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Acknowledgements There are several people without whose assistance this thesis could not have been produced. I would like to thank, in particular, the following: Dr Alan Marshal, my supervisor at Bath Spa University College, for his constant nagging to 'get on with it'; Professor Roger Richardson of King Alfred's for his support as my external supervisor; Bath Spa University College for a constant supply of Inter Library Loans, a bursary and a travel grant to Spain; The Andrew C. Duncan Catholic History Trust for a research grant; Mgr Peter Pooling and the staff at Collegio Ingleses, Valladolid, Spain for their hospitality and access to their Archives; Mgr Michael Williams, for his assistance at Archive General, Simancas; Fr Daniel Rees, Librarian, Downside Abbey, Stratton on the Fosse, Somerset for access to the monastic library; Dr Dominic Bellenger and Dr Elaine Chalus, for their support and suggestions; Dr Ratal Witkowski, for Polish biographies; Joan Pattison, Dick Meyer, Irene Stansby for French, Dutch and Polish translations respectively; and David and Louise for being there. I would also like to thank Dr Paul Hyland & Doctor Barry Coward for their useful comments and suggestions that have enabled me to complete this work successfully. This thesis is dedicated to the memory of Charlotte May Anderson (May, 1977). Phis copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. Contents List of Illustrations Abbreviations Preface 12 Introduction 22 1. James VI and I and the Early Seventeenth-Century Political Scene 27 2. The Rhetoric of Conduct Books and the Realities of Ambassadorial Politics 84 3. Ambassadors and their Function 159 4. The Spanish Machiavellf. Don Diego de Sarmiento de Acuha 222 5. The United Provinces and England 275 6. Conclusion 318 Appendix A - A Handlist Compiled from the Database of Foreign Diplomatic Representatives to the Court of James VI and I Appendix B - De Tassis Pension List Appendix C - Letter from Sir Noel de Caron to the States General 2nd July, 1621 Bibliography List of Illustrations Frontispiece: James VI & I (N. Hilliard: Victoria and Albert Museum) Plan of Whitehall Palace, St. James1 s Park 164 ii. The Somerset House Conference, 1604. 179 (originally attributed to Marc Gheeraedts II, now classified as Unknown) by kind permission of the National Fortrait Gallery. iii. Patent of Knighthood 220 (BL. Additional Charter 12777) iv. Don Diego de Sarmiento de Acuna, Count Gondomar 223 (G. Goodman, The Court and Tunes of James I; Grabado de Simone Fassen, 1622) v. Casa del Sol, Valladolid 226 vi. Dona Luisa de Carvajal y Mendoza. 260 (Real Monasteno de la Encarnacion, Madrid) vii. Caron House, South Lambeth 282 (Abram Booth's Journacf, 1629) Abbreviations AHR American Historical Review APC Acts of the Privy Council Bellenger, Priests English and Welsh Priests, 1558 - 1800. (ed.) D. A. Bellenger (Bath, 1984) Birch, Court and Times The Court and Times ofJames the First. (ed.) R. F. Williams 2 vols. (1849) Carter, Gondomar 'Gondomar: Ambassador to James I'. HJ. vol. 7 (1964) Chamberlain, Letters Memoirs XII: Tlie Letters ofJohn Chamberlain. (ed.) N.E. McClure, 2 vols. (Philadelphia, 1939) CHR Catholic Historical Review. CRS Catholic Record Society CSF'Domestic Calendar of State Papers, Domestic. CSP Venetian Calendar of State Papers, Venetian. CSP Spain Calendar of State Papers, Spain. D'Ewes, Autobiography The Autobiography and Correspondence of Sir Simonds D'Ewes. (ed.) J. O. Halliwell (1945) de Callieres, Diplomacy F. de Callieres, The Practice of Diplomacy. Translated A. F. Whyte (1919) DIE Documentos Ineditos para la historia de Espana (ns), vols. II - IV: Correspondencia oficial, de Don Diego Sarmiento de Acuna (ed.) Antonio Ballesteros Beretta (Madrid, 1936 - 45) DNB Dictionary of National Biography Downshire Downshire Manuscripts EHR English Historical Review Finett, Observations Finetti Philoxensis: Some choice observations ofSr. John Finett Knight, And Master of the Ceremonies to the two last Kings. Touching the Reception, and Precedence, the Treatment and Audience, the Punctilios and Contests ofForren Ambassadors in England (\&5£) Foley, Records 'Records of the English Province of the Society of Jesus.' (ed.) H.J. Foley, SJ. CRS. 7 vols. (1877 - 1883) Fullerton, Life G. Fullerton, The Life of Luisa de Carvajal. ( 1863) Gardiner, History S.R. Gardiner, The History of England, from the accession ofJames I to the outbreak of the Civil War. (1883 - 1890) Goodman, Court G. Goodman, The Court and Times ofJames 1. (ed.)J. S. Brewer. (1839) HJ Historical Journal HLQ Huntingfon Library Quarterly HMC Historical Manuscripts Commission Hotman, L'Ambassadeur J. Hotman, The Ambassador. English translation '(1603.) IHR Institute of Historical Research. Lansdowne Mss BL tensdowne Mss Loomie, Spain A.J. Loomie, 'Spain and the Jacobean Catholics'. CRS, vols. 64 and 68 (1978) Lyons, Gondomar F. H. Lyons, Diego Sarmiento de Acuna: Conde de Gondomar. (Oxford, 1910) Marti ngly, Diplomacy G. Mattingly, Renaissance Diplomacy (1965) MLR Modern language Review Nichols, Progresses J. Nichols, Tlie Progresses &c of King James L 4 vols., (1828) Nicolson, Evolution H. Nicolson, The Evolution of Diplomatic Method (1954, reprinted Leicester, 1998) PSB Polski Slownik Biograficzny (1979) Rapin, History P. de. Rapin Thoyas, The History of England. Translated N. Tindal (1 743) Rostenberg, Minority Press L. Rostenberg, The Minority Press and the English Crown. (Nieuwkoop, 1971) Rye, England W. B. Rye, England as seen by Foreigners in the days of Elizabeth andJames the First ( 1865) Senning, Carvajal C. Senning, 'The Carvajal Affair: Gondomar and James I', Catholic Historical Review, 56 (1970) Simancas Archive General de Simancas Sommerville, Political Writings, }. P. Sommerville (ed.), Kingjames VIand I: Political Writings. (1995) Stow, Annals, Annales, or, A general1 chronicle of England. Begun byJohn Stow: continued and augmented with matters forraigne and domestique, ancient and moderne, vnto the end of this present yeere, 1632. By Edmund Howes (1632) Wicquefort, Embassador Abraham de Wicquefort, The Embassador and his function. Translated J. Digby (1716) Win wood, Memorials Memorials of Affairs of State in the Reigns of Queen Elizabeth and Kingjames 1, collected chiefly from original papers of Sir Ralph Winwood(ed.) E. Sawyer (1725) 12 Preface This thesis deals with a particular phase in the diplomatic time scale, a phase which has its own prehistory. For the purpose of placing the diplomacy of the seventeenth century into context within this history it is necessary to examine briefly how diplomacy developed. Diplomacy began as a means by which a sovereign aimed to prevent aggression from his neighbours, and became, by the seventeenth century, and without diminishing the ceremonial role it had always played, an agency for the settlement of trade and mercantile disagreements, the prevention of wars, or for concluding them after they began, and for the negotiating of marriage alliances. Taken from the Greek 8i7tA,6co, dJploun, which is quite simply a doubled or folded thing, diplomacy is 'the management of international relations by negotiation: the method by which these relations are adjusted and managed by ambassadors and envoys; the business or art of the diplomatist.' ' As an instrument for the purpose of negotiation between sovereign states and the peaceful management of international relations, diplomacy is an ancient and important field of activity. Even in antiquity ambassadors enjoyed a special position and certain privileges, although then it was not by law but as a matter of religion; the ambassador and his mission were seen as sacrosanct. Greek diplomacy was a highly developed art-form necessary to negotiate and manage the complex relations between over a thousand separate states. Major states were represented by proxenos , permanent residents who were citizens of the state where they lived, but also having connections with the state by whom they were accredited. From around the sixth century the Greek city states adopted the practice of choosing as their representatives their finest orators and most plausible 1 See H. Nicolson, Diplomacy, 3rd ed. (1965) pp. 26 - 28 13 advocates and included amongst their number Pindar and Demosthenes. Continuity was essential, and although no state at this time had an organised diplomatic corps, we nevertheless find individuals returning to the same place on several occasions as well as on missions to other places. Their task was to plead the cause of their city before the assemblies of other city states and foreign leagues. They were not expected to gather information about the countries they visited nor were they required to write reports of their progress - all that was desired of them was that they spoke eloquently. The size of a Greek embassy could be as many as ten persons, depending on the state and the subject to be negotiated. In terms of their responsibility the status of these men was equal, although in practice one man could shape the character of the embassy. 2 The Greek traditions were handed down to the Romans whose contribution to the practice of diplomacy was not so much in the field of negotiation but in that of international law. However, as valuable as this contribution might have been it was more concerned with the theory of diplomacy than with the practice. With that in mind it would be outside the parameters of this thesis to discuss here the difference between the Roman ideas of ius civile, iusgentium and ius naturals. Suffice it to say, the ius naturale did imply an understanding of what was to become the practice of international law. The Roman system did, nonetheless, create a profession of well trained archivists who were well versed in precedents and procedure. 3 K. Hamilton, R. Langhorne, Tlic Practice of Diplomacy, its evolution, theory and administration (\ 995), p. 10. Discussion of the role of diplomacy in antiquity can be found in E. Satow, A Guide to Diplomatic Practice, 4lh ed.
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