Siphosami Malunga

Postscript: A Tale of Broken Promises

Siphosami Malunga

A Tale of Broken Promises: Zimbabwe After Mugabe For millions of Zimbabweans, who had suffered political repression and economic deprivation and decline during the preceding 40 years, Mugabe’s removal was a much-needed relief. Little did it matter that it was his comrades, with whom he had killed thousands, stifed dissent, closed the democratic space and plundered the economy and public purse who removed him, under the banner of the ironically titled Operation Restore Legacy. He was the head of the Zimbabwe African National Unity–Patriotic Front (ZANU–PF) system, and as such, his exit was seen by many as providing an opportunity for change. For that reason, rallied by the army generals who were seeking but struggling to “constitutionally” remove Mugabe, thousands of Zimbabweans came out to the streets to send a message to Mugabe “to leave and leave now”. Thus, they “sanitized” the coup. After his removal, the generals summoned Mugabe’s former deputy, Emmerson Mnangagwa, back from exile to take over. Mnangagwa had dramatically fed the country weeks earlier after being fred by Mugabe, claiming that he feared for his life after an alleged poisoning attempt.

© The Author(s) 2020 389 S. J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, P. Ruhanya (eds.), The History and Political Transition of Zimbabwe, African Histories and Modernities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47733-2 390 S. MALUNGA

After taking control of the ruling party and reversing all of Mugabe’s decisions and dismissals that had affected Mnagangwa’s faction, the generals took their plan to Parliament, forcing Mugabe to buckle and resign. Mnangagwa was inaugurated as President on 27 November 2017 with promises to bring in political and economic reforms. At his inauguration, attended by foreign diplomats and opposition leaders, Mnangagwa promised to undo the disastrous results of Mugabe’s 40-year rule. He promised to fx the ruined economy and open the long isolated and ostracised country for business and investment. He promised to restore and respect democracy, to repeal draconian laws, to restore the rule of law, to fght corruption, to revisit compensation to white farmers for land, to re-engage the international community and most importantly to respect the will and voice of the people, which, he argued was the voice of God. To that end, he promised to provide the people with the ultimate opportunity to decide on the future political leadership of the country via free, fair and peaceful elections. Individually and taken together, what Mnangagwa promised was exactly what the country needed, and what it had been denied by Mugabe and ZANU–PF for decades. Two years after Mugabe was deposed, with Zimbabweans worse off than they were during the worst of Mugabe’s equally disastrous rule, it is clear that Mnangagwa’s is a tale of broken promises. So what went wrong?

False Expectations, False Change To start, post-Mugabe Zimbabwe was a proverbial house built on sand. Driven by Mugabe’s henchmen, who had been the architects and imple- menters of his disastrous policies in the previous four decades, it was not really the change that Zimbabweans and the world thought it would be. It was triggered by and aimed to settle an internal ZANU–PF factional fght (between the Generation 40 (G40) faction, led by Grace Mugabe, and Lacoste, led by Emmerson Mnangagwa, inside ZANU–PF. It was and had never been a people’s project and certainly never ideologically founded or spurred on by a genuine desire for real political and social change. To that extent, little should have been expected from the coup. This alone easily explains why it delivered nothing in resolving Zimbabwe’s long-term crises and instead dug the country into a deeper hole. The so-called new dispensation has been a catalogue of failure since November 2017, failing the several tests it faced. Postscript: A Tale of Broken Promises 391

Failed Political Reform The frst test for the post-coup regime was openness to political reform. Under Mugabe, ZANU–PF had shown extreme political intolerance. In the 1980s, seeking a one-party state, Mugabe, with Mnangagwa as his security minister, had massacred thousands of supporters of the opposition party Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU), forcing its leader Joshua Nkomo to capitulate and join a unity government under ZANU–PF. In the 1990s, Mugabe had violently suppressed all signs of internal and external opposition, sending gunmen to shoot and kill opponents in the Zimbabwe Unity Movement. In 2000, his ego dented by the loss of the constitutional referendum, and fearing that he would lose the parliamentary election to the new Movement for Democratic Change (MDC), Mugabe had deployed party youths and war veterans to violently attack white farmers and farm workers perceived to be supporters of the new opposition party. In 2008, with clear signs of having lost the presidential election to Morgan Tsvangirai in the frst round, he resorted frst to rig- ging, then violence, to win the run-off from which Tsvangirai ended up withdrawing. When Mnangagwa took over in 2017, all eyes were therefore on how his regime would treat the opposition. Never mind that Mnangagwa had been Mugabe’s mastermind and enforcer of violence against the opposition, going back to 1980. As security minister, he had directed the intelligence aspects of the Gukurahundi operation that left 20,000 civilians dead. In 2000, 2002 and 2008, he had also played a key role in election- related violence directed at MDC offcials and supporters. He was considered a key architect of the closed political space in Zimbabwe, an idea that went back decades. To many, it was therefore unreasonable to expect any meaningful change in political tolerance after the coup. Yet, aware of his own dubious credentials and also to curry favour with his western backers and funders, especially the United Kingdom, Mnangagwa promised to open the country up not just for business but also politically. In a public relations stunt, he publicly visited sick MDC leader Morgan Tsvangirai and offered government support for his medical treatment as well as the transfer of his offcial state-purchased residence, which Mugabe had refused to hand over. He even tolerated criticism in the media and from civil society on historically taboo subjects, such as Gukurahundi. To cap it all, he even “joined” social media. 392 S. MALUNGA

The period between the coup and elections in July 2018 saw a marked and unprecedented improvement and opening up of political, civic and media space. But purges of G40 elements, Mnangagwa’s erstwhile neme- sis, continued, with selective arrests and prosecutions. There were still bans on protests, arbitrary arrests, the abuse of power and authority, and regular violations of constitutional and human rights that targeted activists.

Fixed and Flawed Elections The second major test was the general election in July 2018. Seen as being central to restoring democracy after the coup, there was little doubt that the post-coup elections would need to pass the free, fair and peaceful test. Previous elections in Zimbabwe had been bloody, with outcomes contested. In 2008, because of the violence, the continental and global community had refused to sign off the presidential elections, forcing Mugabe into a coalition government with Morgan Tsvangirai. In the 2013 election, although it had been peaceful, the manipulation of the roll of voters, which was withheld by the electoral commission until election day, again undermined the legitimacy of Mugabe’s victory. In 2018, Mnangagwa was therefore aware that if anything was needed to gain internal and external legitimacy as part of his open for business mantra, delivering free, fair and peaceful elections was the silver bullet. Despite their promises, Mnangagwa and ZANU–PF resorted to tried and tested tactics. They retained the tainted and discredited Zimbabwe Election Commission and Secretariat, considered by many as lacking independence and made up of security and intelligence personnel. Again, as in previous elections, the commission failed to release the voters roll on time and in a searchable format, and even then it was plagued with irregularities. As in previous elections, ZANU–PF leaned on the army—whose mere presence especially in rural areas intimidated voters. It also manipu- lated the government’s agricultural subsidy scheme to “buy” the rural vote. As in previous years, ZANU–PF and Mnangagwa monopolized the state media in their electoral campaign, denying equal and fair play to the opposition. With the Mugabe era draconian laws on access to information and protection of privacy, and on public order and security, still frmly intact, the pre-election environment and playing feld was far from being level. The operational conduct of the election, including the tabulation, transmission and announcement of elections results, pointed to a rigged process. With the closeness of the results between Mnangagwa and his Postscript: A Tale of Broken Promises 393 opposition challenger, Nelson Chamisa—with Mnangagwa receiving just over the 50% required—no wonder the outcome was disputed and chal- lenged in court. The Constitutional Court ruled in favour of Mnangagwa but failed to give its reasons for almost 18 months, further entrenching partisan perspectives.

Leopards Can’t Change Their Spots Mnangagwa’s third test involved human rights. As he had played a central role as Mugabe’s right hand, in the gradual and systematic erosion of citizens’ rights for the preceding 40 years, many were sceptical that he and ZANU–PF would miraculously begin to respect human rights. The sceptics were right. Shortly after the July election, in response to public protest against delays in announcing election results, Mnangagwa deployed the military—who shot and killed six unarmed civilians and injured scores more. These killings, conducted in full view of election observers and international media, cemented the scepticism about any post-Mugabe change by Mnangagwa and ZANU–PF. As damage control, Mnangagwa commissioned an international commission of enquiry led by former South African President Kgalema Motlanthe, but it was made up of regime-sympathizing local commissioners whose work was carefully cho- reographed. In a further clear sign that little had changed, despite recom- mendations by the Motlanthe Commission to hold military offcers to account responsible for the killings, Mnangagwa instead promoted the commander of the unit responsible, while other perpetrators remained untouched. There would be further failures. In January 2019, when citizens who were angered by the sudden increase in the price of fuel took to the streets, Mnangagwa again deployed the army against them. What followed was a military operation conducted under cover of an internet shutdown in which grave violations, beatings, torture, rapes and plunder were carried out against innocent civilians. Mnangagwa would later boast that he had deployed the army to deal with protesters after giving instructions to use a “special whip laced in salty water”. After the protests, thousands of civilians were arrested and tried in unfair and fast-tracked trials, while hundreds were sentenced to many years in prison. Again, in August 2019, with the country and citizens facing dire social and economic conditions, the opposition MDC called for nationwide mass protests. Complying with the public order and security law, it sought 394 S. MALUNGA police authorization for the protests, which was denied. On the day, riot police unleashed an orgy of violence against peaceful protesters, beating and arresting many. Throughout Mnangagwa’s rule, the government has continued to selectively target critics, labour, human rights and political activists for intimidation, harassment, abduction, arrests, detention, torture and killings. In many instances, it has relied on pseudo-elements in the security sector or party youth wings to carry out these heinous crimes. Fearing an uprising similar to those in Sudan, Egypt and Algeria, the government has resorted to selective abductions of critics who lead or call for citizen action, in order to spread fear and deter citizens from protesting. Most recently, the leader of the striking hospital doctors’ union, Peter Magombeyi, was abducted, detained for fve days, tortured and then dumped in the out- skirts of Harare. The government claimed that a shadowy “third force” was involved. Other critics calling for accountability for Gukurahundi atrocities, including activists such as Zenzele Ndebele, Thandekile Moyo and Mkhululi Hanana, have also been intimidated, followed and threatened by unidentifed individuals. In an unprecedented surge of intolerance, the government has also resorted to abducting, beating and torturing human rights activists, such as Tendai Mombeyarara of the Citizens Manifesto and Amalgamated Rural Teachers Union of Zimbabwe, which is led by Obert Masaraure. Samantha Kureya, “Gonyeti”, a comedian, and Ian Makiwa, “Platinum Prince”, a musician, have also been abducted, beaten and tortured for satirical and musical productions that were deemed infammatory and offensive to Mnangagwa and the regime. Some have not been so lucky. Blessing Toronga, an MDC political activist, was abducted from his house in Glen Norah Township in Harare by unidentifed men after the protests on 24 January 2019. His body was found in an advanced state of decomposition in March this year. As Mugabe did in the 1980s, Mnangagwa has relied on trumped-up treason charges against perceived critics and opponents. Victims include Morgan Tsvangirai, Welshman Ncube and others in 2000, those involved in the MDC ’17 Petrol Bomb Case in 2015 and MDC deputy president Tendai Biti in 2008. In 2019 alone, the government has charged seven civil society activists with treason, continued to prosecute Pastor Ivan Mawarire, for Mugabe-era treason charges, and charged several MDC politicians, including Job Sikhala, Joana Mamombe and Ostallos Siziba, with treason. Undoubtedly, on this score Mnangagwa has not only proved sceptics right, but has matched Mugabe in many respects. Postscript: A Tale of Broken Promises 395

A Corrupt and Predatory Elite The third major test for Mnangagwa and ZANU–PF was their policy and attitude to corruption, bad governance and poor leadership. When he took over from Mugabe, Mnangagwa promised to open the country, isolated for many years, for business. He promised to fght corruption and to ensure the rule of law. Corruption, bad governance and poor leadership have been at the centre of Zimbabwe’s political, economic and social problems for the past 40 years. Under Mugabe, a politically connected and predatory elite, comprising ruling ZANU–PF offcials, their families and friends, prioritised the personal accumulation of wealth over public interest and service. This elite has been involved in high-level corruption scandals since 1980. It has siphoned off billions of dollars, abused public resources and enjoyed impunity from any form of accountability. Almost all Mugabe’s ministers have been at one time or another been implicated in corruption. Mnangagwa’s commitment to addressing corruption, bad governance and poor leadership was therefore in the spotlight. His choice of ministers, his attitude towards corrupt elites and his appointment of capable leadership were objects of scrutiny. In all these aspects, he failed dismally. He appointed and retained corrupt cabinet ministers—some of whom, in yet another public relations stunt, he has now sought to arrest. He set up an anti-corruption unit in his offce, which has delivered nothing. He has allowed powerful elites connected to him, such as Kuda Tagwirei’s Sakunda, to retain monopolistic control of the country’s lucrative fuel supply contract. He has allowed the use of the Reserve Bank for preferen- tial access to foreign currency exchange for connected elites, which it expatriates, launders or sells on the black market at a premium in a system of arbitrage. He has allowed the plunder of US$3 billion from the “command agriculture” subsidy scheme, most of which has found its way to Sakunda. As the country faces a severe public service crisis in the water, energy, health and education sectors, Mnangagwa has presided over declining and deepening social conditions. Poor governance and leadership tied to corruption have seen his ministers preoccupied with lining their pockets and diverting public resources to their personal upkeep and beneft rather than addressing the multiple crises the country faces. 396 S. MALUNGA

A Failed Economy Mnangagwa’s greatest test was the extent to which he would be able to fx Zimbabwe’s ruined economy. His inability to do so has been his most epic failure. In the main, wages have lost all value and purchasing power owing to the disastrous economic policies of Mthuli Ncube, Mnangagwa’s Minister of Finance. Ncube was initially feted as a professor from Oxford and a former African Development Bank Chief Economist, but he was also pre- viously founder and owner of a failed Zimbabwean bank, Barbican, who has banned the use of foreign currency exchange, reintroduced the discredited Zimbabwe dollar, introduced an extortionate transactional tax on electronic transactions and allowed activities at the Reserve Bank that have been condemned by the International Monetary Fund. In the past six months of 2020, in the latest budget announcement the fnance minister has been accused of embarrassingly cooking the national accounting books by understating the contributions of China by over US$100 million. The disastrous economic policies and the accompanying corruption have seen doctors and nurses go on strike for months because of poor wages and working conditions: no hospitals have adequate equipment, medicines or medical supplies. The government response has been to abduct leaders of doctors’ or teachers unions and to fre all doctors. Living conditions have deteriorated for the majority of citizens to levels worse than during the Mugabe era, with power blackouts for days and shortages of fuel, banknotes, medicines and other basic needs. Infation has shot up in the third quarter of 2020. In June 2020, the government banned the use of foreign currency, deepening the hardship but proclaim- ing the return of a robust national currency. In November 2019, the government introduced new bank notes but the release was marred by another corruption scandal in which hundreds of thousands of dollars surfaced on the black market when the maximum permitted withdrawal is $200.

The Final Test Mnangagwa’s last test will be whether and how long he can hold on to power in the context of the continuously deteriorating conditions in the country. There is an overwhelming consensus that the situation seems to have reached breaking point. Whatever the plan for removing Mugabe may have been for the coup comrades, it is hard to imagine that this is what was agreed or expected. It is possible that the plotters Postscript: A Tale of Broken Promises 397 collectively underestimated what was required to fx Zimbabwe. They assumed that they could continue to fudge their way forward by stifing dissent, stealing elections, printing money, recklessly spending state funds and plundering the economy without consequence. If that is the case, they were wrong. In removing Mugabe, they promised and offered people change. They managed to temporarily persuade and gain the support of erstwhile detractors, such as the United Kingdom, and the sceptical support of many Zimbabweans. In two short years, they have squandered it all: the hope, the goodwill, the promise, the trust. They have also lost the trust of their own supporters and each other. They have run out of excuses. The sanctions excuse, used effectively by Mugabe, has lost its shine: it no longer cuts it as Zimbabweans realize that ruling elites continue to plunder and live large while they suffer. But can Mnangagwa still salvage the situation or will it roll on towards a cliff edge? The former looks unlikely, in the light of honest refection on the past two years, a realization that there are simply no more cards for him or ZANU–PF to play, when it comes to fudging the economy and politics, and also that relying on coer- cion will soon stop working. The hardline ruling party in Ethiopia, EPRDF, came to a similar conclusion after many years of relying on repression: it realized that there was a real chance of losing everything. If Mnangagwa and his comrades reach this epiphany, they may yet survive and play a part in creating a different future. At almost 80 years old, having served for almost 60 years in government and having orchestrated and watched Mugabe being humiliated, it can be assumed that Mnangagwa would want a different fate. This would ideally involve an inclusive negotiated process to address the country’s political, economic and social problems, preferably moderated by an external actor. Recently South Africa has hinted that it is losing patience with the crisis, which may signal its willing- ness to mediate. If Mnangagwa and ZANU–PF have no answers, neither it seems does the MDC, which has shown hesitation and ambiguity in its intentions. While the deteriorating economic conditions provide the typi- cal context for popular uprisings of the kind seen in which ruling parties were ousted in Egypt, Tunisia and more recently Bolivia, Algeria and Sudan, this is unlikely to happen on its own. Besides, it is hardly a viable strategy. The MDC will have to be more deliberate and intentional. Doing nothing is as bad as Mnangagwa waiting and hoping nothing will come of the decline. If a negotiated solution is preferred, the MDC will have to push for one. If a popular uprising is desired, it will have to lead and direct 398 S. MALUNGA it. A spontaneous, leaderless, uprising by frustrated and angry citizens is also likely. This was the case in Egypt and to a great extent Algeria and Sudan. This option is what both Mnangagwa and the MDC should be worried about, as it places both outside the game.

Revolving Coup Door? In the meantime, it is an open secret that there are disagreements at the highest levels inside government and ZANU–PF. It is conceivable that the prevailing situation is not the one envisaged by those soldiers drafted into the coup who are now worse off than during the Mugabe era. There are reports that junior offcers are suffering squalid and dehumanizing living and working conditions. If the state of ordinary Zimbabweans is a mea- sure, this is unsurprising. There is talk of another coup. Experience from elsewhere shows that once it has been opened, the door leading to military overthrow of a government is hard to close. To that extent, whether it is another coup or increased citizens’ agitation, not just for change but for survival, Zimbabwe seems headed for a major confrontation. Rather than wait for it to happen and try to pick up the scattered pieces afterwards, the Southern African Development Community, led by South Africa (which has much to lose), the African Union and international bodies need to refocus their spotlight on Zimbabwe once again. But this time, they must ensure that the political change will genuinely refect the will of the people and not the small and predatory elite that now fghts over the country’s decaying carcass. Index

A counter-hegemonic, 108 AAG, see Affrmative Action Group leading, 76 Abel Muzorewaled United African pro-Mthwakazi, 166, 168–172 National Council (UANC), 92 student, 104 Abuse of power, 240, 311, 392 vilify prodemocracy, 126 Access to Information and Protection Administration of Privacy Act (AIPPA), 127, 191 direct colonial, 6 Accumulation confgures periphery direct juridical, 6 economies, 17, 276 new, 310, 312, 317, 319, Accusations, 108, 203, 262, 333, 320, 325 348, 350 post, 300 regime-change, 77 post-Mugabe, 311 Accusing, 8, 341 transparent public, 308 denounced Vice President Administrative reforms, 310 Mnangagwa, 334 extensive, 309 Activism Adoption, 68, 201, 254, 261, 302, judicial, 200 304, 318 ongoing citizen, 76 Adult suffrage universal, 28 political, 124 Adulterous relationship, 344 radical, 64 Affrmative action social, 64 deliberate, 177 vibrant Zimbabwean student, 122 entailed, 2 Activists Affrmative Action Group (AAG), 65 citizen, 76 Affrmative action programme, 175

© The Author(s) 2020 399 S. J. Ndlovu-Gatsheni, P. Ruhanya (eds.), The History and Political Transition of Zimbabwe, African Histories and Modernities, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-47733-2 400 INDEX

Africa disaffection, 31 colonial, 165 domestic affairs, 282 colonise, 292 economies, 293 development, 283 experience of civil society, 122 postcolonial, 57, 137 governments, 121, 124, 177, 278, shining light of, 17, 299 280, 321 sovereign accumulation histories, 292 positioning, 291 integration in economic state, 28, 55, 57, 85, 278–282 development, 290 state and development in, 277–283 journalist, 218 sub-Saharan, 278 leaders, 6, 7, 278, 282, 292, African American, 145, 237 294, 295 African countries, 87, 87n1, 118, 123, liberation, 161 177, 282, 286 misconception, 146 and control, 286 national question Nkrumah, 290 poor, 338 nationalism, 58, 60, 282 African National Congress nationalist patriarchal models of (ANC), 55, 141 liberation, 3 African National Union nationalist politics, 300 dominated Zimbabwe, 145 nations, 278 ruling Zimbabwe, 118, 181, 299 natural resources, 286 African Nationals, 141, 143, 145 opposition, 86 African Network of Constitutional political leaders, 28 Lawyers, 309 political spaces, 354 African Socialism, 60 reserves, 165 African Trade Union Congress resources, 277, 283–287, 290 (ATUC), 96n6 societies, 278 African Union, 68, 184, 398 states, 28, 55, 57, 85, 278–282 African Union High Level Panel, 287 struggle, 124 Africanist, 219 subjugating, 282 Africanization, 33, 56 townships, 165 Africanization processes, 62 undermined, 279 Africans values, 218 accumulation in bifurcated women, 335 states, 279 workers, 141 alienating, 284, 292 Africans People, 7, 59, 62, and opposition politics, 86 141, 143–145 civil society, 122 Afrikaner and African communities, 159 communities, 159 continent, 18, 59 Air force, 92 continental level, 290 Air Force of Zimbabwe cultural values and perspectives, 283 Commander, 94n2 INDEX 401

Air Zimbabwe, 210 Army Ake, Claude (political scientist), 59, 60 mercenary, 193 Alexander, J., 2, 94, 94n3, 188 national, 147 Alexander, K., 64, 164 new Zimbabwean, 228 Alfa Media Holdings organized guerrilla, 32 (AMH), 247–248 trained, 147 Newsday/Southern Eye, 247 unorganised, 93 Alfaro, L., 367 white, 32 Algeria, 1, 394, 397, 398 ASSAf, see Academy of Science of Allegations, 163, 164, 248, 257, 259, South Africa 262, 264, 268, 333, 342n1, 344 Assange, Julian, 233 Alliances Assassinate, 261, 262 nationalist-military, 8 Assassination plots alleged, 257 political, 87 Assassinations, 257, 258, 265, 347 united, 102 Assault, 8, 39, 103 Allies, 44, 86, 92, 105, 192, 257, 261, sexual, 337 266, 334, 342 Associated Newspapers, 247 America tabloidisation, 256 Associated Newspapers of Zimbabwe Americans (ANZ), 247 black African, 145 Asuelime, 334 dollar, 286, 304, 317, 318, 361 Atrocities, 12, 36–38, 61, military, 282 231, 394 Amnesty International, 108n14, 109 Attorney General, 199, 200n20 Anglo American, 286 ATUC, see African Trade Union Angola, 87n1 Congress Anonymous movement, 240 Auditor General, 315, 319 Anti-colonial nationalist struggle, 53, Augier, M., 364 57, 59, 61 Authoritarian erosion and internal Anti-corruption initiatives, 307, 312 contradictions, 184–185 Anti-devolution, 174 Authoritarian erosion and internal Anti-imperialism, 5 contradictions in ZANU Anti-imperialist meanings, 67 PF, 184–185 Anti-nationalism, 292 Authoritarian manipulations, 183 Anti-racism, 5 Authoritarian nationalism, 53 Antoinette Marie, 343 Authoritarian practices, 61, 210 Anyanwu, 368 Authoritarian regimes, 182, 184, 186, APN, see African 208, 219 Peacebuilding Network competitive, 182, 191, 208 Arab Spring, 16, 76, 78, 221, 233 Authoritarian rule, 184, 309 Aregbeshola, 362, 363, 367, 380 Authoritarian rulers, 26 Armed resistance, 28 Authoritarian states, 126, 183 protracted, 301 Authoritarian tutelage, 15 402 INDEX

Authoritarianism enfranchised, 41 closed, 183 Boob-less commander-in- competitive, 183 chief, 341–347 decentralized, 57 Book Mugabeism, 91 electoral, 195 Botswana, 28, 32, 46, 87n1, 104, increased, 63 141, 159, 368 political, 64 Boundaries, 43, 87, 88, 99, 103 regimes blend, 208 geographical, 380 Bretton Woods institutions, 124, 282 Brian Raftopoulos’ book, 2 B Bribery, 209, 311 Bantu Congress, 58 Bright Matonga, 211 Barriers to entry and exit, 366 Bring back VP Mnangagwa, 343 BAZ, see Broadcasting Authority of Britain, 31, 33, 147, 257, Zimbabwe 282, 303 Bekezela Gumbo’s interrogation, 14 aiding, 286 Beliefs British brokered Lancaster House fundamental, 323 Agreement, 161 real, 216 British colonial rule, 118, 122, 301 unfortunate, 167 British Foreign Minister, 195 Bifurcated states, 279 British foreign policy, 216 Bill of Rights, 314 British government, 36, 37, 149, 301 Billing, Michael, 54 British imperialists, 159 Bills British independent newspaper, 194 controversial, 127 British newspapers, 252 import, 289 British occupation, 172 third, 128 British South Africa Company, 27, 41 Binary setup, 87 British supervised elections, 162 Bishop Dodge, 30 Broadcasting, 126 Bishop Lamont, 30 Broadcasting Authority of Zimbabwe Biti, Tendai, 104n10, 394 (BAZ), 127, 191 Black people Broadcasting Services, 127, 246, 257 impoverished, 62 Broadcasting Services Act (BSA), young, 32 127, 191 Black political parties, 31 BSA, see Broadcasting Services Act Black populations, 28–33, 40, 42, 300 Building trust and oppressed, 31 confdence, 308–310 Blacks, 2, 6, 27–33, 35, 36, 38–40, Bulawayo, 36, 71, 75, 145, 156, 162, 42, 44, 45, 59–62, 65, 66, 120, 166, 169, 171–173 126, 141, 143, 145–147, 149, Bulawayo metropolitan, 167 165, 173, 218, 230, 300, 303, Bulawayo News, 162 315, 364, 369, 382, 395, 396 Bulawayo’s Lady Stanley, 162 INDEX 403

Bureaucracy, 8, 90–92, 118, 188, Campaigning, 188, 259 227, 278 critical civil society organizations, 67 new, 97 Canada, 137, 176, 224 Bureaucrats Candidates conniving, 286 independent, 102, 185, 322 senior, 91, 307, 312 parliamentary, 171 Business presidential, 43, 197 international economics, 362 right, 198 internationalization/ Capacity-building process, 324 internationalisation, 369–380, Capital 382, 383 direct investment, 363 objectives, 365, 372, 382 domestic, 281 opportunities, 35, 64, 365, 366 foreign, 218 paradigm, 287 global, 17, 275, 276 parasitic, 7 human, 311, 378, 382 plan, 276, 292, 293 international, 286, 292, 294, prospects, 379 295, 364 scientists, 364 market and inward FDI, 380–381 By-election, 185 movement, 364 nation’s, 282 shared intellectual, 378 C subsidise, 276 Cabinet minister, 248, 395 working, 381 Cabral, A., 60 Capital accumulation Cadres fnancialised primitive, 275 deploying ZANU-PF, 96 primitive, 275–277, 290, 294, 295 ex-ZANLA, 163 Capitalism, 17, 275, 282–284, 335 high-ranking female, 336 international, 295 young generation party, 181 Capitalist philosophies, 360 Calabrese, A., 252 Cases Caledonia Mining, 286 basket, 325 Cameron, H., 36, 37, 94n3 charged, 200 Campaign critical land reform, 201 door-to-door ZANU-PF, 196 CCDZ, see Centre for Community email bombing, 239 Development in Zimbabwe food-for-a-vote, 197 CCJP, 61, 94, 94n3 militarized, 196 CCMS, see Centre for Communication period, 11 Media and Society pre-election military terror, 195 CCZ, 200n20 rallies, 108 Ceasefre, 33, 161 smear, 265 Central Committee, 10 teams, 195, 196, 196n12 Central committee meetings, 10, 229 404 INDEX

Central Intelligence Organisation Chedondo, Martin (Major General), (CIOs), 183, 196, 234 150, 198 feared, 234 Chief Justice Central issues, 65 former, 102 Central point, 55 longest serving, 92 Central stage, 69, 72 Chief Mapondera, 240 Centralisation, 126, 284, Chiefs 321, 324 aides, 199 general, 123 commandeered, 199 Centrality, 251, 303 modern, 91 Centralization increased, 126 traditional, 57, 199 Centralized state bureaucracies, 118 Chieftainship, 26, 199 Centre Chigwata, Tinashe Carlton, 17, competing, 248 18, 321–323 developed, 292, 295 China on offcial duty, 334 hollowed, 107 Chinamano, Ruth (wife), 31 main urban, 71 Chineka, Livingstone (Brig- manufacturing, 282 Gen), 191–192 moderate, 88 Chinese modern, 279 companies, 286, 319 nerve, 199 instructors, 170 Challenges investment, 263 address debt, 317 markets, 288 alternative, 321 CIOs, see Central Intelligence contemporary, 269 Organisation contextual, 52 Circumstantial evidence, 368 court, 106, 173 Citizen displeasure, 78 economic, 69, 307, 317, 324 Citizen re-assertiveness formidable, 187 renewed, 74 internal, 170, 185 Citizenry law, 240 general, 73 liquidity, 317 informed, 262 major, 277 Citizens moral hazard, 372 alienation of, 25 new, 68 angry, 70, 398 political, 266 arresting, 194 social, 17, 52, 299 enlightened, 262 socio-economic, 267 equal, 59 unresolved, 66 free, 2 Champion multi-partyism, 103 galvanized, 74 Championed labour rights, 141 guiding, 176 Character assassination, 258, 265 individual, 119, 123 INDEX 405

informing, 251 traditional, 75–77 marginalised, 120 urban, 55 mobilize, 66, 75 Civil society groups new, 75–77 organized, 73 ordinary, 52, 80, 236, traditional, 75, 77 303–306, 317 Civil society organizations (CSOs), 63, picketing, 238 67, 71, 74, 76–79, 89, 107, 123 sovereign, 61 community mobilization, 71 television reassuring, 305 Civil society organizations/civil society voting, 268 organisations (CSOs) white, 2, 30 free, 79 Citizenship traditional, 76–78 bifurcated, 56 Civilian authorities, 203 disenchantment and apathy, 69 de jure, 15 inclusive, 53, 58, 61, 65, 66 Civilianisation process, 19 Citizenship rights, 335 Civilianise, 19 basic, 77 Civilians Civic activism, 69, 74 designer, 19 new, 76 handlers, 203 Civic organisations, 68, 105, 247 innocent, 94, 97, 393 respective, 105 members, 94 Civics Class discrimination, 30, 44 movement’s struggles, 57 Climate change, 286 processes, 124 Coalitions society organizations, 238 grand, 255, 258 Civil disputes, 20 political, 76 Civil liberties, 303 possible, 259 Civil society Cobbing, J., 26, 158 activists, 95, 394 Codifcation, 127 activities, 95, 321, 394 Cold War, 3, 146 allege, 234 Coleman intimates, 232 allied, 105 Colonial an indigenous, 56 authoritarianism, 61 and democratisation in authorities, 210 Zimbabwe, 121–125 conquest, 54, 172 and opposition politics, 96–99 domination, 5 deracialized, 56 era, 28, 42, 118, 127, 159, 161 differentiated, 121 era Law, 127 efforts, 57 historians, 160 emerging, 98 ideology, 282 state of, 14, 117, 122, 129 image, 160 strong, 208 inheritance, 7 406 INDEX

Colonial (cont.) Commander in-chief, 341–347 invaders, 160 Commander in-chief boobless, 341 legacy, 4, 300 Commander mukuru, 341 nation-state, 55 Commodity circulation processes, 287 oppression, 124, 143 Commodity marketing, 284 rulers, 160 Commodity value chains, 287 settlers, 7, 54, 120 Common civil service culture, 310 stereotyping, 160 Commonwealth, 37, 303 subjects, 61 Community-based organizations subjugation, 141, 142 (CBOs), 76 writers, 160 Comparative analyses of elite dis- yesteryear, 230 cohesion in ZANU-PF, 187–188 Colonial masters, 161 Competitive general equilibrium former, 146 economy, 369 Colonial rule Confict defned transition trajectories armed, 161 post, 141 ethnic, 168, 170, 174 direct, 7 nationalist, 137 Colonial state pre-date, 159 bifurcated, 56 protracted social, 155 hegemony, 124 Conficting notions of change, 67 Colonial Zimbabwe, 29–31, 41 Conficts generated, 27 Colonialism Confictual, 55 defeat, 58 Congo, 46 internal, 17 Connell’s hegemonic masculinity new, 284 concept, 18, 331, 336, 347 resisting, 31 Constitution, 2, 9, 37, 42, 43, 63, 67, Colonies former, 6 68, 79, 80, 95, 95n4, 104, 105, Colonisation/colonization, 26–28, 128, 174, 185, 190, 192–194, 31–33, 41, 42, 163 198, 201, 202, 230, 301, 304, Colonists, 27 305, 309, 313–316, 325, 332 victorious, 163 new, 42, 43, 68, 79, 80, 105, Colonized peoples, 26, 27 304, 325 Colonizers former, 62 Constitution of Zimbabwe, 37, 174, Colony, 6 305, 314, 315 former settler, 80 vests, 305 Comic Pastor, 222 Constitution of Zimbabwe Commander asina mazamu, 341 Amendment, 202 Commander Defence Forces, 341, Constitution-making process, 65, 67, 342, 345 104, 230 Commander Defense Forces and Constitutional Amendment army, 346 Number, 201 INDEX 407

Constitutional amendments, 302 party’s, 208 Constitutional clause, 176, 198 political, 208, 211, 214, 215 Constitutional Court, 11, 110, taking, 79, 304, 390 200n20, 202, 393 undoubted, 203 Constitutional delinquency, 240, 241 Corruption Constitutional exercises, 246 allegations, 259 Constitutional Lawyers, 309 and extortion, 248, 262 Constitutional legal basis, 190 included, 95 Constitutional order, 227, 313 increased, 70 Constitutional processes, 107 open, 63 Constitutional republic elected, 190 proliferating, 72 Constitutional roles, 9, 194, 200 Corruption cases, 302 designated, 304 prosecuting, 311 Constitutional veneer, 10 Corruption Index, 311 Constitutionalise, 9 Counter-fuck Grace, 346 Constitutionalism, 2, 54, 63, 79, 104, Counter-fucking, 346 301, 304, 314–316 Counter-hegemonic, 103, 104, Contemporary Zimbabwe, 123, 158, 107, 108n14 253, 331, 337 bloc, 108, 110 Context, 8, 9, 14, 16, 18, 34, 46, 55, Counter-hegemony, 103–109 56, 69, 73, 79, 91, 100, 102, Counter-plots, 19 117, 120, 123, 127, 129, 138, Counter-positions, 88 157–163, 165, 167, 199, 203, Counter-revolutionary elements, 207–219, 222, 232, 233, 254, 342, 354 255, 282, 309, 332–334, Countering, 258 336–339, 341, 359, 362, 365, Country 367, 369, 376, 381, 396, 397 coup, 305 Continuous currency devaluation, 281 Courted political controversy, 168 Continuous demands, 8 Courts Continuum, 53, 54, 72 appeals, 128 Contradictions, 5, 32, 58, 93, 156, declaration, 201 173, 184–185, 189, 283, 317 ruling, 202 civil, 237 Credit, 172, 174, 284, 292, 310, Control 363, 373 a loss of, 337, 349 banking, 292 authoritarian state, 126 Criminal abuse, 248 direct, 269 Criminal Law, 127 exerting, 34 Criminalisation/ little, 339 criminalization, 29, 128 livestock, 29 Criminalizing debate, 171–172 loss of, 39, 194, 337 Criminals, 37, 188, 193, 248, 348 lost, 266 around the president, 9 408 INDEX

Crisis Data Protection Authority of blown, 303 Zimbabwe, 128 economic, 47, 228, 276, Data Protection Bill, 127, 128 316, 325 David Easton’s systems theory, 138 in Zimbabwe Coalition, 67 Debt securities, 363 multi-layered, 52 Decentralisation, 301 political, 325 Decentralization, 62 viability, 381 Decentralize, 308 Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), Decision-makers, 92 254, 255 Decisions Cross-pollination, 136, 142 contacts enhance, 378 Crude neo-liberal framework, 19 court, 200, 315 Cultural relativism, 283 informed, 251, 269, 372 Culture informed political, 262 cyber, 222 judicial, 200 given, 338 managed, 26 guiding, 142 micro level, 379 of polarisation in powerful, 151 Zimbabwe, 85–110 unpopular, 71 ongoing, 138 unpopular government, 70 oral, 232 Defenceless, 263 particular, 226 Defenceless widow, 258, 260 Cumulative causation models, 376 unfortunate, 259 Currency Degenerating, 9, 159, 399 crisis, 318 Degree crush, 65 high, 129 dominant, 317 large, 41, 121 hard, 318 signifcant, 380 injection, 363 Deimperialization, 57 local, 318 Deindustrialization, 281 regimes, 318 Demobilisation resisted, 228 surrogate, 317 Democracy surrogate bond, 288 consolidation of, 68, 117, 121, 269 Currency reforms, 317–318 constitutional, 2, 63, 176, 192, 194, required, 318 304, 314, 315 Cybercrime Bill, 234 contemporary, 13, 58, 125 Cyberspace, 73 deepen, 86, 321 deepening, 118, 119, 122, 124, 125, 129 D enhancing, 309 Data presentation and entrenching, 62 discussion, 234–238 internal, 61 INDEX 409

issues of, 16, 65–67, 104, 107, positive, 302 226, 262 social, 311, 314 liberal, 1, 53, 122, 123, 183, 227 substantial, 288 modern, 123, 125 sustainable, 53, 62, 280, 294 multiparty, 301 uneven, 17, 275, 276, 279 pseudo, 79, 183, 208 Development approaches, 283 strengthen, 86, 315 Development beneft, 322 thriving, 99 Development discourses, 293 Democracy and Political Discourse, 12 Development goals, 377 Democratic Change, 78, 123, 186 Development objectives, 323 Democratic Party (DP), 101 Development paradigm, 52, 301 Democratic transition, 12, 14, 75, 79, Development plans, 277, 283, 117, 120, 122, 129 292, 313 delayed, 155, 157 new, 276, 277 Democratic triumphs, 183 Developmental challenges Demonized Grace Mugabe addressing, 170, 174 framing, 14 Developmental disposition, 258 Demonstrations Developmental strides, 165 historic, 339 Developmentalism, 4 intermittent, 98 Developmentalist, 57, 280 largest, 339 Displacements of black peoples, 31, 32 mass, 72 Disrespecting Grace Mugabe, 190 national, 202 Disrupted consultative meetings, 172 ongoing street, 72 Dissidence peaceful, 202 fomenting, 231 public, 334 hidden, 225 Demonstrators long-running thread of, 16, 223 angry, 344 political, 223, 226 fellow, 339, 340 Dissidence in Zimbabwean Politics Development Shepherd Mpofu and Trust capital market, 360 Matsilele, 221–244 capitalist, 276 District Commissioners, 26 critical societal, 227 Dominance human, 142 male, 332, 335, 339, 346, 347 human capital, 311, 378, 382 male social, 338 inclusive, 17, 63, 79, 277, 293, 294 unbridled, 89, 98 inclusive transformative, 17, white, 2, 30 277, 293 Dominant liberal practices infrastructural, 282 interwoven, 91 organic, 13, 86 Dominant political culture, 14, 117, payments, 289 135–144, 148, 151, 152 political, 137 Double-edged sword, 191 410 INDEX

Dubai, 344 Economic messiah, 260 Dussel, Enrique (Liberation), 78 Economic Partnership Dynamic layout, 252, 254 Agreements, 376 Dynamic profciencies, 375 Economic planners, 280 Dzikamai Mavhaire, 185 Economic planning, 281 Dzimiri, 148 centralised, 281 Economic powerhouse, 317 Economic progress, 96 E Economic quagmire, 263 Easton’s Systems Theory, 138–139 Economic recovery path, 11 Eclectic model, 365 Economic sanctions, 31 classical, 365 illegal, 303 Economic blueprint, 317 Economic situation, 9, 229, 303–305, Economic choices, 324 319, 361, 368 Economic conditions, 52, 68, 124, precarious, 324 159, 393, 397 Economic Structural Adjustment Economic culture, 33, 48 Programme (ESAP), 63, 64, 101, Economic deadlock, 360 103, 124, 276, 281, 282, 302, Economic decline, 16, 165 360, 361 unprecedented, 245 adopted, 360 Economic development neo-liberal, 276 alternative, 294 Economic trajectory, 307 domestic, 277 Economics, 48, 137, 249, 252, 300, inclusive, 276, 277 360, 362, 370 introverted, 277 Economies of scales, 366, potential, 290 367, 381 real, 319 Economists, 364 Economic development issues, 293 Economy Economic development path, 17, 275 declining, 266 Economic development plan, 277 developed, 294 new, 276 developing, 175, 362, 370 Economic development strategies, 281 disarticulated, 17, 275, 277, 287, Economic development trajectories, 288, 293 276, 281–283 enclave, 165 Economic growth extroverted, 17, 275–298 expected sustained, 62 failed, 18, 359, 396–398 rapid, 98 faltering, 324 sustainable, 175 fragmented, 361 Economic growth outcomes host, 366 positive, 281 local, 317 Economic malaise, 240, 241 multicurrency, 361 Economic meltdown, 9 planned, 281 INDEX 411

political, 69, 135, 136, 140, 142, winning, 92 192, 221, 276, 360 Elite Fragmentation in Women and shrinking, 264 Youth Leagues, 185–187 socialist, 281 Elite groups modern, 76 stagnant, 304 Elites strong, 301 authoritarian regime, 186 Education, 2, 30, 59, 62, 64, 98, 106, corporate, 125 167, 175, 301, 302, 304, 306, educated black, 59 319, 395 political, 35, 62, 87, 118, 123, Egypt, 1, 78, 233, 394, 398 125, 127 Egypt uprising, 222 Emergence, 67, 68, 80, 91, 100, 123, Eighty Years, 397 124, 185, 200, 264, 306 Election environment, 199 Employment Act, 97 Election interview, 69 Employment creation, 361 Election outcome, 68 Employment opportunities, 319 undisputed, 307 Employment patterns, 166 Election results Endeavour of Foreign Direct parliamentary, 106 Investment, 362 presidential, 151 Enemies of the struggle, 32 securocrats infuence, 196 Energy Election Supervision Commission collective, 7 (ESC), 199 direct, 152 Elections strategic, 284 competitive, 183 Enforcement, 108, 147 contested, 150, 309 Entrench authoritarianism, 57 democratic, 301 Entrench dictatorship, 63 disputed, 304, 308, 320 Environment early, 200 conducive, 314 free, 68 conducive business investment, 282 free and fair, 107, 118, 276 constraining, 7 general, 146, 186, 187, 189, 332, democratic, 62 361, 392 economic, 311, 368, 369 harmonised, 99, 246, 299, 304, 307 hostile, 168 infuence, 196, 224 hostile learning, 168 multiparty, 195 open business, 325 national, 11, 342n1 operating, 376 next, 95, 101, 106 polarised, 88, 247 parliamentary, 45, 99, 105, restrictive media, 14, 118, 129 106, 391 Environmental damage, 294 periodic, 118, 120 Environmental preservation, 319 provincial chairperson, 189 ESAP, see Economic Structural representative, 183 Adjustment Programme 412 INDEX

ESAP deaths, 103 F ESC Chief Executive Offcer, 199 Facebook, 72, 74, 224, 226, 234, Ethnic chauvinism, 176 236, 238, 341, 345 perceived, 156 Facing Mount Kenya, 59 Ethnic cleansing, 165, 175 Faction leader, 190 Ethnic consciousness, 155, Factional politics, 260, 261 156, 176 leading divisive, 262 Ethnic majority, 148 Farmers Ethnic majority party, 148 black, 29 Ethnic minority party, 148 resettled peasant, 77 Ethnic origins, 159 smallholder, 225, 287 Ethnic overtones, 170 white, 10, 29, 41, 42, 44, 149, 303, Ethnic political undertones, 156 390, 391 Ethnic politics white commercial, 200, 228 narrow, 145 white racist commercial, 201 narrow tribal, 145 Fast Track Land Reform, 217, 279 tribal, 147, 148 Fast Track land Reform Program Ethnic segmentation, 145 (FTLRP), 2, 149, 200, 303, 324 Ethnicism, 123 Fast-tracks, 287 Ethnicity, 34, 39, 45, 60, 61, 89, 139, Father Zimbabwe, 5, 145 145, 146, 157, 158, 166, 170, Fathers, 55, 197, 199, 216, 234, 341, 173, 280 343, 348 politicised, 14 FDI, see Foreign Direct Investment Ethnicization, 14, 155–180 FDI and stock markets, 380 Euro-American global imperial FDI decisions, 367 designs, 292 FDI infows Eurocentric epistemology, 278 inward, 380 Eurocentrism, 294 Fight corruptiom, 308, 311, 390, 395 Europe, 30, 224, 284 Fighting European domination, 58 constitutional lobby group, 230 European journalist, 218 guerrillas, 227 European nationals, 145 Finance European settler accumulation, 279 export monopoly, 290 European Union (EU), 257, public, 313 288, 376 Finance capital, 17, 275, 282, European Union and SADC 284, 294 countries, 376 Financial assistance, 294 Evaluations, 254, 310 Financial Gazette, 199n18 Extreme Suffering for African Financial institutions, 311, 317, 373 People, 302 international, 294 Extroverted natural resource Financial irregularities, 315 extraction, 294 Financial obstacles, 372 INDEX 413

Financial payouts, 65 nature of, 382 Financial support package, 294 outward, 365, 367, 369 Financial viewpoint, 363 search of, 18, 359 Force Vice President Emmerson volumes and direction of, 368, 382 Mnangagwa, 187 Former President Mugabe, 256, Forced assimilative relationship, 158 258, 259 Forced Morgan Tsvangirai, 109 Former President Robert Mugabe, Forced Robert Mugabe, 361 120, 248, 299, 303 Forced structural changes, 280 Former secretary general, 101, 104 Forces Fraudulent transfer of resources, 290 armed, 9, 93, 95, 184 Fraught, 32, 156 external, 31 Free speech, 127, 233 formidable, 149 unrestrained, 233 guerrillas, 32 Freedom imperial, 293 attainment of, 5, 59 imperialist, 141 civic, 76 inimical, 230 fundamental, 309 invading colonial, 159 guaranteed, 127 main, 253 people’s, 5, 7, 108, 121 meting brute, 235 political, 123 mobilizing, 167 presupposed, 227 political, 264 struggles for, 5 powerful social, 64 white, 301 regular, 337 Freedom Camps, 169 regular military, 66 Freedom fghters, 60, 161 social, 64, 65, 68, 69 Freedom lies ahead, 5 Foreign Aid, 362 Freedom of assembly, 108, 127, 227 economic commentators Freedom of expression, 127 confuse, 362 French governments, 70 Foreign associates, 263 French revolutions, 227, 343 Foreign currency, 288, 307, 318, 320, Front for the Liberation of Zimbabwe 395, 396 (FROLIZI), 146 shortage of, 317, 318, 321 Fucking Grace, 346 Foreign currency accounts, 318 Funding Foreign currency shortages, 320, 321 enjoyed foreign, 230 Foreign currency supply, 288 massive external, 98 Foreign debt, 317 Funding agencies, 79 Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) Funding institutions, 280 agents of, 19, 359, 362 defned, 362 direction of, 368, 380, 382 G fnancial procedures of, 380 Gadzikwa, Wellington, 16, 224 414 INDEX

Gaidzanwa, Rudo, 39, 332, 335 political, 152 Gedi Ndlovu, 162 produced, 289, 313 Gender, 12, 18, 33, 34, 39, 42, 45, supplying, 379 54, 56, 60, 137, 246, 283, 331, Goreraza, Stanley, 344 332, 335–339, 347, 351, Governance 353, 354 accountable, 314, 322 equality, 331 agendas, 308 equity, 336 bad, 74, 307, 395 examined, 332 castigated ZANU-PF, 66 exclusion, 18, 331, 354 clean, 325 identities, 137 corporate, 319, 373 inequalities, 337 culture, 77, 325 Gendered beings, 347 democratic, 85, 309 Gendered Zimbabwean, 335–336 formal legal, 315 Gendzel, 120 local, 156, 166 General Chiwenga, 334, participatory, 86 341, 344–346 progressive, 20 General Lookout Masuku, 162 representative, 54 Generations system of, 18, 62, 63, 91 new, 70, 77 Governance issues Geographical demarcation, 159 economic, 69, 77 Geographical location, 187 ignoring, 77 Ghana socialist path, 290 Governance politics, 77 Global commodity chains, 284 Government Global Financial Integrity (GFI), accountable, 307 287, 290 agencies, 309, 310 Global Political Agreement (GPA), aid, 197 43, 67, 172, 200, 245, 247 alternative MDC, 276 negotiators, 172 appointments, 129 Globalization, 53, 292, 369, 374, 378 arms of, 315 increased, 373 black majority, 146, 147 GNU, see Government of building, 210 national unity bureaucracy, 278 GNU and Zimbabwe African National central, 58, 322 Unity Patriotic Front civilian, 20, 203 (ZANU-PF), 277 coalition, 68, 392 Golden Straitjacket, 278 colonial, 29, 40, 45, 146, 172 Golding, P., 252, 268 employees, 310 Goods failure, 280 consumer, 268 food handouts, 197 essential household, 70 functional, 308 markets, 370 functionaries, 228 INDEX 415 fund, 374 settler, 27, 28, 143, 147 gender policies, 332 subnational, 322, 323 government perspective, 371 subsidies, 302, 374 host, 374 support, 375, 379, 383, 391 in FDI and International western, 68, 319 Business, 382 white, 29, 38 inclusive, 2, 67, 79, 92 Government expenditure, 302 institutions, 308 Government infrastructure, 165 involvement limiting, 118, local, 29, 197 129, 282 Government intervention, levels of, 309, 312, 313 283, 369–375 manages, 70 restrictive, 129 ministers, 269 Government of national unity (GNU), nationalist, 91, 142 3, 43, 47, 198, 200, 277, networks, 373 282, 304 new, 18, 62, 93, 97, 98, 126, 183, Government offcials 307, 309, 359, 362, 379 denounced senior, 348 new Zimbabwe, 18 senior, 71, 310, 348 of Zimbabwe, 177, 286, 300, 303, Governmental powers 307, 317, 379 concentrated, 321 parallel, 263 decentralised, 322 permitted, 97 Governors, 25, 196 policies, 138, 214, 276, 308, Grace Mugabe’s case, 353 318, 383 Grace’s actions, 350 positions, 19, 215, 312 Grace’s ascendancy, 343 post-colonial, 118, 120, 123, Grace’s behaviour, 348 129, 130 Grace’s character, 350 post-independence Zimbabwe, 165 Grace’s contribution, 349 posts, 166, 309 commending, 351 power-sharing, 2, 47 Gross Domestic Product (GDP), 303, practices, 278 367, 376 pre-and post-colonial, 123 growth, 367 promulgation, 72 growth rate, 367 propaganda, 165 sustainable, 376 pseudo-civilian, 276 value of, 367 recent, 75 Gubbay, Anthony (Chief Justice), 200, recklessness, 70 304, 314 resisted, 71 Guerrillas, 8, 28, 32, 33, 57, 58, 164, response, 149, 377, 396 169, 173, 227 responsible, 376 fghter former, 360 role of, 19, 359, 362, 369–380 fghters, 335 roles, 382 warfare, 28 416 INDEX

Gukurahundi, 12, 34, 36–38, 45, 66, Herald’s position in Zimbabwean 93, 94, 98, 109, 110, 147, politics, 257 165–169, 171, 172, 174–177, High Court, 9, 202 228, 391, 394 High Court Judge, 203 christened, 93 High literacy rates, 225 Historical inheritance, 143 History H annals of, 155, 158 Habermas, J., 122, 223, 226, 227 country’s, 66, 110 Hackers, 224, 232 cultural, 156, 169 underground, 232 economic, 361 Hacktivists, 222, 232 inclusive, 80 Harare demonstration, 340 known, 235 Harare regime, 56 long, 309 Harris, N.R., 256, 370, 372–376, 378 modern, 183 Hashtag activism, 75 political, 120 Hashtag activists, 70, 77 postcolonial, 9 Hegel, 121 recent, 193 Hegemonic reconstructed liberation war, 164 agenda, 169 shared, 137, 143 machinery, 124 technical, 231 networks, 238 traceable, 143 Hegemonic masculinity violent, 66 concept, 18, 331, 336, 347 Host Markets Determinants of FDI, confate, 339 362, 367–369 construction of, 18, 331 Human rights Hegemony activist, 394 alternative, 85 fundamental, 316, 325 cultural, 156, 169 organisations, 104 economic, 264 Human rights abuses, 68, 94, 282 ethnic, 14, 34, 136, 139, gross, 68 140, 142, 143, 147, 148, Humanity/humanities, 78, 136, 247 151, 152 new, 80 growing, 98 Husband ideological, 280 ageing, 333, 342 political, 200, 302, 304 disgraced, 350 ruling party’s, 93, 95 late, 257 theory, 337 tribal/ethnic, 14, 136, 140, 142, 143, 147, 152 I Hegemony building project, 93, 98 Identity attendant, 93 common, 58, 136 INDEX 417

conficts, 173 penetration, 282 defning, 136, 145 IMPI, see Information and Media ethnic, 37, 148, 155, 157 Panel of Inquiry fragmented, 145 Impunity, 38, 54, 121, 395 group-coalescing, 14, 136, 140, 142 Independence masculine, 338 attained, 209, 301 national, 137 attainment of, 28 particular, 55 country’s, 173 shared, 137 decade of, 62, 96, 302–304, 315 social, 137, 339 hard-won, 150, 197 Identity politics Mugabe, 360 conditions, 138 operational, 311 cross-cutting, 143, 145 Indigenous Business Development defning, 136 Council (IBDC), 65 ethnic, 148 Indigenous Business Women flaments of, 136 Organization (IBWO), 65 nature and extent of, 136 Inform investment policies, 371 racial hegemony, 147 Information role of, 14, 138 asymmetric, 373 sustained, 148 complete, 59, 370 tribal exclusionary, 146 critical, 251, 268 Identity Politics Factors, 135–154 humiliating, 232 Identity politics in Zimbabwe inadequate, 309, 370 Transition Politics, 139 incomplete, 372 Identity Politics Shapes Transition irregular, 372, 373 Politics, 138–139 minister of, 127, 129, 191, Ideologies 210–212, 216, 258 bankrupt, 325 new, 256 developed post-colonial, 282 objective, 251, 269 particular, 55 personal, 128 political, 119 political, 252 repulsive, 230 public, 128 transgressing ZANU-PF, 252 publishing, 233 unifying, 76 quality standards, 374 Imbizo, 26 real time, 74 IMF, see International Monetary Fund supply, 374 Imperialism valued, 338 bourgeois, 282 Information and Broadcasting global capital interests Services, 246 perpetuating, 17, 275 Information and Media Panel of Imperialist, 60, 141, 149, 159, Inquiry (IMPI), 245–247, 265 283, 284 fndings, 247 418 INDEX

Information and Publicity ministry, global, 373 211, 219 potential, 368 Information and Publicity ministry in prospective, 370 Zimbabwe post, 219 Israel’s worship, 347 Information Bill, 127 Israeli kingdom, 347 Information Bill sets, 127 Infotainment, 251, 267 Infrastructure J public, 318 Johannesburg rebuilding, 175 airport in South Africa, 210 repressive legal, 126 Joice Mujuru Infrastructure development, 175 coverage of, 266 Interception of Communications Act expulsion of, 16, 246–248, 252, (ICA), 191 253, 259, 261, 267, 269 International Crisis Group, 3 lambasted, 333 International Development, 325 portrayed, 258 International engagement, 11 Joint Operations Command International fnance, 284 (JOC), 109 International fnance circuits, 284 Jomo Kenyatta, 59 International integration, 324 Joshua Nkomo’s ZAPU, 169 International Monetary Fund (IMF), Journalism 2, 101, 103, 229, 294, 360, 362, broadsheet, 248–250, 261, 363, 396 262, 268 International niches, 377 independent, 35 International reengagement, 307 investigative, 256 International stage, 325 objective, 255, 267, 269 Internationalization, 19, 256, 359, patriotic, 218, 219 365, 369–380, 382, 383 professional, 218, 261 Internationalization advantage, 365 simplifed, 252 Internet, 72, 73, 75, 125, 212, 226, sound bite, 256 231–233, 393 tabloid, 248–251, 261, 264 Internet use, 73 Journalists Interregnum new, 78 and editors, 15, 207, 208, 210, 211, Intervention mechanisms, 13 213, 215–219 Interventions committed participation of, legal, 231 209, 217 necessary, 195 critical, 209 overt, 198 manipulating, 215 witnessed military, 1 orientate, 213 Investors professional, 218, 261 direct, 363 purged, 219 foreign, 277, 363 purged senior, 211 INDEX 419

recruiting, 212 L selected, 207 Labour senior, 211–214 cheap, 144, 283, 295 young, 211, 217 included, 89, 276 Judicial Service Commission, 202 resurgent, 101 Judiciary, 15, 31, 33, 90, 91, 182, unions, 63, 96, 228 183, 200–203, 208, 301, 304, Labour movement, 2, 96, 97, 103, 312, 314, 315, 322 105, 107, 123, 124 independent, 314 formidable, 64 Justice Lancaster Constitution, 126 economic, 58, 64–66 Lancaster House, 37, 93, 104, redistributive, 65, 80 301, 313 restorative, 240 Lancaster House Agreement, 33, social, 62, 70, 98 161, 163 Justice & Peace, 196n14 Lancaster House Constitution, 2, 63, 202, 301 negotiated, 301 K Lancaster House negotiations, 37, 93 Kalanga Cultural Society Land (KCS), 165 ancestral, 31 Kaleidoscope, 61 audits, 79 Kanhanga, Epmarcus (Brigadier- community, 71 General), 191 deals, 284 Kenya, 141 grabs, 285, 286 Khupe, Thokozani, 239 issue, 208, 217, 219 Khuphe, Thokozani, 151 lost, 10 King, 26, 27 markets, 279 King Ahab’s wife, 347 occupation, 65 King, Jr. Martin Luther, 145 occupied, 31 King, Martin Luther, 237 ownership, 146, 279, 303 approach, 237 politics, 156 Kingmakers, 95, 109, 197 question, 104, 290 Knowledge reclamation, 4 empirical, 375 redistribution, 15, 65, 149 frm, 373 reform question, 135 private, 373 restitution, 53 productive, 375 restored, 2 public, 126, 373 small-scale resettled, 279 tacit, 375, 382 tenure issues, 29 technological, 375 urban, 29 Kriger for Zimbabwe’s Mtoko use, 29 District, 60 watered, 27 420 INDEX

Land Apportionment Act, 27 factional, 333 Land Husbandry Act, 143 former, 229, 342 Land reform former war veterans, 342 championed, 218 formidable, 258 defended, 216 incumbent, 183 fast track, 217 individual cultic, 268 Land Reform Programme, 257, 264 intellectual, 59 radical Fast-Track, 2 key ZANU-PF, 192 Land Tenure Act, 28 mature, 255, 258 Land tenure systems moderate, 259, 260, 263 tribal, 279 political, 28, 150, 170, 197, 268, Landscape 300, 308, 333 economic, 361 recognized public, 74 for opposition politics, 90–92 revered, 93 urban, 77 senior party, 187 Language senior PF-ZAPU, 93 body, 238 settler, 27 controlled, 249 veteran, 9 polarising liberationist, 96 Leadership shared, 140 association’s, 189 Law and Order Maintenance Act black traditional, 29 (LOMA), 127 civilian, 8 Laws clear, 231 better, 105 female, 344, 354 constitutional, 240 intellectual, 59 customary, 55 no to petticoat, 344 draconian, 240, 390, 392 political, 151, 302, 304, 390 illegitimate, 240 top, 182, 191 inherited restrictive, 126 visionary, 325 passed controversial indigenous, 369 Legacy rational, 76 dual, 126 repressive, 121 restoring, 80 repressive media, 121, 123, shared, 58 125, 127 underdevelopment, 165 rule of, 53, 54, 59, 263, 304, 308, Legal circles, 361 314–315, 320, 379, 390, 395 Legal constraints, 227 Leaders Legal expert, 201 black/African, 6 Legal framework, 97, 314, 315 brave, 255, 259 institutional, 374 citizen movement, 77 Legal Resources Foundation, 147 civilian, 109 Legally opaque, 202 community, 70, 77, 398 Legislating, 121 INDEX 421

Legislation values, 186 indigenisation, 10 Liberation credentials, 39, 152, 334 passed, 27 strong, 8 responsive, 332 Liberation entitlement tramples, 309 centre, 142 Legislative amendments, 302 politics of, 14, 136, 140–152 Legislative arenas, 208 stock-holder group, 142 Legislature, 15, 31, 33, 90, 183, 208 Liberation history, 9, 142, 203 Legitimacy shared, 141 defciencies, 320 Liberation movements defcit, 307 divided, 173 legal, 203 former, 203 new, 11 narratives ethnicization of, 14 political, 11, 203 national, 124 sustaining, 209 Liberation Movements in Power, 5 Legitimate regime form, 208 Liberation struggles Legitimizing, 338, 351 anticolonial nationalist, 56 infdelity, 345 armed, 8, 57 Lesabe, Thenjiwe, 31, 162 credentials, 95, 151, 152 Liberalization, 2, 99, 281, 302, 309, elite, 152 369, 379 entitlement, 152 trade investment, 369 history, 152 Liberalizing electoral outcome, 183 legacy, 152 Liberals narratives, 163 parties, 29 Liberation war thinkers, 90 anti-colonial, 4, 57 trajectory, 95 background, 202 white, 30 credentials, 9, 182, 260 Liberation discourse, 8 armies, 32, 94 heroine, 248 connection, 15 promises, 62 country’s, 164 veterans, 141, 150 exclusive politics of, 13, 87 Liberation wartime credentials, 181 fghters, 30 Limitations forces, 29, 32 real economic capacity, 376 legacy, 141, 161, 176 Limited democratic consolidation national, 5, 28, 32–34, 36, 38, 40, post-Zimbabwe, 117 42, 48, 105, 124, 192 Limited involvement, 14, 118, 129 of Zimbabwe, 164, 335 Limited numbers, 338 politics of, 13, 14, 87, Literature 136, 140–152 contemporary, 125 question, 135 contemporary empirical, 367 422 INDEX

Literature (cont.) Marginalizes, 161 humanities, 136 Marumahoko, Sylvester, 17, 18, 301 on electoral processes in Marxist interpretation, 110 Zimbabwe, 196 Marxist party, 301 political science, 208 Marxist-Leninist ideology, 217 recent, 368 Marxists, 90, 110 review, 335–336, 381, 383 Masculinities, 338 Logic complicit, 338 fawed, 95 hyper-, 18 immanent, 4, 61 marginalized, 338 logical fow, 233 performing aggressive, 346 logical manifestation, 92 subordinated, 338 market-determined economic, 4 Mashingaidze, Gibson (Major- political continuum, 72 General), 191 settler colonialism’s, 7 Matabeleland agenda, 156 London Stock Exchange (LSE), 286 Matabeleland and Midlands Long presidential incumbency, 3 regions, 93 Long serving president Robert Gabriel Matabeleland chiefs, 172 Mugabe, 3, 109 Matabeleland Collective, 172 Long-term debt, 363 Matabeleland Freedom Party, 156 Louis XVI, ousted King, 343–344 Matabeleland North, 167, 172 LRF, 61, 94n3 Matabeleland provinces, 155, 157, LSE, see London Stock Exchange 175, 301 Matabeleland provinces lag, 175 Matabeleland region, 165 M Matebeleland Home Society Mabenge, Benjamin (Brig-Gen), 191 (MHS), 55 Machiavellian strategies, 211 Matsilele, Trust, 223, 227 Madzingira, Elasto (Brig-Gen), 191 on social media, 16 Marauding Ndebele raiders, 159 Mawarire, Evan (Pastor), 72, 74, 76, Marginal political representation, 33 222, 235–241, 394 Marginal representation, 31 Media and Broadcasting Services, 257 Marginalisation Media discourse, 254 alleged, 162 Media ethics, 250, 258 black, 30 Media Ethics Committee, 245, 247 perceived, 171 Media Framing of Joice perceived ethnic, 156, Mujuru, 256–260 170–171, 174 Medium Term Economic perceived linguistic, 177 Development Plan, 277 political, 28–31 Members of Parliament (MPs), 234 Marginality, 30, 31, 33, 76, 264, 364 and ministers, 234 Marginalized African groups, 62 Meredith, M., 6, 195 INDEX 423

Michael Neocosmos’ Thinking Millennium, 228 Freedom, 5 new, 229, 303 Militarized Judiciary, 200–203 Miller, K., 346 Military Minimum Wages Act, 97 -assisted transition, 3, 195 Minister action, 191, 349 articulate, 210 architecture, 191 current fnance, 230 arms, 93 former ruling party deputy, 92 beret, 346 new, 312 campaign, 94 powerful, 170 circles, 232 provincial, 312 conquest, 61 senior, 152 coup code, 332 Minister of Information and Publicity, coup of November, 4, 80 129, 191, 210–212 defeat, 27 on mediated communication, 129 deployment, 301 Minister of Media, 246 equipment heavy, 334 Ministerial delegations, 319 factor, 182, 303 Ministries fatigue changing, 19 excess, 312 infuence, 203 fully fedged, 234, 239 interests, 15, 183, 191–193, 199, Ministry of Finance, 210 200, 202 Ministry of Information, 208–211, involvement partisan, 182 213, 216, 257 junta, 11, 20 Ministry of Information and Publicity, junta masquerading, 20 208–210, 213 leaders, 163, 301 Ministry offcials, 214 politicking, 183 Minorities, 2, 29, 32, 60, 120, 141, prison, 233 143, 147, 148, 165, 227, 279, prowess, 159 301, 323 recruitment, 183 Minorities At Risk (MAR), 166 Military coup, 3, 4, 8–10, 17, 19, 79, Minority ethnic, 143, 148 80, 94n2, 127, 182, 187, 189, Minority ethnics groups, 323 193–195, 203, 275, 283, Minority Ndebele speakers, 165 305, 332 Minority regime, 227 full blown, 193 Misogynistic, 39, 53, 340, Military elites, 44, 46, 48, 49, 341, 354 186, 203 Misogynistic vitriol, 334 threatened, 186 Misogyny, 18, 331–354 Military intervention Misogyny manifests, 342 combined, 14 Mkandawire, Thandika, 2, 278–280, inevitable, 155 282, 293 inevitable direct, 155 MN interview, 288 424 INDEX

Mnangagwa, Emmerson (Commander Morrish, S., 378 in-chief, Justice Minister, Movement for Democratic Change President), 45, 109, 127, 181, (MDC), 2, 35, 64, 72, 89, 123, 182, 187, 267, 276, 299, 306, 148, 182, 186, 218, 228, 234, 307, 325, 332, 334, 341, 353, 260, 276, 303, 349, 391 361, 389, 390 -Mutambara, 186 administration, 310, 317 activists, 95 and military interests, 202 Alliance, 361 candidate, 10, 189 factions, 172 claimed, 346 formations, 105, 148 coronation, 187 inaugural President, 230 dismissal, 187 policy, 277, 294 dismissed, 187 president, 11, 43, 109, 229, 394 era, 308 Movement for Democratic Change failure, 189 formations, 64 government, 20, 319 Movements and activism in ingwena, 343 Zimbabwe, 76 liberation war credentials, 9, Moyo, Collin (Brig-Gen), 192 182, 260 Moyo, Jonathan (Minister, Prof), 15, ndibaba vedu, 343 92, 95, 210–216, 219, 246, 258, pictures, 343 264, 266, 333 regime, 3–5, 7, 10–12, 18–20 Moyo, Sibusiso (Major General), 2, 9, regime desperate for international 69, 281, 284, 290, 292, 354 engagement, 11 Mozambique, 28, 32, 45, 87n1, 141, regime’s acceptance of crude 163, 169, 216, 217 neo-liberal framework, 19 Mphoko, Phelekezela (Vice President), regime’s failure, 12 10, 190, 240 regime’s monetary policy, 11 Mpofu, Molly, 335 rule, 320, 390, 394 Mpofu, Obert, 152 state, 11, 12, 172, 182, 187, 202, Mpofu, Obert (Minister), 152 307, 392 Mpofu, Shepherd, 16, 228 sympathisers, 342 Trust Matsilele on social media, 16 Mobile penetration, 225 MRP activists, 171, 172 Mobile phones, 125, 340 Msika, Joseph, 31 Modern constitutions, 315 Msindo, E., 55 Modernization hypothesis, 368 Mthwakazi Moffat, J., 370, 373–376 activists, 166, 167 Money fag, 156 extort, 73 groups, 166, 173 laundering based, 287 Human Rights Restoration lenders, 372 Movement, 156 supply, 361 Liberation Front, 156 INDEX 425

Liberation Organisation, 156 Extroverted Economy, 275–295 nation, 173 facilitated, 15 radicals, 169 fellow woman Grace, 333 Republican Party, 156 fred, 203, 389 Restoration Movement, 156 former President, 120, 152, 248, state, 157 258, 259, 299, 303, 332 Mthwakazi Republican Party (MRP), Grace, 333 156, 166, 167, 169, 171–173 helping, 52 Muchemwa, C., 155, 156, 158 interests, 203 Mudenda, Jacob, 304 ministers and strong supporters, 305 Mugabe Dynasty, 342 nephew Patrick Zhuwawo, 333 Mugabe must go, 185, 238 ouster, 110 Mugabe regime, 7, 11, 12, 40–42, 45, presidency, 181 46, 231, 276 pressured, 183 repressive, 276 regime, 72, 121, 231 Mugabe resigns, 194 reign, 299 Mugabe, Albert, 96, 96n7 removal of, 12, 194, 306 Mugabe, Grace (First Lady, wife), 266, removing, 9, 10, 349, 396, 397 332, 334 resignation, 305, 334 Mugabe, Robert (President, Prime rule, 188, 309, 360 Minister), 8, 9, 14, 28, 31, 33, served, 15 38, 43, 52, 67, 76, 80, 92, 96n7, statement, 351 100, 109, 120, 146, 151, 152, succeed, 333 162, 169, 181, 193, 195, 196, successor, 152, 325 201, 202, 228, 231, 248, 299, system, 18 301, 303, 304, 325, 333, 334, toppled, 188 339, 342–344, 347, 348, 350, unceremonious departure, 306 352, 360, 361, 376 Mugabe-Mnangagwa entanglement, 4 and Mnangagwa era, 308 Mugabeism and war veterans, 189 culture, 3, 7, 19, 120 authoritarianism, 195 endured, 10 central role, 44, 185, 393 mantra, 8 claim, 305 rocked, 12 days, 10 Mugova, S., 311 days in power, 301 Mujuru, Joice (Vice-President) defeat, 181 allies, 261 deposed, 94n2, 151 and Chen Chimutengwende, 212 deputy, 148 and votes, 188 dethrone, 334 exonerate, 259 era, 17, 276, 316, 392, 394, expulsion framing of, 253 396, 398 expulsion of, 248, 258 era manifests, 316–317 faws alleged, 258 426 INDEX

Mujuru (cont.) Muzondidya, James, 62 frame, 263 Muzorewa’s participation, 101 framing of, 253, 258, 259, 262, 266, 267 jettison, 334 N moderateness of, 258–260, 263 Naison Ndlovu included, 31 ouster, 262 Nambya, 158, 167 perceived bravery, 258 Namibia, 46, 87, 104 plight, 263 Nation politician Joice Teurairopa, 332 born Zimbabwe, 336 portrayal of, 260, 262, 263 developed, 280, 282 project, 263 developing, 280 propping, 9 divided, 33 Solomon, 173, 248, 260 host, 368 Multinational enterprises (MNE) imagined, 158 and investment decision, 367 international family of, 18, 324 born global, 377, 378 new, 61, 92 decision, 366, 367 postcolonial, 61 exporting, 368 rainbow, 146 internationalize, 378 separate, 171 investment in capital structure, 363 Nation building, 6, 10, 61, 80, 135, motives and host market, 365 141, 146, 159, 170, 282, motives and selection of host 290, 293 markets, 365 Nation building question, 135 motives change, 365 Nation-as-people motives of, 359, 362, 365–366, 382 creation of the, 54 objectives, 364, 382 Nation-as-states, 54 objectives and motives, 382 Nation-state prospective, 367, 368 cohesive, 62 Zimbabwe, 360, 365, 366, 368 imagined postcolonial sovereign, 55 Multinational frm’s real democratic, 79 heterogeneity, 379 Nation-state building, 52 Multiparty, 195, 208, 301 National African Federation of Unions Multipartyism, 309 (NAFU), 96 Mutare, 71, 75 National agendas Mutekwa, A., 336, 346, 347 common, 52, 54, 57 Mutisi, Francis (Brigadier- crystallizing, 52 General), 192 debate, 66, 69 Mutopo, P., 332, 335 discourse, 66, 69 Mutsvairo, B., 221 inclusive, 53 Mutsvangwa, Christopher, National anthem new, 6 189, 190 National Assembly, 304 INDEX 427

National audience, 249 National saving, 362 National broadcaster, 191 National security, 47, 182, 184, 246 National common vision/agenda, 51 National security threat, 199 National consciousness, 55, 223 National statistics, 367 National Constitutional Assembly National television, 202 (NCA), 2, 63–65, 104, 105, National transition questions, 14, 107, 230 136, 143 coffers, 230 nature of, 14 leadership, 230 National unity, 3, 12, 59, 61, 92, 147 National convergence, 65 National visions National Democratic Party common, 57, 58 (NDP), 59, 143 inclusive, 52 National development, 52, 223, 290, National wealth, 286 293, 313 National Working People’s inclusive, 54 Convention (NWPC), 104, 105 National discourse, 57, 223 Nationalism dominated, 58 anticolonial, 61 National economy, 2 civic, 53 National embarrassment, 156 degenerated, 91 National event, 236 exclusive, 164 National fag, 74, 236, 237 multiracial, 149 National healing, 10, 12, 155, 157 racial, 136, 139–152 National hero, 34, 150, 162 revived, 303 National hero status, 150, 162 Nationals of African origin, 141 National honour, 150 Native Land Husbandry Act, 27, 28 National Housing and Social Native peoples, 26, 28 Amenities, 312 Native populations, 27 National income, 367 Natives, 26, 28, 29, 41, 55, 227 National inquiry frst ever, 246 Natural maturation, 54 National integration, 323, 324 Natural mineral, 17, 275 National interests, 15, 56, 150, 198, Natural progression, 72 208, 213, 215, 217–219, Natural resources, 284, 286, 294, 246, 276 322, 365 real, 214 exploiting, 322 National Peace and Reconciliation Natural rulers, 343 Commission (NPRC), 12, Natural successor, 248 171–172, 174–175, 177, 315 Nature National Prosecuting Authority bourgeois, 108 (NPA), 189, 311, 315, 316 chaotic, 2, 147 National Question in Africa, 69 competitive, 182 National radar, 64 competitive authoritarian, 192, 194 National Railways of Zimbabwe, 319 complex, 184 428 INDEX

Nature (cont.) people’s grievances, 76, 172 crosscutting, 143, 145 people’s history, 160 gendered, 331, 339, 347 person, 160 grand, 302 point, 160 heterogeneous, 379 populace, 170 hybrid, 194 president in Zimbabwe, 148 Ncube, Cornelius, 68 region, 162, 170 Ncube, Leslie, 172 response, 159 Ncube, Lyton (Doctoral), 18, 335, speakers, 146 336, 342, 344 statehood, 170 Ncube, Mthuli, 230, 396 war effort, 163 Ncube, Trevor, 193, 349, 351 warriors, 159 Ncube, Welshman, 63, 200n20, 394 wars of resistance, 163 Ndau people, 158 word, 167 Ndebele youth, 167, 174 -speaking areas, 166, 177 Ndebele aggression, 159 -speaking civilians, 61 pre-colonial, 174 -speaking communities, 14, Ndebele history, 160 157, 161 early, 160 -speaking people, 2, 166, 302 Ndebele kings, 27, 157, 159, 173 -speaking tribes, 140 illiterate, 27 and Shona, 27, 41, 94, 146, Ndebele people, 26, 27, 38, 159, 160, 160, 177 162–165, 168–172, 175, 176 and Shona dichotomy, 158 infuriated, 176 and Shona groups, 27, 158, 159 Ndebele state and Shona in contemporary independent, 172 Zimbabwe, 158 pre-colonial, 175 and Shona people, 41, 162, Ndebele statehood, 170 170, 177 Ndiweni, Khayisa (Chief), 173 and Shona relations, 158, 160 Ndlovu, Sikhanyiso, 31 chiefs, 26, 27 Ndlovu-Gatsheni, S.J., 2–6, 8, commissioner, 172 13, 26, 54, 55, 58, 66, 91, 94, communities, 166, 167, 175 146, 147, 164, 222, 290, 292, country, 172 300, 302, 304, 307, 314, 324, cultures, 347 325, 344 humiliation, 169 Nehanda Radio, 95, 194 icons, 169 Nelson Chamisa’s Movement, 361 king resonates, 173 Neo colonialism, 6, 7, 60, 290, 294 minority, 147, 148 Neo-imperialism, 7 monarchy, 170 Neo-liberal economic orthodoxy, 278 origin, 34, 170 Neo-liberal inclinations, 294 people by nonmilitary, 170 Neo-liberal visions, 20 INDEX 429

Neo-liberalism, 4, 17, 53, 64, 277, Non-military, 170 280–282, 288, 292 Non-partisanships, 73, 74, 169 Neo-traditional patriarchal, 4 Non-payment, 52 Neo-traditionalism, 54 Non-racialism, 59 Neoclassical, 369 Non-Shona people, 167 Neocosmos, M., 5 Nonviolence, 237 Nepotism, 123, 234, 279, 311 North Africa, 221, 222 Network failure, 375 North African, 16, 233 Networks North Koreans, 93 analogue phone, 232 North Mesopotamia, 347 computer, 232 NPRC resourced, 174–175 customer’s, 366 NWPC resolution, 104 developing distribution, 374 Nyerere, Julius, 60 domestic frm, 378 Nyikayaramba, Douglas (Brigadier- global, 374 General), 198, 199 international, 375 Nyikayaramba, Douglas (Major organizational, 74 Generals), 198, 199 patrimonial, 280 personal, 280 political, 378 O widened, 118 O’Donnell, G., 185, 186 New Zimbabwe Post- Obama, Barack, 233 Mugabe, 299–325 Objectivity, 251, 258, 264 News Obligations conversion of, 251, 254 debt, 324 fake, 224, 250 external, 288 hard, 252, 269 salary, 310 replacing signifcant, 252 Oblivion, 89 sensational, 264 political, 8 soft, 252 Occupy Africa Unity Square, 71, 74 News articles, 254 Occupy Movement, 240 News bulletins prestigious, 256 Odinga Odinga, 60 Nexus, 156, 157, 230, 276, 332, 368 OECD, see Organisation for politico-military, 188 Economic Co-operation and Nkala, Enos (Minister), 165, 170 Development Nkiwane, T.C., 86, 101 Open for Business policy, 283 Nkomo, Joshua, 5–7, 28, 29, 31, 38, Opening Zimbabwe for business, 17, 44, 92, 143, 145, 146, 148, 162, 276, 277 163, 169, 196, 301, 391 Operating synergies, 381 Nkrumah, K., 6, 59, 290 Operation Gukurahundi, 2, Non-governmental organisation, 86, 12, 66, 197 318, 362 Operation Makavhoterapapi, 197 430 INDEX

Operation Murambatsvina, 35, Oppositional politics, 103–109 40–41, 197 underlined, 170 Operation Restore Legacy Optimum device, 238 in November, 354 Oratory powerful, 237 launched, 346 Organisation for Economic triggered, 350 Co-operation and Development Opportunism, 40, 91, 123 (OECD), 362, 380 Opposition Organisational awareness, 310 activists, 108 Organisations/organization alliance, 107 autonomous civil, 56 bloc, 108 civic, 68, 105, 247 civic, 68 counter-hegemonic, 104 covert, 184 cross-cutting, 149 effective, 86 donor, 362 elite, 89 important, 231 emerging, 185 included, 103 forces, 101, 108n14 international, 303 largest, 92 membership-based, 106 leader, 234, 254, 258, 260, 390 political, 106, 140, 145, 149 leader MDC longtime, 260 pro-democracy, 228 main, 151, 170, 229 pro-hegemonic, 108n14 MP imprisoned, 201 religious, 107 PF-ZAPU, 61 socio-political, 227 political, 86, 87, 99 top-down, 301 politicians, 108, 121 women’s, 104 strong, 64, 103 Organizational processes, 75 weak, 99–103 Organizational stagnation point, 77 Opposition parties OSISA, see Open Society Initiative for formidable, 96 Southern Africa new, 107, 391 Outbursts spontaneous, 71 new vibrant, 123 Outcomes intended, 178 organised, 95 Over-extension, 279 strong, 103 Overlapping technological base, 375 use, 182 weak, 99–103 Opposition politics P contemporary, 103 Pan-African exercise of, 13, 86, 90 claims of historical inheritance, 143 faces, 13, 86 nationalism, 145 labelled, 121 policy response following, 143 practice of, 86, 87, 91 Pan-Africanism, 59 repertoire of, 13, 87 Pan-Africanist, 59 INDEX 431

anti-colonial, 53 Peripheralising, 107 Parliament, 6, 10, 42, 43, 91, Personal Information/Data Protection 95, 100, 106, 182, 203, 302, Bill, 128 304, 313, 315–317, 322, Police 332, 390 arresting, 108, 171, 194, 240 building, 305 brutality, 230 Parliamentary debate, 185 cells, 230 Parochial, 119, 120 clearance, 229 Parochialism, 123 commissioners, 108 Patriarchal injustice, 72 dividend, 338 involvement, 128 establishments, 343 offcers, 175 model, 3, 53 offcers kicking Dumiso Dabengwa’s Patriarchy candles, 175 legitimacy of, 18, 331, 337 riot, 71, 394 strengthened, 335 roadblocks, 72 threatened, 348 wrath, 171 Patriotic Union of Matabeleland, 156 Policies Patriotic-Front Zimbabwe African bad, 300 People’s Union (PF-ZAPU) changes, 177 capitulation, 94 colonial, 165, 301 combatants, 227 debate, 279 crush, 148 deliberate colonial, 165 engaged, 148 economic, 189, 280–282, 293, force, 196 360, 396 main contenders, 146 economic intervention, 361 strongholds, 93 editorial, 215, 256 supporters, 228 formulation, 64, 123 Paul, Mukondo, 31 free-market, 281 Perceived ethnicization of party implementing unsuitable macro- politics, 170–171 economic, 378–379 Perceived jobs discrimination, 177 inclusive, 276 Perceived male-dominated inclusive transformative social domains, 332 economic Perceived political ally, 266 development, 17, 277 Perceived snubbing, 162 indigenisation, 281 Percentages, 22 issues, 77 Perceptions land redistribution, 149 dominant, 162 nationalistic, 292 negative, 308 offcial, 166 of job discrimination, 166 one-party state, 148 pro-Mthwakazi, 164–171 political, 6 432 INDEX

Policies (cont.) Political disaster, 360 post-colonial state’s Political discourses developmental, 126 contradictory, 4 pro-poor, 301 national, 52 professing counter-hegemonic, 107 Political disenfranchisement, 60 proposal, 85, 277, 294 Political disillusionment, 69 pursued globalisation, 292 Political disputes, 11 radical ruling party’s Political dissent, 12 transformational, 108 Political dreams, 354 recommended liberal, 103 Political economy decay, 192 redistributive, 107, 276, 294 Political economy lens, 276 regulation, 369 Political engagements, 86, 125 selection, 310 Political environment, 102, 136, 148, training, 310 215, 307 unpopular, 63 healthy, 309 welfarist, 281 Political events, 8, 48 written information disclosure, 128 Political executives, 209 Policy agenda, 65, 376 Political fates, 18 associated redistributive, 276 Political feld, 148 Policy Statement, 59 Political fgures, 129 Policymakers, 14, 156, 232 female, 18 Political assemblages, 89 Political flaments Political association, 85, 223 continuous, 135 Political associations organised, 85 main, 141, 151 Political culture Political formations, 59, 89, 95, and practices, 28–31 158, 317 based, 147 particular, 300 complex, 3, 13 Political fortunes, 224 defned, 25, 119 Political game, 119 defning, 142 Political gatherings, 108 dominant white, 28 Political giant, 259 forged, 142 Political gimmick, 147 new, 45, 48, 149, 315 Political jingoism, 262 observed, 120 Political landscape, 29, 52, 70–73, 77, of Zimbabwe, 19, 25–49, 222 92, 118, 121, 130, 155, 157, 335 overriding, 137 Political landscape post, 71 positive, 26 Political legacies, 300 repressive, 7, 120 Political liberties, 54 undemocratic, 148 Political longevity, 8 Political debate, 125, 227, 252, 262 Political mobilization rational, 17, 246 ethnic, 159 Political differences, 147 ethnicization of, 155–178 INDEX 433

explicit, 158 Political scene, 55, 307 Political news, 16, 224, 245–269 Political science, 208 Political offce, 5, 85, 171, 195, 263 Political scientists, 59, 119, 212 highest, 148, 338 Political set, 106 Political opinion, 126 Political socialisation, 254 Political opponent, 66, 146 Political space, 89, 158, 339, 354, 391 Political order, 17, 299 closed, 73 Political organisation, 106, 140, 145 Political stability, 279, 282, 368 ethnic, 149 sustainable, 175 Political organisation magnet cross- Political strata, 123 cutting, 140 Political strategy, 19, 88, 89, 189, 197 Political parallelism, 129 inclusive, 76 Political participation, 124, 302, 321 Political system active, 122 closed, 13, 85, 86 Political parties, 31, 46, 59, 74, 85, dominant, 237 86, 91, 92, 94, 99, 100, dominated, 148 103–106, 108, 140, 141, 143, Political template, 151 146, 148, 150, 186, 203, 224, Political trajectory, 146 230, 238, 239, 241, 254, 259, Political transition 269, 307, 322, 332 missed, 151 Political party ideology, 74 predicted, 140 Political passions, 119 shaped, 14 Political players and relations post- Political transition post-Mugabe, 152 independence, 92–96 Political transition questions, 146 Political polarisation, 87–89, 95, 98 Political turmoil, 16, 245 portended, 94 Political values, 14, 117, 129 Political potentiality, 77 particular, 118 Political power Political villain, 258 real, 109 Politicians seized, 305 elite, 104 Political practices, 7, 13, 39, 79 nationalist, 32 repressive, 121 powerful, 265 Political processes, 25, 118–120, 129, radical, 30 184, 249, 308 Politicisation/politicization, 15, organic, 71 155–157, 311 Political purposes, 137 Politicking Political quietness relative, 73 tribal/ethnic exclusionary, 147 Political representation tribalist/ethnic-hegemony, 142 equitable black, 30 Politics high, 30 accommodative, 146 Political rights paradigm, 77 advanced pro-hegemonic, 107 Political scalp, 346 anti-colonial, 58 434 INDEX

Politics (cont.) tribal/ethnic, 147 civilian, 3, 9 tribal/ethnic-hegemony, 14, 136, clan, 142 142, 143, 147 competitive, 302, 309 tribalism, 140, 142 complex, 209, 217 Politics and Power in Zimbabwe, 91 concrete, 78 Politics of Zimbabwe’s Global Political contemporary, 137 Agreement, 2 country’s, 72, 107 Polity, 26, 89, 104, 226 current, 4 new, 27 ethnicization of, 156, 174, 178 Population/populations exercise of, 104 bodied, 367 familial, 15 civilian, 9 functions, 338 main, 145 gridlocked, 79 rural, 45, 65 hard, 85 speaking, 146 hybrid, 207, 209, 219 urban, 29, 34–36, 40 internal, 189 white, 27–29, 44, 45, 149 joining, 342 Post-Cold War context, 208 militarised, 12 Post-independence national, 6, 80, 146 confict, 170, 175 national liberation, 5 demographic transformations, 142 nationalist, 300 domestic political arena, 142 nationalist unity, 145 emerged, 87 new, 4 era, 44, 168 of opposition, 85, 89 generation, 142 organized, 71 generation frustrations, 142 participatory, 226 government, 44, 45, 143 partisan, 192 politicians, 149 polarised, 87 realities, 146 popular, 123 state, 142 post-colonial, 142 tribalism, 148 post-independence nation- Zimbabwe, 3, 36, 46, 87, 117, 165, building, 170 184, 227, 336 powerful alternative, 124 Post-independence opposition predatory state, 5 main, 148 regional, 67 Post-independent secular, 69 one-party states, 219 shifting, 210 Post-Mugabe transform, 43, 149 economy, 12 transitional, 1, 4, 14 power transition question, 135 tribal, 146 Post-Second World War (PWWII) tribal-ethnic hegemony, 14, 136, development approaches, 283 142, 143, 147 Postcolonial INDEX 435

interludes, 53 postcolonial, 4, 56 legacies, 3, 118 public, 18, 308 project, 62 ruling party’s hegemonic, 126 project reform process, 62 rural, 56 reform agenda, 57 self-allocated, 95 Postcolonial Zimbabwe, 53, separation of, 59, 64, 314, 322 64, 136, 140, 156, 301, simmering conditioning, 146 332, 335 societal, 337 haunted, 66 substantial, 321 Poverty threatened Mugabe’s, 91 abject, 167 throwing, 231, 232 alleviation, 290, 361 transformative, 76 glaring, 343 urban, 56 reduction, 360 usurp, 333, 342 Power voting, 380 ageing husband’s, 342 will to, 78, 79 amid, 301 wrestle, 95, 259 attained, 4 Powerful forces, 258 centralizing, 63 Powerful Grace Mugabe collective, 65 Zimbabweans, 352 colonial, 55 Powerless Grace, 353 consolidate, 90, 203, 209 Practices of sorcery, 5 contest, 351 Practitioners, 9, 247 contestations, 277, 346 Pre-election ZANU-PF military corridors of, 3, 118 exercises, 197 corrupted, 78, 79 Premier Africa Minerals Ltd and devolution of, 79, 174 Aquarius Platinum Ltd., 286 discretionary, 128 Presidency disorientate, 232 deputy, 171 disrupt, 225 executive, 63 economic, 63 President evaporates, 195 country’s, 342 executive, 45, 304 elected, 43, 96 foreign, 279, 305 female, 333, 342, 354 imperial, 294 former, 120, 152, 248, 256, 258, in, 338 299, 303, 332, 333 legitimate, 208 incumbent, 188, 332 legitimised, 4 male, 332, 333, 342, 354 lost, 351 new, 361 maintaining, 191 power, 316 nationalist matrix of, 3, 4 President of SRANC, 143 people’s, 75, 306 Presidential address Mnangagwa, 10 personal, 12 Presidential Spokesperson, 213, 214 436 INDEX

Presidium, 152 Prolongation, 67, 140, 209 Press Promotion briefngs, 209 multinational, 377 conferences, 99, 210, 342n1 opportunities, 310 free, 227 Propagation, 140, 210, 223 gutter, 250 Protests partisan, 125 civic, 78 private, 125 current, 70 state-controlled, 217 current citizen, 74 tabloid, 250 initial, 70 Prime Minister’s Directives, 301 isolated, 75 Primitive accumulation lone, 71 black, 62 organized political, 28 confgures, 17 provoked, 2 Primitive capitalism, 284 public, 11, 15, 393 Privileges misogynistic, 53 signifcant, 75 Pro-hegemonic bloc, 108 social, 20, 72 Pro-hegemonic cluster, 107 student, 229 Pro-Mthwakazi urban residents, 52 activists complain, 171 Protracted guerrilla insurgency, 173 consciousness, 157 Protracted negotiation process, 98 movements, 14, 155–178 Provinces, 36, 45, 46, Pro-Ndebele, 170 155, 157, 165–167, Proft growth, 372 174, 175, 188, 301, 302, 322, Proft margins, 364 323, 332 Proft maximization option, 369 Provincial executive committee, 188 Proftability margins, 381 Provincialization, 172 Profigacy, 52, 343 Provoked social turmoil, 11 Progressive constitutional-making Proximity closer, 322 processes, 104 Pseudo-democracy, 79, 183 Progressive multiethnic countries, 176 Public administration, 308 Projects Public advertisements, 202 developmental, 281 Public broadcaster, 162 envisaged, 159 Public consultations, 64, 171 federal, 173 Public corruption growing, 125 hegemonic construction, 92 Public debate, 16, 224, 245, 247 hegemony-building, 93, 98 Public deliberation, 86 imperialist, 149 Public discourses, 123, 223 indigenization, 56 objective, 129 national democratic, 305 Public event, 169 political, 29, 216 Public media reforms, 309 Proliferation, 56, 140, 232 Public media rhetoric, 229 INDEX 437

Public opinion, 13, 86, 226, the victims of colonial, 56 227, 341 Racist, 14, 29, 30, 44, 146, 201 Public order, 392, 393 foundation, 141 Public Order and Security Act identities, 148 (POSA), 108, 127, 191, 229, Racist nationalism 240, 309 founding, 142 Public policies, 164, 176, 308, 334 transform Zimbabwe’s, 149 superior, 323 Radicalisation, 281 Public procurement process, 313–314 Rainbow Towers, 240 Public resources, 197, 322, 395 RBZ Governor, 321 limited, 311–314 RBZ in quasi-fscal activities, 321 Public sphere Re-education, 15, 208, 214 ideal, 247 sessions, 213 mediated, 265 Re-enactments, 250 modern, 16, 122, 245 Real investment, 320 new, 227 Real Transfer Gross System, 318 rational, 262 Real Transfer Gross System unstable, 268 (RTGS), 318 Publishing of falsehoods, 260, 264 Rebels, 46, 222, 223, 237, 238 Pye, L., 25 Rebuild Africa’s bread-basket, 193 Reclamation, 4, 71 Recolonisation, 284 Q Reconciliation Quakers, 29 national, 169 Qualitative methodology, 223, post independence, 147 226, 253 Reconciliatory, 258 Qualitative methods, 226 Reconfguration, 69 Qualitative research methodology, 253 Reconfgure, 52, 79 Quasi-fscal activities, 321 Reconstitute, 79 Quebec, 176 Reconstitution, 51, 67, 88 Queen, 343, 347 Reconstruction, 281, 301 Recruiting, 212, 236 Recruitment, 163, 175, 183, 184, R 200, 310 Race new, 310 black, 145, 149 Red cards, 333, 352 presidential, 99, 101 distributing, 231 Racial backgrounds, 64 Red sea, 347 Racial barriers, 56 Redistribution questions, 68 Racial discrimination, 30, 60 Redistributive policy thrust, 107 Racism Redress gender imbalances, 353 anti-white, 150 Reduction, 4, 78, 302, 360, 379 438 INDEX

Reduction of elections, 4 strict, 313 Reform agenda, 12, 57, 80 Rehabilitate, 147 neo-liberal, 281 Rehabilitation, 39, 301 Reformist, 307, 325 Relations Reforms causal, 367 constitutional, 105 complicated government- cosmetic, 70 students, 124 economic, 316–317, 390 cordial society-state, 54 electoral, 200, 202 dynamic, 184 political, 105, 320, 391–392 entertainment-oriented public, 256 Refounding, 80 ethnic, 163 Regime censors, 216 normalising, 324 Regime change, 76, 77, 79, 228–230, party state, 98–99 236, 248, 255, 257, 261, 262 poor race, 173 Regime change agenda, 79, 236, post-independence, 92 248, 257 social, 16, 293 Regime change agent, 255, 261 state media, 213 Regime legitimation, 208 troubled, 158 Regimes unenviable groups, 173 civilian, 182 Religious sectarianism, 139 dictatorial, 73 Religious worship, 237 eroding authoritarian, 184 Repatriation, 284 feature, 183 unoffcial, 287 malignant, 258 Republic, 190 new constitutional, 313 Second, 4, 10–12, 19, 218, new media, 209 275–298, 307, 312, 317, 325 regimes set, 194 Republicanism, 59 repressive, 122 Research security, 64, 304 contemporary, 119 strong authoritarian, 184 survey-based, 119 supporters, 184 Research and Advocacy Unit, 166 weakening authoritarian, 184 Research institutes, 86 white, 31, 32 Research methods, 226 Region, 61, 93, 141, 148, 162, 165, Reserve Bank, 395, 396 166, 168, 170, 171, 176, 177, Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe (RBZ), 225, 233, 376 277, 288, 289, 320, 321 speaking, 171, 177 Reserves, 27, 95, 144, 150, 165 Regionalism, 89, 147 native, 28, 29, 41 Registration, 99, 121, 123 Resettlement, 39, 301 voter, 197 Resign, 182, 183, 194, 339, 390 Regulations Resignation, 10, 47, 182, 194, 200, necessary, 265 304, 305, 334 INDEX 439

voluntary, 305 Rhodesian minority government, 301 Resignation letter, 304 Rhodesian regime, 31, 32 Resignation President Robert Rhodesian settler colonial Mugabe, 334 Leviathan, 7, 121 Resistance Rhodesian settler colonialism, 7 anti-colonial, 162 Rhodesian settler colonialists, 7 generated massive, 29 Rhodesian settler regime, 120 grassroots, 124 Rhodesian soldiers, 227 groups, 32 Rhodesian state, 209, 216 indicated, 190 Rhodesians, 7, 29, 31, 33, 93, 120, peaceful, 28, 32 121, 209, 216, 301 peaceful native, 28 white, 29, 31, 45 Resist colonial rule, 29 Richardson, J., 255 vehement, 188 Right of conquest, 7 Restitution, 53, 156 Right of liberating you, 8 Retired Brigadier General, 201, 202 Rights Retired Brigadier General Judge basic, 60 President, 202 civic, 120 Retired Colonel Richard Dube, 162 civil, 56, 237 Retired Colonel Rueben Mqwayi, 191 civil protected, 56 RF, see Rhodesian Front claim, 316 Rhetoric collective, 122 populist, 307 colonists prospecting, 27 public, 147 counterhegemonic bloc, 108 Rhodesia democratic, 268 modern, 173 discourses, 64, 66, 68 renamed, 27 economic, 69, 88 substitute, 173 equal, 54 Rhodesia Herald, 216 individual, 301 Rhodesia Security Forces, 161 political, 30, 55, 58–60, 77, Rhodesia Unilateral Declaration of 304, 315 Independence, 29, 56 small land, 144 Rhodesian army, 32 unequal, 30 Rhodesian army movements, 32 women’s, 64, 104 Rhodesian Broadcasting Rights rang, 56 Corporation, 33 Rioting, 72 Rhodesian era, 118, 216 public, 72 Rhodesian Front (RF), 29, 30, 32, 38, Rival union, 106 39, 41, 63, 216 Rivalry Rhodesian government, 32, 44, 228 ethnic, 14, 157–161, 163, 168 Rhodesian government’s use of partisan, 170 violence, 66 Rivals, 151, 173, 260, 333, 339 440 INDEX

Robert Mugabe International Ruling classes use, 90 Airport, 334 Ruling elite, 15, 86, 90–93, 97, 104, Robert Mugabe Square, 339 108, 126, 164, 300, 302, Robert Mugabe’s ZANU PF 324, 397 regime, 124 new, 91, 92, 97 Robert Mugabe’s ZANU-PF, 169 Ruling party Robert STOP IT, 352 circles, 95 Roessler, G., 183 insistence, 125 Role of Government in Business ruling party ZANU-PF, 33 Internationalization, 369 Rulings, 203 Roman Catholic, 30 unpredictable court, 202 Rootless acts, 70 ZANU-PF headquarters, 339 Roots, 118, 129, 148, 159, 232, Zimbabwe African National 252, 264 Union Patriotic Front establishing, 279 (ZANU-PF), 118, 152, Royalties, 17, 26, 275 170, 171, 181, 182, 229, Ruhanya, P, 14, 15 238, 248, 257, 294, 299, 324, Rule 333, 334, 339, 342, 354, 395 analytic, 254 Run-off elections, 197 autocratic, 343 presidential, 196 black majority, 143 Run-up, 150, 186, 188, 195, 197 direct, 56, 279 Rural masses, 57 dominant party, 34, 203 Rural people, 36, 76 gerontocratic, 4 Rural strongholds, 257 guaranteed, 304 Russia, 224 indirect, 56, 279 Russian nationals and transnational informal, 119 corporates, 286 late Mugabe’s despotic, 122 Rutherford, B., 3 legislative, 314 local, 57 minority, 60, 141 S perpetuate ZANU-PF, 194 Sabelo, J., 13 policies, 145 Sable Mining Africa Ltd, 286 routinised, 5 Sabotage, 195 tyrannical, 343 economic, 165 white, 29 Sabotaging opposition Rule Zimbabwe, 228 strongholds, 197 Rulers, 149, 160, 216, 343 Sachikonye, L., 64, 95, despotic, 122 95n5, 96n6, 104, Ruling capitalists, 17, 276 281, 360 Ruling class, 17, 44, 88–90, 95–99, Sacralizing, 173 102, 108–110, 275 Sacrifce, 34, 164, 237, 264 new, 17, 97, 275 Sacrilegious, 168 INDEX 441

SADC, see Southern African electronic media, 129 Development Community fnancial, 381 Sadomba, Z.W., 2, 8 formal, 317 Saharawi Democratic Republic, 176 informal, 70, 72, 73, 238, 303 Salisbury, 343 non-state, 18 Sally, 344 private, 35, 166, 310 Sam, Moyo, 69 public, 18, 52, 72, 103, 175 Samir, 382 rural, 57 Sampson, A., 268, 269 social, 301 Samukele Hadebe, 14 tradable, 361 Sanctions, 7, 31, 192, 281, 300, 302, urban, 57 303, 325, 397 Security apparatus, 15, 188–190 Sandelowski, M., 253 Security establishment, 190 Sanitation, 301, 304, 316 Security forces, 47, 109 SAPs, see Structural Adjustment Security offcers, 9, 195 Programmes Security offcials, 184 Saviour Kasukuwere, 190, 333 Security organizations, 150, 197 Scandals, 35, 101n8, 249, 251, 252, Security personnel, 32, 43, 46 395, 396 reprimanding, 200 Schizophrenic, 62 Security sector, 12, 49, 75, 183, 191, Schmitter, 185, 186 192, 195, 196, 199–201, 394 Scholars, 16, 57, 67, 112, 129, 156, Security sector personnel, 183 183, 202, 209, 223–225, 234, Security threat, 177, 199, 305 284, 300, 302 Securocracy, 5 communications, 234 Securocrats, 44, 49, 194–196, Scholarship 198, 200 general, 222 retired, 195 Schonbach, K., 252, 262 Segregation, 145 Schudson, M.S., 256 Self conceptions, 136 Scoones, I., 73 Self-censorship, 215, 217 Scotland, 176 exercised, 215 Secession, 156, 176, 177, 323 Self-determination, 159 Secessionism, 177 Self-imposed exile fearing, 344 Second Chimurenga annals, 164 Semi-processed commodity, 288 Second Chimurenga/Umvukela and Senghor Leopold, 60 national liberation struggles, 192 Sensationalisation, 16, 224, 245, 250, Second Chimurenga/Umvukela and 252, 266, 269 national liberation struggles and Sentiments honouring, 192 counter-hegemonic, 104 Second Secretary, 190, 248 ethnic, 158 Second World War, 6, 282 general, 348 Sectors pro-Mthwakazi, 159 broadcasting, 126 public, 123 442 INDEX

Separation teachers, 167 horizontal, 322 traditional, 347 vertical, 322 traditionalists claim dominion, 168 Settler regime, 27, 28, 120 tribal hegemony, 152 white e, 28 war leaders Nehanda and Settler rule, 31 Kaguvi, 163 white, 230 Shona chiefdoms, 174 Settlers, 2, 3, 7, 27, 28, 31, 54, 80, neighbouring, 159 120, 121, 141, 143, 147, Shona government 230, 279 dominant, 170 set, 27 Shona groups, 27, 158, 159 Sex, 32, 346 dominant, 170 Sex scene, 346 Shona Gukurahundi, 172 Sexism, 13, 18, 19, 54, 283, 331–359 Shona hegemony Sexism and Hegemonic Masculinity in dominant, 151 Zimbabwe’s Operation Restore entrenched, 148 Legacy, 331–359 identity politics, 147 Sexist represented, 151 banter, 340 Shona hegemony tribal/ethnic, 147 ridicule, 340 Shona people, 26, 41, 156, 162, 163, tendencies, 12 166, 169, 170, 172, 175, 177 vitriol, 341 depict, 171 Sexual copulation, 346 Shona-Ndebele, 147 Sexualized slurs, 336 Shona-speaking Seychelles, 210 leader, 148 Seymour-Smith, 158 tribes, 140 Shona Shonhe, T., 17, 293 and Ndebele peoples, 27 deepening extroverted economic and Tswana chiefs, 159 development, 17 chiefs, 26 Short Term Emergency Recovery colloquialism, 238 Programme (STERP), 276, 281 conquered, 27 Sibanda, Gibson culture, 26, 222 former ZCTU President dichotomy, 158 Gibson, 229 dominant, 151, 170, 323 Sibanda, Jabulani, 189, 190, 342 ethnic hegemony, 143, 148, 151 denounced, 342 mother tongue in Sibindi, M., 18, 359, 366, 367, 373 Matabeleland, 167 Signifcant resistance, 31, 32 party ZANU PF, 170 Simon, Muzenda, 31 relations, 158, 160 Sirks, L., 221 speakers, 165, 168 Sithole, Ndabaningi speakers learning, 167 founder president Reverend, 31 INDEX 443

included, 31 Social movements nationalist Reverend, 58, 93 civil society-based, 57 Situated activity, 226 powerful, 64, 65 Sixty women members, 332 Social policy Slabbert, Z., 309 inclusive transformative, 17, 277 Sloan, B., 262 radical transformative inclusive, 294 Sloganeering, 146, 218 transformative, 17, 276, 277, Slogans, 332, 340, 341, 343, 347 293, 294 Smallholders, 225, 287 Social problems resonate, 123 Smokescreen, 170 Social progress, 301 Snapchat, 74 Social quagmire, 3 Social Amenities, 312 Social safety nets exacerbates, 317 Social base, 74, 76 Social Sciences, 283 limited, 77 Social scientists, 119 Social bases new, 77 Social services, 69, 74, 98, 316 Social changes, 73, 147, 249, 390 delivery, 69 Social conditions, 69, 395 reliable, 175 Social destitution general, 166 Social Studies, 192 Social empowerment, 28 Socialism, 59, 60 Social fabric, 18 Socialist, 59, 62, 217, 281, 290, 302 Social interactions, 226 Societal issues interpreting, 251 computer-mediated, 226 Society Social media -media, 251 activism, 72, 73, 75 barbaric, 30 activists, 70, 72, 75 bourgeois, 227 activities, 224 burial, 69 and dissidence, 223 civic, 105, 150, 238, 300 dissidence, 222, 226, 231–233, 238 civilized prosperous, 30 dissidents, 222–226, 233 colonial, 59, 61 effects, 221 complete integrated, 59 memes, 352 democratic, 314, 316, 322 platforms, 345 egalitarian, 290 protests, 52 embryonic indigenous, 56 social media dissident moments, 222 ethnic-based, 55 spaces, 75 given, 338 trolling, 232 manifests, 123 uprisings, 222 media and civil, 117–132 use, 76, 224 misogynistic, 354 utilized, 73 non-racial, 62 Social movement building, 71, 72 organised, 102 Social movement building patriarchal, 338, 345 processes, 71 patriarchal heteronormative, 345 444 INDEX

Society (cont.) members, 376 polarised, 264 Tribunal ruling, 201 political, 56, 105 Southern European, 129 postcolonial, 65 Southern Rhodesia, 26, 59 recede, 87 Southern Rhodesia African National traditional, 335 Congress (SRANC), 59, 143, 145 vulnerable, 360 Sovereign state, 6 Socio-economic gains, 302 particular, 316 Socio-economic rights, 69, 71, 77 Sovereignty important, 316 international, 6 Socio-economic rights issue(s), 69 national, 4, 53, 54 Socio-economic stress, 165 unpopular, 56 Socioe-conomic issues, 77, 107, 110 Soviet military, 161 Sociologist Roger Southall, 5 Spain, 137 SOEs, see State owned enterprises Spandler, H., 338 Soil conservation, 29 Sparks, C., 118, 248–252, 254, 256, Soil patriots, 228 263, 265, 268 Sokwanele, 43, 231 Spatial arrangements, 337 Soldiers Speakers, 158, 165, 167, 168, 304 addressing Second Brigade, 150 Spearheading, 52 host Tanzanian, 169–170 Spontaneity, 73 machine gun-wielding, 305 little, 72 Solidarity, 198, 334 SRANC, see Southern Rhodesia Solomon, Mustswairo, 175 African National Congress Songs of decolonisation struggles, 141 State Songs sung, 164 autonomous, 159 Sotho, 158 central, 57 in relation to Ndebele, 158 crony, 280 South Africa current, 14, 117, 129, 366 and Botswana, 368 deracialized, 56 and Namibia, 104 developing, 13, 86 South African, 393 developmental, 98, 278, 280, 293 South Sudan, 176 failed, 278 Southern Africa, 5, 36, 68, 104, 128, fractured, 189 141, 142, 146, 291, 325 frontline, 28 Southern Africa Development governed, 143 Committee (SADC), 68, 201, hijacked, 334 284, 291, 376 independent, 5 Southern African Development inverted, 280 Community (SADC), 43, 68, kleptocratic, 280 184, 201, 331, 376, 398 liberal, 90 countries, 376 local, 56, 57 Election Observation Mission, 68 monopoly, 126 INDEX 445

nationalism, 56 Stern, E., 346 non-performing, 318–319 Stevens, Douglas E., 364 offcials, 213, 215, 216, 280 Stiffer penalties, 312 over-extended, 279 Stranded Warriors, 210 parasitical, 279 Strategic alliances, 77 patrimonial, 279 Strategic objectives, 266 postcolonial, 38, 80, 118, 126, 292 frm, 365 prebendal, 280 Strategic resources, 3, 54 predatory, 5, 279 corridors of power and rentier, 279 ownership of, 118 securocratic, 7, 196 Strategies settler, 143 assigned campaign, 196 soft, 280 clear long-term, 197 strong, 280 critical, 126 undemocratic, 279 hidden, 15, 209, 219, 225 State for Information and Publicity macroeconomic turnaround, 11 appointed Minister of, 59, market entry selection, 378 126, 207 mobilisation, 87 State institutions new, 209 fundamental, 183 new media, 210, 219 populating, 195 non-coercive, 209 State media policy and practices, 209 party’s media, 207 State opposition civil society repressive, 219 relations, 16, 222 three-pronged, 9 mediated, 16 winning, 200 State organisation, 301 Strauss, A., 226 State parasitism bureaucratic, 6, 118 Structural Adjustment Programmes State policies, 140, 148 (SAPs), 2, 12, 19, 229, 282 State power Struggles debased, 348 anti-colonial, 55, 56, 58, 60, 66 opposed, 227 anti-colonialism, 13, 86 State president, 10, 11 anti-imperialist, 60 new, 10 armed, 31, 33, 142, 163, 227 State-owned enterprises (SOEs), 189, current, 13 278, 292, 312, 318, 319 mutual, 145 Statement nation’s, 52 false, 127 national, 51 political, 158, 267 ongoing, 78 solidarity, 198 people’s, 66, 122 Stereotypes popular, 54 negative, 160 shared, 64 subjective, 266 urban, 76 Stereotyping, 160, 259 Struggles within struggles, 146 446 INDEX

Student grants/loans, 229 Supreme Court tables, 200 Studies on gender and politics in System Zimbabwe, 335 centralisedcentralized, 26 Study competitive authoritarian, 182–184, case, 339 191, 194 comparative, 129 devolved, 174, 323 earlier individual behaviourist, 119 devolved local governance, 166 empirical, 367, 368, 370 discriminatory, 32 qualitative content analysis, 222 discriminatory governance, 31 quantitative, 252 economic, 6, 283 seminal, 223 effective administrative, 309 series of, 378, 380 electoral, 183, 195 university, 183 farming, 287 Sub-groups, 374, 379 federal, 174 Subculture, 338 fnancial, 380 Subservience, 140, 151 foreign exchange, 360 Subsistence grants, 98 formidable, 101 Succeed Robert Mugabe, 333 gender as a binary, 336 Success of social media use in government dominant, 91 elections, 224 hybrid, 183, 209 Succession judicial, 200, 201 debate, 149, 306 key resource allocation, 317 dynamics, 195 monarchical, 26 issue, 109, 189 one-party, 95 planning, 310 one-party state, 63, 64, 95, Successor, 143, 152, 172, 248, 101, 125, 148, 185, 187, 325, 347 219, 391 Sudan, 1, 394, 397, 398 over-centralised, 321, 323 Support freedom, 128 productive, 280 Support government policies, 308 social, 26, 343 Support ideologies, 150 strong education, 306 Support industries, 366 symbolic, 119 Support research, 378 technological, 375, 376 Supporters technology, 376 ex-ZAPU, 162 telephone, 232 former ZAPU, 163 unaccountable, 63 passive, 184 undemocratic governance, 120 rural, 335 warning, 251 traditional, 182 women quota, 332 white, 34 System of government, 27, 321–324 Supposition, 370 Systems Analysis of Identity politics in Supreme Court, 92 Zimbabwe, 139 INDEX 447

T Team Lacoste, 181, 264, 266 Tabloid journalism styles Techno-determinism, 222 adopted, 248 Techno-deterministic Tabloid-size newspapers, 250 biases, 222 Tabloidisation, 16, 224, 245–269 Technocratic, 4, 53 Tabloidization of political news in Technocratic insistence, 53 Zimbabwe, 245–269 Technological advancements, 256 Tabloids Technological process regional, 375 adopted, 248, 262 Technological spillover positive, 373 critic, 250 Technologies employed, 260 contemporary digital media, 125 journalism techniques, 261 contemporary networked newspapers, 249, 250, 267 digitalbased media, 125 pictorial, 249 extolling, 222 style, 245, 250, 251, 259, 261, 263, Teece, D.J., 364, 365, 375 268, 269 Tendencies supermarket, 250 centralist, 14, 118, 129 Tactics, 236, 392 corrupt, 267 shrewd, 343 democratic, 63 Tajamuka campaign, 238 elite continuity, 118 Tajamuka challenges, 240 gerontocratic, 3, 118 Tajamuka curates, 239 secessionist, 157 Tajamuka espouses, 240 Tendi, B.M., 3, 75, 141, Tajamuka members, 239 147, 188, 332, 333, Tajamuka/Sesjikile 335, 336 typology, 238–240 Tendi, Blessings-Miles, 3, 75, 141, Takawira, Leopold, 31 147, 148, 188 Tanzania, 28, 87n1, 141, 163 Tenets Taxation, 374 fundamental, 136 statutes, 381 identifer, 140 Taxes Tengende, N., 122 avoidance, 287 Thabo Mbeki African Leadership evasion, 286, 287, 315 Institute (TMALI), 286, heavy, 29 287, 290 load, 381 The political and economic reducing, 320 conditions, 68 Taxonomy, 365 Theoretical context, 336–339 of market failures impeding Theoretical framework, internationalisation, 371 252–255, 377 Taxpayers, 344 Theoretician, 60 Taylor, C., 141 Theorists Teacher deployment, 167–168 political, 86 448 INDEX

Theory global, 367 competitive general integration, 376 equilibrium, 369 inter-Africa, 291 eclectic, 365 international, 17, 260, 276 frm, 364, 366, 369, 382 invoicing, 287 liberal, 123 liberalization, 379 media framing, 254 liberalize, 278 neoclassical, 369 openness, 367 network, 222 regimes, 376 popular political, 122 relations, 319 reconfgured public sphere, 223 relationship, 370 systems, 136, 138–139, 148, 280 relationships start, 370 Third Chimurenga, 2, 15, unequal, 286, 287 42, 207–219 union movement, 160 Third World, 20, 280 unionist, 228 Threats value, 17, 276 blatant, 95 Trade policies external, 188 agenda, 376 human security, 305 framework, 376 major, 264 relaxing, 360 renewed, 74 Trade promotion fr0m, 378 repel, 142 Trade regulations, 369, 379 resisting, 150 liberalizing, 360 TIMB, 288 Trade unions, 56, 67, 141, 160 Timberg, C., 109 black, 230 Tinhu, S., 71, 72 Transgressed patriarchal norms, 347 Tinodawo ngwena yedu Transition itungamire, 343 agrarian, 2 Tipeiwo commander, 341 based, 199 TMALI, 286, 287, 290 blocked democratic, 12 Tobacco decolonisation, 2 raw, 286, 287 economic liberalisation, 2 Towns forge, 146 country’s, 339 incomplete, 52 main urban, 75 military-assisted, 3, 195 Townsend, J., 228 naturalise power, 152 Toyota, 283 neo-liberal, 2 Trade overload, 2, 222 defciencies, 288 peaceful, 1 economic, 291 politics, 135–152 fows, 370 process, 14, 136 free, 287 Transition in political culture, 147 INDEX 449

Transition trajectories, 140, 141 Turkish tobacco, 29 determined political, 143 Tutu, Desmond, 237 Transitional Stabilisation Twitter Revolution, 222 Programme, 317 Tyranny, 26, 236 Transmedia, 192 Transmission, 224, 392 Transnational corporates, 286 U Transportation, 319 UANC, see United African Trevor Ncube’s Tweet, 351 National Council Tribal distinctiveness, 140 UJ, see University of Johannesburg Tribal political parties, 140 Umbilical cord, 181 Tribal prism, 161 Umhlahlo Wesizwe, 156 Tribal stronghold, 93 Unauthorised spending, 317 Tribal/ethnic hegemony, 14, 136, UNCTAD, see United Nations 142, 143, 147, 152 Conference on Trade and Tribalism, 7, 59, 61, 140, 142, 145, Development 147, 278 Under-invoicing, 284 animosity, 146 Underdeveloped world, 174 Tribe, 140 Underdevelopment, 61, 62, 165 rival Ndebele, 151 Understanding Trickle-down neoliberal, 229 collective, 119 Tripartite negotiating forum comprehensive, 269 (TNF), 106 ideological, 217 Trojan horse, 201 intersections, 336 counterrevolutionary, 230 liberal, 123 Trump, Donald, 224, 286 nationalist, 58 Truth, 37, 160, 264 public, 266, 268 general, 265 sources of FDI, 363–364 Tsvangirai, Morgan, 11, 43, 69, 103, Zimbabwe’s political 109, 151, 186, 198, 199, culture, 117–130 200n20, 228, 230, 234, 259, Unemployment 260, 268, 391, 392, 394 decreasing, 290 party, 234 massive, 166 portrayed, 234 Unequal development quit labour union, 228 of regions and perceived jobs Tsvangirai, Morgan Richard((Leader), discrimination, 177 11, 43, 69, 103, 109, 151, perceived, 165–166 198–200, 228, 230, 234, 259, supposed, 171 260, 268, 391, 392, 394 UNESCO, 98 Tswana chiefs, 159 Unfnished Business, Sabelo, 51–80 Tulloch, J., 256 Unilateral Declaration of Tunisia, 76, 233, 397 Independence, 29, 30, 56, 281 450 INDEX

Unilaterally declared independence University/universities (UDI), 31 campuses, 236 Union Jack, 172 country’s, 228, 229 Unions, 29, 56, 63, 67, 96, 96n6, Kent, 201 104, 106, 107, 141, 160, 228, lecturers, 71 230, 394, 396 public, 229 UNISA See University of South Africa Unpopular UZ Amendment Act, 124 United African National Council Unprecedented nosedive, 361 (UANC), 92, 93, 101, 102 Unresolved national healing questions, United Arab Emirates, 286 155, 157 United Kingdom (UK), 5, 36, 37, US, see United States 119, 176, 216, 286, 377, 391, 397 United Nations Conference on Trade V and Development (UNCTAD), Values 291, 363 basic, 25 United Parties (UP), 102 commercial, 256 United States (US) core, 58 and French governments, 70 democratic, 118 cables, 233 exported, 288 Cold War policy, 146 lesser, 341 dollars, 286, 304, 317, 318, 361 noble, 236 elections, 224 right transaction, 373 frms, 370 shock, 251 United States President, 286 Vambe, L., 344 Unity Vasilchenko, E., 378 agreement, 94 Vast Resources, 286 emphasized monolithic, 61 Veterans government, 106, 391 deceased liberation, 162 pan-Africa, 290 former ZPRA, 172 Unity Accord, 61, 94, 95, 98, 100, guerrilla, 8 106, 148, 162, 164, 196, stop purging, 192 199, 302 Viber, 74 humiliating, 169–170 Vice-Chancellor, 124 Unity Day, 169 Vice-president, 8, 10, 31, 148, 151, Universal suffrage established, 118 174, 188, 240, 248, 254, 306, Universalist, 53 334, 348 University of Zimbabwe (UZ), 71, 98, former, 187, 190, 307 228, 229 Vice-President of Zimbabwe, 31, 248 students, 228 Vicious circle, 294 University of Zimbabwe Dean of Victim Social Studies, 192 communities, 197 INDEX 451

frames, 260 Virtual ethnography, 226 next, 346 Virtuous circles, 376 rape, 346 VMCZ, 245, 247, 265 Victimhood VOA, 305 common, 104 Voluminous record, 343 the memory of past, 175 Voluntary disclosure mechanisms, 128 Victorious emerged, 55 Vote Victors, 94, 161, 178 amid, 102 Victory cast, 332 electoral, 183 electoral, 304 ensured, 189 people’s, 95 landslide, 102 presidential, 101 Vigilant eye, 227 Voters Vilifcation, 39, 342, 344 black, 30 Villagers, 32, 47, 48, 71, 75, 217 election-weary, 186 poor, 348 separate, 30 Villages Voting, 41, 189, 195, 268, 380 hunger stricken, 197 Voting patterns, 224 protected, 32 tweak, 195 Vindictiveness, 247 Vulnerability, 260, 265 Violence and intolerance of political dissent, 12 W attracted, 332 Wafawarova, R., 311 political, 66, 108n14, 121, 172 Wages sanctioned, 240 better, 105, 218 sponsored, 231 public-sector, 72 use of, 38, 66 rates, 368 worst, 109 ratio, 368 Violence ridden re-run, 151 set minimum, 97 Violent Walsh, J.P., 380 clashes, 71 War confict, 305 all-out, 186 divorce, 176 anti-colonial, 168 explosion, 172 brutal, 33, 163 military intervention, 11 brutal guerrilla, 32 repression, 223 civil, 46, 174, 278 Violent seizure, 15 credentials, 8, 9, 182, 260 ruling party’s, 207 genocidal, 159 Virginia tobacco, 29 guerrilla, 32, 58 Virility, 339, 346 legend false, 255, 257, 261 power dons the face of, 347 low intensity, 61 452 INDEX

War (cont.) memes, 332, 341, 345, 347, political succession, 333 352, 353 propaganda, 164 Whawha prison, 31 respectively, 28 Whims, 140, 294 spirited bush, 120 White areas zone, 211, 265 favoured, 165 War veterans White capital, 65 former ZANLA, 168, 201 private, 126 gratuities, 105 White minority, 120, 227 Waste, 162 small, 32 Waters easy, 102 White nationalists Weak opposition party politics in die-hard, 30 Zimbabwe, 99–103 White-owned farms, 15, 207 Weapon, 93, 166, 290, 352 Whitehead, S.M., 346 Weaponry superior, 27 Whites Weber, 90 colonial, 62, 118, 120, 129 Weberian, 91 liberal, 30 Welfare man, 58, 145, 149 customer, 374 moderate groups, 29 economics, 370 paternalistic, 161 social, 369 people, 141, 218 student’s, 124 petroleum jellies, 70 Well-oiled scheme, 118 settler colonisers, 2 West Africa, 91 Whitesliberal opposition, 30 West bereft, 80 Wife Western capital, 218 former president’s, 152 Western countries, 192, 263, 294, WikiLeaks, 240 300, 303, 319, 324 founder, 233 hostile, 257 Willems, W., 221 Western democracies, 120 Williams, K., 256, 268 Western ideology, 294, 295 Williams, Zack, 282 Western inspired regime change Williamson, O.E., 364 agenda, 257 Willowgate Scandal, 35, 302 Western liberal democracies, 122 Willowgate Scar Scandal, 62 Western liberal ideology and Willowvale Motor, 101 values, 217 Woman, 8, 333, 336, 341, 348, 351 Western literature, 121 ambitious, 354 Western standards, 218 Women Western window, 283 ambitious, 254 Western world, 250 aspiring, 337 Western-backed mercenaries, 121 circumstances, 336 Westphalian template, 292 depicts, 336 WhatsApp, 74, 348 force, 346 INDEX 453

manoeuvring, 332 Young, Andrew (American marginalizing, 338 diplomat), 161 married, 347 Youth Leagues, 185–188, 190 minimizes, 343 Youths, 64, 71, 72, 74, 76, 77, 104, participation, 332 167, 174, 188, 202, 222, subordinate, 332, 335 240, 391 young, 32 youth wings, 33, 190, 238, 394 Women and Youth Leagues of YouTube, 224, 236 ZANU-PF, 187 Yugoslavia, 361 Women of Zimbabwe Arise, 103 former, 346 Women’s League, 10, 188, 190 vocal ZANU-PF, 333 Work Z academic, 165, 380 Zambia, 28, 32, 103, 141, 159, 163, charity, 362 169, 291, 336 clandestine media, 208, 211 neighbouring, 103, 159 daily newsroom, 212 ZANU-led government, 38, 301 equal pay for equal, 58 Zanu-Ndonga, 93, 101, 102, 268 government agencies, 309 ZCP, 161 seminal, 222, 231, 364 Zimbabwe substandard, 313 and civic society organizations, 238 Workers and South Africa, 286, 288 contract, 310 and Zimbabwean identity, 57 ghost, 310 capital city, 17, 276, 360 militant, 64 Competitive Authoritarian organised, 124 System, 182–184 poor, 103 Crisis in, 67, 103 renegotiate, 229 critiquing, 281–283 World Bank (WB), 2, 75, 101, 224, development plan, 283 229, 294, 302, 360 developmental prospects, 294 World Investment Report, 380 discourse on democratization, 157 World systems theory, 280 dollar, 318, 396 World War II, 6, 282, 283 dominant political culture in, 117–130, 135, 138–142, 144, 151, 152 X economy; small market size, 281 Xenophobic musings, 175 ethnicization of political mobilization in, 155–178 export earnings, 289 Y exports, 286 Yahweh, 347 Father of, 5 Years independence, 2 fag in Harare, 173 Years post-independence, 97 fed, 344 454 INDEX

Zimbabwe (cont.) return, 10, 12 founding President, 181 ruled, 9 free, 163 rural, 28, 42 Global Political Agreement, 43, self-published, 160 67, 200n20 shaped, 222 gruelling transition, 3 Shona culture, 222 haunting, 11 sovereign, 2 historiography, 161 state, 171 history, 160 stock market, 380 imports, 289 students, 228 independence, 33–34, 37, 120 studied, 16 independent, 31, 58, 127, 160, trade, 288 164, 248, 314, 315 trade policy, 376, 377 industries, 229, 320, 366 transform, 79, 149 is Open for Business' plan transition, 14, 117, 129, 135–152 signals, 276 transition politics, 139 isolation, 18 vests, 305 journalism, 219, 245, 247 vibrant, 122, 349 liberation struggle, 219, 343 violating, 192 media in, 117, 125, 209, 246, war, 248 264, 269 Zimbabwe African National Liberation military, 49, 195 Army (ZANLA) Mtoko District, 60 and ZPRA camp commanders, 170 open, 276 cadres, 163, 217, 336 Operation Restore Legacy, 4, 18, commander, 170, 173 331–354, 389 forces, 196 particular, 354 guerrillas, 164, 169 political culture in, 14, 26, 46, 120, High Command member Cde 129, 136 Arthur Magaya, 192 politics, 98 in Chimoio and Nyadzonia in population, 29, 31, 40, 42, 367 Mozambique, 169 postcolonial, 53, 64, 66 recruitment, 163 postcolonial government, 118, victorious, 161, 163, 164 120, 123 war veteran, 168, 201 postcolonial states, 80 Zimbabwe African National Union pre-independence, 227 (ZANU), 28, 59, 140, 301 president doubles, 341 and ZANLA, 33 problem, 52, 300 new, 35, 45 provinces, 155, 157, 165 politicians, 94 reconfgure, 52, 69 State, 59 relations, 158, 303, 316, 319, 324 Zimbabwe African National Union restoring, 392 Patriotic Front (ZANU PF), 8 INDEX 455

-led government, 118, 321 monopoly of patriotism, 237 architecture, 240, 341 MP former, 201 Central Committee narrative depicts, 141 meeting, 10, 229 nationalism, 136, 143, 147, 149, commissar Saviour Kasukuwere, 333 150, 164 conference, 189 new, 164, 211 congress, 96, 149, 187, 188, Parliamentary Caucus, 10 228, 333 party and government, 169, 306, creators, 141, 197 333, 342 drive, 33, 63, 74, 237, 303 party processes and procedures, 10 elite, 35, 44, 45, 62, 92, 118, 152, philosophy, 195, 210 164, 185–191, 208, 300, 302, pitted, 105, 181 324, 395, 397 pitting, 9 faction, 9, 10, 12, 101, 152, 172, policies, 149, 306 182, 183, 186, 188–190, 254, policies and Mugabe, 306 258, 260–262, 264–266, 306, policy of reconciliation, 93 333, 390 politburo, 162, 186–188 fghts, 77, 141, 150, 182, 230, 240, politician James Makamba, 344 254, 258, 264, 303, 390, 395 politics, 190, 257 former, 201 portraying, 260, 353 former party, 185 power, 228 founder principle, 8 president, 10, 96 glued, 185 processes, 203 government, 44, 62, 68, 149, 162, provinces, 188 163, 166, 174, 191, 228, 233, rallies, 229, 333, 352, 353 248, 302, 336 regime, 12, 19, 42, 64, 68, 77, 120, government response, 149 124, 185, 191, 209, 210, 219, government’s loss, 228 229, 257, 262, 302, 391, 393 handed, 152, 209, 219, 230 regime’s legitimacy, 68 hegemonic rule, 74 Robert Mugabe, 8, 43, 92, 120, hegemony, 36–38, 187 146, 151, 152, 162, 169, 196, in selected newspapers, 248, 253 228, 248, 299, 303, 304, 333, insider, 234 339, 344, 361 liberators, 151 rule, 67, 148, 188, 194 litmus test, 189 ruling, 152, 170, 171, 182, 229, Member of Parliament for Masvingo 238, 248, 257, 294, 324, 333, Central, 185 334, 339, 354, 395 members, 101, 170, 185, 190, 342 securocrats system, 44, 195, military electioneering team, 198 196, 200 military operation Fast Track Land self-praise narratives, 164 Reform Programme, 200 Shona dominated North military politicking crusade, 183 Korean, 147 456 INDEX

Zimbabwe (cont.) Zimbabwe Arise, 103 strongholds, 93, 196, 197, 257 Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation succession matrix, 264 (ZBC), 191, 192, 334 support, 185, 188 Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation supporters, 257 Television (ZBC TV), 193 terms, 63, 64, 141, 151, 182, 187, Zimbabwe Coalition, 103 247, 257, 259, 265, 354 Zimbabwe Commander, 94n2 unseating, 64 Zimbabwe Congress of Students’ voting, 189, 195 Union (ZICOSU), 106, 107 war veteran campaign Zimbabwe Congress of Trade machinery, 196n12 Unions (ZCTU), 2, 63, 64, 96, youth rally, 202 97, 103, 105–107, 124, youth wing’s derogative attacks, 228–231, 282 190, 238 membership, 96 ZANLA side, 164 Zimbabwe Defence Forces Zimbabwe African National Union (ZDF), 9, 150, 192, 192n5, Patriotic Front (ZANU PF) party 197, 334 ruling, 195, 342 commander, 192, 197 Zimbabwe African People’s Zimbabwe Electoral Commission Revolutionary Army (ZEC), 99, 100, 110, 199 (ZIPRA), 335 chairperson, 110 Zimbabwe African People’s Union Zimbabwe Electoral Commission Act, (ZAPU), 5, 28, 31, 32, 36, 38, 99, 100, 199 45, 59, 79, 93–95, 96n6, 140, Zimbabwe Electricity Supply 143, 145, 146, 161–164, 169, Authority, 319 170, 181, 182, 196, 301, 302, Zimbabwe Federation of Trade 335, 391 Unions (ZFTU), 105–107 and ZANU politicians, 94 Zimbabwe Gender Commission, 315 and ZPRA leaders, 163, 164 Zimbabwe Grounds, 339, 340 Dumiso Dabengwa, 79, 162, 176 Zimbabwe Human Rights heroes, 162 Commission, 315 major liberation parties, 163 Zimbabwe is Open for Business, 4, 17, mass graves, 169 275, 276, 282, 287, 291, 292, military wing, 93, 182 294, 307, 320 president, 162 Zimbabwe Liberators Platform (ZLP), properties and allegations of planned 104, 107 military overthrow, 164 Zimbabwe Media Commission Bill, split, 146 127, 128 strongholds, 196 Zimbabwe musician Mapfumo, Zimbabwe Amendment, 124, 202 348, 350 Zimbabwe Anti-Corruption Zimbabwe National Army (ZNA), 46, Commission (ZACC), 311, 315 193, 199 INDEX 457

Zimbabwe National Liberation crisis, 300 War Veterans Association diaspora labour migrants, 77 (ZNLWVA), 105, 107, dollar, 361 189, 201 economy, 19, 165, 359, 367 Zimbabwe National Students’ Union elections, 171 (ZINASU), 105, 228 experience, 53, 67 membership, 103 fag, 236, 238 Zimbabwe Newspapers Group football stadia, 342 (ZIMPAPERS), 191 government, 2, 37, 70, Zimbabwe People’s Army (ZIPA), 163 101, 126, 165, 230, 257, Zimbabwe People’s Army failed, 145 294, 369 Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary government’s enemies, 70 Army (ZIPRA), 5, 28, 32, 93, history, 58, 136, 161, 164 147, 161, 182, 196, 196n2, identity, 57, 147 196n12, 335–336 mainstream, 126 forces, 196 media, 125, 129, 209, former, 147 262, 268 Zimbabwe People’s Revolutionary media scene, 268 Army (ZPRA), 105, 189, 201 media scholars, 129 and ZANLA cadres, 163 media system, 129 and ZANLA’s recruitment, 163 media’s polarization, 129 Zimbabwe Prison Service Retired military, 47, 48 Major General Paradzai nationalism, 58, 61, 145 Zimondi, 198 nationality, 149 Zimbabwe Programme for Economic native, 227 Transformation (ZIMPREST), newspapers, 129, 253, 257, 264 276, 281 ordinary, 124, 236, 304, 398 Zimbabwe Republic Police, 176, 334 pastor, 236 Zimbabwe Review, 166, 167 people, 10, 45 Zimbabwe Robert Gabriel Mugabe, politics; dissidence in, 16, 221–241 1–20, 332 Politics Shepherd Mpofu, Zimbabwe Unity Movement (ZUM) 221–241 formed, 100, 185, 391 polity, 226 Zimbabwe-Rhodesia, 196 President, 286 Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe, black, 149, 369 14, 76, 96n7, 109, 120, 162, body politic, 139 181, 193, 199, 248, 299, borders, 163 303, 334 citizens corruption, 74 problem, 78, 300, 304, constitution, 9 307–324 context, 167, 233 prodemocracy website, 126 court, 156 schoolbooks, 160 458 INDEX

society, 16, 37, 52, 223, 354 Zimbabwean Civil Society, values, 150, 197 122, 125–129 white, 149 Zimbabwean Literature, 67, 175 women, 332, 335 Zimbabwean National women’s struggles, 336 Question, 51–80 Zimbabwean citizens Zimbabweanist literature, 208 defned, 51, 66 ZNA, Sobuza Gula-Ndebele, 199 disenchanted, 72 Zululand, 26