost identical in both the Pretest and the Posttest, as indicated in the t-test data in Table 5.4 and Table 5.5.

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Comparison of Pretest scores for the achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

Table 5.4 the t-test for independent sample comparing the Pretest scores for the achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control group

Range p- Groups Min Max value Experimental 25 42 126.5 77.50 23.319 30.09% -0.25 6.909 43 -0.036 0.971 Control 20 56 129.5 77.75 22.659 29.14%

Comparing the Pretest scores of the two groups as shown in Table 5.4, the data show that the Pretest score of the Experimental (N = 25) and the Control (N = 20) groups were relatively the same as the t-test results obtained show the highest score by the Experimental group in the Pretest was 126.50, and the lowest score was 42, with a mean score of 77.50, and a standard deviation of 23.319, while the highest score by the Control group in the Pretest was 129.50, and the lowest score was 56, with a mean score of 77.75 and a standard deviation of 22.659. The results of the t-test comparing the Pretest scores between the Experimental and the Control groups show a mean difference of -0.25, with a standard error of a mean difference of 6.909. The corresponding t-test indicates that no statistically significant difference between the Experimental and the Control groups was found between the two sets of the Pretest (t = - 0.036, df = 43, p = 0.971). In addition, the result for the coefficient of variation shows that students’ scores in the Experimental group (30.09%) were slightly more homogenous than those of the Control group (29.14%). Results of the data suggest that students in each group were not much different from each other indicating that students were virtually identical in their knowledge, understand and skill levels of the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ at this stage, which points to the fact that the students in both groups were music students with similar music history backgrounds before participating this course.

Comparison of Posttest scores for the achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

Table 5.5 the t-test for independent sample comparing the Posttest scores for the achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

Range p- Groups Min Max value Experimental 25 142 212.5 172.98 17.551 10.15% 0.255 4.792 43 0.053 0.958 Control 20 140.5 199 172.725 13.723 7.94%

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Comparing the Posttest scores of the two groups, as shown in Table 5.5, the following results are obtained: the highest score by the Experimental group (N = 25) was 212.50, and the lowest score was 142, with a mean score of 172.98 and a standard deviation of 17.551, and the highest score by the Control group (N = 20) was 199, and the lowest score was 140.50, with a mean score of 172.725 and a standard deviation of 13.723. Additionally, the Posttest scores between the two groups show a mean difference of 0.255, with a standard error of a mean difference of 4.792. However, the corresponding t-test comparing the Posttest scores demonstrates that there was no statistically significant difference between the Experimental and the Control groups (t = 0.053, df = 43, p = 0.958). Moreover, comparison of the coefficient of variation between the Experimental group (10.15%) and the Control group (7.94%) suggests that students’ scores in the Control group were slightly more homogenous than those of the Experimental group. Results of the data demonstrate the two sets of scores have no significantly different level of improvement, suggesting a possible explanation may be lie in the fact that the CW elearn-music program provided the same level of learning success as the traditional teaching approach.

Frequency and percentage distribution for the ‘Achievement in music study test’ for each group

Table 5.6 Frequency and percentage distribution of the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the 'Achievement in music study test’ by the Experimental and the Control groups Experimental group (N = 25) Control group (N = 20) Percentage Test scores of Test Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest scores F % F % F % F % <112.50 < 50% 22 88% - 17 85% - 112.5-134.5 50% – 59% 3 12% - 3 15% - 135-157 60% – 69% - 5 20% - 2 10% 157.5-179.5 70% – 79% - 13 52% - 12 60% 180-202 80% – 89% - 5 20% - 6 30% >202 > 89% - 2 8% - -

Table 5.6 shows most students in the Experimental group (22 of 25) and the Control group (17 of 20) scored below 112.50 or 50% in the Pretest stage. Moreover, few students in both groups: the Experimental (3 of 25) and the Control (3 of 20) were between 112.50 and 134.50 (50% - 60%). Results of the data demonstrate that all students had relatively poor knowledge, understanding and skill in the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ before the instruction.

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However, they all made good progress in music achievement during the instruction, demonstrating a highly significant change in the Posttest scores, especially the two students in the Experimental group who scored above 202 or 89%.

Comparison of difference scores of improvement in the Pretest and the Posttest for the achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

In order to assess further whether or not there were observable differences between the two groups in achievement following each teaching approach, the difference between the Pretest and the Posttest scores for each student were calculated, and compared.

Table 5.7 The t-test for independent sample comparing the different levels of improvement in the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

p- Groups Posttest Pretest value Experimental 172.98 77.50 95.48 12.399 0.505 4.157 43 0.121 0.904 Control 172.725 77.75 94.975 15.500

The statistical analysis in Table 5.7 compares the difference scores between the Pretest and the Posttest for the Experimental (N = 25) and the Control (N = 20) groups which indicates the general level of improvement. The t-test results obtained are: a mean score of 95.48, with a standard deviation of 12.399 for the Experimental group, and a mean score of 94.975, with a standard deviation of 15.50 for the Control group. The results comparing the different levels of improvement between the two groups show a mean difference of 0.505, with a standard error of a mean difference of 4.157, indicating that there was no statistically significant difference in improvement levels between the two groups, (t = 0.121, df = 43, p = 0.904). The p-value indicates a high level of similarity between the two sets of difference scores, suggesting both groups made a similar level of improvement although they were taught by different teaching methods. It can be claimed that a possible reason may be lie in the fact that the CW elearn- music program was at least as effective as the traditional teaching approach in teaching and learning the ‘History of music in the Classical period’.

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In order to investigate which learning outcomes in music study might be more susceptible to an E-learning approach, results for each of the three sections of the ‘Achievement in music study test’ comparing the Experimental and the Control groups are now presented separately below.

 Achievement in musical knowledge of Classical period history for this research was measured by the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section one. As stated, this focused on Classical period history in terms of social and cultural context, political patterns, and economic systems, the functions of music and major composers. The raw data and the t-test data of the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section one are contained in Appendix 6.3 and Appendix 6.4.  Achievement in musical understanding of Classical music style for this research was measured by the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section two. As stated, this focused on Classical music style in terms of the characteristics of Classical style, Classical forms and genres and analysis of Classical music. The raw data and the t-test data of the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section two are contained in Appendix 6.5 and Appendix 6.6.  Achievement in musical skill in playing Classical piano music for this research was measured by the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section three. As stated, this focused on Classical piano music in terms of the fundamental knowledge to read piano notation, body posture, piano techniques and studying and the playing piano music of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. However, the scores for this section were obtained by three judges, and then calculated as an average from the three for each student. The raw data and the t-test data of the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section three are contained in Appendix 6.7 and Appendix 6.8.

Each section of the ‘Achievement in music study test’ is treated in the same way using comparison to seek indications in the scores that either of the approaches to learning might have an advantage over the other.

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Comparison of Pretest and Posttest scores for each of the three sections of achievement in music study by the Experimental group

Table 5.8 The t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for each of the three sections of achievement in music study by the Experimental group

Range Sections Items p-value Min Max

Musical Pre 6 17 10.76 2.803 12.96 0.713 24 18.179 <0.0001 knowledge Post 19 28 23.72 2.372

Musical Pre 5 33 19.22 7.492 36.74 1.471 24 24.974 <0.0001 understanding Post 46.5 70.5 55.96 5.592 Pre 27 82.5 47.52 16.742 Musical skill 45.78 1.476 24 31.012 <0.0001 Post 69 116 93.30 14.102

The statistical analysis in Table 5.8 shows t-test data comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for achievement in music study for each of the three sections by the Experimental group (N = 25). Each analysis comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores indicates that the mean score improved for all three sections across the instruction, and the SD scores of each of the three sections indicates the Posttest scores are close to the mean scores. Moreover, the p- value (<.0001) of each of the three sections indicates a highly significant difference between the two sets of scores.

The t-test analysis shows students’ scores improved considerably as follows: 1) students increased their achievement in musical knowledge of Classical period history from a mean score of 10.76 with a standard deviation of 2.803 in the Pretest to a mean score of 23.72 with a standard deviation of 2.372 in the Posttest, with a mean difference of 12.96 and standard error of a mean difference of 0.713; 2) students increased their achievement in musical understanding of Classical music style from a mean score of 19.22 with a standard deviation of 7.492 in the Pretest to a mean score of 55.96 with a standard deviation of 5.592 in the Posttest, with a mean difference of 36.74 and a standard error of a mean difference of 1.471; and 3) students increased their achievement in musical skill in playing Classical piano music from a mean score of 47.52 with a standard deviation of 16.742 in the Pretest to a mean score of 93.30 with a standard deviation of 14.102 in the Posttest, with a mean difference of 45.78 and a standard error of a mean difference of 1.476. In addition, results of the corresponding t- test demonstrate that there were highly significant differences in students’ achievement in musical knowledge of Classical period history (t = 18.179, df = 24, p = <.0001), musical

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understanding of Classical music style (t = 24.974, df = 24, p = <.0001) and musical skill in playing Classical piano music (t = 31.012, df = 24, p = <.0001) between the Pretest and the Posttest scores.

After experiencing the CW elearn-music program, students made progress and it was apparent that this achievement growth was possibly due to the E-learning program. Therefore, these findings also support the hypothesis: there are significant differences in students’ learning achievements in terms of musical knowledge, musical understanding and musical skill regarding the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ before and after learning with the CW elearn-music program. Possible explanation of why this achievement growth was due to the E- learning program will be discussed in the last section of this chapter.

Comparison of Pretest and Posttest scores for each of the three sections of achievement in music study by the Control group

Table 5.9 The t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for each of the three sections of achievement in music study by the Control group Range Sections Items p-value Min Max

Musical Pre 6 15 10.60 2.761 11.55 0.838 19 13.780 <0.0001 knowledge Post 17 27 22.15 3.216

Musical Pre 9 35.5 18.95 7.597 31.75 1.744 19 18.202 <0.0001 understanding Post 43.50 61 50.70 6.315 Pre 33.50 86 48.20 17.475 Musical skill 51.68 2.499 19 20.680 <0.0001 Post 74 118 99.875 12.267

A similar t-test run in Table 5.9 for statistical analysis comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for achievement in music study for each of the three sections by the Control group (N = 20). Each analysis comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores demonstrates that the mean score improved for all three sections across the instruction; and the SD scores of each of the three sections indicates the Posttest scores are close to the mean scores. Moreover the p- value (<.0001) of each of the three sections indicates a highly significant difference between the two sets of scores.

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Similarly, the t-test analysis also shows students’ scores improved considerably. The t-test results obtained are: 1) students’ scores increased their achievement in musical knowledge of Classical period history from a mean score of 10.60 with a standard deviation of 2.761 in the Pretest to a mean score of 22.15 with a standard deviation of 3.216 in the Posttest, with a mean difference of 11.55 and standard error of a mean difference of 0.838; 2) students’ scores increased their achievement in musical understanding of Classical music style from a mean score of 18.95 with a standard deviation of 7.597 in the Pretest to a mean score of 50.50 with a standard deviation of 6.315 in the Posttest, with a mean difference of 31.75 and a standard error of a mean difference of 1.744; and 3) students’ scores increased their achievement in musical skill in playing Classical piano music from a mean score of 48.20 with a standard deviation of 17.475 in the Pretest to a mean score 99.875 with a standard deviation of 12.267 in the Posttest, with a mean difference of 51.68 and a standard error of a mean difference of 2.499. In addition, results of the corresponding t-test demonstrate that there were highly significant differences in students’ achievement in musical knowledge of Classical period history (t = 13.780, df = 19, p = <.0001), musical understanding of Classical music style (t = 18.202, df = 19, p = <.0001) and musical skill in playing Classical piano music (t = 20.680, df = 19, p = <.0001) between the Pretest and the Posttest scores.

From the above statistical results, it can be claimed, therefore, that this improvement was possibly due to teaching and learning through face-to-face instruction. These findings also support the hypothesis that there are significant differences in students’ learning achievements in terms of musical knowledge, musical understanding and musical skill regarding the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ before and after learning with the traditional teaching method. A possible reason of the students in the Control group having a highly significant achievement may lie in the fact that they were familiar with the learning environment and procedures and the role of the instructor.

In order to discover whether or not there were significant differences between the Experimental and the Control groups prior to and after the learning involved in this project, it was necessary to compare the Pretest and the Posttest scores in both groups.

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Comparison of Pretest scores for each of the three sections of achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

Table 5.10 The t-test for independent sample comparing the Pretest scores for each of the three sections of achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

Range p- Sections Groups Min Max value

Musical Experimental 6 17 10.76 2.803 0.16 0.835 43 0.192 0.849 knowledge Control 6 15 10.60 2.761

Musical Experimental 5 33 19.22 7.492 0.27 2.261 43 0.119 0.906 understanding Control 9 35.5 18.95 7.597 Experimental 27 82.5 47.52 16.742 Musical skill -0.68 5.120 43 -0.133 0.895 Control 33.5 86 48.20 17.475

Comparing the Pretest scores for each of the three sections of achievement in music study of the two groups as shown in Table 5.10, the results demonstrate that students were not much different from each other in terms of pre-learning knowledge of each of the content regarding the ‘History of music in the Classical period’, which is reflected in the Pretest scores where students in both the Experimental (N=25) and the Control (N=20) groups showed similar statistical results. The results obtained are: 1) a mean score in achievement in musical knowledge of Classical period history of 10.76 by the Experimental group and a mean score of 10.60 by the Control group, with a mean difference of 0.16 and a standard error of a mean difference of 0.835; 2) a mean score in achievement in musical understanding of Classical music style of 19.22 by the Experimental group and a mean score of 18.95 by the Control group, with a mean difference of 0.27 and a standard error of a mean difference of 2.261; and 3) a mean score in achievement in musical skill in playing Classical piano music of 47.52 by the Experimental group and a mean score of 48.20 by the Control group, with a mean difference of -0.68 and a standard error of a mean difference of 5.120. In addition, results of the corresponding t-test indicates that there were no statistically significant differences in students’ achievement in musical knowledge of Classical period history (t = 0.192, df = 43, p = 0.849), musical understanding of Classical music style (t = 0.119, df = 43, p = 0.906) and musical skill in playing Classical piano music (t = -0.133, df = 43, p = 0.895) between two sets of the Pretest scores. It is not surprising to find that students in both groups were at a similar level of knowledge, as we can see from the results for the coefficient of variation of each of the three sections. This suggests certain homogeneity of background across both the Experimental and the Control groups.

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Comparison of Posttest scores for each of the three sections of achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

After experiencing the different teaching methods, the t-test runs for statistical analysis determined if there was any significant difference in students’ learning achievement regarding the use of E-learning program and the traditional teaching method. Results of the data in Table 5.11 support the hypothesis: there are significant differences in students’ achievement between the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method; therefore, each of the three sections of the Posttest individually will be analysed.

Table 5.11 The t-test for independent sample comparing the Posttest scores for each of the three sections of achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups Range Sections Groups p-value Min Max

Musical Experimental 19 28 23.72 2.372 1.57 0.833 43 1.885 0.066 knowledge Control 17 27 22.15 3.216

Musical Experimental 46.5 70.5 55.96 5.592 5.26 1.777 43 2.961 0.005 understanding Control 43.5 61 50.70 6.315 Experimental 69 116 93.30 14.102 Musical skill -6.58 3.997 43 -1.645 0.107 Control 74 118 99.875 12.267

The t-test analysis for students’ achievement in musical knowledge of Classical period history shows the highest score by the Experimental group was 28, and the lowest score was 19, with a mean score of 23.72 and a standard deviation of 2.372. The highest score by the Control group was 27, and the lowest score was 17, with a mean score of 22.15 and a standard deviation of 3.216 indicating some differences between the two sets of scores. A mean difference of 1.57, with a standard error of a mean difference of 0.833 is reported and the t- test data is as follows: t = 1.885, df = 43, p = 0.066. Results of the data demonstrate that although the p-value was just above the .05 level, it can be seen that the data for each group demonstrate some small differences, suggesting that the Experimental group performing slightly better than the Control group in teaching and learning musical knowledge for Classical history period.

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The t-test analysis for students’ achievement in musical understanding of Classical music style shows the highest score by the Experimental group was 70.50, and the lowest score was 46.50, with a mean score of 55.96, and a standard deviation of 5.592. The highest score by the Control group was 61, and the lowest score was 43.50, with a mean score of 50.70, and a standard deviation of 6.315. Both the maximum and mean scores for the Experimental group were slightly higher than those for the Control group, suggesting some differences between the two sets of scores. In addition, the results comparing the Posttest scores between the two groups show a mean difference of 5.26, with a standard error of a mean difference of 1.777. However, the corresponding t-test indicates that there was a statistically significant difference in the Posttest scores between the Experimental and the Control groups at the .005 level, (t = 2.961, df = 43, p = 0.005). Results of the data demonstrate that there is a difference between the two sets of the Posttest scores, with those of the Experimental group indicating a significantly higher than those of the Control group. This would suggest that the CW elearn- music program provided more support, better learning environment and some advantages over the traditional teaching method in teaching and learning aspects of musical understanding for the Classical style.

The t-test analysis for students’ achievement in musical skill in playing Classical piano music shows the highest score by the Experimental group was 116, and the lowest score was 69, with a mean score of 93.30, and a standard deviation of 14.102. The highest score by the Control group was 118, and the lowest score was 74, with a mean score of 99.875, and a standard deviation of 12.267. These data show some slight differences between the two sets of scores. The results comparing the Posttest scores between the two groups show a mean difference of -6.58, with a standard error of a mean difference of 3.997. However, the corresponding t-test demonstrates that there was no statistically significant difference in the Posttest scores between the Experimental and the Control groups, (t = -1.643, df = 43, p = 0.107). Results of the data demonstrate that the two sets of scores having no significant difference in achievement; this suggests that the CW elearn-music program provided the same level of learning success as the traditional teaching approach. Students in the Experimental group can be motivated to participate in the E-learning program, similarly to those in the Control group who were taught directly from the instructor.

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Frequency and percentage distribution for each of the three sections of the ‘Achievement in music study test’ for each group

Table 5.12 to Table 5.14 illustrate the frequency and percentage distribution of the Pretest and the Posttest scores for each of the three sections of the ‘Achievement in music study test’ for the Experimental and the Control groups.

Table 5.12 Frequency and percentage distribution of the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section one (musical knowledge of Classical period history) for the Experimental and the Control groups Experimental group (N = 25) Control group (N = 20) Percentage Test scores of Test Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest scores F % F % F % F % < 15 < 50% 22 88% - 19 95% - 15 – 17 50% – 59% 3 12% - 1 5% 1 5% 18 – 20 60% – 69% - 2 8% - 5 25% 21 – 23 70% – 79% - 8 32% - 6 30% 24 – 26 80% – 89% - 12 48% - 6 30% > 26 > 89% - 3 12% - 2 10%

Table 5.13 Frequency and percentage distribution of the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section two (musical understanding of Classical music style) for the Experimental and the Control groups Experimental group (N = 25) Control group (N = 20) Percentage Test scores of Test Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest scores F % F % F % F % < 37.0 < 50% 25 100% - 20 100% - 37.5 – 44.5 50% – 59% - - - 4 20% 45.0 – 52.0 60% – 69% - 5 20% - 8 40% 52.5 – 59.5 70% – 79% - 16 64% - 5 25% 60.0 – 67.0 80% – 89% - 2 8% - 3 15% > 67.0 > 89% - 2 8% - -

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Table 5.14 Frequency and percentage distribution of the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the ‘Achievement in music study’, Section three (musical skill in playing Classical piano music) for the Experimental and the Control groups Experimental group (N = 25) Control group (N = 20) Percentage Test scores of Test Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest scores F % F % F % F % < 60 < 50% 19 76% - 15 45% - 60.0 – 71.5 50% – 59% 3 12% 2 8% 1 5% - 72.0 – 83.5 60% – 69% 2 8% 5 20% 3 15% 3 15% 84.0 – 95.5 70% – 79% 1 4% 7 28% 1 5% 4 20% 96.0 – 108.0 80% – 89% - 5 20% - 7 35% > 108.0 > 89% - 6 24% - 6 30%

To summarise, before the instruction (through the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method), nearly all of the students did not reach the passing standard (50%), indicating 88% of the students (22 of 25) in the Experimental group and 95% of the students (19 of 20) in the Control group did not pass the standard score of the Achievement in music study, Section one (musical knowledge of Classical period history); 100% of the students in both the Experimental and the Control groups did not pass the standard score of the Achievement in music study, Section two (musical understanding of Classical music style), and 76% of the students (19 of 25) in the Experimental group and 45% of the students (15 of 20) in the Control group did not pass the standard score of the achievement in music study, Section three (musical skill in playing Classical piano music). These results demonstrate that both groups had relatively poor knowledge of Classical period history, understanding in Classical music style and skill in playing Classical piano music.

However, most students in both the Experimental and the Control groups made good progress after the instruction, which demonstrates a significant achievement in the Posttest scores of each of the three sections. The data indicated as follows: 1) Table 5.12 shows 92% of the students (23 of 25) in the Experimental group and 70% of the students (14 of 20) in the Control group scored equal to or more than 70% in the ‘Achievement in music study’, Section one; 2) Table 5.13 shows 80% of the students (20 of 25) in the Experimental group and 40% of the students (8 of 20) in the Control groups scored equal to or more than 70% in the ‘Achievement in music study’, Section two; 3) Table 5.14 shows 72% of the students (18 of 25) in the Experimental group and 85% of the students (17 of 20) in the Control group scored equal to or more than 70% in the ‘Achievement in music study’, Section three.

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Based on the above data, it can be claimed that students in the both groups improved their achievement in music study from 50% to equal to or more than 70% after learning through the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method, respectively.

Comparison of difference scores of improvement in the Pretest and the Posttest for each of the three sections of the achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

As an indication of progress, difference scores were calculated between the Pretest and the Posttest scores, and compared as follows. The below data supported the hypothesis: there are significant differences in students’ demonstrated level of improvement between the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method; therefore, each of the three sections will be analysed. The data is indicated in Table 5.15 to compare the difference scores between the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the Experimental (N = 25) and the Control (N = 20) groups which indicates the general level of improvement.

Table 5.15 The t-test for independent sample comparing the different levels of improvement in the Pretest and the Posttest scores for each of the three sections of the achievement in music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

p- Sections Groups value Post Pre

Musical Experimental 23.72 10.76 12.96 3.565 1.41 1.094 43 1.289 0.204 knowledge Control 22.15 10.60 11.55 3.748

Musical Experimental 55.96 19.22 36.74 7.356 4.99 2.267 43 2.201 0.033 understanding Control 50.70 18.95 31.75 7.801 Experimental 93.30 47.52 45.78 7.381 Musical skill -5.90 2.775 43 -2.124 0.039 Control 99.87 48.20 51.675 11.175

The t-test analysis for students’ achievement in musical knowledge of Classical period history shows a mean score of 12.96, with a standard deviation of 3.565 by the Experimental group, and a mean score of 11.55, with a standard deviation of 3.748 by the Control group. The results comparing the different levels of improvement between the Experimental and the Control groups show a mean difference of 1.41, with a standard error of a mean difference of 1.094. The t-test indicates that there was no statistically significant difference in improvement levels between the Experimental and the Control groups, (t = 1.289, df = 43, p = 0.204). The p- value appears to indicate a high level of similarity between the two sets of difference scores,

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suggesting different teaching methods, both groups respectively made a similar level of improvement in teaching and learning musical knowledge for Classical history period.

Also, the t-test analysis for students’ achievement in musical understanding of Classical music style shows a mean score of 36.74, with a standard deviation of 7.356 by the Experimental group, and a mean score of 31.75, with a standard deviation of 7.801 by the Control group. The results comparing the different levels of improvement between the Experimental and the Control groups show a mean difference of 4.99, with a standard error of a mean difference of 2.267. The t-test indicates that there was a statistically significant difference in improvement levels between the Experimental and the Control groups at the .05 level, (t = 2.201, df = 43, p = 0.033) suggesting that students’ scores in the Experimental group improved more significantly than those of the Control group. Due to the p-value of 0.033, this improvement level of the two sets of instruction suggests some differences. There were indications in the Experimental group Posttest scores that the E-learning program appears to have had some advantages in teaching and learning the musical understanding of Classical style. These will be discussed at the last section of this chapter.

As well, the t-test analysis for students’ achievement in musical skill in playing Classical piano music shows a mean score of 45.78, with a standard deviation of 7.381 by the Experimental group, and a mean score of 51.675, with a standard deviation of 11.175 by the Control group. The results comparing the different levels of improvement between the Experimental and the Control groups show a mean difference of -5.90, with a standard error of a mean difference of 2.775. The t-test indicates that there was a statistically significant difference in improvement levels between the Experimental and the Control group at the .05 level, (t = -2.124, df = 43, p = 0.039) suggesting that students’ scores in the Control group improved more significantly than those of the Experimental group. Due to the p-value of 0.039, this improvement level of the two sets of instruction suggests some differences. Results from the data demonstrates that there were indications in the Control group Posttest scores that the traditional approach appears to have been more successful in teaching and learning the musical skill in playing Classical piano music than the E-learning program.

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Summary of the Results for achievement in Music Study

Overall, results of the above data suggest that when students are taught by different modes of instructional delivery, there can be a significant effect on students’ achievement. While it does seem that E-learning can indeed provide a more positive instructional environment to reinforce knowledge of Classical period history and understanding of Classical music style than the traditional approach, in contrast, the traditional approach provides a more successful approach to learning musical skill in playing Classical piano music than the E-learning approach. However, other factors influencing these results will be discussed in the last section of this chapter.

5.2 ATTITUDES TO MUSIC STUDY

As stated, Attitudes to music study were measured by the ‘Attitude to music study test’ to estimate positive or negative personal feelings towards the study of the ‘History of music in the Classical period’. The ‘Attitude to music study test’ was administered to both the Experimental and the Control groups before (Pretest) and after (Posttest) learning with the E- learning program and the traditional teaching method, respectively. Composed of four aspects as shown in Table 5.16, the total score for the test is 200. The rating scales range from 1 indicating most unfavourable to 5 indicating most favourable, as shown in Table 5.17. The statistical analysis was computed using SPSS Statistics 18.0. The raw data and the t-test data of attitudes to music study are contained in Appendix 6.9 and Appendix 6.10.

Table 5.16 The four aspects of the ‘Attitude to music study test’ Aspects Topics Forms of assessment One The subject of the History of music 10 questions with a five-level rating scale (Maximum score = 50) Two Musical knowledge of Classical 10 questions with a five-level rating scale period history (Maximum score = 50) Three Musical understanding of Classical 10 questions with a five-level rating scale music style (Maximum score = 50) Four Musical skill in playing Classical 10 questions with a five-level rating scale piano music (Maximum score = 50)

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Table 5.17 The levels of attitudes Scale value Real limits Levels of attitudes 5 4.51 – 5.00 Most favourable 4 3.51 – 4.50 Favourable 3 2.51 – 3.50 Neutral 2 1.51 – 2.50 Unfavourable 1 1.00 – 1.50 Most unfavourable

Students’ attitudes to music study

Table 5.18 Students' attitudes to music study Pretest Posttest Experimental Control Experimental Control Level Level Level Level 3.213 12.87 Neu. 3.211 8.61 Neu. 3.839 10.33 Fav. 3.861 5.27 Fav.

A mean score, with a standard deviation was calculated to examine students’ attitudes to music study, as indicated in Table 5.18. Before experiencing different instructional processes between the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method, the Pretest scores showed a mean score of 3.213, with a standard deviation of 12.87 by the Experimental group, while a mean score of 3.211, with a standard deviation of 8.61 by the Control group, indicated that both groups were neutral in attitudes to music study. The Posttest scores showed a mean score of 3.839, with a standard deviation of 10.33 by the Experimental group, while a mean score of 3.861, with a standard deviation of 5.27 by the Control group, indicated that both groups were favourable in attitudes to music study after the instruction.

The results of each of the four aspects of the ‘Attitude to music study test’ comparing the Experimental and the Control groups are presented separately below.

Table 5.19 Students' attitudes from each of the four aspects of the attitudes to music study Experimental Control Aspects Pretest Posttest Pretest Posttest Level Level Level Level One 3.132 3.913 Neu. 3.788 3.811 Fav. 3.150 3.171 Neu. 3.860 1.957 Fav. Two 3.368 3.159 Neu. 3.968 3.816 Fav. 3.320 3.334 Neu. 3.945 2.544 Fav. Three 3.136 2.515 Neu. 3.996 2.606 Fav. 3.105 1.905 Neu. 3.705 1.905 Fav. Four 3.216 6.316 Neu. 3.904 3.142 Fav. 3.270 4.758 Neu. 3.935 2.007 Fav.

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After learning through the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method, the data analysis in Table 5.19 shows that both groups improved their attitude from neutral to favourable in each of the four aspects including: 1) attitude towards the subject of the History of music; 2) attitude towards musical knowledge of Classical period history; 3) attitude towards musical understanding of Classical music style; and 4) attitude towards musical skill in playing Classical piano music.

As already stated, the t-test for the dependent sample (Ferguson, 1981: 180) was calculated to determine the differences comparing results as indicated in the Pretest of learning prior to and after the learning, as indicated in the Posttest, for both the Experimental and the Control groups. Additionally, the t-test for the independent sample (Popham & Sirotnik, 1973: 139) was conducted to compare the results of both the Pretest and the Posttest in order to discover any differences between the two groups at the Pretest and the Posttest stages.

Comparison of Pretest and Posttest scores for the attitudes to music study in the Experimental group

200 Pretest 190 Posttest

180 174 174 169 170 167 167 159 160 156 153 159 154 148 156 153 152 152 152 149 148 150 150 139 153 143 136 143 145 140 138 143 142 138 135 135 141 132 138 130 144 138 136 132 119 129 120 128 128 120 118 110 115 117 114 105 109 107 100 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Figure 5.3 the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the attitudes to music study by each student in the Experimental group

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In Figure 5.3, the line graph displays the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the attitudes to music study by each student (N = 25) in the Experimental group. The Pretest scores show a range of 105 to 154, and the Posttest scores show a range of 136 to 174. As we can see, after learning through the E-learning program, the Posttest scores were higher than the Pretest scores for each student.

Table 5.20 The t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the attitudes to music study by the Experimental group

Items p-value Pretest 128.52 12.872 10.02% 25.04 1.693 24 14.794 <0.0001 Posttest 153.56 10.328 6.73%

The statistical analysis in Table 5.20 shows t-test data comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores of the attitudes to music study by the Experimental group (N = 25). The total score of the ‘Attitude to music study test’ is 200. The p-value indicates a highly significant difference between the two sets of scores so that we can conclude that student attitude was more favourable in the Posttest. The t-test results are obtained: a mean score of 128.52, with a standard deviation of 12.872 in the Pretest increased to a mean score of 153.56, with a standard deviation of 10.328 in the Posttest. It can be seen that students’ scores developed in the Posttest, with a mean difference between the two sets of 25.04 and a standard error of a mean difference of 1.693. The corresponding t-test indicates that there was a statistically significant difference between the Pretest and the Posttest also at the <0.0001 level, (t = 14.794, df = 24), demonstrating increased attitudes toward the ‘History of music in the Classical period’. In addition, comparing of the coefficient of variation between the Pretest (10.02%) and the Posttest (6.73%) groups show that students’ scores in the Posttest were more evenly distributed than among the Pretest scores. Therefore, it can be concluded taht most positive attitude was achieved by learning through the CW elearn-music program, although students needed self-motivation.

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Comparison of Pretest and Posttest scores for the attitudes to music study in the Control group

200 Pretest 190 Posttest 180 170 167 161 162 160 160 155 157 155 157 152 152 154 153 151 158 149 150 150 151 151 146 148 140 140 142 136 130 130 132 137 136 133 134 121 130 130 120 126 126 125 126 126 110 116 114 109 100 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Figure 5.4 the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the attitudes to music study by each student in the Control group

In Figure 5.4, the line graph displays the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the attitudes to music study by each student (N = 20) in the Control group. The results demonstrate that the Pretest scores range between 109 and 142, while the Posttest scores range between 146 and 167. It can be clearly seen that students who learned by the traditional teaching method scored higher on the Posttest than the Pretest.

Table 5.21 The t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the attitudes to music study by the Control group

Items p-value Pretest 128.45 8.611 6.70% 26.00 1.672 19 15.55 <0.0001 Posttest 154.45 5.266 3.41%

The statistical analysis in Table 5.21 shows t-test data comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for the attitudes to music study by the Control group (N = 20). The total score of the ‘Attitude to music study test’ is 200. The p-value indicates a highly significant difference between the two sets of scores. The results show that student attitude was more favourable on the Posttest (a mean score of 154.45, with a standard deviation of 5.266) than the Pretest (a mean score of 128.45, with a standard deviation of 8.611), with a mean difference of 26.00 and a standard error of a mean difference of 1.672. The corresponding t-test indicates that

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there was a statistically significant difference between the Pretest and the Posttest at the <0.0001 level, (t = 15.55, df = 19, p = <.0001). Additionally, Comparing of the coefficient of variation between the Pretest (6.70%) and the Posttest (3.41%) groups reveals that students’ scores in the Posttest were more evenly distributed than among the Pretest scores. Therefore, it can be claimed that students in the Control group also contributed a significant positive attitude after learning directly from the instructor.

Comparison of Pretest scores for the attitudes to music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

In order to discover whether or not there were significant differences between the Experimental and the Control groups prior to the learning involved in this project, it was necessary to compare the Pretest scores in both groups. According to the data in Table 5.22, the t-test results show that the two sets of scores reveal no statistically significant differences.

Table 5.22 The t-test for independent sample comparing the Pretest scores for the attitudes to music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

Groups p-value

Experimental 25 128.52 12.872 0.07 3.357 43 0.021 0.983 Control 20 128.45 8.611

Comparing the Pretest scores of the two groups as shown in Table 5.22, the data reveal that the Pretest score of the Experimental (N = 25) and the Control (N = 20) groups were relatively similar. The results obtained are: a mean score of 128.52, with a standard deviation of 12.872 for the Experimental group (N = 25), and a mean score of 128.45, with a standard deviation of 8.611 for the Control group (N = 20). The results of the t-test comparing the two groups show a mean difference of 0.07, with a standard error of a mean difference of 3.357. The corresponding t-test indicates that there was no statistically significant difference in the Pretest scores between the two groups, (t = 0.021, df = 43, p = 0.983). Results of the data suggest that students in each group were not much different from each other, indicating that students were similar in attitude at the beginning of the instruction.

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Comparison of Posttest scores for the attitudes to music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

Table 5.23 The t-test for independent sample comparing the Posttest scores for attitudes to music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

Groups p-value

Experimental 25 153.56 10.328 -0.89 2.542 43 -0.35 0.728 Control 20 154.45 5.266

Comparing the Posttest scores of the two groups, as shown in Table 5.23, the t-test results are obtained: a mean score of 153.56, with a standard deviation of 10.328 for the Experimental group (N = 25), and a mean score of 154.45, with a standard deviation of 5.266 for the Control group (N = 20). The results of the t-test comparing the two groups show a mean difference of - 0.89, with a standard error of a mean difference of 2.542. The corresponding t-test demonstrates that there was no statistically significant difference in the Posttest scores between the two groups, (t = -0.35, df = 43, p = 0.728). The p-value reveals a high level of similarity between the two sets of the Posttest scores, indicating that students’ attitude in the Experimental group was not more positive than those of the Control group after learning through the two different modes of instruction and delivery. Therefore, it can be claimed that students with or without instruction’s motivation and inspiration could increase their positive attitude to music study.

Results of each of the four aspects of attitudes to music study, comparing the Experimental and the Control groups are now presented separately below. Each aspect of the ‘Attitude to music study test’ is treated in the same way using comparison to seek indications in the scores that either of the approaches to learning might have a positive advantage over the other.

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Comparison of Pretest and Posttest scores for each of the four aspects of attitudes to music study in the Experimental group

Table 5.24 The t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for each of the four aspects of attitudes to music study by the Experimental group Range Aspects Items p-value Min Max Pre 22 39 31.32 3.913 The subject 6.56 0.674 24 9.733 <0.0001 Post 32 47 37.88 3.811

Musical Pre 26 38 33.68 3.159 6.00 0.656 24 9.146 <0.0001 knowledge Post 32 47 39.68 3.816

Musical Pre 25 35 31.36 2.515 8.60 0.658 24 13.069 <0.0001 understanding Post 32 42 39.96 2.606 Pre 22 46 32.16 6.316 Musical skill 6.88 1.108 24 6.209 <0.0001 Post 34 46 39.04 3.142

The statistical analysis in Table 5.24 shows t-test data comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for each of the four aspects of attitudes to music study in the Experimental group (N = 25). The total score of each of the four aspects is 50. Each analysis comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores indicates that the mean score improved from all four aspects across the instruction, and the SD scores of each of the four aspects indicates the Posttest SD are close to each of the mean scores. Moreover, the p-value (<.0001) of each of the four aspects reveals a highly significant difference between the two sets of scores.

The t-test results obtained are: students’ attitudes to music study improved considerably from a neutral to a positive attitude as follows: 1) students’ attitude towards the subject of the History of music was more favourable on the Posttest (a mean score of 37.88 with a standard deviation of 3.811) than the Pretest (a mean score of 31.32 with a standard deviation of 3.913), with a mean difference of 6.56 and a standard error of a mean difference of 0.674, indicating a statistically significant difference (t = 9.733, df = 24, p = <.0001); 2) students’ attitude towards musical knowledge of Classical period history was more favourable on the Posttest (a mean score of 39.68 with a standard deviation of 3.816) than the Pretest (a mean score of 33.68 with a standard deviation of 3.159), with a mean difference of 6.00 and a standard error of a mean difference of 0.656, indicating a statistically significant difference (t = 9.146, df = 24, p = <.0001); 3) students’ attitude towards musical understanding of Classical music style was more favourable on the Posttest (a mean score of 39.96, with a standard

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deviation of 2.606) than the Pretest (a mean score of 31.36, with a standard deviation of 2.515), with a mean difference of 8.60 and a standard error of a mean difference of 0.658, indicating a statistically significant difference (t = 13.069, df = 24, p = <.0001), and 4) students’ attitude towards musical skill in playing Classical piano music was more favourable on the Posttest (mean score of 39.04 with a standard deviation of 3.142) than the Pretest (a mean score of 32.16 with a standard deviation of 6.316), with a mean difference of 6.88 and a standard error of a mean difference of 1.108, indicating a statistically significant difference (t = 6.209, df = 24, p = <.0001).

From the above statistical results, it can be claimed, therefore, that this attitude was in part due to teaching and learning through the E-learning program. Therefore, these findings support the hypothesis: there are significant differences in students’ attitudes in terms of the subject, musical knowledge, musical understanding and musical skill regarding the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ before and after learning with the E-learning program. A possible explanation of why this attitude growth was due to the E-learning program will be discussed in the last section of this chapter.

Comparison of Pretest and Posttest scores for each of the four aspects of attitudes to music study in the Control group

Table 5.25 The t-test for dependent sample comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for each of the four aspects of attitudes to music study by the Control group Range Aspects Items p-value Min Max Pre 25 38 31.50 3.171 The study 7.10 0.589 19 12.054 <0.0001 Post 35 42 38.60 1.957

Musical Pre 25 38 33.20 3.334 6.25 0.855 19 7.310 <0.0001 knowledge Post 26 44 39.45 2.544

Musical Pre 27 34 31.05 1.905 6.00 0.435 19 13.793 <0.0001 understanding Post 35 42 37.05 1.905 Pre 23 39 32.70 4.758 Musical skill 6.65 0.982 19 6.772 <0.0001 Post 34 42 39.35 2.007

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A similar t-test was run, as shown Table 5.25, to prove a statistical analysis comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores for each of the four aspects of attitudes to music study by the Control group (N = 20). The total score of each of the four aspects is 50. Each analysis comparing the Pretest and the Posttest scores also reveals that a mean score improved for all four aspects across the instruction, and the SD scores of each of the four aspects indicates the Posttest SD are close to each of the mean scores. Moreover, the p-value (<.0001) of each of the four aspects also indicates a highly significant difference between the two sets of score.

Similarly, the t-test analysis reveals students’ attitudes to music studies changed considerably from neutral to positive as follows: 1) students’ attitude towards the subject of the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ increased from a mean score of 31.50 with a standard deviation of 3.171 in the Pretest to a mean score of 38.60 with a standard deviation of 1.957 in the Posttest, with a mean difference of 7.10 and a standard error of a mean difference of 0.589, indicating a highly significant difference (t = 12.054, df = 19, p = <.0001); 2) students’ attitude towards musical knowledge of Classical period history increased from a mean score of 33.20 with a standard deviation of 3.334 in the Pretest to a mean score of 39.45 with a standard deviation of 2.544 in the Posttest, with a mean difference of 6.25 and a standard error of a mean difference of 0.855, reflecting a highly significant difference (t = 7.310, df = 19, p = <0.0001); 3) students’ attitude towards musical understanding of Classical music style increased from a mean score of 31.05 with a standard deviation of 1.905 in the Pretest to a mean score of 37.05 with a standard deviation of 1.905 in the Posttest, with a mean difference of 6.00 and a standard error of a mean difference of 0.435, reflecting a highly significant difference (t = 13.793, df = 19, p = <0.0001); and 4) students’ attitude towards musical skill in playing Classical piano music increased from a mean score of 32.70 with a standard deviation of 4.758 in the Pretest to a mean score of 39.35 with a standard deviation of 2.007 in the Posttest, with a mean difference of 6.65 and a standard error of a mean difference of 0.982, reflecting a highly significant difference (t = 6.772, df = 19, p = <0.0001).

Therefore, it can be claimed that students were more positive in attitude, and this attitude was due to teaching and learning through the face-to-face instruction. These findings also supported the hypothesis: there are significant differences in students’ attitudes towards the subject, musical knowledge, musical understanding and musical skill regarding the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ before and after learning with the traditional teaching method. A

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possible reason for the students in the Control group changing their attitudes may lie in the fact that they were encouraged and motivated by the instructor.

According to the above results where 25 students participated in the Experimental group and 20 students participated in the Control group, both groups show similar attitude scores. In addition, the results reveal that students’ scores are almost identical in both the Pretest and the Posttest, as indicated in the t-test data analysis in Table 5.26 and Table 5.27.

Comparison of Pretest scores for each of the four aspects of attitudes to music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

Table 5.26 The t-test for independent sample comparing the Pretest scores for each of the fours aspects of attitudes to music study between the Experimental and the Control groups Range Aspects Groups p-value Min Max Experimental 22 39 31.32 3.913 One -0.18 1.081 43 -0.166 0.869 Control 25 38 31.50 3.171 Experimental 26 38 33.68 3.159 Two 0.48 0.971 43 0.494 0.624 Control 25 38 33.20 3.334 Experimental 25 35 31.36 2.515 Three 0.31 0.680 43 0.456 0.651 Control 27 34 31.05 1.905 Experimental 22 46 32.16 6.316 Four -0.54 1.704 43 -0.317 0.753 Control 23 39 32.70 4.758

The statistical analysis in Table 5.26 shows t-test data comparing the Pretest scores of the two groups. The t-test analysis reveals: 1) a mean score in attitude towards the subject of the History of music of 31.32 by the Experimental group and a mean score of 31.50 by the Control group, with a mean difference of -0.18 and a standard error of a mean difference of 1.081; 2) a mean score in attitude towards musical knowledge of Classical period history of 33.68 by the Experimental group and a mean score of 33.20 by the Control group, with a mean difference of 0.48 and a standard error of a mean difference of 0.971; 3) a mean score in attitude towards musical understanding of Classical music style 31.36 by the Experimental group and a mean score of 31.05 by the Control group, with a mean difference of 0.31 and a standard error of a mean difference of 0.680, and 4) a mean score in attitude towards musical skill in playing Classical piano music of 32.16 by the Experimental group and a mean score of 32.70 by the Control group, with a mean difference of -0.54 and a standard error of a mean difference of

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1.704. This corresponding t-test indicates that no statistically significant difference between the two groups was found in students’ attitude towards the subject (t = -0.166, df = 43, p = 0.869), musical knowledge (t = 0.494, df = 43, p = 0.624), musical understanding (t = 0.456, df = 43, p = 0.651) and musical skill (t = -0.317, df = 43, p = 0.753) between two sets of the Pretest scores. Results of the data demonstrate that students in both groups displayed a similar attitude toward this subject, musical knowledge of Classical period history, musical understanding of Classical style and musical skill in playing Classical piano music at the beginning of the instruction.

Comparison of Posttest scores for each of the four aspects of the attitudes to music study between the Experimental and the Control groups

After learning through the different teaching methods, the t-test run for statistical analysis determined if there was any significant difference in students’ attitude to music study regarding the use of E-learning program and the traditional teaching method. Results of the data in Table 5.27 support the hypothesis: there are significant differences in students’ attitudes between the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method; therefore, each of the four aspects of the Posttest will be analysed individually.

Table 5.27 The t-test for independent sample comparing the Posttest scores for each of the four aspects of attitudes to music study between the Experimental and the Control groups Range Aspects Groups p-value Min Max Experimental 32 47 37.88 3.811 One -0.72 0.939 43 -0.767 0.447 Control 35 42 38.60 1.957 Experimental 32 47 39.68 3.816 Two 0.23 0.994 43 0.231 0.818 Control 36 44 39.45 2.544 Experimental 33 42 36.96 2.606 Three -0.09 0.697 43 -0.129 0.898 Control 35 42 37.05 1.905 Experimental 34 46 39.04 3.142 Four -0.31 0.810 43 -0.383 0.704 Control 34 42 39.35 2.007

The statistical analysis in Table 5.27 comparing the Posttest scores of the two groups showed their favourable scores. The t-test results obtained are: 1) a mean score in attitude towards the subject, ‘History of music in the Classical period’ of 37.88 with a standard deviation of 3.811 by the Experimental group and a mean score of 38.60 with a standard deviation of 1.957

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by the Control group, with a mean difference of -0.72 and a standard error of a mean difference of 0.939; 2) a mean score in attitude towards musical knowledge of Classical period history of 39.68 with a standard deviation of 3.816 by the Experimental group and a mean score of 39.45 with a standard deviation of 2.544 by the Control group, with a mean difference of 0.23 and a standard error of a mean difference of 0.994; 3) a mean score in attitude towards musical understanding of Classical music style of 39.96 with a standard deviation of 2.606 by the Experimental group and a mean score of 37.05 with a standard deviation of 1.905 by the Control group, with a mean difference of -0.09 and a standard error of a mean difference of 0.697; and 4) a mean score in attitude towards musical skill in playing Classical piano music of 39.04 with a standard deviation of 3.142 by the Experimental group and a mean score of 39.35 with a standard deviation of 2.007 by the Control group, with a mean difference of -0.31 and a standard error of a mean difference of 0.810. The corresponding t-test indicates that there were no statistically significant differences in students’ attitude towards the subject (t = -0.767, df = 43, p = 0.447), attitude towards musical knowledge (t = 0.231, df = 43, p = 0.818), attitude towards musical understanding (t = -0.129, df = 43, p = 0.898) and attitude towards musical skill (t = -0.383, df = 43, p = 0.704) between the two sets of the Posttest scores. Results of the data demonstrate that the p-value for each of the four aspects reveals a high level of similarity between the two sets of difference scores, suggesting that through the different teaching methods, both groups had a similar attitude toward this subject, musical knowledge of Classical period history, musical understanding of Classical style and musical skill in playing Classical piano music at the beginning of the instruction.

Summary of the Results for Attitudes to Music Study

Overall, results of the above data suggest that students had a more positive attitude, more appreciation and favourable attitude towards the subject of the History of music, knowledge of Classical period history, understanding of Classical music styles and skill in playing Classical piano music after they had completed the instruction. This suggests that although students were taught by different modes of instructional delivery, there could be a significant positive effect on students’ attitude. However, other factors influencing these attitudes will be discussed in the last section of this chapter.

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5.3 OPINIONS ABOUT THE E-LEARNING PROGRAM

Opinions about the E-learning program for this research was measured by the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ in order to estimate students’ like or dislike, satisfaction or otherwise and agreement or disagreement about the use of an E-learning program, in terms of structure and content, presentation and design, graphic and multimedia materials and features of E-learning. In this study, the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ was administrated to 25 participated in the Experimental group after learning through the CW elearn-music program. The statistical analysis is computed using SPSS Statistics 18.0. The Questionnaire is composed of four parts, as shown in Table 5.28.

Table 5.28 The four parts of the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ Parts Topics Forms of Assessment One Computer skills 6 questions with a five-level rating scale Two Satisfaction with the E-learning 35 questions with a five-level rating scale program (the CW elearn-music program) Three Opinions about teaching and learning 15 questions with a five-level rating scale through an E-learning program Four Opinions about the E-learning program 3 open-ended questions for teaching and learning music courses

5.3.1 Computer Skills

Students’ computer literacy skills were measured by the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’, Part one. It contains six questions with a five-level rating scale for each question. The rating scales range from 1 indicating very poor to 5 indicating excellent, as shown in Table 5.29. A simple descriptive statistical analysis including frequency and percentage distribution was calculated to examine the results of the question about students’ computer skills, as shown in Table 5.30.

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Table 5.29 The levels of skills Apparent limits Real limits Levels of skills 5 4.51 – 5.00 Excellent 4 3.51 – 4.50 Good 3 2.51 – 3.50 Average 2 1.51 – 2.50 Poor 1 1.00 – 1.50 Very poor

Table 5.30 Frequency and percentage distribution for students' computer skills Frequency distribution Items 5 4 3 2 1 F % F % F % F % F % 1 Skills in using the computer 3 12% 14 56% 8 32% - - 2 Skills in using a web browser 4 16% 13 52% 8 32% - - 3 Skills in searching the world- 4 16% 15 60% 6 24% - - wide resources 4 Skills in using online communication by social 7 28% 11 44% 7 28% - - network and instant messaging 5 Skills in sending Electronic mail 6 24% 16 64% 3 12% - - (Email) 6 Skills in self-directed learning 3 12% 15 60% 7 28% - - through online program

Table 5.30 shows the frequency and percentage distribution of students’ computer literacy skills. From the above data, it can clearly be seen that all students have skills to use the computer at the level of average to excellent, which are 32% at the level of average, 56% at the level of good and 12% at the level of excellent, respectively. These computer skills include computer operations, graphics and multimedia components for presentations and word processing.

In terms of internet and Email skills, most of the students (13 of 25) believed that they have good skills using a web browser. Four students (16%) believed that they have excellent skills and eight students (32%) believed that they have average skills. The popular web browsers that students use are Microsoft Internet Explorer, Safari and Firefox, respectively. Additionally, most of the students (15 of 25) believed that they have good skills in searching world-wide resources for their study, while four students (16%) believed that they have excellent skills, as well six students (24%) believed that they have average skills. Additionally, eleven students

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(44%) believed that they have good skills in using the social network such as Facebook and Twitter, and instant messaging, such as Window Live Messenger (MSN) and Google Talk, which has now become a popular network to allow people to communicate with each other in the cyber space. Seven students (28%) believed that they have excellent skills; as well seven students (28%) believed that they have average skills. Electronic mail (Email) is also another option to communicate with other people. Most of the students (16 of 25) believed they are good, while six students (24%) believed that they are excellent and three students (12%) believed that they have average skills using Email to communicate.

In terms of online teaching and learning, students show the results of their ability in self- directed learning at the level from average to excellent. Three students (12%) have excellent skills in self-directed learning. While 15 students (60%) have good skills and seven students (28%) have average skills in self-directed learning through the online program respectively; their experience in online learning before participating in this research study is apparent.

From the above evidence, results of the data demonstrate that all students have computer literacy skills at the level of average to excellent. Perhaps primary because students raised in the digital age have utilised and have been surrounded by digital tools and devices, thus they do not know a world without computer and the internet technology. Therefore, it can be claimed that Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has come into common use in Thai music students’ society at the level of higher education bringing practical changes in the methods of learning, searching for knowledge and ways of communication.

5.3.2 Satisfaction with the E-learning program (the CW elearn-music program)

Students’ satisfaction with the E-learning program (the CW elearn-music program) was measured by the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’, Part two. It contains 35 questions with a five-level rating scale for each question. The rating scales range from 1 indicating dissatisfied to 5 indicating highly satisfied, as shown in Table 5.31. A mean score, with a standard deviation was calculated to examine the results of students’ satisfaction with the CW elearn-music program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’. This part is composed of three aspects including: 1) structure and content; 2) presentation and design; and 3) graphics and multimedia materials, as shown in Table 5.32.

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Table 5.31 The levels of satisfaction Apparent limits Real limits Levels of satisfactions 5 4.51 – 5.00 Highly satisfied 4 3.51 – 4.50 Fairly well satisfied 3 2.51 – 3.50 Satisfied 2 1.51 – 2.50 Poorly satisfied 1 1.00 – 1.50 Dissatisfied

Table 5.32 Students' satisfaction with the CW elearn-music program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ in terms of structure and content Items Level 1 The structure of the program is clearly and logically organized 4.16 0.62 Fairly well 2 The content outlines which are presented were sequential 4.20 0.58 Fairly well The CW elearn-music program for the Classical period history (Section one) 3 The length of the lessons is appropriate 4.28 0.54 Fairly well 4 The content is transferable and generalizable 4.36 0.57 Fairly well The CW elearn-music program for the Classical music style (Section two) 5 The length of the lessons is appropriate 4.36 0.57 Fairly well 6 The content is transferable and generalizable 4.40 0.50 Fairly well The CW elearn-music program for the Classical piano music (Section three) 7 The length of the lessons is appropriate 4.00 0.65 Fairly well 8 The content is transferable and generalizable 3.96 0.61 Fairly well 9 The content in the Resources (Glossary and Music 4.08 0.64 Fairly well fundamentals) is appropriate, clear and easy to read 10 The questions for the Exercise and Test are appropriate and 4.12 0.67 Fairly well useful 11 Exercises are obvious and easy to answer 4.12 0.73 Fairly well 12 Tests are obvious and easy to answer 4.08 0.64 Fairly well

Table 5.32 displays a mean score, with a standard deviation of students’ satisfaction with the CW elearn-music program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ in terms of structure and content. Nearly all items on this part show a mean score of 4.0 or higher, indicating that students were fairly well satisfied with the structure and content of the CW elearn-music program. Students felt that the structure of the program is clear and logically organized, and the content outlines are sequential, which made them easy to understand and to follow by themselves. The length of each lesson is appropriate and suited to the program, as well; the content of each lesson is transferable and generalizable. Also, students’ satisfaction with the Resources available on the CW elearn-music program including the Glossary and Music

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Fundamentals show a mean score of 4.08, with a standard deviation of 0.64. They were fairly well satisfied that the content in the Resources is appropriate, clear and easy to understand, which made it easy to search and study additional information and knowledge to support their learning. Furthermore, question 10 to question 12 shows a mean score of 4.0 or higher, indicating that students were fairly well satisfied with the exercises and tests of the CW elearn- music program. Students felt the test were clear, easy to use, complete by writing the answer on the blanks and ticking the multiple choice question, and then submitting their answers to the Administrator Management System.

Table 5.33 Students' satisfaction with the CW elearn-music program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ in terms of presentation and design Items Level 13 The program is clear and user-friendly 4.24 0.83 Fairly well 14 The interface design is visually appealing making it easy for 4.32 0.80 Fairly well me to follow the program 15 The homepage encourages me to reflect on the program 4.08 0.81 Fairly well 16 The menu button is clear and user-friendly 4.28 0.61 Fairly well 17 The log-in system is clear and user-friendly 4.36 0.64 Fairly well 18 It is easy to navigate my way around the program 4.36 0.57 Fairly well 19 The News and Announcements are clear and appropriate 4.32 0.63 Fairly well 20 The useful links are easy to understand 4.24 0.60 Fairly well 21 The Web-board is clear and easy to use 4.20 0.65 Fairly well

Table 5.33 reveals a mean score, with a standard deviation showing students’ satisfaction with the CW elearn-music program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ in terms of presentation and design. All items on this part show a mean score of 4.08 or higher, indicating that students were fairly well satisfied with the design of the program. Students felt that the interface design is clear and easy to use, and can motivate students to learn the History of music. The homepage also reflected and encouraged them to study the program. The menu button, the log-in system and navigation system are clear, effective and user-friendly, which made it easy for students to use and follow the program. The News and Announcements integrated in the homepage are clear and easy to read. The useful links are clear and easy to understand, and the Web-board is clear and easy to use. During the course, there was no question asking about how to access the CW elearn-music program. Students did not encounter any problems with the structure and content of the program.

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Table 5.34 Students' satisfaction with the CW elearn-music program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ in terms of graphics and multimedia materials Items Level 22 The font is clear and appropriate 3.88 0.88 Fairly well 23 The colour of the text and background is visually appealing 3.84 0.80 Fairly well 24 The graphics and multimedia materials (photographs, animations, tables, music scores, audios and videos) are 3.92 0.70 Fairly well clear and visually appealing 25 The graphics and multimedia materials make the program 4.20 0.50 Fairly well more interesting 26 The graphics and multimedia materials help motivate me to 4.20 0.50 Fairly well learn the program The CW elearn-music program for the Classical period history (Section one) 27 The amount of text in this section is appropriate 4.00 0.65 Fairly well 28 The graphics (photographs and tables) used in this section 4.00 0.65 Fairly well are relevant to the subject matter 29 The graphics (photographs and tables) used in this section 4.32 0.56 Fairly well help me with my learning The CW elearn-music program for Classical music style (Section two) 30 The amount of text in this section is appropriate 4.00 0.65 Fairly well 31 The graphics (photographs, tables, audios and music scores) 3.96 0.61 Fairly well used in this section are relevant to the subject matter 32 The graphics (photographs, tables, audios and music scores) 4.40 0.58 Fairly well used in this section help me with my learning The CW elearn-music program for Classical piano music (Section three) 33 The amount of text in this section is appropriate 3.96 0.61 Fairly well 34 The graphics (photographs, tables, music scores and videos) 3.92 0.57 Fairly well used in this section are relevant to the subject matter 35 The graphics (photographs, tables, music scores and videos) 4.36 0.49 Fairly well used in this section help me with my learning

Table 5.34 displays a mean score, with a standard deviation of students’ satisfaction with the CW elearn-music program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ in terms of graphics and multimedia materials. Several items on this part show a mean score of 4.0 or higher, indicating that students were fairly well satisfied with graphics and multimedia materials contributed to the program. Students felt the font is clear and appropriate, and the colour of the text and background is visual and appealing. Students were also fairly well satisfied with clear and visual appealing graphics and multimedia materials including texts, photographs,

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tables, audios, music scores and videos, which made the program more interesting, as well as attracted them to study the program. In terms of students’ satisfaction with the CW elearn- music program for each of the three sections, all items show a mean score of 3.92 or higher, indicating that students were fairly well satisfied with graphic and multimedia materials contributed to each of the three sections. Students felt the amount of text is appropriate, the graphics are relevant and assist them to learn each of the three sections.

The data results relating to the research objective in examining students’ satisfaction about the use of E-learning program suggest that students were fairly well satisfied with the overall features of the CW elearn-music program for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’. Students’ attention and participation were required and maintained by incorporating visual materials and components into the instruction and course materials, which in turn motivates students to engage in learning. The structure and layout of the program, materials and evaluation are clear and easy to navigate to limit the frustration experienced with the program.

5.3.3 Opinions about teaching and learning through the E-learning program

Students’ opinions about the use of the E-learning program were measured by the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’, Part three which contains 15 questions with a five- level rating scale for each question. The rating scales range from 1 indicating strongly disagree to 5 indicating strongly agree, as shown in Table 5.35. A simple descriptive statistical analysis including frequency and percentage distribution was calculated to examine the results of students’ opinions about teaching and learning through the E-learning program, as shown in Table 5.36.

Table 5.35 The levels of opinion Apparent limits Real limits Levels of opinions 5 4.51 – 5.00 Strongly agree 4 3.51 – 4.50 Agree 3 2.51 – 3.50 undecided 2 1.51 – 2.50 Disagree 1 1.00 – 1.50 Strongly disagree

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Table 5.36 Frequency and percentage distribution of students' opinions about teaching and learning through the E-learning program Frequency and Percentage distribution Items 5 4 3 2 1 F % F % F % F % F % E-learning encourages me to 1 5 20% 14 56% 4 16% 2 8% - concentrate on my study E-learning enables me to be 2 11 44% 11 44% 3 12% - - independent in learning E-learning enables me to 3 10 40% 12 48% 3 12% - - control my learning progress E-learning helps me greater 4 11 44% 10 40% 3 12% 1 4% - responsibility in my study E-learning helps me to 5 4 16% 13 52% 7 28% 1 4% - participate more in my learning E-learning helps me develop my 6 11 44% 12 48% 2 8% - - ability in self-directed learning E-learning enables me to access 7 the program anywhere with 10 40% 10 40% 5 20% - - Internet access E-learning enables me to study 8 8 32% 12 48% 2 8% 3 12% - every time I need to E-learning makes it easy for me 9 10 40% 13 52% 2 8% - - to review the previous lessons E-learning makes it easy for me to access the information and 10 knowledge from world-wide 9 36% 13 52% 3 12% - - resources and the learning community E-learning helps me to search 11 for up-to-date resources to 8 32% 14 56% 3 12% - support my study E-learning makes it easy for me 12 5 20% 13 52% 6 24% 1 4% - to communicate with others After learning by the E-learning program, I feel that the E- 13 learning gives me more 2 8% 11 44% 7 28% 3 12% 2 8% advantages than learning from teachers After learning by the E-learning program, I like learning from E- 14 2 8% 7 28% 5 20% 6 24% 5 20% learning program more than learning from teachers

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Frequency and Percentage distribution Items 5 4 3 2 1 F % F % F % F % F % After learning by the E-learning program, I prefer to learn other 15 2 8% 4 12% 9 36% 5 20% 5 20% subjects by E-learning program in the future

Table 5.36 illustrates the frequency and percentage distribution of students’ opinions about teaching and learning through the E-learning program. Most of the students (19 of 25) agreed or strongly agreed that the E-learning can encourage them to concentrate on their study, while only two students (8%) disagreed with it. As well, the majority of students (22 of 25) indicated that the E-learning enables them to be independent in learning and control their learning progress, while none of the students disagreed with them. 84% of the students (21 of 25) indicated that they were more responsible for their learning through the E-learning program, as well just 68% of the students (17 of 25) indicated that the E-learning helped them to participate more in their learning, while only one student (4%) disagreed. Moreover, nearly all of the students (23 of 25) indicated by the choice ‘strongly agree’ or ‘agree’ that E-learning can help them to develop their ability in self-directed learning. In terms of internet access, none of the students disagreed that E-learning allowed them to access the program anywhere with internet access but 12% (3 of 25) disagreed that E-learning enabled them to study every time they needed to. Nearly all of the students (23 of 25) indicated by strongly agreed or agreed that it is ease in reviewing previous lessons. The majority of students (22 of 25) agreed or strongly agreed that the E-learning program makes it easy for them to access the information and knowledge from world-wide resources and the learning community. In terms of communication, 72% of the students (18 of 25) indicated that it is easy for them to communicate with the instructors and others.

Half of the students (13 of 25) indicated in item 13 that they strongly agree or agree that the E- learning can provide more advantages than learning from teachers, while 20% of the students (6 of 25) disagreed with this. Regarding the preferences between online and face-to-face course in Items 14 and 15, 36% of the students (10 of 25) strongly agreed or agreed to learning from the E-learning instead of face-to-face learning, while 44% of the students (11 of 25) strongly disagreed or disagreed with it. Moreover, most students neither agreed nor disagreed, than otherwise, that they prefer to learn other subjects by the E-learning program

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in the future, 20% of the students (5 of 25) strongly agreed or agreed, while 40% of the students (10 of 25) strongly disagreed and disagreed with it.

5.3.4 Opinions about the E-learning program for teaching and learning Music Courses88

Students’ opinions about the E-learning program for teaching and learning music courses were measured with the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’, Part four that contains three open-ended questions: 1) students’ opinions about teaching and learning through the online program; and 2) students’ opinions about teaching and learning in three kinds of learning outcomes of music study through the E-learning program. To gather data for a qualitative analysis, the questions are as follows:

1. What do you think about the use of online learning? 2. What do you think about the statement: “the computer can replace the teacher”? 3. Which of the three kinds of learning outcomes in music study (musical knowledge, musical understanding and musical skill) is appropriate to learn through the computer?

The first question: “What do you think about the use of online learning?” aimed to examine the students’ opinions on teaching and learning through the online program. It can be summarised that 25 students in the Experimental group proposed that the use of online learning comes with both advantages and disadvantages in teaching and learning. In terms of the advantages, as indicated from the results of students’ computer literacy skills, students are more familiar rather than unfamiliar with technology. Most of the students (18 of 25) spend much time on the Internet via laptops, iPads and smart phones for several purposes such as learning and searching for information, and chatting with friends. However, seven students (students no. 4, 9, 10, 17, 20, 23 and 25) who are not in the habit of using the internet also believed that the internet can stimulate their learning. Their comments reveal that the Internet can bring not only a learning environment from the huge world-wide knowledge and resources, but also alternative ways of communication. Students mentioned that the Internet can provide several things such as general knowledge, academic papers, e-journal, e-book, news as well as chatting with friends through social networks and instant messaging.

88 The students’ comments were written in Thai, and were translated into English because students were not extremely comfortable to write in English.

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Nearly half of the students (11 of 25) also believed that online learning can facilitate, expand and enhance their understanding and knowledge. Since the online program is conducted using the Internet and World Wide Web, the learning environment has become huge and varied. Students found it an alternative way to search for up-to-date materials for their learning, their assignments, their self-study and other interest topics. The researcher found some comments, for example:

Student no. 15: “I believe that the internet is one of the tools to acquire knowledge”. Student no. 14: “I believe that the use of internet can arouse my learning interest; however, it also requires further study to develop my learning motivation”. Student no. 6: “I believe that I can explore more information and knowledge on the Internet and I feel interested in gaining and searching knowledge in this way”. Student no. 1: “I feel that it is easier and faster to search for information from the Internet than from the library, which sometimes has not enough materials and resources covering the demands of students”.

In addition, two students (students no. 6 and 9) agreed with student no. 1 who mentioned that “the use of internet is interesting for learning not only music but also about other subject”. Moreover, they also believed that online learning is an alternative kind of resource and a teaching tool to make the class more interesting, interactive and memorable. New possibilities enabled by the computer and other technologies offer exciting educational opportunities and a stimulating learning environment. Students mentioned that online learning demonstrates a variety of multimedia formats, which make learning more interesting and attractive. They stated:

Student no. 1: “I feel that learning through the online program is not much different from learning from the textbook. The difference is that online program is more attractive, interesting and lively to motivate me to participate in learning, while the textbooks are more boring”. Student no. 3: “I feel that it is easier for me to learn the materials when they are presented in a mix of presentation formats rather than the presentation of text only”. Student no. 19: “I believe that it would be more attractive, if the program provided online games”.

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From these students’ comments, it can be claimed that the integration of audio and visual components are useful in capturing students’ attention for learning participation. In addition, most of the students (15 of 25) also believed that online learning made them more flexible and independent in their learning. They argued that no one forced them to learn, and they learned when they have motivation to learn. They felt that they have to be more responsible to control themselves and manage their learning schedules and processes because no one forces, guides, reminds and suggests to them. One student (student no. 9) stated that “I like learning from the online program because I feel enthusiastic to learn and search for new information and knowledge”, while other three students (students no. 1, 7 and 14) also mentioned this aspect. Moreover, three students (students no. 3, 15 and 16) felt that the online program helps them to increase their learning discipline and self-directed learning. Furthermore, students also described their varied reasons, for example:

Student no. 3: “I feel more comfortable to learn”. Student no. 10: “I do not need to come to the university which saves my transportation fee”. Student no. 16: “I feel no one controls me to learn so I can learn when I am in the mood to learn”. Student no. 1: "I rarely have an opportunity to learn music through an online learning, so I put lots of effort into this program”.

On the other hand, 25 students believed that one of the biggest disadvantages of the online learning is the lack of human response and interaction, facial expression and emotion. One student (student no. 8) stated that “the computer is a machine, which has no feelings, ethics and sense of touch”, while five students (students no. 4, 5, 12, 21 and 24) also agreed with this aspect. However, they believed that for learning, students and instructors should be able to really interact, talk and feel. This is because when students do not understand, make mistakes or have problems, the computer cannot solve these situations. Moreover, one student (student no. 19) stated that “when I study through the online program, I would like to share my ideas and information with the instructor and friends”, while six students (students no. 4, 5, 8, 12, 18 and 21) also argued this aspect. The researcher found some comments, for example:

Student no. 24: “I prefer to attend the class because I can have better interaction with the instructor and friends”. Student no. 8: “I would like to receive an explanation of emotional expression in music directly from the instructor because there is more body language and facial expression. This is absent through the computer”.

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Student no. 21: “I do not think the online program is a way to learn music. The instructor is the best”. Student no. 4: “I do not have any expectation of improving my music learning and practices with the use of online program”. Student no. 18: “Sometimes when I have questions and problems, I have no one to ask and discuss my issues immediately”.

Another disadvantage that seven students (students no. 8, 11, 13, 17, 20, 21 and 23) mentioned is the limitations of the Internet connection. This technical problem is due to the modems and poor connection. One student (student no. 20) complained that “poor internet connection sometimes made me lose all data. It really bothers me a lot”, while four students (students no. 13, 17 and 19) also mentioned this aspect. Another disadvantage that two students (students no. 19 and 22) mentioned is the effect on eyesight which gives them headaches when they spend a lot of time reading from the computer screen.

The second question: “What do you think about the statement: “the computer can replace the teacher”?” aimed to examine the results of students’ opinions on the replacement of the E- learning program in teaching and learning, as shown in Table 5.37.

Table 5.37 Frequency and percentage distribution of students' opinions about whether or not the computer can replace the instructor Frequency and Percentage distribution Item Yes No n/a F % F % F % Do you think the computer can replace the teacher? 4 16% 10 40% 11 44%

The findings in Table 5.37 indicated that four students (16%) believed that the computer is an effective teaching and learning tool, and can replace the instructor; in contrast, ten students (40%) totally disagreed with this. They stated that although the use of technology can facilitate, motivate and encourage them to learn, they could never replace the role of the instructor in the classroom and even the traditional lecture method. Four students (students no. 1, 6, 9 and 14) believed the online program provides some potential advantages over the traditional teaching method. They stated that it assists them easy to learn and review the previous lesson. Additionally, five students (students no. 2, 7, 15, 24 and 25) mentioned that the computer can only replace the role of the textbook. They argued that the use of

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technology could improve the acquisition of knowledge and enrich the content for teaching and learning making it more interesting and attractive.

However, 44% of the students (11 of 25) did not decide on whether computers could replace lectures; they believed that the replacement should be dependent on the nature and knowledge management of the subject. Most of them mentioned that if the subjects are too complicated to understand and need comments and advice from the instructors, it would be better to directly learn with the instructors. This is because human response and interaction is essential to assist and guide them to learn. However, two students (students no. 4 and 12) mentioned that it would be great to have online learning to be a tutorial to support after the class, with the teacher. It would be beneficial to review the lessons from the online learning provided by the teacher rather than from their lecture notes. In addition, three students (students no. 4, 8 and 21) showed strong disagreement with replacing the teacher position. They strongly believed that music teaching and learning requires the role model of an instructor, as well as human interaction and response, which they regard as most important and essential to assist and guide them to learn. Music instruction could not be conducted through the E-learning program. As well, the instructor could not be replaced by the computer. Students stated:

Student no. 24: “I believe that the best way to learn music is to be taught by the instructor in classroom environment”. Student no. 4: “I believe that the instructor should play the main role in teaching and guiding and help students improve knowledge, understanding and skill, while the online learning is a kind of resource or an additional tool for supporting their learning both in and outside the class”. Student no. 6: “I feel the program is useful and easy to learn and follow but sometimes I would like to attend the class”.

One interesting point found in this study is that two students (students 4 and 8) showed their strongly disagreement with the replacement of E-learning in music programs; however, both of them had the highest and second highest outcomes in the Posttest scores after learning through the CW elearn-music program. Thus, it may be suggested that although students 4 and 8 strongly disagreed in replacing and preferred to learn directly from the instructor, they could still achieve outstandingly in learning the ‘History of music in the Classical period’.

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The last question: “Which of these three kinds of learning outcomes (knowledge, understanding and skill) regarding the History of music is appropriate to learn with the computer?” aimed to examine students’ opinions on teaching and learning musical knowledge, understanding and skill through the online program.

Table 5.38 Frequency and percentage distribution of students' opinions about learning in three kinds of learning outcomes of music study through the E-learning program Frequency and Percentage distribution Item Knowledge Understanding Skill F % F % F % Which of three kinds of learning outcomes of music study is appropriate to learn with 23 92% 15 60% 2 8% the computer?

Table 5.38 illustrates the frequency and percentage distribution of students’ opinions about learning in three kinds of learning outcomes of music study through the E-learning program. After experiencing the CW elearn-music program, nearly all of the students (23 of 25) believed that musical knowledge of learning outcomes of music study is the most appropriate to learn with the computer. Two students (students no. 1 and 14) agreed that the program could encourage and motivate them to learn aspects of the Classical period music history. Additionally, two students (students no. 5 and 21) suggested that they would be more interested if sound clips of text reading could be added for listening rather than just reading. I agree that this was a limitation of the program in its first iteration. Students argued that subjects based on musical knowledge learning outcomes always contain considerable reading notes; therefore, these kinds of subjects need to be conducted with attractive instructional tools with multimedia-based integration to motivate study, increase students’ attention and allow them to easily review the materials when they needed. Students mentioned for example:

Student no. 14: “I feel that the instructor’s presentations on the music classroom are limited to her oral presentation in class. I suppose the history of music learning on the Internet would provide the integration of materials for the historical background. This enriches my understanding of the history of music”. Student no. 3: “I feel that the History of music contains huge content, which is good to accumulate and integrate all materials into a single source”.

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Over 60% of the students (15 of 25) believed that musical understanding in music study is the second most appropriate to learn with the computer. 40% of them (10 of 25) strongly believed that understand the concepts and then being able to apply those concepts into other musical fields such as theory, harmony and analysis is necessary in order to gain a full musical understanding. They argued that these kinds of subjects need more explanation and some guidance from the instructor because they are complicated and difficult to learn and understand by themselves. They believed that learning directly from the instructor could save more time to help to understand the concepts than learning by themselves. In contrast, students argued that because of the flexibility of the E-learning program, they spent their time in reviewing the materials and practicing the exercise as much as they needed in order to get a better understanding. Students mentioned for example:

Student no. 17: “I am not familiar with theoretical techniques for form analysis. I found it is difficult to learn by myself through the online program”. Student no. 7: “It takes me a long time to understand the content. I need the instructor”.

Additionally, nearly all of the students (23 of 25) strongly believed that practical musical skills are the least appropriate to learn with the computer. Even though students enjoyed and felt more comfortable with E-learning they strongly believed that skills of performance are better taught in the traditional teaching manner because they could have much more interaction with the instructor and other participants. They found the absence of body language and facial expression to be a disadvantage of the E-learning program whereas in face-to-face teaching they could receive emotional support directly from the instructors. Moreover, they believed that the traditional teaching method has more interaction, immediate response demonstration and control when they are learning. Two students (students no. 5 and 8) believed that the online program cannot teach all aspects of musical performance as playing piano music requires the instructor’s demonstration, facial, expression and finger movement but the computer cannot provide such demonstration. Students mentioned for example:

Student no. 21: “I believe that a guideline and encouragement from the instructor is the most essential factor to help me in improving piano skills”. Student no. 8: “I have no strong piano background. The computer does not inspire me to learn piano. And, I do not know whether what I perform is either correct or incorrect. I really like to learn from the instructor”. Student no. 18: “Although the E-learning program can help me to learn piano music, the instructor needs to monitor as well”.

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Summary of the Results of Opinions about the E-learning program

The results from the Questionnaire provide a better understanding of how students feel about the use of an E-learning program. The results revealed that overall students were satisfied and enjoyed the CW elearn-music program. From the comments, it may be concluded that although none of the students reported that the use of E-learning was not useful, and they accepted that the use of CW elearn-music program enabled them to facilitate and improve their musical knowledge of Classical music history, musical understanding of Classical music style, and musical skill in playing Classical piano music, they still believed that music teaching and learning, especially instrumental music performance needs the role model of instructors, as well as human interaction and response, which they regard as most essential to guide, and assist, and reinforce them to learn music. Some other factors influencing these results will be discussed at the next section.

5.4 DISCUSSION OF STATISTICAL RESULTS AND ANALYSES

To conclude and discuss the findings of this study, the four research questions that guided this study are discussed below:

Research Question One:

Research question one addressed whether there were significant differences in students’ learning achievement in music study between the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method. The findings established the fact that significant learning did occur as evidenced by students’ achievement in both the Experimental and the Control group for the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ course.

At the beginning of the course, students in both the Experimental and the Control groups were virtually identical in their knowledge, understanding and skill regarding the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ as indicated by no statistically significant difference at the Pretest stage. During the 14 weeks of the experimental period, students in the Experimental group studied independently to structure and manage their own learning. As well, students in the Control group participated in face-to-face instruction and were taught and managed by the instructors. Consequently, both groups made improvements in the Posttest, suggesting that these improvements were due to learning through the instruction in both the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method. As indicated, results of the data (Table 5.2 and Table 5.3)

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demonstrate a highly significant difference between the Pretest and the Posttest scores at the <.0001 level. These findings support similar prior research studies (Bodley, 2000; Jacobsen, 1986; Lin, 2005; McGregor, 2007; Parrish, 1994; Sterling, 2002) in which students used a computer program or internet technology in the music programs. In the current study, results revealed a definite increase in students’ knowledge between the time of the Pretest and the Posttest although the students were unaware that they would complete the same test again. Suggested reasons why students scored better on the Posttest are as follows:

1. Students were under pressure when taking the Pretest: At the beginning of the course, students had no understanding and knowledge of Classical period music history. When they took the Pretest in the first week, they did the test without notice or preparation, which made them more nervous and pressured. 2. The content of the Pretest and the Posttest were exactly the same for each group: Students knew the forms of assessment and felt more familiar with the questions after they did the Pretest. Additionally, the questions were taught and explained during the instruction. If students paid more attention to the instruction; they could find the answers and explanations from the materials. 3. Students followed the instruction very well, and did all the assigned work: The course delivery and content were similar in both classes, including lecture outlines, lecture materials, excerpted audio examples, selected images to support the lectures, exercises as shown in the Appendix 2 and explanations, but employing different teaching methods. Students in the Experimental group regularly signed-in to the program to study and review the materials; as well they submitted the assigned tasks on-time. Students in the Control group attended class every week, made their own lecture notes during the instruction, and also submitted the assigned tasks in- class on-time. 4. Students prepared themselves to review the materials before taking the Posttest: As the Pretest scores were low, which made students afraid that the Pretest scores would be part of their final scores; they paid more attention to study and participation in the class, and regularly reviewed the materials preparing themselves to take the Posttest in order to get a better score.

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Regarding the Posttest for the two teaching methods, the findings show different indicators (Table 5.11). Students in the Experimental group showed slightly better achievement in musical knowledge of Classical period history compared to those of the Control group, indicated by some small differences between the Posttest scores (t = 1.885, df = 43, p = 0.066). As well, students in the Experimental group showed significantly better achievement in musical understanding of Classical music style than those of the Control group as indicated by a statistically significant difference in the Posttest scores at the .005 level (t = 2.961, df = 43, p = 0.005). This finding of higher Posttest scores for the Experimental group remains valid with the exception that both groups improved overall at a similar rate. Moreover, the result comparing the different levels of improvement between the Experimental and the Control groups showed a statistically significant difference at the .05 level (t = 2.201, df = 43, p = 0.033), suggesting that students’ scores in the Experimental group improved more significantly than those of the Control group (Table 5.15). From these findings, there were indications in the Experimental group Posttest scores that there were some advantages in the E-learning approach.

The students’ results in this study are similar to what has been found in previous research studies (Eake, 2009; McGregor, 2007; Lin, 2005) that stated that several features offered by the E-learning program itself are crucial factors that ultimately influence students in the Experimental group who scored higher than those in the Control group. As stated in McGregor’s study (2007),which pointed out that online students may have had better self- directed learning skill which made them seek knowledge and information when they needed to, whereas the face-to-face students may have expected to receive all of information and knowledge from the instructor without their self-regulation and self-inspiration. Therefore, the findings indicated that flexibility and convenience, availability of access and multimedia-based integration were the features mentioned most frequently in several research studies and this study.

As already stated, engaging with the online content allows students the time to study, practice and reflect upon the material and, if needed, the opportunity to immediately assess their mistakes and retry a similar problem before completing an assessment resulting in higher achievement (Hill, 2002; Sharpe & Benfield, 2005; Song, Singleton, Hill & Koh, 2004). This feature provided students with an opportunity to critique information, skills and processes used to meet the learning requirement. The CW elearn-music program gave more

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opportunities for students to discover their own ability in self-directed learning and to review current or past content and materials stored in online repositories and resources over and over again, and to practice the exercises as much as they needed without controlling their usage and without feeling under pressure. Additionally, this feature also provided students an opportunity to capture and apply information from diverse resources to their learning needs. As the CW elearn-music program provided other resources, such as glossary, music fundamentals and useful links to support students, students were directed to access other materials, which are available on the CW elearn-music program. It was easy and convenient for students to search more useful knowledge and information for support when needed. Most students (20 of 25) agreed that E-learning could help increase the opportunity to review course materials and to access other interesting learning resources. In addition the findings from the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ suggested that the characteristic of E- learning design and delivery seem to be one of the reasons why students in the Experimental group could manage their self-directed learning, self-discipline and self-control through the CW elearn-music program. All students agreed that the CW elearn-music program could help them learn the ‘History of music in the Classical period’. The program was user-friendly and easily accessed; moreover, students were able to navigate within the program without difficulty. These findings are supported by Lockett’s study (2010), which indicated that online students reported feeling more self-directed with a less structured environment imposed upon them. Students tended to be more independent and less collaborative while enjoying the flexibility afforded with online learning.

In addition, a review of the literature suggests that the use of multimedia materials contributes to an increase in students’ motivation in using web-based instruction. As well, several researchers believed the use of technology itself can be a motivating factor (Huett, Kalinowski, Moller & Huett, 2008; Scribner, 2007; Keller & Suzuki, 2004) and this belief continues to influence changes and development in online learning (Daymont & Blau, 2008). As well, learners now do not encounter difficulties with technology (Margueratt, 2007). Therefore, another feature that may have influenced the results in this study is the integration of multimedia materials into E-learning. The findings indicated in the results from the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ demonstrate that a variety of multimedia materials and components made the instruction more interesting and attractive, which could motivate and encourage students to study music and also maintain students’ attention. The CW elearn- music program combined lectures and dialogue with visual and audio presentation, video files

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especially for piano playing. These elements have a dramatic impact on the students’ cognitive system providing students with an opportunity to utilise well-rounded learning perceptions including sight, sound and movement to encourage students’ learning styles. This finding is supported by several previous studies. For example, the study by Liske (1999) suggested that students use of technological instruction may be greater when those materials offer content and practice opportunities which exceed in-class instruction. Tinio’s study (2003) also suggested that the computer with internet connectivity can increase learners’ motivation as it combines the media richness and interactivity of other devices with the opportunity to connect with real people and to participate in real world events. McGregor’s study (2007) suggested that the most powerful element that technology has to offer music courses is the easy integration of sight and sound. As well, the study by Mayer (2003) found that the proper interface of instruction can assist in gaining students’ attention and participation.

In terms of practical musical skills, there were indications in the Control group Posttest scores that there were some advantages to this approach. Students in the Experimental group had no better achievement in musical skill in playing Classical piano music than those of the Control group (Table 5.11), as indicated by no statistically significant difference in the Posttest (t = -1.645, df = 43, t = 0.107). The results indicated a statistically significant difference in improvement levels between the Experimental and the Control groups at the .05 level (t = -2.124, df = 43, p = 0.039), suggesting that students’ scores in the Control group improved more significantly than those of the Experimental group (Table 5.15). The particular reason why students’ score in the Control group were better than those in the Experimental group is very likely that students in the Control group received human supervision, interaction and response. In addition to the findings from the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’, students mentioned, for example: student no. 12 said “I need the instructor to check my performance”; and student no. 25 said “It is easy to understand the content but it is difficult to practice piano by myself”.

A similar result was found in the study by Schacter (1999), which investigated the application of new technology using computer, MIDI keyboards and current music software to teach piano. This new application helped students learn in a meaningful way. However, Schacter found that without feeling and language, there can be no accurate communication of knowledge. These findings are also supported by some other researchers (Haston, 2007; Leonhard & House, 1972; Thompson, 2009). Leonhard and House (1972: 284) argued that

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learning skills of performance should begin with an aural concept of an expressive performance of the piece. Students should begin by hearing such a performance, refine the musical intention and musical conception, and apply that to the musical piece. The acquisition of musical skills, it seems, takes enormous technical and practical effort supported by the instructor, which is an important factor (Thompson, 2009: 186). This is also supported by Reninger’s study (2000: 31) which pointed out that technology will be there to assist students and instructors, but the most essential component of the instrumental music will be, as it has always been, the music instructor who guides students in their journey to understand music. Additionally, Haston (2007: 26) also suggested that teacher modelling for student imitation is a useful tool to introduce new musical concepts and performance skills. From this study and the review of literature, it may be summarised that skills of performance should be directly taught by the instructors. Piano performance requires details about technique and expression, with good practice and guidance; therefore, students need immediate control and response.

In summary, the overall results of this study revealed that significant differences based on the two teaching methods (the E-learning and the traditional approach) were noted, with significant achievement found sometimes for face-to-face students and other times for online students. Due to the fact that E-learning integration is rare in music education in Thailand, the researcher did not expect that students who participated in E-learning could improve their level of knowledge, understanding and skill regarding the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ similarly to those who attended the class. It is interesting that the significant outcomes regarding the positive impact of the two teaching methods revealed that although no one directs, instructs and controls, students in the Experimental group showed similar achievements to those in the Control group who were directed, instructed and controlled. Therefore, technology represents a new approach to teaching and learning for Thai music students, and seems to indicate that the E-learning approach appeared to have been at least as successful in teaching and learning music at the higher education level in Thailand as the traditional teaching method.

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Research Question Two:

Research question two addressed whether there were significant differences in students’ attitudes to music studies between the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method. The findings indicated that students in both the Experimental and the Control groups made a significant improvement in attitude to music studies from the start to the end of the experimental period.

As already stated, at the beginning of the course, students in both the Experimental and the Control groups were quite equal in attitudes to music studies, indicated by the lack of statistically significant difference at the Pretest stage (Table 5.22). A similar result appeared in the study by Hinson (2004) that showed a positive attitude change towards Western art music in favour of web-based music appreciation instruction, as well as the study by Bodley (2000) that found the technological instruction could promote enjoyment of the learning experience. Moreover, the study by Ho (2007) which indicated that technology generally has been found to have positive effects on students’ attitudes towards learning, showed a relation between computer usage and a belief in the use of IT for increased motivation towards learning. In addition to the present findings of this research study, both the Experimental and the Control groups changed from a neutral attitude in the Pretest score to a positive attitude in the Posttest scores (Table 5.18). The findings (Table 5.20 and Table 5.21) revealed significant increases in attitude scores, indicated by a highly significant difference between the Pretest and the Posttest scores at the <.0001 level. However, this positive attitude was apparent in learning through the E-learning program and also with the traditional teaching method. Regarding the Posttest scores by the two instruction methods, these findings showed the outcomes of students’ attitudes displayed a high level of similarity between the Experimental and the Control groups of the Posttest scores. This indicated that although the instructor was not present for the delivery of online content, the attitudes of students in the Experimental group changed from neutral to positive without the instructor’s encouragement and inspiration. The attitude of students in the control group also changed; however, they had the encouragement and influence from the instructor. In essence, the findings from the ‘Attitude to music study test’ revealed, for example, students interacted with the instruction, and enjoyed learning the History of music through both the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method. They made their best efforts to complete this instruction, as shown in class participation for the Control group and log-in system records and assigned-take submission date for the Experimental group.

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In my opinion, the reason why students in the Experimental group expressed their positive attitude towards learning through the CW elearn-music program appears to be due to the flexibility and multimedia-based integration which could ultimately contribute to intrinsic motivation in learning. Boekaerts (2010: 92) argued that motivation and emotion are essential to education; students are more motivated to engage in learning when they perceive the environment as favourable for learning. Gage and Berliner (1984) also argued that motivation determines what will and what will not be a reinforcer for students. The researcher agreed with the statement by Johnson (2008: 4) that most Thai students have a general fear of humiliation when they are under pressure with a negative emotion. This leads students’ attention away from the instruction. The researcher found that when students are surrounded by positive emotional, physical and social environments which are mostly likely in a relaxed, pleasant and calm environment, students will be more actively motivated and engaged in learning and more confident to participate in learning activities. Furthermore, students involved in this study received social influence on the internet including 3G and Wi-Fi technology. Most of the students (18 of 25), especially those who owned a wireless laptop mentioned the convenience of having access to wireless technology enabled them to log-in to any free Wi-Fi technology, and any local area network (LAN) within the university. This seemed to increase students’ confidence in using the Internet to learn more extensively, especially when learning for their own reasons. In my point of view, the more learning flexibility with positive emotional physical and social environments that are created, the more learning motivation will contribute and the more progress will be made. Moreover, Johnson (2008: 4) argued that “most Thai students are lacking in creative and critical thinking, with a limited in a sense of participation”. With multimedia-based integration, this E-learning approach provides a fully integrated learning system to support students’ motivation and engagement, and also to gain and maintain their attention. These findings are supported by the previous studies by Ho (2007); Lamb (1992); Naughton (1997); Savage (2007) which found factors such as audio and visual files, animation, and other multimedia materials become the common forms of instructional technology in order to make learning stimulating, engaging and enjoyable. These factors could allow students to explore their music learning experience to increase their learning opportunities, motivation, achievement and attitudes.

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The findings are similar to the study by Ichinose (2011: 188) who found that the characteristics of E-learning, without direct influence and control from the instructor, could have an impact on teaching and learning itself. As indicated in the findings from the Questionnaire, students in the Experimental group showed their belief about the value of the internet. This could be used beneficially in learning music. The most frequent response revealed that they believed the internet provided great sources of global information, knowledge and entertainment which could support their music learning and experience. Therefore, students formed their attitude to music studies itself without the instructor’s encouragement. As already stated, the World Wide Web can be utilised to provide instruction and instructional support. Moreover, it makes learning experiences that are open, flexible, and distributed, possible providing opportunities for engaging, interactive and efficient instruction (Jolliffe, Ritter & Stevens, 2001; Khan, 2005). Similarly, the studies conducted by Chuang (2000), Eake (2009); Issaacson (2000); Lockett (2011); and McGregor (2007) on incorporating technology into learning particularly suggests that the integration of technology and the use of multimedia materials contributes to quickly focusing students’ attention, providing motivation and engagement, as well as offering learning flexibility and convenience.

As stated in Chapter Two: Background of the study, in Thailand, traditionally the role of instructor is a dominant one in the teaching and learning process. It was, therefore, surprising to point out that students in the Experimental group who studied alone through the website without the instructor significantly improved in their attitudes towards the ‘History of music in the Classical period’. Although no one directs and instructs, students in the Experimental group showed a high level and similar attitudes to those who were directed, instructed and controlled. Therefore, this seems to indicate that the E-learning approach could be successful in teaching and learning music in higher music education in Thailand.

Research Question Three:

Research question three addressed which learning outcomes in music study are the most susceptible to an E-learning approach. Traditionally, instructional methods have been described as the procedure of presentation formats to help students achieve their learning objective (Newby, Stepich, Lehman & Russell, 2000: 19). Different forms of multimedia materials integrated into the instruction can influence learning based on the capability of the media and the methods students employ (Bolliger & Supanakorn, 2010). From my point of view, besides instructional methods and materials, student’s learning style preferences also

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have an impact on how students learn and participate in the E-learning program. This is supported by Bolliger and Supanakorn (2010) who stated the term of learning styles that refers to individuals’ characteristics and preferred ways of gathering, organising and thinking about information. For example, visual learners prefer charts, graphs, diagrams and photographs. Aural learners like to explain and discuss with other students and the instructor. Learners with a read and write preference like to learn essays, reports, textbooks and manuals. Some students enjoy a combination of visual, auditory, reading and writing activities.

As already indicated, the findings from the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ revealed that notable factors influencing these results were the nature and varied instructional methods of subject-matter in three different areas of music study: knowledge, understanding and skill. In my opinion, learning music not only requires students to reinforce their abilities in musical learning outcomes, but also for instructors to promote awareness of the expressive values of music; therefore various learning processes, such as explanation and practice of reading, listening, performing, composing and appraising are required. As cited in a review of the literature, previous studies (Jolliffe, Ritter & Stevens, 2001; Tinio, 2003) stated that E- learning has the potential to combine lectures and dialogue with visual and audio presentations, animation and other multimedia effects. This can provide students with a better learning environment for facilitating exploration of the materials of music. Additionally, the findings agreed with the studies by Johnson and Aragon (2003); Petride (2002); Song, Singleton, Hill & Koh (2004); Vonderwell (2003); and Woods (2002) who summarised what students’ perceived as the strengths and weaknesses of online learning. The researcher found that students in the Experimental group in this study present the strengths and weaknesses of online learning to judge and respond to this question.

Students agreed that two of the strengths of the CW elearn-music program were the integration of multimedia materials and flexible learning delivery. These are the primary reasons that the majority of students involved in this study found that topics based on musical knowledge are the most successful for an E-learning approach. Generally, musical knowledge can be described as music activities that imply the ability to interpret knowledge of terminology, facts, belief and trends (Colwell & Wing, 2004; Hanley & Montgomery, 2005; Leonard & House, 1972); therefore, this kind of instruction essentially contains a large amount of reading content. In addition, this learning outcome requires little student activity with no immediate response and feedback; therefore, students can be enabled to learn alone through

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the CW elearn-music program. The reason mentioned most frequently in the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ is to get rid of the volume of paper and reading notes. Moreover, students involved in this study believed that technology can make the instruction attractive to main attention. As well, technology can make it easier for them to review course content and materials, and access other interesting learning resources in support of their cooperative study. The strength of E-learning is to integrate both visual and audio files and other multimedia materials into the instruction (Mayer, 2010: 184), which can afford direct action and manipulation of graphic objects that represent musical entities. Newby, Stepich, Lehman and Russell (2000: 100) also argued that colour, sound and motion can increase students’ interest and motivation to learn. This makes learning fundamentally different relying on paper- based materials, where the primary action of reading can be enhanced through an electronic presentation and made more enjoyable. As cited in a review of the literature, previous studies (Aragon, Johnson & Shaik, 2002; Bolliger & supanakorn, 2010; Jolliffe, Ritter & Stevens, 2001; Tinio, 2003) suggested that all learning content and multimedia files and materials can be integrated into a single delivery system across multiple locations. E-learning has the potential to manage the growth in the amount of information that students need to learn. The present findings revealed that students believed the presentation of the learning content and materials in the E-learning program was more attractive learning compared to those in textbook and paper-based presentation.

Generally, musical understanding can be described as music activity that implies the ability to accompany the understanding of conceptual knowledge in order to be able to apply, analyse and generalise in musical analytical practices. Similarly, musical skill can be described as music activity that implies the ability accompanied by the skills of fundamental knowledge in order to solve technical aspects associated with musical performance (Colwell & Wing, 2004; Hanley & Montgomery, 2005; Hanna, 2010; Leonard & House, 1972). Therefore, these two instructional formats require immediate feedback on actions, corrections and solutions. Generally, learning subjects based on musical understanding and musical skill involved the need to accumulate information and knowledge from the content, followed by being able to apply and perform that information and knowledge through musical performance; therefore, students needed more explanation and guidance from the instructor. In addition to the findings from the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’, students mentioned for example: “the computer is just a machine without feeling, talking, touching and responding, this machine could not give me suggestions when I made errors” (student no. 8); “I had to do everything by myself; so how

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I can know I did it correctly” (student no. 4); and “Learning from the instructor could save time by helping with understanding the concepts rather than learning by themselves” (student no. 7).

Nearly all of the students (23 of 25) in this study strongly believed that the skills of performance are better taught through the traditional approach. This agreed with the suggestions by Haston (2007); Leonhard and House (1972); and Thompson (2009). It can be claimed; therefore, that subjects based on musical skill are the least successful for an E- learning approach, indicated in this research study.

Research Question Four:

Research question four addressed whether or not the computer can effectively replace the instructor in a music learning program. The CW elearn-music program was developed as self- learning instruction, with an emphasis on how students participate and learn the program. The instructor provided space for students’ participation, exploration and interaction. This is different from the usual traditional teaching method, especially in higher music education in Thailand.

At the beginning of the course, students understood the overview of the teaching program and the nature of online learning; as well they understood exactly what they were expected to do. As technology is a part of the Thai society, there is no denying that most Thai students today do not know a world without computers and digital devices. This can be seen from the findings from the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ that indicated that students in the Experimental group reported greater confidence in accomplishing computer-related tasks, with some of the students (4 of 25) more likely to enrol in an online program than in the traditional teaching courses. These findings may be claimed that these students preferred to be more self-directed and have a less structured environment imposed upon them. These students tended to be more independent and less collaborative while enjoying the flexibility afforded with the E-learning program. As cited in a review of the literature, a number of previous research studies (Davis, Bagozzi & Warshaw, 1992; Ho, 2007; Igbaria, Schiffman & Wieckowski, 1994; Jolliffe, Ritter & Stevens, 2001; Lee, Cheung & Chen, 2005; Teo, Lim & Lai, 1999; Tinio, 2003; Venkatesh, 1999) suggested the features of E-learning program could contribute to increase students’ learning opportunity, self- motivation, self-regulation and self- discipline to learn the instruction. However, the features of the CW elearn-music program

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include the integration of technology itself, the use of supportive resources and the incorporation of multimedia materials into the instruction, allowing students to make critical judgements and decisions as to whether or not the computer can replace the instructor. In addition, another factor influencing students’ results is the traditional Thai teaching and learning style because they get used to instruction in this format.

The strengths of online learning in terms of freedom and flexibility can be advantageous to students who know how to self-pace and self-control their learning and are more self- motivated and engaged to learn without supervision and human response and interaction. When used effectively, technology can accelerate students’ learning by increasing the amount of input and practice, and by expanding learning resources beyond prescribed materials, promoting autonomous learning. The present findings revealed that Thai students strongly believe music teaching and learning requires the role model of instructor, as well as human supervision and response, which they regard as most important and essential to assist and guide them to learn. Although they accepted learning through the CW elearn-music program, they could not definitely accept the replacement. Additionally, nearly half of the students (11 of 25) did not decide on whether computers could replace the instructors. They believed that the replacement should be dependent on the nature and knowledge management of the subject-matter. Students’ learning can be influenced through the E-learning program, depending on their perceptions about their learning experiences and prior experience, and the levels of satisfaction with the overall E-learning experience. In my opinion, due to the fact that students are used to the traditional teaching method, it may depend on whether or not they have an interest in the topic. If they are interested, they will be motivated and would keep studying either the E-learning program or through traditional instruction, otherwise they will not.

In summary, the CW elearn-music program not only can be a significantly supplement for traditional music learning, but also can provide an effective self-learning tool for music study in Thailand. Through E-learning, the instructors change their central role from delivering the content in the classroom, to being a support role where they engages with the material alongside the students and becomes in effect, a student herself. Students have become leaders encouraged by the instructor. None of the previous studies reported that the use of an E-learning program was not helpful. They accepted that E-learning programs enabled their students to explore musical learning and experiences. Moreover, the findings of this study

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demonstrate that the CW elearn-music program can be at least as effective as the conventional music classroom. It cannot replace the importance of the instructor completely. Students still strongly believe in the role model of instructors for real demonstration of interaction and expression, which they regarded as the most important factor to help reinforce them to learn music. However, at present the Thai students in this study strongly feel that E- learning should not entirely replace the classroom setting. E-learning can legitimately be used to support and extend traditional approaches to music education in Thailand is confirmed an acknowledged as a result of this study.

From the statistical results and analyses above, it can be concluded 1) most students in both the Experimental and the Control groups significantly increased their achievement and attitude after they had completed the instruction; therefore, the first and second hypotheses, which are indicated that “there are significant differences in students’ learning achievements and attitudes before and after learning with the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method”, could not be rejected; 2) there were no statistically significant differences in students’ overall achievements and students demonstrated level of improvement and students’ attitudes between the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method; therefore, the third hypothesis, which is indicated that “There are significant differences in students’ achievements, students’ demonstrated level of improvement and students’ attitudes between the E-learning program and the traditional teaching method” was rejected; and 3) although the E-learning approach appeared to be at least as effective as the traditional approach, the computer could not replace the instructor in teaching and learning music programs in higher music education; therefore, the last hypothesis, that “the E-learning program is an effective tool and may be able to replace the instructor in teaching and learning for the three kinds of learning outcomes of music study” was rejected. In the following chapter, the conclusion and implementation of this research will be drawn. A recommendation and a further E-learning program will be proposed.

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CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS

6.1 CONCLUSIONS

This study presented an examination of the delivery of an E-learning music program in higher music education in Thailand. Through the findings of this study, it can be claimed that the E- learning program was at least as effective as the traditional teaching approach. Results of the data demonstrated that learning outcomes of students using the E-learning program (the Experimental group) were similar to the learning outcomes of students who participated in classroom instruction (the Control group). Analysis of the data suggested that E-learning students gained knowledge of Classical period history, understanding of Classical music style and skill in playing Classical piano music comparable to the traditional teaching method. It was interesting to note that the findings clearly implied that students in the Experimental group regard online learning as potentially equivalent to the classroom experience, and as capable of delivering equally effective instruction, meaningful dialogue and verbal exchange.

For the Experimental group in this study, the researcher provided directed input to the students about the purposes of the CW elearn-music program and the purposes of specific tasks, as well opportunities for student-centred pedagogical practices where students worked flexibly and independently. Essentially, the researcher just played an authoritative role in developing and integrating teaching programs, providing learning content and materials in the CW elearn-music program, and support only when requested. As well, students took on more active learning roles in this E-learning program than those in the traditional teaching method.

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Therefore, with the nature of the traditional Thai learning style, the E-learning program was new and challenging for the Thai music students. They faced considerable challenges, and were aware that this E-learning program offered pedagogy radically different from that of their usual music classrooms. It was difficult for them at the beginning to accept this E-learning due to lack of confidence and experience in self-directed learning, self-discipline and self-regulation in music learning. Consequently, their opinions about the use of the E-learning program changed during the course of their studies. Students were generally interested in E-learning and were enthusiastic about its potential to assist them to learn Classical period history, Classical music style and Classical piano music. However, the key findings of this study may be summarised below:

As traditional Thai students’ learning style is based on a teacher-centred approach,

1) Students in both groups (the E-learning and the traditional approach) showed a similar level of achievement after learning different instructional methods. 2) Students demonstrated a significant gain in knowledge and understanding musical improvements through the use of CW elearn-music program as compared to the traditional approach. In contrast, students studying through the traditional approach demonstrated more significant gains in skill improvement as compared to the E- learning approach. 3) Students in both groups (the E-learning and the traditional approach) showed a similar level of attitudes toward music studies after learning different instructional methods. 4) Students expressed a positive attitude and satisfaction using the CW elearn-music program although this E-learning program required more maturity, self-motivation, self-discipline and self-directed learning as compared to the traditional approach. 5) Although the CW elearn-music program cannot completely replace the instructor; especially for some aspects of music study such as instrumental music performance that needs to be taught directly by the instructor, most of the students were attracted to this E-learning program at first, and could fulfil to their learning potential through the E-learning approach. Consequently, they had significantly developed their musical knowledge, musical understanding and musical skill in playing Classical piano music.

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As indicated in the findings of this study, it has been shown that:

1) There is no denying that Thai music students today do not know a world without computer, iPod, MP3 files and players, Compact discs, the Internet and YouTube that have already brought music to the social and geographic locations of their users and reshaped their music experience and learning. 2) Students enjoyed studying alone through the use of CW elearn-music program. They paid attention to the guided instruction, and were involved in doing assigned-tasks within a given time. This revealed that students gave their best efforts to deal with the use of E-learning program. They became more confident and more able to work independently without an instructor’s control, and showed their ability in time management strategies.

3) Students completed learning materials and exercises at times which were convenient to their schedules and flexibility of not travelling to campus for the class. A few students who had no personal laptops or digital devices specified that it was sometimes difficult for them to find a place to study; therefore they did not appreciate the use of CW elearn-music program. They believed the internet can stimulate their learning, but they preferred to attend the class. 4) Students developed the essential technological skills of using search engines to locate information on the World Wide Web, which assisted them to find up-to-date information rapidly and conveniently. Therefore, it may be argued that the time currently spent finding information from textbooks in the library could be reduced, as well as an insufficiency of textbooks available in the library could be solved. 5) Students became more familiar with the primary forms of online communication. They liked communicating through their personal Email and social networking, especially Facebook because they felt that it facilitated more rapid, convenient and inexpensive communication. However, personal Email was used for confidential items.

In addition, the findings revealed students’ strong belief in the importance of the internet, and their willingness to embrace it. Students expressed a favourable attitude towards this new learning experience. They indicated that the internet provided a great source of global knowledge, up-to-date information, entertainment and rapid online communication. The results of this study revealed that the CW elearn-music program brought about educational learning achievement and attitude towards music studies comparable to that of the traditional

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teaching method. It can, therefore, be claimed that the effectiveness of the use of E-learning program without an instructor for Thai music students was proven in this study.

In presenting outcomes from this study, I argue that the CW elearn-music program has given an indication, offering powerful possibilities for supporting Thai students in their music teaching and learning experience and online experience. This study has demonstrated the overall potential of an E-learning approach in music education in higher education in Thailand, as follows:

1) E-learning has the potential to change music teaching and learning from the traditional Thai music classroom to the flexible classroom which provides unlimited access and retrieval of electronic learning content and materials in different environments and at different times. This can lead educational institutions and instructors to reach new students at a distance, increase convenience and expand educational opportunities across Thailand. 2) E-learning can change Thai instructors’ and students’ roles. Instructors have changed their role from controlling to supporting the instruction while students have become leaders encouraged by the instructor. Students may learn much better according to their learning capability and retain the learning much longer when permitted to learn at their own pace in their own place. E-learning has given more opportunities for students to discover their own ability in self-directed learning, which has rarely occurred in the traditional approach. 3) E-learning can help Thai students to support their active process of learning during the instruction without overloading student capacity. Students may be able to manage their resources and deal with obstacles such as technological problems, schedule and time, which has never occurred in the traditional approach. 4) E-learning can help Thai instructors and Thai students to accumulate musical materials in an integrated way including music notation, DVD, audio and visual files, images and song-writer software application for the curriculum elements, which make them more interesting, attractive and memorable. This has enabled inclusion of all learning materials at a central location, which is much easier and immediate than making paper-based lecture notes. Moreover, it can reduce environmental impacts through less paper usage in preparation of teaching materials and resources.

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5) E-learning can encourage Thai students to openly and freely ask questions that they may not be able to ask in the conventional classroom, to present their personal opinions without inhibition, and to share different ideas and perspectives with each other more easily through online forums and to gain an understanding from the other students’ ideas and opinions, which rarely occurred in the traditional approach. 6) E-learning has the potential to eliminate the barriers of human resources and distance due to unlimited use of materials and resources, time and location flexibility; therefore, it can solve the problem of limited availability of Thai music instructors, and serve as lifelong learning and distance learning, providing the music instruction across the country.

This study presents a number of challenges for higher music education in Thailand. As indicated, the E-learning program provides a valuable opportunity to increase the availability of music programs in higher education. I argued, therefore, that internet and online learning have become important factors to the Thai people in terms of education, economy and rapid communication because of modern technological development. Thai people need to develop themselves and follow modern technology as in other countries. Therefore, the contribution of this study is to demonstrate the possibility of the use of internet and E-learning approach for music programs, as well as to provide a sample of an E-learning model for future Thai higher music education. The growth of online learning will most likely continue, and it will come with the challenge to encourage numbers of Thai music students to more and various musical fields in higher education. An important implication of this study is that in order for this potential to be realized, the use of the internet needs to be more than a technological device which is tacked on to the traditional Thai music classroom.

Although this study showed that this E-learning approach appeared to have been at least as successful in teaching and learning music programs as the traditional approach, some limitations and difficulties did occur during the instruction, for example:

1. Students complained that they disliked reading large volumes of text on screen, which sometimes made them less engaged during the instruction. 2. Students revealed that they were discouraged from using useful links because of the English language barrier. Therefore, students were reluctant to use English because of difficulties with reading comprehension.

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3. Students expressed their opinion that although they liked participating in the E- learning program, the presence of an instructor should be included sometimes. They felt a lack of immediacy in responses in this E-learning program. They indicated that the use of E-learning should be an add-on tool, rather than as an integral part of the course. 4. Students expressed that although the CW elearn-music program contains Web-board for communication, it was not utilised very much during the course of the program. Students were not confident to post their opinions in public. Personal Email was the best solution for discussing confidential matters with the researcher. 5. Students revealed that the speed of the internet connection was sometimes very slow.

6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Generally, instructional technologies can cater to a student-centred learning approach that exists and is encouraged in many educational settings today. Most higher education institutions and instructors agree that learning needs to be focused on the learners, and they strive to develop flexible lessons that will be student-centred rather than perpetuating the traditional teacher-centred model.

However, one of the most difficult elements to reinforce E-learning integration into education in Thailand is the human resource, which means only people with skills in information technology (IT) have the capacity and technological ability to develop E-learning for their instruction, while people without such knowledge are at a disadvantage. As discussed in Chapter two, most music instructors in Thailand have expressed a negative view about technology, primarily because they lack understanding of the use of technology, and even E- learning techniques. The instructors strongly support face-to-face interaction as best practice, without considering other technological instruction to assist in their classes. They strongly believed that the traditional lecture methods are better than integrating technology into their class, and they also rarely attempted to adopt new teaching and learning methods and environments (Nitungkorn 2001; Pumipuntu, 2006). To address this issue, human resources must be developed by requiring training or even re-education to explore and broaden understanding of the concept of these new teaching and learning styles, and to realize the E- learning effectiveness for teaching and learning environments, especially as new generations become surrounded by the emergence of powerful Internet technology. Sieber (2005: 155)

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stated that two distinct skills are needed to make effective use of technology in teaching: 1) technical competence with a range of applications (word processing, presentation, spreadsheet, database, Internet and specialist applications); and 2) an understanding of the pedagogy and learning and teaching issues surrounding the use of technology. Moreover, instructors need to understand how appropriate use of ICT may enhance their teaching and how to develop electronic materials that promote effective online learning. They also need to understand the concepts of E-learning as interactive learning which provides opportunities for innovative, creative and potentially liberating educational encounters (for instructors and learners), that can be used to supplement or replace more traditional learning opportunities such as lectures and seminars. Other features should be refocused, for example the curriculum design needs to be revised and developed in order to fit with the use of E-learning. Programs should be well-designed, well-structured and user-friendly to allow a clear sequence, and for the instruction to be manipulated. Moreover, programs should be well-planned, designed as long-term learning which can continuously be developed for further areas of study. In addition, a well-planned purchasing program would be beneficial for both instructors and learners in order to provide more effective and creative teaching and learning environments. IT workstation including computer, wireless technology and workspace should be well-equipped and well-organized to establish quality online learning environments.

On the other hand, teaching and learning through E-learning can decrease face-to-face human relationships posing the threat of isolation. However, the incorporation of multimedia materials and other selected components enables one to solve this threat, through such techniques such as video-conferencing and video-calls which provide ‘just-in-time’ knowledge acquisition and interaction. With the development of an understanding of the use of E-learning integration, instructors will find proper and effective ways to integrate E-learning components into their instruction, instead of being forced to accept it, in order to: 1) develop and refine instructional materials and techniques that help promote learning and expand learners’ understanding and experience; 2) reinforce the idea of music education to be lifelong and available for remote education; and 3) follow the Thai educational reforms in advocating this new concept for education.

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Therefore, integrating technology into the music curriculum is a new field that needs continued exploration. The issues of E-learning in music teaching and learning should be further studied; moreover, more research needs to be conducted and more attention paid to the contribution of music technology to the development of digital content in Thailand.

6.3 SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE CW ELEARN-MUSIC PROGRAMS

It is planned that the limitations of the CW elearn-music program explained above will be addressed in future iterations of the program in order to resolve issues in relation to students’ attention and participation, and to provide support and interaction between instructors and learners.

In terms of the issue of attention and participation, the study by Lyons, Fords and Arthur-Kelly (2011) stated that procedures for gaining students’ attention and participation are probably the most important instructional focus. In addition, curriculum materials can encourage students to interact and respond to the instruction (Brooks, 1997: 20). As E-learning is an attractive delivery system for lectures and multimedia presentation, the researcher believes that replacing text with pictures and other multimedia materials will increase student attention more than written texts. Therefore, the researcher is likely to replace some text materials with the combined use of various multimedia materials, such as text with speech tracks, audio and visual presentations, movies and animations for well-rounded learning in the next iteration. Integrating more interactive learning, exercises and activities, such as listening guides, game applications and simulations encourages students to greater levels of participation. The researcher also believes that game applications and simulations might work well in music teaching and learning because most Thai students love games and engage well with them. The researcher is interested in constructing games, such as a matching, a puzzle, a crossword puzzle, a Sudoku or a bingo card for musical terms, symbols and terminologies integrated into the CW elearn-music program to provide a more motivating experience than traditionally assigned-tasks and to assess students’ musical learning in an entertaining manner.

In terms of the issue of human interaction, as the computer is a machine without emotion and ethics, it is difficult to get rid of the issue of the lack of human interaction. However, the Internet has become a mechanism to facilitate the transfer of many types of information from one computer to another, and is becoming one of the primary means of communication

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(Webb, Jones, Barker & Schaik, 2004: 94). Therefore, the researcher is interested to help address this issue by incorporating interaction and communication tools, in particular synchronous communication. Chat rooms, audio-conferencing and video-conferencing will be integrated, to be connected at the same time for consultation, into the CW elearn-music program in order to provide support for instructor-student interactions. The researcher will, for example, invite students to log-into the system at a specific time to access the synchronous communication tools.

In addition, the comments and opinions given by students will be incorporated into future revisions, including for other music courses such as music composition, orchestration and conducting which will be developed and integrated into future CW elearn-music programs. The program will be developed further for long-term and continuing study to help with the reinforcement and improvement of high quality standards of music education in Thailand as well as to nurture innovation in teaching and learning in the classroom and produce an appropriate environment to meet the challenges of the 21st century.

244

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Williams, DB & Webster, PR 2008, Experiencing Music Technology, Cangage Learning, Canada.

Wilson, MLP 1981, ‘The Development of Computer-assisted Instruction for Teaching Music Fundamentals to Undergraduate Elementary Education Music Methods Classes’, PhD thesis, Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College.

Wise, S 2008, ‘Using ICT in the Music Room: Possible Implications for Secondary Music Teacher Training’, paper presented at the 30th Annual Conference: Innovation and Tradition, Music Education Research, Melbourne, 3rd – 5th October.

Wise, S, Greenwood, J & Davis, N 2011, ‘Teachers’ Use of Digital Technology in Secondary Music Education: Illustrations of Changing Classrooms’, British Journal of Music Education, vol. 28, no. 2, pp. 117-134.

Woods, RH 2002, ‘How Much Communication is enough in Online Course? Exploring the Relationship between Frequency of Instructor-Initiated Personal Email and Learners’ Perceptions of the Participation in Online Learning’, International Journal of Instructional Media, vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 377-394.

Wright, MR 2007, ‘Texas Community College Music Appreciation Course, Online and Traditional’, PhD thesis, Texas A&M University – Commerce.

Yelland, N 2001, Teaching and Learning with Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) for Numeracy in the Early Childhood and Primary Years of Schooling, Department of Education, Training and Youth Affairs, Australia.

Zhang, D, Zhao, JL, Zhou, L & Nunamaker, JF 2004, Can E-learning Replace Classroom Learning?, Communications of the ACM, vol. 47, issue. 5, pp. 77-79.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: COURSE OUTLINE

THE ‘HISTORY OF MUSIC IN THE CLASSICAL PERIOD’89

Course description:

This course is designed to allow students experience the chronicle of Classical period with respect to important movements that influence the patronage and function of music, characteristics of music, music devices, forms and genres and major composers. This part of the course focuses on musical knowledge of Classical period history. The course also provides the study of the concepts and interpretations of music components, symbols, structures and languages, as well as the technique of musical analysis. This part of the course focuses on musical understanding of Classical music style. In addition, the course provides an introduction to Classical piano music, particularly by Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven. This part of the course focuses on musical skill in playing Classical piano music.

Objectives:

 To develop an understanding of historical background and the function of music  To develop an understanding of major composers including Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven and their musical styles and works  To develop an understanding of characteristics of Classical style, musical forms and genres  To develop an understanding of the concepts and interpretations of music components, symbols, structure and language, as well as musical analysis  To develop an understanding of the piano techniques and skills through short Classical period compositions

Learning content:

Section 1: the Classical period history

 Topic 1: Historical background  Topic 2: Function of music  Topic 3: major composers (Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven)

89 The course outline was conducted in Thai, and was translated into English.

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Section 2: the Classical music style

 Topic 4: characteristics of Classical music style  Topic 5: Classical music forms  Topic 6: Classical music genres  Topic 7: forms and analysis of Classical music

Section 3: the Classical piano music

 Topic 8: Introduction to Classical piano music  Topic 9: Classical piano techniques  Topic 10: Studying and playing Classical piano music of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven

Learning schedule:

Sessions Topics Assigned tasks Examinations Week 1 Introduction to the Class Pre-test:  Achievement test (section 1-3)  Attitude test Week 2 Section 1: the Classical period history Exercise 1 Lesson 1: Historical background (social and cultural context, political patterns and economic system) and Function of music Week 3 Lesson 2: Major composers o Franz Joseph Haydn (1732 – 1809) o Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 – 1791) o Ludwig van Beethoven (1770 – 1827) Week 4 Lesson 2 (continued): Major composers Exercise 2 Post-test: o Franz Joseph Haydn (1732 – 1809)  Achievement test o Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756 – (section 1) 1791)

o Ludwig van Beethoven (1770 – 1827) Week 5 Section 2: the Classical music style Exercise 3 Lesson 3: Characteristics of Classical music style o Melody and Harmony o Time o Dynamic marks and articulation o Texture o Instrumentation

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Sessions Topics Assigned tasks Examinations Week 6 Lesson 4: Classical music forms Exercise 4 o Sonata-allegro form o Theme and variations o Minuet and trio o Rondo form Week 7 Lesson 5: Classical music genres o Opera o Sonata o String quarter Week 8 Lesson 5 (continued): Classical music Exercise 5 genres o Concerto o Symphony Week 9 Lesson 6: Form and analysis of Classical Exercise 6 Post-test: music  Achievement test o Formal structure (section 2) o Melodic structure o Harmonic structure o Rhythmic structure o Characteristics of sound Week 10 Section 3: the Classical piano music Exercise 7 Lesson 7: Introduction to Classical piano music o Music fundamentals for piano o Body posture o Hand and position and Finger action Week 11 Lesson 8: Classical piano techniques Exercise 8 o Legato and staccato o Fingering o Left hand techniques (accompaniment) o Right hand techniques o Pedaling Week 12 Lesson 9: Studying and playing Classical piano music of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven Week 13 Lesson 9 (Continued): Studying and playing Exercise 9 Post-test: Classical piano music of Haydn, Mozart and  Attitude test Beethoven  Questionnaire Week 14 Conclusion Post-test:  Achievement test (section 3)

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Student Learning Outcomes:

Upon completion of this course, students should be able to:

1. Describe the chronicle of Classical period in terms of historical background, function of music, music characteristics and styles, music forms and genres. 2. Discuss the work of major Classical composers, in particular Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven in terms of their life and work. 3. Understand the concepts and interpretations of music and be able to apply them to music theory and analysis, and examine the way a musical work is integrated together. 4. Understand the concepts of Classical piano music, in terms of basic knowledge and techniques, and be able to read and perform selected Classical compositions.

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APPENDIX 2: EXERCISES

The exercises90 for this study provide the questions to evaluate students’ understanding and comprehension of the materials studied in each of the nine lessons of the program. They are presented in the form of short-answer questions, as below:

Exercise 1:

Briefly define/define the following items:

1. Historical background in terms of social and cultural context, political patterns and economic systems which influenced music 2. The Age of Enlightenment 3. The musical capital of Europe 4. The difference between private and public concerts 5. Functions of music, such as served as entertainment or ritual

Exercise 2:

Answer the following questions:

1. Who is considered to be “a pioneer in the development of the symphony and string quartet? 2. Who is considered to be “a pioneer in the transition from the 18th century musical classicism to 19th century romanticism? 3. Briefly define the factors that influenced Mozart’s music 4. Briefly define Haydn’s responsibility for Esterhazy 5. Briefly discuss Beethoven’s work in each of his three periods

Exercise 3:

Briefly define/explain the following items:

1. The difference between the Classical and the Baroque musical tastes and styles: 2. Melody of Classical music style 3. Alberti Bass 4. Harmony of Classical music style 5. The Classical orchestra

90 Exercises were conducted in Thai, and were translated into English.

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Exercise 4:

Answer the following questions:

1. Briefly define the multi-movement cycles for instrumental compositions 2. Which of the Classical forms is called “first-movement form”? Why? 3. Give three examples of musical elements which can be used to develop in the variation process? 4. Briefly define Minuet and Trio 5. Briefly define Rondo form

Exercise 5:

Answer the following questions:

1. How many styles of opera are there in the Classical period? Briefly explain: 2. Which of the musical instruments is the most popular for Classical sonata music? 3. Which of the ensembles is the most common for Classical chamber music? Briefly explain: 4. Briefly explain: ‘Concerto’ 5. Briefly explain: ‘Symphony’

Exercise 6:

Study ‘Piano Sonata K.545 by Mozart’ and answer the following questions:

1. What is the form? Briefly explain the structure of this piece 2. What is the key? 3. Analyse mm. 1 – 3, determining the melodic contour 4. Analyse mm. 78 – 82, determining the chord application and progression and identifying the cadence 5. Is there coda? If so, cite specific locations. What is the key?

Exercise 7:

Answer the following questions:

1. Briefly explain the components of piano scores 2. How many clefs are commonly used in piano scores? Briefly define the difference 3. How many accidents are commonly used in piano scores? Briefly define the difference 4. Briefly explain good body posture when playing the piano 5. Briefly explain hand position and finger action when playing the piano

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Exercise 8:

Briefly define/explain the following items:

1. The difference between legato and staccato techniques 2. Fingering techniques are used in playing scales 3. Common accompaniment pattern in the Classical piano music 4. Two examples of right-hand techniques which are used to make the melody more interesting 5. Three pedals

Exercise 9:

Answer the following questions:

1. Briefly discuss most piano music in the 18th century 2. Which genre is the most popular in Classical piano music? 3. Give an example of Haydn’s techniques to change the texture 4. Briefly discuss Mozart’s theme for his piano music 5. Briefly discuss Beethoven’s early piano works

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APPENDIX 3: POWERPOINT PRESENTATIONS

Appendix 3.1: Example of Powerpoint Presentations for Classical period history91

91 The language contained in PowerPoint Presentations was conducted in Thai because of the English compence of Thai music students

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Appendix 3.2: Example of Powerpoint Presentations for Classical music style

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Appendix 3.3: Example of Powerpoint Presentations for Classical piano music

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APPENDIX 4: DATA COLLECTION TOOLS

Appendix 4.1: The ‘Achievement in music study test’:

The ‘Achievement in music study test’ 92

Section one: Classical music history

The purpose of this section is to measure your level of recall of basic facts and terms about the historical background (social and cultural context, political patterns and economic system), functions of music and major composers. Please select the correct answer for each question:

1. When is the period of Classical era? a. Between 1650 and 1720 b. Between 1700 and 1800 c. Between 1750 and 1820 d. Between 1800 and 1900 2. Which of the following statements does NOT describe the social context of the 18th century? a. Increasing interest in Democracy b. Used reason to improve the quality of life c. Transferred the power from the aristocracy to the middle class d. Promoted and encouraged only by religious authority 3. Which of the following terms defines the cultural movement of intellectuals in the 18th century? a. Scholasticism b. Absolute idealism c. The Enlightenment d. Epicureanism 4. Which of the following emperors is considered to be the most prominent of Enlightened Despotism? a. Frederick the Great of Prussia b. Charles III of Spain c. Catherine the Great, Empress of Austria d. King Louis XVI of French

92 The ‘Achievement in music study test’ was conducted in Thai, was translated into English.

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5. Which of the following statements defines the principles of enlightened despotism? a. Supervised the construction and expansion of cathedrals, churches and hospitals as signs of their wealth and prestige b. The constitutional balance of power shifted from the senate to the emperor c. Expanded overseas trade and settlement d. Educated for literacy 6. Which of the following statements does NOT describe the factors that influenced economic growth? a. Mass production lowered costs and prices b. New machines such as the steam engine and spinning machine were invented c. Industrial and agricultural revolution fostered change in inventions and production d. Transportation revolution fostered change in innovations of trains, cars and aircrafts 7. Which of the following statements does NOT describe the reasons why music became a cultural passion? a. People made more money, making it possible to participate and enjoy creative activities and entertainment b. Entertainment and creative activities was promoted and encouraged by the Emperors c. Music became one of the public entertainment, and the concert halls and opera houses was established d. Courts, city governments and churches continued to sponsor music making 8. Which of the following cities is considered as ‘the musical centre of the Classical style? a. Paris, France b. Vienna, Austria c. Bonn, Germany d. London, England 9. What is the relationship between Haydn and Mozart? a. Neighbours b. Friend c. Teacher-student d. Colleague

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10. Which of the following statements does NOT describe Haydn’s early life? a. Was a freelance musician in Vienna b. Joined as a choirboy at St. Stephen’s Cathedral in Vienna c. Was a violinist for the popular Viennese Street Bands d. Entered the service of the Esterhazy 11. Which of the following statements does NOT describe Haydn’s responsibility to the Esterhazy? a. Composed music and conduct performance b. Kept the musical instruments in good condition c. Trained and supervised musical personnel d. Wrote musical journals for the Esterhazy publisher 12. Haydn is considered to be: a. A pioneer in the development of the symphony and string quartet b. A pioneer in the development of the symphony and concerto c. A pioneer of the development of the symphony and sonata d. A pioneer of the development of the symphony and opera 13. Which of the following statements describes Haydn’s theme? a. Short and repeated phrases built up through various instruments b. Tuneful and singable phrases are built up through primary and seventh chords c. Tension is built up through syncopations and dissonances d. Excitement is built up through ornamentations 14. Which of the following terms describes Haydn’s technique to develop the theme? a. Variation b. Inversion c. Repetition d. Imitation 15. Which of the following statements describes Haydn’s technique? a. Contrast of mood resulted from changes in rhythm b. Contrast of mood resulted from changes in syncopation c. Contrast of mood resulted from primary and seventh chord progressions d. Contrast of mood resulted from changes in ornamentation

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16. Which of the following statements is correct? a. Mozart was born in Salzburg, Austria and died in Frankfurt, Germany b. Mozart was born in Bonn, Germany and died in Vienna, Austria c. Mozart was born in Salzburg, Austria and died in Vienna, Austria d. Mozart was born in Bonn, Germany and died in Frankfurt, Germany 17. Which of the following statements describes Mozart’s life between six and fifteen years old? a. Studied harpsichord at the Royal court in London b. Studied piano with Haydn in Vienna c. Toured throughout Europe d. Was a violinist at the archbishopric of Salzburg 18. What are Mozart’s first music instruments? a. Viola and Harpsichord b. Piano and Flute c. Harpsichord and Flute d. Violin and Harpsichord 19. What is Mozart’s position? a. A freelance musician in Vienna b. A freelance musician in Salzburg c. A violinist for the Archbishop of Vienna d. A conductor at the Esterhazy 20. Which of the following statement does NOT describe the factors that influenced Mozart’s music? a. His first music instruction from Haydn b. His father, Leopard Mozart c. His prodigious musical talent d. His European tours to the important courts and musical centres 21. Which of the following statements describes Mozart’s themes? a. Short and repeated phrases b. Tuneful, catchy and singable phrases c. Stormy and powerful phrases d. Aggressive phrases

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22. Which of the following statements does NOT describe the techniques that Mozart used to develop his tone colour? a. Transitional passage to connect phrases b. Rich variety of instrumental music c. Richness of part-writing d. Reflection and imitation of folk-song music 23. What is the Mozart’s last musical piece? a. The Magic Flute b. Requiem c. Symphony no. 40 (Jupiter) d. Piano Concerto no. 27 in B-flat major 24. Who said “Keep your eyes on him; someday he will give the world something to talk about” to Beethoven? a. Franz Joseph Haydn b. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart c. Johann van Beethoven d. Leopard Mozart 25. Which of the following musical pieces is the first piece that Beethoven did not compose in the Classical style and technique? a. Symphony no. 3 (Eroica) b. Symphony no. 5 c. Symphony no. 6 (Pastoral) d. Symphony no. 9 (Choral) 26. Which of the following statements is correct? a. There is almost always a sense of excitement, urgency and striving in Beethoven’s music that makes it instantly distinguishable from that of Haydn and Mozart b. There is almost always a sense of lyricism with smooth melodic contours in Beethoven’s music that makes it instantly distinguishable from that of Haydn and Mozart c. There is almost always a sense of sadness in Beethoven’s music that makes it instantly distinguishable from that of Haydn and Mozart d. There is almost always a sense of folk style in Beethoven’s music that makes it instantly distinguishable from that of Haydn and Mozart

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27. Which of the following statements describes Beethoven’s themes? a. Short and repeated phrases are built up through various instruments b. Tuneful, catchy and singable phrases are built up through primary and seventh chords c. Tensed phrases are built up through syncopation and dissonance d. Excitement phrases are built up through ornamentation 28. Which of the following characteristics distinguishes the tone colour of Beethoven’s orchestra from Haydn’s orchestra? a. Numbers of instruments b. Emphasis on percussion family, especially bass drum c. Emphasis on brass family, especially trumpet d. Emphasis on woodwind family, especially oboe 29. Which of the following statements describes Beethoven’s early music? a. He occupied between the Baroque and Classical styles and techniques b. He showed influence of Johann van Beethoven’s music c. He showed influence of Haydn’s and Mozart’s music d. He composed in accordance with 19th century Romanticism style and techniques 30. Which of the following composers is described as “his music is singable”? a. Franz Joseph Haydn b. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart c. Ludwig van Beethoven d. Leopold Mozart

Section two: Classical music style

The purpose of this section is to measure your level of understanding the Classical music style, in terms of characteristics of Classical style, Classical music form, Classical music genres and form and analysis of Classical music. Please select the correct answer for each question:

1. Which of the following terms describes the 18th century music style? a. Serialism b. Galant style c. Organum d. Ars Nova

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2. Which of the following statements does NOT describe the characteristics of Classical music style? a. Simple and constant rhythmic patterns b. Emphasis on lyricism with smooth melodic contours c. Complex melodic contours, particularly the elaborate counterpoint d. Dramatic contrasts in dynamics 3. Which of the following statements does NOT describe melody in Classical music style? a. Mostly stepwise, but leaps of all kinds are used freely b. Singable phrases with powerful climaxes create aggressive melodies c. Short and balanced phrases built from repeated motives, with obvious cadences d. Ornaments become a part of melody 4. Which of the following statements describes rhythmic variety in the Classical music style? a. The beat may be weakened by syncopations or off-beat accents b. Intrigued by unusual folk-song rhythms with highly irregular meters c. More varied and complex to increase emotional conflict d. Characterised by steady meter and a regular recurring pulse 5. What is dynamic range in the Classical music style? a. Pianissimo – Forte b. Piano – Forte c. Pianissimo – Fortissimo d. Mezzo piano – Mezzo forte 6. What is the predominant texture in Classical music? a. Homophony b. Monophony c. Polyphony d. Free texture 7. Which of the following statements does NOT describe harmony in Classical music style? a. Diatonic harmony with non-chord tones b. Diatonic harmony with seventh and ninth chords c. Diatonic harmony with primary triad and seventh chords d. Diatonic harmony with some chromatic notes and chords

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8. Which of the following statements describes the Classical orchestra? a. There are four instrument families (string, woodwind, brass and percussion), while the heart of the orchestra is the string section b. There are four instrument families (string, woodwind, brass and percussion), while the heart of the orchestra is the woodwind section c. There are four instrument families (string, woodwind, brass and percussion), while the heart of the orchestra is the brass section d. There are four instrument families (string, woodwind, brass and percussion), while the heart of the orchestra is the percussion section 9. Which of the following statements does NOT describe sonata-form? a. Recapitulation section is restated the exact repetition of the exposition section b. All themes in recapitulation section are in the tonic c. Development sections use counterpoint to create a sense of breakup and turmoil d. Sonata-form consists of three sections: exposition, development and recapitulation 10. Which of the following statements describes theme and variations? a. Theme and variations are produced in fixed structure b. The point of variations is to create many contrasting moods with the same theme c. If the theme is played in eight phrases, the variations will be played in sixteen phrases d. The theme itself must be in complex techniques to grasp in order to demonstrate the skill of the composer 11. Which of the following statements does NOT describe the techniques for variations? a. Changes of accompaniment b. Using contrasting rhythmic patterns c. Changes from forte to piano d. Changes in tonal colouring 12. Which of the following statements describes the Minuet and Trio? a. It is used in some slow movements, presents a small binary form b. It is produced in an A – B – A pattern for the movement as a whole c. It is known as the first-movement form d. It is common in the last complex-form movement

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13. Which is the structure of the Minuet and Trio? a. A – B – C b. A – A – B – B c. A – B – A d. A – A – B – B – C – C 14. Which of the following terms defines the Minuet and Trio in the 19th century? a. Minuet and Duo b. Minuet and Quintet c. Scherzo and Trio d. Scherzo and Quintet 15. Which is NOT the structure of the Rondo form? a. A – B – A – B’ – A b. A – B – C – C – B – A c. A – B – A – C – A d. A – B – A – C – A – B – A 16. Which of the following statements does NOT describe the characteristic of the Rondo form? a. It is predicated on the idea of repetition of a theme after a contrasting melodic idea b. Simple to grasp and remember c. It is commonly in the last movement d. It is commonly in the first movement 17. Which of the following statements describes the Classical Opera? a. Opera seria is an Italian comic opera, a powerful voice for social change in the Enlightenment b. The Classical opera including opera seria and opera buffa c. Opera seria is the most popular Classical opera which is composed and performed in several languages d. Opera buffa is a serious drama presented in music, with the characters acting and speaking instead of singing.

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18. Which of the following statements describes Classical sonata music? a. It is played by a single player to serve for rituals b. It is played by three players to serve for entertainment c. It consists of three movements, with the first and last movements marked slow and the middle movement marked fast d. It consists of three movements, with the first and last movements marked fast and the middle movement marked slow 19. What are the favourite musical instruments for Classical Sonata music? a. Piano and Cello b. Violin and harpsichord c. Piano and violin d. Cello and harpsichord 20. Which of the following statements describes Chamber music? a. It is sometimes described as a conversation among the instruments b. It is a work for solo instrument and orchestra c. It is particularly played in concert halls and opera houses d. It can be taken as encompassing compositions for from two to nine players with a conductor. 21. What is the most popular Classical small ensemble? a. Woodwind quartet: flute, oboe, clarinet and bassoon b. String quartet: 2 violins, viola and cello c. String quartet: violin, viola, cello and double bass d. Woodwind quartet: 2 flutes, oboe and bassoon 22. Which of the following terms describes “a showy passage for the soloist appearing near the end of the movement in a concerto”? a. Cadenza b. Cadence c. Ostinato d. Variation 23. Which of the following is found in the Symphony but NOT in the Concerto? a. Sonata-form b. Minuet and Trio c. Theme and Variations d. Rondo form

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24. What features distinguish the characteristics of the Symphony from the Concerto? a. Numbers of movements b. Numbers of instruments c. Difference in tempo in the last movement d. Difference in the structures of the Sonata-form in the first movement 25. Which of the following statements describes the Classical Symphony? a. 3 Movements = Movement 1: Theme and variation in fast rhythm Movement 2: Rondo form in slow rhythm Movement 3: Minuet and trio in slow rhythm b. 3 Movements = Movement 1: Minuet and trio in slow rhythm Movement 2: Rondo form in slow rhythm Movement 3: Theme and variation in fast rhythm c. 4 Movements = Movement 1: Sonata-form in fast rhythm Movement 2: Minuet and trio in slow rhythm Movement 3: Rondo form in slow rhythm Movement 4: Theme and variation in fast rhythm d. 4 Movements = Movement 1: Sonata-form in fast rhythm Movement 2: Theme and variation in slow rhythm Movement 3: Minuet and trio in fast rhythm Movement 4: Rondo form in fast rhythm 26. Please identify each of these chords, showing root, chord type and provide figures to show chord position

Root Chord type Chord position Example (1) F Major Root position 2 3 4 5 6 7

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8 9 10 11

27. Please identify each of these chromatic chords (Secondary dominant chord, augmented 6th and Neapolitan 6th)

Chord type Example (1) V7/VI 2 3 4 5 6

28. Please identify each of non-chord tones (Passing note, neighbouring tone or auxiliary tone, appoggiatura, escape tone, anticipation, suspension and pedal tone)

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Non-chord tones Example (1) Passing note 2 3 4 5 6

29. Please identify each of the chord progression in items 2 – 9 and six-four chords (cadential six-four chord, passing six-four chord, neighbouring six-four chord, pedal six-four chord and arpeggio six-four chord) in items 10 and 11

Chord progression and six-four chord Example (1) I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

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30. Briefly define the following items in your words:

Items Descriptions 1 Recapitulation 2 Motive 3 Sequence 4 Parallel key 5 Conjunction progression

Study the following piece and answer the following questions:

1. What is the key? 2. Briefly define “scherzando” 3. Are there modulations? If so, cite specific locations. What is the key? 4. Analyse mm. 17 -24, determining the melodic contour 5. What is the cadence? 6. What is the form? 7. Briefly explain the structure of this piece 8. Briefly define “poco rall.” 9. Analyse mm. 1 – 8, determining non-chord tones. How many? Which type? 10. Briefly explain the texture of this piece

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Section three: Classical piano music

The purpose of this section is to measure your level of understanding and skills in playing Classical piano music.

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Study the following score and answer the following questions:

1. What is the first left-hand accompaniment? 2. What is the second left-hand accompaniment?

Study the following score and answer the following questions:

3. Briefly define ‘Allegretto’ 4. What is the left-hand accompaniment? 5. Briefly define ‘Stacc. sempre’

Study and practise these following simple pieces:

 Quadrille in C major, HOB. IX:29, Franz Joseph Haydn  Minute K 6 in C Major, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart  Ecossaise in G Major, Ludwig van Beethoven

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Appendix 4.2: The ‘Attitude to music study test’:

The purpose of this ‘Attitude to music study test’93 is to estimate students’ personal feelings for or against that may be positive or negative towards the study of the History of music itself, musical knowledge of Classical period history, musical understanding of Classical music style and musical skill in playing Classical piano music. Please indicate your response to each of the following statements by checking one of the five responses from level one to level five for each statement.

1 – Most unfavourable 2 – Unfavourable 3 – Neutral 4 – Favourable 5 – Unfavourable

Levels of attitudes Items 1 2 3 4 5 The subject (the History of music) 1 I enjoy learning this subject (the History of music) I feel this subject (the History of music) is useful in promoting my 2 musical growth I am lucky that I have an opportunity to enrol this subject (the 3 History of music) I would like to use my knowledge and experience gained from this 4 subject (the History of music) for my future career 5 I feel this subject (the History of music) is useless I like to learn this subject (the History of music) instead of other 6 subjects I wish my friends to have an opportunity to learn this subject (the 7 History of music), like me It would be better if this subject (the History of music) is not one of 8 the core courses 9 I give my best effort to learn this subject (the History of music) 10 The History of music is one of my favourite subjects Knowledge of Classical period history (Section one) Learning the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ makes me 11 appreciate the value of music I am interested in reading books about the ‘History of music in the 12 Classical period’

93 The ‘Attitude to music study test’ was conducted in Thai, and was translated into English.

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Levels of attitudes Items 1 2 3 4 5 The content of the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ is 13 interesting which encourages me for further study Learning the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ inspires me 14 to promote my creativity in music I do not think it is necessary to learn the ‘History of music in the 15 Classical period’ I would like to attend and participate in exhibitions, concerts or 16 events about the ‘History of music in the Classical period’ 17 I feel the Classical music composers are admirable 18 I feel the Classical music composers are creative I like to know about Classical music composers’ biography and 19 work I enjoy searching for knowledge and information about the History 20 of music Understanding of Classical music style (Section two) I am lucky that I have an opportunity to learn and understand 21 Classical music style 22 I feel the characteristics of Classical music style are interesting Learning musical forms and analysis helps me to think 23 systematically 24 I am happy that I understand how to analyse music The content of Classical music style gives me many useful 25 information and knowledge to understand the way how musical component is integrated together I am interested in learning and listening to Classical music genres 26 instead of music genres of other periods 27 I would like to be a music composer 28 I find form and analysis frightening I am interested in learning the way how musical components are 29 integrated together I have never felt myself able to learn and understand Classical 30 music style Skill in playing Classical piano music (Section three) 31 I am interested in learning how to play piano 32 Playing piano is enjoyable 33 I enjoy learning both right-hand and left-hand techniques

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Levels of attitudes Items 1 2 3 4 5 The content of Classical piano music gives me a lot of useful 34 information to understand how to play the piano 35 Playing scales are a great way to help me practice my fingers 36 I find Classical piano techniques interesting and challenging 37 I think the person who can play the piano is smart 38 I am interested in learning music symbols and signs for piano music 39 If I have free time, I like to practice the piano 40 I am so proud that I can play the piano

Appendix 4.3: The ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’:

The purpose of the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’94 is to estimate students’ like or dislike, satisfaction or otherwise and agreement or disagreement about the use of an E- learning program, in terms of structure and content, presentation and design, graphic and multimedia materials, and features of E-learning.

Part one: Computer literacy skills

Please indicate your response to each of the following statements by checking one of the five responses from level one to level five for each statement.

1 – Very poor 2 – Poor 3 – Average 4 – Good 5 – Excellent

Levels of skills Items 1 2 3 4 5 1 Skills in using the computer 2 Skills in using a web browser 3 Skills in searching the world-wide resources Skills in using online communication by social network and instant 4 messaging 5 Skills in sending Electronic mail (Email) 6 Skills in self-directed learning through online program

94 The ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ was conducted in Thai, and was translated into English.

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Part two: Satisfaction with the E-learning program (the CW elearn-music program)

Please indicate your response to each of the following statements by checking one of the five responses from level one to level five for each statement.

1 – Dissatisfied 2 – Poorly satisfied 3 – Satisfied 4 – Fairly well satisfied 5 – Highly satisfied

Levels of Items Satisfactions 1 2 3 4 5 1 The structure of the program is clearly and logically organised 2 The content outlines which are presented were sequential The CW elearn-music program for the Classical period history (Section one) 3 The length of the lessons is appropriate 4 The content is transferable and generalizable The CW elearn-music program for the Classical music style (Section two) 5 The length of the lesson is appropriate 6 The content is transferable and generalizable The CW elearn-music program for the Classical piano music (Section three) 7 The length of the lesson is appropriate 8 The content is transferable and generalizable The content in the resources (Glossary and Music Fundamentals) is 9 appropriate, clear and easy to read 10 The questions for the exercises and test are appropriate and useful 11 Exercises are obvious and easy to answer 12 Tests are obvious and easy to answer 13 The program is clear and user-friendly The interface design which is visually appealing making it easy for 14 me to follow the program 15 The homepage encourages me to reflect on the program 16 The menu button is clear and user-friendly 17 The log-in system is clear and user-friendly 18 It is easy to navigate my way around the program 19 The News and Announcements are clear and appropriate 20 The useful links are easy to understand 21 The Web-board is clear and easy to use

318 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

Levels of Items Satisfactions 1 2 3 4 5 22 The font is clear and appropriate 23 The colour of the text and background is visually appealing The graphics and multimedia materials (photographs, animations, 24 tables, music scores, audios and videos) are clear and visually appealing The graphics and multimedia materials make the program more 25 interesting The graphics and multimedia materials help motivate me to learn 26 the program The CW elearn-music program for the Classical period history (Section one) 27 The amount of tests in this section is appropriate The graphics (photograph and tables) used in this section are 28 relevant to the subject matter The graphics (photograph and tables) used in this section help me 29 with my learning The CW elearn-music program for the Classical music style (Section two) 30 The amount of text in this section is appropriate The graphics (photograph, tables, audios and music scores) used in 31 this section are relevant to the subject matter The graphics (photograph, tables, audios and music scores) used in 32 this section help me with my learning The CW elearn-music program for the Classical piano music (Section three) 33 The amount of text in this section is appropriate The graphics (photograph, tables, music scores and videos) used in 34 this section are relevant to the subject matter The graphics (photograph, tables, music scores and videos) used in 35 this section help me with my learning

319 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

Part three: Opinions about teaching and learning through the E-learning program

Please indicate your response to each of the following statements by checking one of the five responses from level one to level five for each statement.

1 – Strongly disagree 2 – Disagree 3 – Undecided 4 – Agree 5 – Strongly agree

Levels of Opinions Items 1 2 3 4 5 1 E-learning encourages me to concentrate on my study 2 E-learning enables me to be independent in learning 3 E-learning enables me to control my learning progress 4 E-learning helps me greater responsibility in my learning 5 E-learning helps me to participate more in my learning 6 E-learning helps me develop my ability in self-directed learning E-learning enables me to access the program anywhere with 7 internet access 8 E-learning enables me to study every time I need to 9 E-learning makes it easy for me to review the previous lessons E-learning makes it easy for me to access the information and 10 knowledge from the world-wide resources and the learning community E-learning helps me to search for up-to-date resources to support 11 my study 12 E-learning makes it easy for me to communicate with others After learning by the E-learning, I feel that the E-learning gives me 13 more advantages than learning from teachers After learning by the E-learning, I like learning from E-learning 14 program more than learning from teachers After learning by the E-learning, I prefer to learn other subjects by 15 E-learning program in the future

Give any comments as you can:

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Part four: Opinions about the E-learning program for teaching and learning music courses

1. What do you think about the use of online learning? Give any comments as you can:

2. What do you think about the statement: “the computer can replace the teacher”? Please indicate your response to each of the following statement by checking one of the three responses below:

Yes No n/a

Give any comments as you can:

3. Which of the learning outcomes (musical knowledge, musical understanding and musical skill) is appropriate to learn with the computer? Please indicate your response to each of the following statement by checking one of the three responses below:

Knowledge Understanding Skill

Give any comments as you can:

321

APPENDIX 5: STATISTIC FOR EVALUTATION THE DATA COLLECTION TOOLS

Appendix 5.1: Index of Congruency

Index of Congruency (IOC) was used to measure the congruency between items and objectives of the test for the ‘Achievement in music study test’, the ‘Attitude to music study test’ and the ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’ by the experts. It can be explained in statistical terms as shown in Equation 7 (Wangphanich, 1980: 173).

Equation 7 Index of Congruency

Where

= Sum of expert scores

N = Number of experts

Appendix 5.2: Item Difficulty

Item Difficulty was used to measure the value of difficulty of items for the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section one and Section two (multiple-choice). It can be explained in statistical terms as shown in Equation 8 (Hopkins, Stanley and Hopkins, 1990:269).

Equation 8 Item Difficulty

Where

= Proportion in the high group answering a particular item correctly

= Proportion in the low group answering a particular item correctly

322 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

Appendix 5.3: Item-test (Point-Biserial Correlation)

Item-test (Point-Biserial Correlation) was used to measure the discrimination index of items for the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section one and Section two (multiple-choice). It can be explained in statistical terms as shown in Equation 9 (Ferguson, 1981:428).

Equation 9 Item-test (Point-Biserial Correlation)

Where

p = Proportion of individual who pass the item

q = Proportion of individual who fail the item (1 - p)

= Mean scores on the continuous variable of individual who pass the

iterm

= Mean scores on the continuous variable of individual who fail the item

= Standard Deviation of scores on the continuous variable

Appendix 5.4: Kuder & Richardson (formula 20)

Kuder & Richardson (formula 20) was used to measure the reliability of the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section one and Section two (multiple-choice). It can be explained in statistical terms as shown in Equation 10 (Hopkins, Stanley and Hopkins, 1990:133).

Equation 10 Kuder & Richardson (formula 20)

Where

k = Number of items

p = Proportion of students who answer it in a specific direction

q = Proportion of students who answer it in the opposite direction or 1 - q

= Sum of p times q for each item

= Variance of the total scores 323 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

Appendix 5.5: Mean and Standard Deviation

Mean and Standard Deviation was used to measure the value of difficulty and the discrimination index of the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section two (analytical practices) and Section three (Performance demonstrations). They can be explained in statistical terms as shown in Equation 11 (Hopkins, Stanley and Hopkins, 1990:30-37)

Equation 11 Mean and Standard Deviation

Where

= Sum of all scores

N = Number of samples

Appendix 5.6: Test-retest (Pearson Product Moment Correlation)

Test-retest (Pearson Product Moment Correlation) was used to measure the reliability of the ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section two (analytical practices) and Section three (performance demonstrations). It can be explained in statistical terms as shown in Equation 12 (Ebel & Frisbie, 1991: 81).

Equation 12 Test-retest (Pearson Product Moment Correlation)

Where

N = Number of samples

= Sum of the Pretest scores

= Sum of the Posttest scores

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Appendix 5.7: Item-test (t-test for the difference between means for independent sample)

Item-test (t-test for the difference between means for independent sample) was used to measure the discrimination index of items for the ‘Attitude to music study test’. It can be explained in statistical terms as shown in Equation 13 (Ferguson, 1981:182).

Equation 13 Item-test (t-test for the difference between means for independent sample)

Where

= Mean scores of the high group

= Mean scores of the low group

= Variance of scores of the high group

= Variance of scores of the low group

= Number of the high group

= Number of the low group

Appendix 5.8: Cronbach -coefficient

Cronbach  -coefficient was used to measure the reliability of the Attitude in music studies test and the Questionnaire for an E-learning program. It can be explained in statistical terms as shown in Equation 14 (Ebel & Frisbie, 1991: 81).

Equation 14 Cronbach -coefficient

Where

N = Number of items

= Variance of the total scores

= Sum of the variance of item scores

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Appendix 5.9: Results from the Evaluation of Each of the Data Collection Tools

The ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section one

326 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

The ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section two (Multiple-choice)

327 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

The ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section two (analytical practices)

Summary of Test Statistic Number of Students: 15 cases Number of Items: 5 items Total score: 50 marks

Section two (analytical practices) N Pretest ( ) Posttest ( )

1 28.50 812.25 34.00 1156.00 969.00 2 13.00 163.00 42.50 1806.25 552.50 3 12.00 144.00 37.00 1369.00 444.00 4 28.00 784.00 45.00 2025.00 1260.00 5 16.00 256.00 40.00 1600.00 640.00 6 29.00 841.00 42.00 1764.00 1218.00 7 6.00 36.00 35.00 1225.00 210.00 8 27.00 729.00 37.00 1369.00 999.00 9 16.00 256.00 42.50 1806.25 680.00 10 20.00 400.00 48.50 2352.25 970.00 11 17.00 289.00 35.00 1225.00 595.00 12 8.50 72.25 31.00 961.00 263.50 13 13.00 169.00 37.00 1369.00 481.00 14 8.50 72.25 35.50 1260.25 301.75 15 7.50 56.25 35.50 1260.25 266.25  250.00 5074.00 577.50 22548.25 10116.25

Difficulty (mean): 16.66 Discrimination (Std. Deviation): 8.04 Reliability: 0.9191

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The ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section three

Summary of Test Statistic Number of Students: 15 cases Number of Items: 10 items Total score: 120 marks

Section three N Pretest ( ) Posttest ( )

1 54.00 2916.00 96.00 9216.00 5184.00 2 34.50 1190.25 82.00 6724.00 2829.00 3 34.00 1156.00 82.00 6724.00 2788.00 4 78.00 6084.00 106.00 11236.00 8268.00 5 45.50 1070.25 90.00 8100.00 4095.00 6 70.00 4900.00 107.00 11449.00 7490.00 7 29.50 870.25 71.00 5041.00 2094.50 8 75.00 5625.00 106.50 11342.25 7987.50 9 40.50 1640.25 93.00 8649.00 3766.50 10 81.50 6642.25 117.50 13806.25 9576.25 11 35.00 1225.00 98.00 9604.00 3430.00 12 60.50 3660.25 110.50 12210.25 6685.25 13 67.00 4489.00 118.00 13924.00 7906.00 14 43.00 1849.00 102.00 10404.00 4386.00 15 45.50 2070.25 101.00 10201.00 4595.50  793.50 46387.75 1480.50 148630.75 81081.50

Difficulty (mean): 52.833 Discrimination (Std. Deviation): 17.85 Reliability: 0.83

329 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

The ‘Attitude to music study test’

330 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

The ‘Questionnaire for the E-learning program’

331

APPENDIX 6: DATA ANALYSIS RESUTLS

Appendix 6.1: The raw data of achievement in music study

The ‘Achievement in music study test’ (Total Score = 225)

Experimental group Control group (E-learning program) (Traditional teaching method) N = 25 students N = 20 students No. Pretest Posttest No. Pretest Posttest 1 122.00 191.00 1 63.00 183.00 2 42.50 150.50 2 81.00 169.50 3 79.50 165.50 3 61.00 156.00 4 126.50 212.50 4 62.50 185.50 5 42.00 168.50 5 122.50 196.00 6 72.50 156.50 6 59.50 163.00 7 50.50 142.00 7 59.00 162.00 8 126.50 212.00 8 56.00 140.50 9 81.00 164.50 9 101.50 181.00 10 61.00 156.00 10 85.50 172.50 11 108.00 190.00 11 81.00 173.50 12 67.50 178.50 12 73.00 174.50 13 85.00 184.50 13 61.00 174.00 14 86.50 169.50 14 129.50 188.00 15 97.00 194.00 15 65.50 166.00 16 67.50 177.00 16 116.00 199.00 17 64.50 159.50 17 58.50 167.50 18 73.00 181.50 18 64.50 163.00 19 68.00 174.50 19 83.50 175.00 20 67.00 170.00 20 71.00 165.00 21 68.00 158.50 Mean 77.75 Mean 172.725 22 84.00 173.00 SD 22.659 SD 13.723 23 72.00 176.00 CV 29.14% CV 7.94% 24 70.00 164.00 25 55.50 155.00 Mean 77.50 Mean 172.98 SD 23.319 SD 17.551 CV 30.09% CV 10.15%

332 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

Appendix 6.2: The t-test data of achievement in music study

T-TEST PAIRS=POST_E WITH PRE_E (PAIRED) T-TEST for dependent sample for the Experimental group

Paired Samples Statistics Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean POST_E 172.9800 25 17.55140 3.51028 PRE_E 77.5000 25 23.31889 4.66378

Paired Samples Test Paired Differences Std. Error Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean POST_E – PRE_E 95.4800 12.39916 2.47983 38.503 24 .000

T-TEST PAIRS=POST_L WITH PRE_L (PAIRED) T-TEST for dependent sample for the Control group

Paired Samples Statistics Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean POST_L 172.7250 20 13.72328 3.06862 PRE_L 77.7500 20 22.65909 5.06673

Paired Samples Test Paired Differences Std. Error Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean POST_L – PRE_L 94.97500 15.49998 3.46590 27.403 19 .000

T-TEST GROUPS=TREATMENT (1 2) - PRETEST T-TEST for independent sample between the Experimental and the Control groups

Group Statistics TREATMENT N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean PRETEST 1.00E 25 77.5000 23.31889 4.66378 2.00L 20 77.7500 22.65909 5.06673

Independent Samples Test t-test for Equality of Means Mean Std. Error t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference PRETEST Equal variances assumed -.036 43 .971 -.25000 6.90890

333 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

T-TEST GROUPS=TREATMENT (1 2) - POSTTEST T-TEST for independent sample between the Experimental and the Control groups

Group Statistics TREATMENT N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean POSTTEST 1.00E 25 172.9800 17.55140 3.51028 2.00L 20 172.7250 13.72328 3.06862

Independent Samples Test t-test for Equality of Means Mean Std. Error t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference POSTTEST Equal variances assumed .053 43 .958 .25500 4.79203

T-TEST GROUPS=TREATMENT (1 2) – DIFFERENT LEVELS OF IMPROVEMENT T-TEST for independent sample between the Experimental and the Control groups

Group Statistics TREATMENT N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean DIFF 1.00E 25 95.4800 12.39916 2.47983 2.00L 20 94.9750 15.49998 3.46590

Independent Samples Test t-test for Equality of Means Mean Std. Error t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference DIFF Equal variances assumed .121 43 .904 .50500 4.15654

334 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

Appendix 6.3: The raw data of achievement in musical knowledge of Classical period history

The ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section One (Score = 30) Experimental group Control group (E-learning program) (Traditional teaching method) N = 25 students N = 20 students No. Pretest Posttest No. Pretest Posttest 1 14.00 25.00 1 14.00 21.00 2 6.00 24.00 2 15.00 21.00 3 16.00 24.00 3 12.00 19.00 4 13.00 27.00 4 9.00 27.00 5 8.00 27.00 5 10.00 27.00 6 11.00 19.00 6 8.00 19.00 7 9.00 21.00 7 9.00 18.00 8 15.00 28.00 8 13.00 23.00 9 10.00 21.00 9 11.00 23.00 10 8.00 19.00 10 10.00 18.00 11 11.00 23.00 11 6.00 17.00 12 10.00 21.00 12 14.00 25.00 13 9.00 26.00 13 12.00 21.00 14 17.00 23.00 14 13.00 26.00 15 10.00 24.00 15 6.00 18.00 16 7.00 26.00 16 7.00 25.00 17 10.00 24.00 17 10.00 24.00 18 10.00 26.00 18 14.00 22.00 19 8.00 25.00 19 8.00 25.00 20 10.00 24.00 20 11.00 24.00 21 14.00 22.00 Mean 10.60 Mean 22.15 22 9.00 24.00 SD 2.761 SD 3.216 23 11.00 25.00 CV 26.05% CV 14.52% 24 10.00 23.00 25 13.00 22.00 Mean 10.76 Mean 23.72 SD 2.803 SD 2.372 CV 26.05% CV 10.00%

335 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

Appendix 6.4: The t-test data of achievement in musical knowledge of Classical period history

T-TEST PAIRS=POST_E WITH PRE_E (PAIRED) T-TEST for dependent sample for the Experimental group

Paired Samples Statistics Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean POST_E 23.7200 25 2.37206 .47441 PRE_E 10.7600 25 2.80297 .56059

Paired Samples Test Paired Differences Std. Error Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean POST_E – PRE_E 12.96000 3.56464 .71293 18.179 24 .000

T-TEST PAIRS=POST_L WITH PRE_L (PAIRED) T-TEST for dependent sample for the Control group

Paired Samples Statistics Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean POST_L 22.1500 20 3.21632 .71919 PRE_L 10.6000 20 2.76063 .61729

Paired Samples Test Paired Differences Std. Error Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean POST_L – PRE_L 11.55000 3.74833 .83815 13.780 19 .000

T-TEST GROUPS=TREATMENT (1 2) - PRETEST T-TEST for independent sample between the Experimental and the Control groups

Group Statistics TREATMENT N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean PRETEST 1.00E 25 10.7600 2.80297 .56059 2.00L 20 10.6000 2.76063 .61729

Independent Samples Test t-test for Equality of Means Mean Std. Error t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference PRETEST Equal variances assumed .192 43 .849 .16000 .83530

336 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

T-TEST GROUPS=TREATMENT (1 2) - POSTTEST T-TEST for independent sample between the Experimental and the Control groups

Group Statistics TREATMENT N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean POSTTEST 1.00E 25 23.7200 2.37206 .47441 2.00L 20 22.1500 3.21632 .71919

Independent Samples Test t-test for Equality of Means Mean Std. Error t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference POSTTEST Equal variances assumed 1.885 43 .066 1.57000 .83308

T-TEST GROUPS=TREATMENT (1 2) – DIFFERENT LEVELS OF IMPROVEMENT T-TEST for independent sample between the Experimental and the Control groups

Group Statistics TREATMENT N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean DIFF 1.00E 25 12.9600 3.56464 .71293 2.00L 20 11.5500 3.74833 .83815

Independent Samples Test t-test for Equality of Means Mean Std. Error t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference DIFF Equal variances assumed 1.289 43 .204 1.41000 1.09408

337 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

Appendix 6.5: The raw data of achievement in musical understanding of Classical music style

The ‘Achievement in music study test’, Section Two (Maximum Score = 75) Experimental group Control group (E-learning program) (Traditional teaching method) N = 25 students N = 20 students No. Pretest Posttest No. Pretest Posttest 1 25.50 53.00 1 10.50 55.00 2 9.00 53.50 2 21.00 44.50 3 27.00 59.50 3 14.50 44.00 4 33.00 69.50 4 18.00 58.00 5 5.00 62.00 5 26.50 51.00 6 16.00 55.50 6 16.00 54.00 7 14.50 52.00 7 14.50 45.00 8 32.00 70.50 8 9.00 43.50 9 25.50 54.50 9 18.50 45.50 10 20.50 55.00 10 21.50 44.00 11 30.00 55.00 11 12.50 46.50 12 14.50 57.50 12 14.50 46.50 13 15.50 50.00 13 10.50 49.00 14 19.50 55.00 14 35.50 48.00 15 20.00 57.00 15 16.00 45.50 16 9.50 56.00 16 33.00 61.00 17 16.00 48.00 17 15.00 54.00 18 17.50 56.50 18 16.00 60.00 19 13.50 46.50 19 30.00 61.00 20 15.50 53.00 20 26.00 58.00 21 15.50 51.50 Mean 18.95 Mean 50.70 22 20.50 53.00 SD 7.597 SD 6.315 23 26.00 55.00 CV 40.09% CV 12.46% 24 28.00 58.00 25 11.00 62.00 Mean 19.22 Mean 55.96 SD 7.492 SD 5.592 CV 38.98% CV 9.99%

338 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

Appendix 6.6: The t-test data of achievement in musical understanding of Classical music style

T-TEST PAIRS=POST_E WITH PRE_E (PAIRED) T-TEST for dependent sample for the Experimental group

Paired Samples Statistics Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean POST_E 55.9600 25 5.59188 1.11838 PRE_E 19.2200 25 7.49177 1.49835

Paired Samples Test Paired Differences Std. Error Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean POST_E – PRE_E 36.74000 7.35572 1.47114 24.974 24 .000

T-TEST PAIRS=POST_L WITH PRE_L (PAIRED) T-TEST for dependent sample for the Control group

Paired Samples Statistics Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean POST_L 50.7000 20 6.31498 1.41207 PRE_L 18.9500 20 7.59657 1.69864

Paired Samples Test Paired Differences Std. Error Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean POST_L – PRE_L 31.75000 7.80098 1.74435 18.202 19 .000

T-TEST GROUPS=TREATMENT (1 2) - PRETEST T-TEST for independent sample between the Experimental and the Control groups

Group Statistics TREATMENT N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean PRETEST 1.00E 25 19.2200 7.49177 1.49835 2.00L 20 18.9500 7.59657 1.69864

Independent Samples Test t-test for Equality of Means Mean Std. Error t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference PRETEST Equal variances assumed .119 43 .906 .27000 2.26148

339 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

T-TEST GROUPS=TREATMENT (1 2) - POSTTEST T-TEST for independent sample between the Experimental and the Control groups

Group Statistics TREATMENT N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean POSTTEST 1.00E 25 55.9600 5.59188 1.11838 2.00L 20 50.7000 6.31498 1.41207

Independent Samples Test t-test for Equality of Means Mean Std. Error t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference POSTTEST Equal variances assumed 2.961 43 .005 5.26000 1.77669

T-TEST GROUPS=TREATMENT (1 2) – DIFFERENT LEVELS OF IMPROVEMENT T-TEST for independent sample between the Experimental and the Control groups

Group Statistics TREATMENT N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean DIFF 1.00E 25 36.7400 7.35572 1.47114 2.00L 20 31.7500 7.80098 1.74435

Independent Samples Test t-test for Equality of Means Mean Std. Error t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference DIFF Equal variances assumed 2.201 43 .033 4.99000 2.26671

340 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

Appendix 6.7: The raw data of achievement in musical skill in playing Classical piano music

The ‘Achievement in music study’, Section Three (Maximum Score = 120) Experimental group Control group (E-learning program) (Traditional teaching method) N = 25 students N = 20 students No. Pretest Posttest No. Pretest Posttest 1 82.50 113.00 1 38.50 107.00 2 27.50 73.00 2 45.00 104.00 3 36.50 82.00 3 34.50 93.00 4 80.50 116.00 4 35.50 100.50 5 29.00 79.50 5 86.00 118.00 6 45.50 82.00 6 35.50 90.00 7 27.00 69.00 7 35.50 99.00 8 79.50 113.50 8 34.00 74.00 9 45.50 89.00 9 72.00 112.50 10 32.50 82.00 10 54.00 110.50 11 67.00 112.00 11 62.50 110.00 12 43.00 100.00 12 44.50 103.00 13 60.50 108.50 13 38.50 104.00 14 50.00 91.50 14 81.00 114.00 15 67.00 113.00 15 43.50 102.50 16 51.00 95.00 16 76.00 113.00 17 38.50 87.50 17 33.50 89.50 18 45.50 99.00 18 34.50 81.00 19 46.50 103.00 19 45.50 89.00 20 41.50 93.00 20 34.00 83.00 21 38.50 85.00 Mean 48.20 Mean 99.875 22 54.50 96.00 SD 17.475 SD 12.267 23 35.00 96.00 CV 36.26% CV 12.28% 24 32.00 83.00 25 31.50 71.00 Mean 47.52 Mean 93.30 SD 16.742 SD 14.102 CV 35.23% CV 15.11%

341 The Integration of E-learning in Higher Music Education in Thailand

Appendix 6.8: The t-test data of achievement in musical skill in playing Classical piano music

T-TEST PAIRS=POST_E WITH PRE_E (PAIRED) T-TEST for dependent sample for the Experimental group

Paired Samples Statistics Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean POST_E 93.3000 25 14.10230 2.82046 PRE_E 47.5200 25 16.74221 3.34844

Paired Samples Test Paired Differences Std. Error Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean POST_E – PRE_E 45.78000 7.38111 1.47622 31.012 24 .000

T-TEST PAIRS=POST_L WITH PRE_L (PAIRED) T-TEST for dependent sample for the Control group

Paired Samples Statistics Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean POST_L 99.8750 20 12.26664 2.74290 PRE_L 48.2000 20 17.47510 3.90755

Paired Samples Test Paired Differences Std. Error Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean POST_L – PRE_L 51.67500 11.17478 2.49876 20.680 19 .000

T-TEST GROUPS=TREATMENT (1 2) - PRETEST T-TEST for independent sample between the Experimental and the Control groups

Group Statistics TREATMENT N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean PRETEST 1.00E 25 47.5200 16.74221 3.34844 2.00L 20 48.2000 17.47510 3.90755

Independent Samples Test t-test for Equality of Means Mean Std. Error t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference PRETEST Equal variances assumed -.133 43 .895 -.68000 5.12098

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T-TEST GROUPS=TREATMENT (1 2) - POSTTEST T-TEST for independent sample between the Experimental and the Control groups

Group Statistics TREATMENT N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean POSTTEST 1.00E 25 93.3000 14.10230 2.82046 2.00L 20 99.8750 12.26664 2.74290

Independent Samples Test t-test for Equality of Means Mean Std. Error t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference POSTTEST Equal variances assumed -1.645 43 .107 -6.57500 3.99673

T-TEST GROUPS=TREATMENT (1 2) – DIFFERENT LEVELS OF IMPROVEMENT T-TEST for independent sample between the Experimental and the Control groups

Group Statistics TREATMENT N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean DIFF 1.00E 25 45.7800 7.38111 1.47622 2.00L 20 51.6750 11.17478 2.49876

Independent Samples Test t-test for Equality of Means Mean Std. Error t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference DIFF Equal variances assumed -2.124 43 .039 -5.89500 2.77537

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Appendix 6.9 The raw data of attitudes to music study

The ‘Attitude to music study test’ (Total Score = 200) Experimental group Control group (E-learning program) (Traditional teaching method) N = 25 students N = 20 students No. Pretest Posttest No. Pretest Posttest 1 144.00 156.00 1 126.00 155.00 2 128.00 139.00 2 136.00 157.00 3 141.00 167.00 3 121.00 151.00 4 154.00 174.00 4 116.00 150.00 5 115.00 148.00 5 140.00 167.00 6 138.00 159.00 6 142.00 158.00 7 105.00 152.00 7 136.00 161.00 8 143.00 174.00 8 114.00 151.00 9 138.00 167.00 9 130.00 152.00 10 138.00 156.00 10 126.00 152.00 11 120.00 149.00 11 109.00 151.00 12 119.00 153.00 12 132.00 154.00 13 117.00 148.00 13 125.00 160.00 14 132.00 153.00 14 137.00 162.00 15 135.00 159.00 15 133.00 149.00 16 114.00 136.00 16 130.00 146.00 17 118.00 143.00 17 126.00 155.00 18 128.00 153.00 18 130.00 157.00 19 135.00 150.00 19 134.00 148.00 20 129.00 145.00 20 126.00 153.00 21 136.00 152.00 Mean 128.45 Mean 154.45 22 138.00 169.00 SD 8.611 SD 5.266 23 109.00 143.00 24 107.00 142.00 25 132.00 152.00 Mean 128.52 Mean 153.56 SD 12.872 SD 10.328

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Appendix 6.10 The t-test data of attitudes to music study

T-TEST PAIRS=POST_E WITH PRE_E (PAIRED) T-TEST for dependent sample for the Experimental group

Paired Samples Statistics Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean POST_E 153.5600 25 10.32828 2.06566 PRE_E 128.5200 25 12.87154 2.57431

Paired Samples Test Paired Differences Std. Error Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean POST_E – PRE_E 25.04000 8.46306 1.69261 14.794 24 .000

T-TEST PAIRS=POST_L WITH PRE_L (PAIRED) T-TEST for dependent sample for the Control group

Paired Samples Statistics Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean POST_L 154.4500 20 5.26633 1.17759 PRE_L 128.4500 20 8.61135 1.92556

Paired Samples Test Paired Differences Std. Error Mean Std. Deviation t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean POST_L – PRE_L 26.00000 7.47628 1.67175 15.553 19 .000

T-TEST GROUPS=TREATMENT (1 2) - PRETEST T-TEST for independent sample between the Experimental and the Control groups

Group Statistics TREATMENT N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean PRETEST 1.00E 25 128.5200 12.87154 2.57431 2.00L 20 128.4500 8.61135 1.92556

Independent Samples Test t-test for Equality of Means Mean Std. Error t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference PRETEST Equal variances assumed .021 43 .983 .07000 3.35728

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T-TEST GROUPS=TREATMENT (1 2) - POSTTEST T-TEST for independent sample between the Experimental and the Control groups

Group Statistics TREATMENT N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean POSTTEST 1.00E 25 153.5600 10.32828 2.06566 2.00L 20 154.4500 5.26633 1.17759

Independent Samples Test t-test for Equality of Means Mean Std. Error t df Sig. (2-tailed) Difference Difference POSTTEST Equal variances assumed -.350 43 .728 -.89000 2.54193

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