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Shawn Xiaoyan-Lu Foster Advisor: Sally Gregory Kohlstedt December

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Shawn Xiaoyan-Lu Foster Advisor: Sally Gregory Kohlstedt December Transferring Western Medical Professional Institutions to China – Riding with Missions and Dismissing Native Medicine, 1807-1937: Guangzhou, Shanghai, and Changsha A Dissertation SUBMTTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA BY Shawn Xiaoyan-Lu Foster IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Advisor: Sally Gregory Kohlstedt December 2019 Shawn Xiaoyan-Lu Foster, ©2019 Acknowledgements In the prolonged process of completing my graduate studies and dissertation writing, I am indebted to many people. It is a difficult a task to say “thank you” for all the help, support, understanding, and argument given by so many people over the time it took to write this dissertation. I apologize first to those nameless supporters who, due to my fault, suffered omission or under-representation. Still, I would like to enjoy this opportunity to acknowledge my appreciations to as many people and institutions as I can. My appreciation goes first wholeheartedly to my adviser, Professor Sally Gregory Kohlstedt. Without her academic support, encouragement, and patience I could not have come this far. Her guidance, insight, and immense knowledge steered me through this long learning process. Her advice and feedback throughout my project through each stage of the process would not be overstated by any language. My profound gratitude goes to my dissertation committee members, Professors Susan D. Jones, Jennifer Lee Gunn, Mark E. Borrello, and Honghong Tinn. Their stimulating questions, from multiple perspectives formed a comprehensive and objective critique. Their enthusiastic encouragement and insightful comments often opened new windows for me to consider different perspectives of my project. I am also hugely appreciative to other scholars in and out of the HSTM program, the courses they offered and the discussions they initiated widened intellectual horizons for me and inspired new ideas. This list, still shorter than it should be, includes Professors Michel Janssen, Robert W. Seidel, Thomas Misa, Alan E. Shapiro, Jennifer Alexander, John M. Eyler, Jole R. Shackelford, Dominique Tobbell, Peter Kernahan, Alan C. Love, Ann Waltner, Hiromi Mizuno, Patricia Lorcin, Marta Hanson, William Schneider, David Luesink, Fan Fa-ti, Nicole E. Barnes, John Stenhouse, Bernard Lightman, Qiong Zhang, and Sean Hsiang-lin Lei. From the bottom of my heart I would like to say big thank you to our program managers for the support they offered whenever I needed it, small or big: Barbara Eastwold, Julia Knoll, Midori Green, Emmie EliZabeth Miller, and Mary Thomas. I am very grateful for moral/emotional support, constructive suggestions, and encouragement my graduate student colleagues extended to me over years by Barbara Reiterer Louis, Joseph Martin, Geng Xuan, Kristina Cernekova, Aimee Slaughter, Maggie Hofius, Margaret Charleroy, Nathan Crowe, Jacob Steer-WilliamsKate, FraZier Benya, Kate Jirik, Jonathan Clemens, Matt McGeachy, Jessica Nickrand, Joris Vandendriessche, Nicholas Lewis, i Anna Amramina, Adam Borrego, Kele Cable, Felipe Eguiarte SouZa, Argaret (Macey) Flood, Bonnie GidZak, Alexander Greff, John M. Heydinger, Lauren Kaffke, David Korostyshevsky, Cameron LaZaroff-Puck, Reba Luiken, Elizabeth Semler, Emily Beck, Dustin P. Studelska, William Vogel, Jieun Shin, and Miaofeng Yao. My study and writing have also been supported by generous scholarships and grants, including the Regents Scholarship for Employees of the University of Minnesota, the Community of Scholars Program Graduate School Travel Grant, the HSTM Research Travel Grant, the JWG Dunn Jr. Scholarship for Foreign Research in International Peace, the COGS Travel Award, the travel grants for annual conferences from History of Science Society, and two times Grant-in-aid of the Rockefeller Archive Center. I must extend my appreciation to librarians and archivists in the following institutions both in China and in the United States. In the United States – all the University of Minnesota archives and libraries, especially the Interlibrary Loan Service, the Bio-medical Library, the Wangensteen Historical Library, and KautZ Family YMCA Archives; Alan Mason Chesney Medical Archives of Johns Hopkins at Mount Washington, Harvard University Archives at Cambridge, Manuscripts and Archives of Yale University Library at New Haven, Yale Divinity School Library at New Haven, Presbyterian Historical Society at Philadelphia, and the Rockefeller Archive Center at New York. In China – National Library of China in Beijing, Capital Library of China, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College Archives, Beijing Medical University Archives, GuangZhou Archive, National Archives Administration of China of Guangdong Province, Shandong University Archives in Jinan, Shanghai Municipal Archives, Shanghai Medical School Archives, the Second Historical Archives of China in Nanjing, Archives of Hunan Province in Changsha, and Archives of Modern Medicine, South Central University, Changsha. Finally, but by no means least, I thank the support my family offered me, especially my son, Chushi Liu. ii For my mother, Li Zhifei iii Abstract This dissertation examines the process of transferring Western medical ideas and practices to China. The British East India Company surgeons initiated this movement in 1807 and medical missionaries extended it from the 1830s into the 1930s. This account is based on data found in archival repositories in China, manuscript libraries in the United States, and reports in missionary and medical missionary publications. This study adds to the historiography on China’s medical missionary study by demonstrating the medical and religious integrative trajectory from its beginning to its ending in China. The results challenge assumptions about the nature and extent of a presumed modernity in this activity. Rather than asking what medical missionary efforts contributed to the broader missionary activity, this study investigated how medical practitioners were able to take advantage of the religious incursions. Careful analysis of local records indicates that the early foreign medical practitioners were typically in a nearly pre-professional state in terms of the skills they brought to China. Instead of bringing to China a firmly established and fully coherent Western medicine, these medical missionaries echoed medical trends in the West. Over time, they brought Western clinical institutions, the professional organizations, and increasingly advanced medical education. By the early twentieth century, the medical professionals gradually parted ways with their missionary sponsors. Relying primarily on Western sources, this study identifies three groups of Chinese who studied Western medical practice. Up to the 1880s, Chinese received apprentice training in order to become assistants to medical missionaries and their influence largely remained local. From 1880 on, Western physicians introduced advanced medical education. Elite Chinese physicians with Western training officially organiZed themselves in the 1910s. In 1932, these well- positioned physicians took over the leadership of the Western medical profession when the foreign and Chinese medical associations merged. Significantly, in the 1910s, the first generation of modern medical historians emerged. They struggled to make senses of their native medicine, which had been overshadowed by rhetoric that privileged Western culture. Nonetheless, they brought Chinese medical history to the world stage. The epilogue describes the abrupt interruption caused by the Japanese invasion in 1937. The medical missionaries’ movement in China ended when the majority of them left China, leaving a complex legacy. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................... i Abstract ....................................................................................................................................... iv Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 1 American Modern China Study .......................................................................................... 1 Missionary History in Mainland China ............................................................................... 5 Dissertation Outline .......................................................................................................... 10 Chapter 1: Before Missions, 1807-1938 .................................................................................... 16 1.1 Implementing Jenner’s Smallpox Vaccination Technique ............................................... 20 1.2 Making One’s Life Useful ............................................................................................... 32 1.3 Establishing Professional Identity ................................................................................... 41 Chapter 2: Peter Parker and Imperialist Expansion, Guangzhou, 1834-1857 ........................... 60 2.1 Aiming at Mission Work Abroad ..................................................................................... 62 2.2 Practicing Medicine ......................................................................................................... 64 Beginning at Singapore ..................................................................................................... 64 OrganiZing the Medical Missionary
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