History of the Islamic Peoples History of the Islamic Peoples

6y CARL BROCKELMANN

LONDON ROUTLEDGE & KEGAN PAUL LTD BROADWAY HOUSE: 68-74 CARTER LANE, E.C.4 Contents PREFACE TO THE GERMAN EDITION XVll

TRANSLATOR'S NOTE XIX

I. THE ARABS AND THE ARAB EMPIRE 1. Arabia before Islam I

Geography, i. Race, 2. South Arabia, 3. Social condi­ tions in North Arabia, 3. Mecca, Medina, 5. Syria, Nabateans, 6, Palmyra, Ghassanids, 7, Lakhmids, 8. Arab paganism, 8, Judaism, Christianity, 10. Poetry,

I I.

2. The Prophet Muhammad 12

Mecca, 1 2. Youth, 13. Marriage, 14. Mission, 14, .first believers, 15. Persecutions, emigration of believers to Abyssinia, I}_: 'Uq1ar's conversi9~ 17. Medina, 18. Hijrah, 20. "A._!titude toward the Jews-, 2 1. Battle of Badr, 2 3, expulsion -of Banu-Q;ynuqa', Battle at Mt. Uhud, 24; expulsion of Banu Nadir, 2 5. Prohibition of wine, 25. Medina besieged, 25. Hudaybiyah, 27. Jews beyond Medina subdu.ed, 28. Pilgrimage to Mecca, 28·. Relations with Byzantines in and Syria, 28. Conquest of Mecca, 3 1. Battle of Hunayn, 3 1, siege of Taif, p. Bedouins subdued, 32. Muhammad and the poets, 33 . March on Tabuk and 'Aqabah, 34. Fare­ well pilgrimage, 35. The Prophet's death, 36.

3. Muhammad and His Teachings His theology and eschatology, 36. Cult and ritual, 39. Pilgrimage, 41. Poor-tax, holy war, food laws, mar­ riage, 4 3; slavery, criminal law, 44.

4- The First Four Caliphs 45 Abu Bakr; defection of the ~edouins, 45. Battle of Buzakha, 46. Musaylim:ah and Sajah, 46, battle of v ·v1 CONTENTS 'Aqr~bah, 47. Conquest of Bahrayn: 'Uman, Hadra­ maut, and Yemen, 48. Persia under the Sassan.ids, 50. Hirah attacked, 5 1. Invasion of Palestine, battle of Ajnadayn, capture of Damascus, 52, battle of Yar­ muk, 53. 'Umar's caliphate, 53. Conquest of lower Mesopotamia, 54, of Syria and upper Mesopotamia, 55, of Egypt, 56, of Persia, 58. 'Umar's reign, 60, and his assassination, 63. 'Uthman and the civil war, 63. 'Ali in 'Iraq, 67, Mu'awiyah in Syria, 68; battle of Si.ffin, 68. Kharijites; 'Aii assassinated, 70.

5. The Umayyads 71 ' l. Mu'awiyah and his governors in 'Iraq, 71. His rule in . i Syria, 72, and the struggle with the Byzantines, 73. !· Conquest of North Africa, 74. Yazid I, 75, and Hu­ 1 sayn's death at Kerbela, 76. The pretender 'Abdallah l I ibn-az-Zubayr in Mecca, 76. Marwan I, fights be­ I 'i tween-Kalb and Qays, 77. 'Abd-al-Malik, Mukhtar's i rebellion in 'Iraq 78. Defeat of ibn-az-Zubayr, Hajjaj in 'Iraq, 80. War against Byzantium, 80. Conquests under al-Walid in central Asia·and in Spain, 82. The Umayyad mosque in Damascus, 84. Hajjaj against the · Kharijites and ibn-al-Ash'ath, 88. Sulayman, 90. 'Umar ibn-'Abd-al-'Aziz and his refor~ of taxation, 92. Yazid II, 93, the desert castles of the Umayyads, 94. Hisham, 96. Revolt- of ,Zayd ibn-'Ali, 97; Arab raids in France, battle ·between Tours and Poitiers, 97; Berber revolt, 98. Walid II, 98, poets, 99. Marwan II, dissolution of the empire, 100. Rise of the 'Abba- sids' in Khorasan, 102. They conquer 'Iraq, 104. Umayyads destroyed, 105.

II. THE ISLAMIC EMPIRE AND ITS DISSOLUTION 1. The First 'Abbasids Saffah - and Mansur, 107. 'Alids put down, 108. .. CONTENTS Vil Founding Baghdad, 109. Administration, 109. Re.. volts in Persia, al-Muqanna', 111. Mahdi fighting heretics, I 12. Harun ar-Rashid and the Barmakitls, 114. Aghlabids in North Africa, 1 1 5. Poetry, philol- ogy, and historiography in 'Iraq, u6. The struggle between Amin and Ma'mun, 121. The Tahirids, 123. Progress of science under Ma'mun, r 24. Theological controversies, 126. Mu'tasim and· the rise of slave guards, 129. Foundation of Samarra, 130.

2. The Decay of the Caliphate and the. Rise of Minor Dynasties I 3 1 Wathiq and Mutawakkil pawns in hands of Turks; dogmatic reaction, · 131. Mu'tamid and Muwaffaq; servile war in 'Iraq, 134. Tahirids and Saffarids in Persia, 135. in Egypt, 137. Rise of Zaydites in South Arabia, 141. Qarmatians, 143. Struggle for the caliphate, 144. Finances· under Muqtadir, 145. Mysticism, 148, Hallaj, 149. Rivalries among wazirs, 150. Office of amir al-umara' created, 151. Hamdanids under Sayf-ad-Dawlah in the war against the Byzan­ tines, 152. The Buyids in Persia and 'Iraq, 154. Aghla- bids in Africa and Sicily, 156. ldrisids. of Morocco, 157. The Fatimids in North Africa and Egypt, 158. Hakim, 160, the Druzes, 161.

3. Persia:ns and Turks 163 Origin of the Turks; the old Turkish kingdoms in central and eastern Asia, 163. The Samanids in Khora- s~n, 165. Persian poetry; beginnings of geography, 166. The Turks in Khorasan, 168. Mahmud of Ghaz- nah, 168; conquests in India, 1 69. Biruni, 169, Fir­ dawsi, 170. The Seljuqs, 17 l. Malikshah and the wazir. Nizam-al-Mulk, 173. Ghazzali, 174' 'Umar al-Khay- yam, l 75, Hariri, 1 77. The Assassins, 17 8. V111 CONTENTS 4. Islam in Spain and in North Africa 181 Umayyad emirate founded by 'Abd-ar-Rahman in Spain, l 8 1. Struggle with the Christians in nonhern . Spain, 182. Disturbances caused by Christian martyrs and converts, 183. The flourishing realm of 'Abd-ar­ Rahman III, first Spanish caliph, l 85. Culture, espe­ cially literature, in Islamic Spain, l 87. 'Amirids. of Cordova, 193. Petty states, 195. Literary develop­ ment, 196. Jews in Sp~in, 200. The Berbers, 202; ris(. of the Almoravids, 203. They conquer Spain, 204. Almohads, 207. Last Muslim principalities in Spain, 209; Nasrids, 2 l 1. Ibn-'Arabi, the mystic, 214. The histor~ans lbn-.al-Khatib, 214, and lbn-Khaldun, 215. The travelers Ibn-Jubayr, 217, and Ibn-Battutah, 218. Alhambra, 219. Fall of the Nasrids and the expulsion of the Muslims from Spain, 2.20.

5. The Near East in the Age of the Crusades and the Rise of the in Egypt 2 2 1

The C.rusaders in Syria, 2 2 1. Zengids jn Mosul and Damascus, 222. The Ayyubids, 224. Saladin over­ throws the Fatimids in Egypt, 22 5, fights the Cru­ ·saders, conquyrs Jerusalem, 228. Ayyubids in Syria and Egypt, 2 3 1. Frederick II in Palestine, 2 32. Louis IX at Damietta, 233. Bahri Ma~uks; Baybars victori- ous lWer Mohgols at 'Ayn Jalut (1259), 234. Burji Mamluks, 2 36. Intellectual life and architecture under the Mamluks, 237.

6. Turks and Mongols: the End of the Caliphate

Khwarizm shahs, 240, Ghorids, 241, Ghuzz, 242. The ·'Abbasid an-Nasir, 243. Origin of the Mongols; Te­ muchin-Chinghiz Khan, 244. His conquest of China and Persia; end of the last Khwarizm shah, 246. Chinghiz's successors, 24&. Hulagu destroys the 'Ab-. basids in Baghdad, z 50. The ilkhans of Persia; Ghazan CONTENTS IX

·and his wazir Rashid~ad-Din, 2 51. Beginnings of Turkish literature, 253. The Persian classics Sa'di and Hafiz, 254, and Jalal-ad-Oin ar-Rumi, 255.

UL THE OTTOMAN TURKS AS THE LEADING .POWER IN ISLAM

1• The Origins of the Ottoman Empire and its Expan- sion down to the time of Suleyman I 2 56 Ghazis and akritoi; battle of Manzikert, 260. The Se1- juq Suleyman in Anatolia and his successors as sultans of Rum, 2 57. Ghazi principa~ties of western Ana- tolia, 2 59. Rise of the Osmanlis, 260. Their adminis­ tration under Orkhan and his wazir Jandarli, 262. Murad's conquests in the Balkans, 2.68; battle. of Kos- sovo Polye, 269. Bayezid at war with Timur's Mon- gols, 270. The Timurids, 27 2. Struggle among Baye- zid's sons, 273. The rebellion of Badr-ad-Din of Simawna and Biirkliije Mustafa, 274. Murad II, war y.7ith the Hungarians, 275. Muhammad II, conquest of Constantinople ( 1453), 277. His structures, 278. The Turkoman chief Uzun Hasan and the fall of the Com- neni of Trebizond, 281. War with Venice, 282. Tu,rk- ish literature under Muhammad II, 284. Bayezid II and the pretender Jem, 2 8 5. Selim Y avuz conquers Egypt, 289. Suleyman the Great, war in Hungary, 290, and Persia, 291. Khayr-ad-Din Barbarossa creates Turkish sea power, 29I. Hungary conquered, 293. Suleyman's bulldi11gs, 293. His death at Szigeth, 294.

2. The Civilization of the Osmanlis at the Zenith of the Empire 295 The Ottoman system of fiefs; the army, 296. The Janizaries, 299. The fleet, 303. The sultan and the . wazirs, 305. The Diwan and the Erkani Devlet, 308. Law and justice, 309. Clergy, 310. Scholarship, litera- .. x CONTENTS ture, 312. Raya: Greek, 315; Jews, 316; Armenians, Albanians, and Slavs, 3 1 7. 3. The Rise of the New Persian Empire and the Turkish- Persian Conflict 3 17 The monk state of Ardabil and the Sufi Ishaq Safi-ad- Din; his grandson Junayd and the .latter's son Hay- dar, leaders of the Kizilbash, 318. Haydar's · son lsma'il subjugates Persia, 320, and the Uzbegs of Khorasan, 32 1. Shi 'ism as state religion, 32 1 • T ahmasp, 322. Isma'il II, 323. Persia's efflorescence under 'Abbas the Great, 324 . The decline of the empire under his successors, 326. 4. The Decline of the Ottoman Power down to the End of the Eighteenth Century 317 Selim II, war with Venice, Turks' naval defeat at Lepanto, 32 7. Wars with Persia and Austria under Murad III, p~. Peace of Sitvatorok under Ahmed; Revolts in Anatolia and Syria, 329. The Druze prince Fakhr-ad-Din, 330. War with Venice on Crete; em- pire re-organized by Muhammad KopriiHi, 332. Crete captured; wars with Poland, 334. Turks defeated be- fore Vienna and driven out of Hungary, 33 5. Peace of Karlowitz; Peter the Great and Charles XII, 336 . War with Venice and Austria; peace of Passarowitz; 337. End of the Safavids, rise of the Afghans in Persia, 337. The Russians in the Caucasus, 337. Persia under Nadir Shah, 33P Turkey's war with Russia, loss of Crimea, 341.

IV. ISLAM IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 1. The Ottoman Empire and Egypt 344 Age of Tanzimat (Reforms), 344. Serbian uprising, 345. Janizaries destroyed by Mahmud II, 346. Mu­ hammad 'Ali, governor of Egypt, 348. His son .lbra- . CONTENTS Xl him conquers Syria, 350. Wahhabis in Arabia, 352 ·; subdued by Ibrahim, 35 5. Mahmud's attempt to re- gain Syria, 358. His army routed at Nasibin, 359. 'Abd-al-Majid I promulgates th~ Hatti-sherif of Gi:ilhane, 360. Ibrahim ousted .from Syria by the four­ power alliance, 362. Reorganization in Syria; M:~ro- nites and Druzes, 363. Holy Places controversy, 364. Montenegro, 365. Crimean war, 366. Hatti Humayun, 367. Massacre of Christians in Syri~, 368. Kingdom of Rumania founded, 369. constructed under Sa'id, 370. Khedive Isma'il, 371. defeated in Abyssinia; state bankruptcy in Egypt, 372,. and ir:i Turkey, 373. Uprisings in Herzegovina and Bulgaria, 374. Midhat Pasha raises 'Abd-al-Hamid to the throne, 375; the first Turkish constitution, 375. Russia's Balkan war, 377; The Berlin Congress, 378. 'Abd-al­ Ham.id's despotism, 378. 'Arabi's revolt in Egypt leads to British occupation, 379. Railroads in Anatolia, 380, and in Hijaz, 381. Armenians and Kurds, 381. War with Greece, 382. Young Turks in Macedonia, 383. March on Istanbul, restitution of the constitution, 384. The Sultan deposed; Italy seizes Tripolitania; the Balkan war, 385. Policy of the Young Turks, 386. Turkey in Wo.tld War I, 387.

2. Intellectual Life in the Ottoman Empire and in Egypt in the Nineteenth Century 389 Shinasi, 389, and Nam.ik Kemal, 390, founders of modem Turkish literature. 'Abd-al-Haqq Hamid, 390, Ahmad Midhat, Mehmed Tawfiq, Husayn . Rahmi, Mahmud Ekrem, Mehmed Emin, 391. Khalid Ziya, 392. Turkish nationalism, 392. Arabic literature . in Syria and Egypt, 393. Feminism and Islamic mod- ermsm, 395. 3. North Africa · Tripolitania, 396. The French conquer Algeria, 397, .. Xll CONTENTS and occupy Tunisia, 402. The sharifs 'of Morocco, . 403. Their regime, 404. Sultan Hasan and Bu Ham­ arah; Algeciras conference; penetration pacifique, 406. Abd-el-Krim, 407. Intellectual life in North Af­ rica and s~jrrings for liberation, 407.

4. The Sudan Islamization, 408. Mahdi in the Egyptian Sudan, 409. His khalifah's wars in Abyssinia, 41 3: His state de­ stroyed by Kitchener, 414. The "Mad Mullah" in Somaliland, 415. Zubayr Pasha in Bahr al-Ghazal; Sanusis, 416. Rabih and the expansion of the French colonial empire, 417.

5. Persia and Afghanistan 419 Kajars; Fath 'Ali struggling against Russia and Af­ ghanistan, 419. Muham.mad Shah's clash with Britain in Afghani$tan, 42 3. Shah Nasir-ad-Din, 424. Babism, 424, and Bahaism, 427. Russian advance in central Asia; the British in Afghanistan, 428. Nas~r-ad-Din's reform plans, 429. Conflict with Jamal-ad-Din al­ Afghani, 430. Assassination of the Shah; growing .financial difficulties under Muzaffar-ad-Din, 43 1. Revolution; parliamentarism, 43 2 . Persia divided into spheres of influence-Russian and British, 433 . Bakhti- yari tribesmen depose the Shah, 4 34. Morgan Shuster, financial adviser; northern Persia in Russian hands, 435. Persia in World War I, 436.

V . THE ISLAMIC STATES AFTER THE WORLD WAR

1. Turkey Istanbul occupied by the Allies, Smyrna ·by the Greeks, 438. l\·fostafa Kemal in Anatolia, 439. The National Pact of Sivas; Kemal becomes president of the at Ankara, 440, Ghazi after his CONTENTS Xlll victory over the Greeks on R. Sakarya, 441. Treaties with France and Soviet Russia, 441. Expulsion of the Greeks from Smyrna, peace of Lausanne, 442. The republic; abolition of the caliphate; Kurdish uprising, 44 3. Religious and social reforms, 444. Latin script in­ troduced, 445. Neo-Turkish nationalism and its ex­ cesses, 446. Art and literature, 448. Parties; the Smyrna conspiracy; 449. Foreign policy; Mosul, 450, and Alexanqretta, 451; treaties with Balkan nations, 451. Araturk's death, 452. z. Egypt 452 ·Under Cromer, 453. 'Abbas Hilmi's conflict with Kitchener, 455. The question of 'Aqabah; Mustafa Kamil and the National parry; the events of Din­ shaway, 456. Cromer resigns, 457. IGtchener and the five-faddan law, 458. The firsr parliament of Egypt; Egypt in World War I; British protectorate; Sultan Husayh Kamil, 458. Sultan Fu'ad, 459. Sa'd Zaghlul and the Wafd, 460. His exile; disorders; Allenby and the Milner Mission, 461. Negotiations for a treaty with Britain, 462. Zaghlul in the Seychelles; .protec­ torate abolished; Fu'ad as king; Zaghlul's return, 463. Sir Lee Stack assassinated; Isma'il Sidqi Pasha's cabi­ net, 464. Sar.war's negotiations in London, 465. The King rules without parliament with Mahmud Pasha as premier, 466. Resurgence of the Wafd, 467. Italians in Ethiopia; the Anglo-Egyptian treaty, 468. King Faruq against the Wafd, 469.

3. Arabia Sharif Husayn in Mecca; The Houses of Rashid .and Sa'ud in Najd, 470. 'Asir and Yemen, 471. Petty rulers on the coasts of the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf, 472. Husayn's negotiations with McMahon in Egypt, 472. His son Faysal in Syria, 473. Faysal and Lawrence fighting the Turks, 474. Husayn, defeated . XlV CONTENTS by lbn-Sa'ud, abandoned by Britain, 476. 'Abd-al­ 'Aziz ibn-Sa'ud against the house of Rashid and against Husayn, 477. lbn-Sa'ud king of Najd, 477, and of Hijaz, 478. Muslim·congress in Mecca, 478. Clash with the emir of 'Asir and the imam Yahya of Yemen, 479. Ibn-Sa'ud's home policy, 479. 4. Syria, Palestine, Transjordan, and 'Iraq 480 Secret Arab societies and Arab nationalism in World War I, 481. The Sykes-Picot agreement, 482. The King-Crane Commission; Faysal king of Syria, 483. French mandated area in Syria forms a federal ·state, 48~. Uprising in Syria (1925), 485. Republican con­ stitution; efforts towards a treaty with France; 486. The Balfour Declaration: national home for the Jew- ish people in Palestine; Palestine's regime under the : British mandate, 487. Jewish immigration, 488. Con­ flict between Arabs and Jews; partition schemes, 489. Palestine conference in Loridon ( 1939), 490. Trans­ jordan under 'Abdallah ibn-Husayn, 490. Zionist at­ tempts to get a foothold there, and the Arabs' re­ action, 492. 'Iraq conquered by Anglo-Indian forces; civilian administration on Indian pattern, 493. The Mosul vilayet and the region of the. Upper Euphrates, 494. _Sir Percy Cox as Commissioner of the Manda­ tary, 496. Faysal king of Iraq, 497. Treaty with Brit­ ain, 498. Nestorian uprising, 499. Ghazi (September 8, 1933-April 4, 1939), 500. Political and cultural de­ velopment of 'Iraq, 501. 5. Persia and Afghanistan 501 Russians and British in Persia after World War I, 501. Riza Khan, minister of wa_r, commander in the fight against gangs, 502. Parliamentary struggles on the po­ litical form of Persia, 503: Khuzistan subdued; Kajars expelled; Riza Shah Pehlevi, shah of Persia, 504. Rail­ roads, :financial policy, agriculture, women's emanci- CONTENTS xv pation, education, 505. Foreign policy jointly with Turkey, 'Iraq, Afghanistan, 507. Emir Amanullah of Afghanistan, premature attempt ~t reform, 507-· His successors Nadir Khan and .Muhammad Zahir Khan; Afghan nationalism, 508.

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE ·

BIBLIOGRAPHY 523

ADDITIONAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 534

INDEX 535

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