SIBERIA AND RUSSIA By SIBIRYAK

The preceding article deals with the chances of II Red Siberia to eontintte the present war. The quest-ion arll1es: is there no possibility 0/ a White Siberia? To give an answer to this question frO-in a historical perspective we have reqllested a contribution frO'Jn a Russian who has been and still is 71LOSt intimcttelll connected with Siberia. a7ul who prefers to hide his ident'itll muler a pseudonllm. A large l'iterature, partie/tla'rlll in Russian, exists on Siberia and her role in the civ'il war that foll01lJed the Bolshevist revolution, but we aro not aware of a,ny art'iele that has eve'T 1Jresented in conc'ise form the historll of the Siberian autonomist movement in its relation to Russia and Bolshevism. OUT article ends with the Victo-TlI 0/ the Reds in Siberia in 19f!2; but the stnlggle for a White Sibe-ria has gone on ever since.-K.M.

CORTEZ AND YERMAK Moscow, or the periphery that is Two great political events of the Siberia? sixteenth century, taking place on dif­ In the former case we have an im­ ferent continents, brought magnificent perialistic policy which regards Siberia results to the states in whose interests simply as a colony existing for the they were undertaken. These events needs of the metropolis, in the latter were the conquest of Central America by the development of an economic and Cortez and that of Siberia by Yermak. political program of the local Siberian Thanks to the efforts of these con­ population which, with its own pro­ quistadores, both typical adventurers moters and ideologists, became known eager to get as far away as possible from as the Siberian autonomist movement, the laws of their respective countries, or Siberian regionalism - Sibirskoye Spain and Moscovite Russia became Oblastnitchestvo. empires as colossal in their dimensions That the Imperial Government looked as in their political influence. The upon Siberia as on a colony was similar character of the activities of evident in many respects. Siberia these two historical figures created was administrated by three Governor very similar political results: Spain Generals (Western Siberia, Eastern became an empire in whose bounda­ Siberia, and Amurland, which latter ries the sun never set, and Russia included the entire Russian Far East). consolidated herself in the vast spaces These were practically viceroys with of Asia. The significance of both almost unlimited power. They were events in history is even greater if we hardly restrained in their decisions. take into account the fact that the from above, nor from below, as the direct consequence of Cortez' and share given to the population in local Yermak's conquests was the spreading affairs was very limited. Siberia up of Christian civilization into new con­ to the revolution did not know local tinents. self-administration, and juries were introduced only shortly before the IMPER1AL1SM VS. REG10NAL1SM Great War. Hence the only limitation As for Siberia the question was: for the Governor's administration were who was to determine the policy-the the general laws of the empire and to center that is S1. Petersburg and some extent the attitude of the Sibe- 176 THE XXth CENTURY

rians which could not be entirely over­ MENDELEYEV looked. AND THE BOLSHEVIKS In the economic field the Central The real problem in every historical Government always was jealous that period of the Russian state was how the development of Siberia might hurt to harmonize the interests of Siberia the economic interests of the land­ with those of all Russia. This is con­ owner and merchant class of European firmed by the deductions of the famous Russia. Many obstacles were put in scientist Mendeleyev, a Siberian by the path of Siberian grain reaching birth, who in his historical book Un­ European Russia in order not to lower derstanding of Russia declared that the local grain prices. To protect the the natural, geographical, and sociol().. industry of European Russia the growth gical factors existing in Russia pointed of Siberian industries was retarded. to the necessity of removing the vital This attitude of the government center of the Russian Empire to the was particularly responsible for the region of Omsk in Western Siberia. growth of the autonomy movement in It is evident that the Bolsheviks adopt­ Siberia. ed Mendeleyev's idea in their industrial planning, not for the benefit of either As the very name of the movement the Siberian or Russian population but shows, the political thought of the solely to consolidate the base of the Sibiryak (Siberian Russian) took a World Revolution. Only because of the territorial point of view. The interests efforts exerted by the Bolsheviks in this of the Siberian population were con­ direction were they able to survive so sidered by the Siberian autonomists far in spite of the heavy blows they to be in certain respects opposed to sustained from the German war machine. the interests of European Russia as The original plan of the economic she saw them. This opposition had and industrial development of Siberia given the Russian Imperial Goverment does not by any means belong to the cause to look with suspicion upon the Soviets. The foundation stone for this Siberian autonomist movement and to plan was laid in the reign of Emperor believe that its hidden aim was separa­ Nicholas II (1894-1917) and great tion from the Empire. In actual fact, strides in this direction were made the founders of the movement, Yad­ after the revolution during the short rintsev and Potanin, were in no way life of the Siberian Government. The separatists, but only the ideological de­ plans of this Government concerning fenders of the cultural and economic the development of Siberia were very interests of the Siberian people and broad and calculated on the actual their way of life. possibilities and resources of Siberia As a rule, opposition of local in­ and its real needs. Not being subjected terest to the interests of the empire to the program of a World Revolution, is wrong, as it tends to weaken the they had all the essentials for future organization of the state. But in some success. Had these plans been allowed cases such opposition may have good to be carried out without hindrance results, not only for the local during the past twenty years, the interests but for the whole state. Siberia of today would be one of the This is especially true when such most important economic and industrial opposition creates conditions which may territories in the world. help a part of the state to develop ARGUMENTS FOR AUTONOMY its natural resources to the fullest The main arguments brought forward extent, and by this development by the Siberian autonomists are as to increase in importance in the follows: firstly, Siberia with regard to affairs of the whole empire and its its own population is economically responsibility in its future. Such is entirely self-supporting: not only does the case with the Siberian autonomist it not import raw materials but it even movement. exports them; secondly, the ethnical SIBERIA AND RUSSIA 177

composition of its population is well several generations, and of new settlers adapted to its natural and climatic or immigrants. The new settlers ar­ conditions in which the exploitation of rived after the construction of the natural wealth must be carried on; Trans-Siberian Railway from Russia thirdly, the Siberian population has a and settled on land allocated to them higher standard of living than the by the Government. The Cossacks be­ population of European Russia; and fore the Revolution were organized into finally, the quantity of goods produced seven separate troops, each troop is large in relation to the number of occupying its own territory and ruled working hands and is showing a tend­ in its internal affairs by authorities ency to increase in the most important elected among its members. Finally there sections of economic life. are native tribes living in regions which they have occupied since time im­ A RURAL POPULATION memorial. The inter-relations of all Life in Siberia has always been these groups assumed peculiar forms ,entirely different from that in Russia. very different from those existing in Even Communism was unable to do European Russia. away with this difference. The exist­ A characteristic feature of the ,ence of enormous resources has put Siberian situation was the absence of a peculiar mark upon the character of the agrarian question as it existed in the Siberian. Every man in Siberia Russia, the reason being that Siberia regards himself as rich. If we compare had never known the great private the economic strength of the peasant's landowners. To be sure, Siberia had farm in European Russia with that of its own agrarian problems, connected Siberia we see that before the revolu­ with the migration of peasants tion in European Russia the average from European Russia. This became quantity of land belonging to one farm evident when the waves of migrants was 3.4 and in Siberia 5.2 dessyatins. from Russia encroached upon the lands The predominant part of the Siberian of the old settlers or natives. Discon­ population was and still is rural. If, tent on the part of the Siberians with besides that fact, we take into con­ the policy of the Central Government sideration the great dimensions of led in some cases in Western Siberia Siberia and the scarcity of means to open resistance. ,of communications, we can readily Psychologically the absence of serf­ understand that the townsfolk of dam in the past life of the peasants Siberia could not have much influence and the small size of the proletariat over the rural population, in contrast gave the Siberian a free mind and to the conditions existing in European great self-respect, since he was ac­ Russia. In recent years the Bolsheviks customed to rely upon his own strength. have done their utmost to change this, The fact that there was no bitter but, before the Great War, European economic struggle among the classes Russia, with a population nine times made life in Siberia very different larger than that of Siberia, had thirty­ from that in European Russia and in­ one times as many industrial enterprises fluenced the ideology of the Siberian and a hundred times as many workers. autonomists. The proletariat as a class did not exist in Siberia. VELVET OVER MUD NO SERFS, NO PROLETARIAT In answer to the question whether The country population in Siberia the Siberian autonomist movement was consists of peasants, Cossacks, and in opposition to the Tsarist Govern­ native tribes. The peasant class in ment, it can be said that it did not Siberia is not homogeneous, as many oppose the Tsarist Government as such seem to think. It consists of old set­ but opposed its policy towards tlers who have lived in Siberia for Siberia. This opposition was very 178 THE XXth CENTURY different from that of the revolutionary ST. PETERSBURG anti-Tsarist parties. These were striv­ PAILS TO UNDERSTAND ing to destroy the historic structure of The Sibiryak suffered more from the state; the Siberian movement on arbitrary administration than economic the other hand was directed toward the difficulties. Even the famous case of development of the cultural and the shooting of the workers in the economic strength of its region while Lena gold fields some years before the wishing at the same time to remain Great War resulted not from economic within the framework of the existing reasons but mainly from an act of political organization of the state. administrative violence which produced While in European Russia the restless angry protests on the part of the peasant dreamed of one day having miners. The Siberian peasant already his own land, and the revolutionary represented the type of farmer toward laborer, influenced by political prop­ whose creation in European Russia was aganda, thought of seizing the fac­ directed the great agrarian reform of tories, the Siberian peasant was con­ Stolypin (1907), which aimed at strength· sidering the better and more produc­ ening the economy of the country tive use of the land he already pos­ and thus stabilizing the regime. If sessed, and the Siberian miner was Siberian economic life had received accustomed to deal with thousands of encouragement from the administration, rubles easily earned and easily spent the Tsarist Government would have in the belief that in another gold­ been strongly supported by the Sibir­ digging season he would again make a yaks. The migration to Siberia would fortune. have been caused not by the lack of When I think of the difference be­ farming land in Russia but by the tween the Sibiryak and the people from attractions of Siberia itself. But European Russia, one scene, witnessed unfortunately Siberia did not receive more than once, always comes first to from the Tsarist Government the my mind: a Siberian gold-digger return­ eagerly and vainly hoped for establish­ ing from a season's work in the wilder­ ment of local self-government known ness knew no greater joy than to show in Russia as zemstvo. Only by the not only his money but that this money reforms of Speransky during the reign did not mean anything to him. With of Emperor Nicholas I in the second his pockets full he would first direct quarter of the nineteenth century had his steps toward the town's main store. the acts of arbitrary administration Thgrg hig ArriVAJ W:\S aJready known in Siberia become somewhat limited.. and he was met on the street with Before that reform Government offi­ deep bO'Y8 a.nd the rC8poctfui request cials were directly responsible for the to enter the store. "Damn dirty, the dispersal of the population which pre­ road to your :store," he would Bay ferred to mow'! t.o localities Rit.IlAt.P.ti haughtily, "get busy and bring a piece as far as possible from the eagle eye uf velvet that I may cross the 6treet." of the authoritieR. Eagerly the clerks would bring a bolt Another noted administrator was of cloth and spread a velvet carpet Count Muraviov-Amursky, perhaps the across the mud. Stamping the costly only one of all the statesmen working material deep into the dirt with his in Siberia to realize its possibilities' heavy boots the man would trium­ and the ways in which they could be phantly march into the store, greeted developed. Actually lVIuraviov-Amursky by the bows of the storekeeper and can in a way be regarded as the first rewarded by the approving laughter of autonomist of Siberia, and during his the crowd. This was the high spot of governor-generalship of Eastern Siberia the year for him. He was a regular he did a great deal of good for the fellow and had dough-what chances country. However, the general policy had Marx to impress him with his of the Government was contradictcry theory of surplus value? to that of the Count, and his work SIBERIA Al'H> RUSSIA 179 could serve only as a demonstration of markable that none of them dared openly the possibilities which could hnve been to oppose the purely Siberian feelings opened up for the Russian Government of the autonomists. They were afraid had it ceased to look upon Siberia as of losing contact with the masses, a colony for convicts. though no doubt the ideology of the autonomists was regarded by them with CRIMINALS, ORDIj\jARY AND utmost scorn as "petty-bourgeois." POLITICAL At the beginning of August 1917 It would not be fair to assert that a conference of Siberian democratic the Government had nothing to fear organizations was called in Tomsk and from social movements in Siberia. The the question of autonomy for Siberia basis for such fear was the fact that was put before it. It is characteristic Siberia was used as a place of exile that many representatives of the rev­ for criminal and political convicts. St. olutionary democracy present at this Petersburg always believed that if you conference found it necessary to support scratch a Sibiryak you will find either autonomy in order not to lose the a criminal or a political convict. Of confidence of the masses in Siberia. course the Tsarist Government itself The growth of Bolshevism in European had been responsible for the filling of Russia during the summer of 1917 Siberia with such elements, as it had forced the Siberian organizations to be tried simultaneously to solve two prob­ on the alert. They realized immediately lems-that of colonizing a distant, that the possible seizure of power by the sparsely populated country and that of Bolsheviks would render any prospects getting rid of undesirable elements at of ~iberian autonomy very doubtful. home. It was decided to take measures for It is to be noted, however, that much the creation of purely Siberian mili· of the cultural influence in Siberia tary units consisting of soldiers of mllst be attributed to anti-Government Siberian origin who were at the Ger­ elements, forced to stay in Siberia man front. The successful uprising of against their will. Important bringers the Bolsheviks in Petrograd in October of culture, for instance, were the lead­ 1917 brought the question of the ers of the revolt of December 1825 organization of the Siberian Government in St;. Pel;ernburg, the su·calletl Decem­ tu a climax. A congress of a number brists, who were deported to Siberia of Siberian organizations decided to in 1826. Numerous exiled political call an extraordinary Siberian RegionRI convicts imparted a great deal of Assembly. All preparatory work was intellectual impetus to Siberia. No entrusted to the Siberian Regionnl doubt these men tried to impose their Council under the presidency of Potanin. views upon the people around them: yet it is astonishing how rapidly they 'l'HE FIRST SIBERIAN adapted them'elves to Siberia, how GOVERNMENT quiC'kly Siberia transformed their pay­ CumliLium:l and ideas created under chology, and how they took the in­ the influence of the Bolshevi3t revolu­ terests of Siberia to heart. Many of tion spread like waves from the them preferred 1;0 remain in Siberia centre of Russia. In Siberia, too, after the termination of their sentence. soviets were founded. At the same They acquired property, and their time there were evident differences children became real Sibiryaks with between the development in Siberia all their characteristic features. and European Russia. The most signifi­ cant was the demand for the creation of FROM SOCIAL TO POLITICAL a Siberian Government that would be ACTIVITY independent of the Bolsheviks. This de­ The activity of the Russian revolu­ mand was the main cause of the tionary parties was, of course, also to rupture between the Siberian autonomist be found in Siberia, but it was re- movement and the Bolsheviks. 180 THE XXth CENTURY

The first meeting of the Siberian Government; (3) the convocation of the Duma in Tomsk was fixed for Siberian Constituent Assembly. Thus January 19, 1918. At first a fight for the active resistance of the Siberian supremacy between the two major people was successfully led into a single groups, the Socialist-Revolutionaries channel, which, though created in a and the Siberian autonomists, seemed revolutionary manner, corresponded to inevitable. However, after the Com­ the desires of autonomy long cherished munists had on January 18, 1918, by the Siberian population. The masses dispelled the All-Russian Constituent took part in the fight, which developed Assembly in Petrograd, the Socialist­ fully by the summer of 1918. Revolutionaries realized that as SIBERIA RID OF BOLSHEVISM democrats they must unconditionally The anti-Bolshevik uprising began on support Siberian autonomy. In the May 24, 1918. After several days of night of January 26 the Bolsheviks hard fighting, a large territory with seized several members of the Regional many towns and a population of eight Council and the Duma in Tomsk. million fell into the hands of the Thereupon the other members of the Siberian Government, which declared Duma secretly arranged a meeting in the provisional independence of Siberia. which a Provisional Siberian Govern­ By the middle of August the Govern­ ment was elected with the aims of ment already had its own army of resistance to the Bolsheviks and 200,000 men. Successfully they carried autonomy for Siberia. Whatever were operations to the east. Here they met the defects of the process of election the Cossack forces of Ataman Semyo­ and of the persons elected, this fact nov, who joined the Siberian army. in itself had enormous consequences, Thus Siberia was completely rid of for it marked the beginning of civil Bolsheviks, and all the forces were war in Siberia. transferred once again to the west. The ~e~rAt mpetinR' of the Siberian A series of problems now confronted Duma proclaimed that the Duma was the Siberian Government, some of which now taking the course of a supreme it was able to handle. Among those le~islative power existing in a free and solved were the creation of an army autonomous republic. A statement was and its equipment, the restoration or i~qlleci resrardinll'. first. full separation law and order, and the gaining of of Siberia from Bolshevism, and second, sympathy among the population. Un­ Siberian autonomy, which was to be solved remained the problem of sound considered the chief aim of the whole relations With the refugee force:; movement and the means for the entering Siberia from European Russia ro~torRtion of mltional RussiA. Tn thiR who should have been rellarded as way from the time of the Bolshevist auxiliaries only, not as equal partners, coup d'etn.t thA ~ihiryakg had shown since they were strangers in Siberia the resolution to go as far as cir­ and even hostile to it, looking at the cum:ltancc~ might require. From tho country with the eyes of the former outset Siberia became an independent Russian center. factor in the fight against Bolshevism, FAILURE with its own ideas, conceptions, A number of persons foreign to the and expectations. At that time ideas of the Sibiryaks was allowed to there was no question of foreign penetrate into the highest circles of the political influence from outside. Opti­ Government. Such a Government could mism was supreme throughout the not maintain the confidence of the people country, and the majority of the people for very long, since the weakness of its had complete confidence in a final inner structure was bound to become victory over Bolshevism. known. To make matters worse, a The program of the movement was conflict between the Siberian Govern­ as follows: (1) one united all-embracing ment and the Siberian Regional Duma camp of Sibiryaks; (2) one Siberian broke out. SIBERIA AND RUSSIA 181

Under the pressure of the Allies the about the complete ruin of all of Siberian Government finally resigned in White iberia. Besides the difference favor of the All-Russian Directory, a in their tactics, the very aims of these political comLJination which brought two most important groups were com­ about a short-lived victory for the pletely at variance. Th Socialist­ party of the Socialist-Revolutionaries Revolutionaries went the way of com­ but which did not have the support of promise with the Bolsheviks, while the the Sibiryaks. This victory tW'ned autonomists became more implacable after eighteen days into a defeat, when than ever against Bolshevism. the All-Ru ian dictatorship of Admiral Koltchak was proclaimed. Exactly one END Ai\D OUTLOOK year later the Bolsheviks were to The loss of Omsk and Irkutsk con­ invade Siberia. fronted the autonomists with the While the Siberian Government had problem of future action, as the been in office it believed that the future liberation of Siberia remained their of Siberia depended upon its position chief aim. This idea found its realiza­ in the Far East. The Ministry of tion in the creation of the Council Foreign Affairs maintained, therefore, of Representatives of the Siberian that if economically Siberia were organizations that was later to lead interested in relations with the western the struggle against the Bolsheviks in powers, then politically its relations Siberia. In 1922 a Siberian detach­ with Japan were of the utmost im­ ment was organized by this Council portance. With the change-over from in Vladivostok and despatched to the Siberian to the All-Russian Govern­ northern Siberia. It hoped to penetrate ment this idea gave way to another, into the interior of Siberia and to the so-called "western orientation." stir up a new general uprising against the Bolsheviks there. After several ADMIRAL KOLTCHAK victorious encounters it met with dis­ aster and had to retreat. In October The masses simply ceased to support 1922 the Council of Representatives the White Movement when it lost its had to undertake the evacuation of quality as a Siberian movement. Admiral the White forces from Vladivostok. Koltchak himself was less responsible Since then the Siberian autonomist for this situation than any other movement ha.~ had to relinquish its person. He was a man deserving full purely regional character, as it realized confidence, but sometimes even a strong the hopelessness of fighting Communism, personality is unable to do anything which had all Russia's resources behind against a common frame of mind. it, with the meager resources 9£ the As early as May 1919 the Siberian Siberian population. Instead it has groups which had started the anti­ sought to associate itself with a Communist movement a year before world-wide movement aimed against realized that Siberia was heading for the ideology of Communism. In the a major catastrophe, to avoid which success of such a movement it sees strong measures had immediately to the only hope for the liberation of be applied. There were two ways to Siberia and the salvation of Russia. accomplish this - either to come to an If Communism should survive even in agreement with Admiral Koltchak or a part of European Russia, an inde­ to try to overthrow his Government. pendent Siberian state would automati­ At this point the ways of the Siberian cally become a strong bulwark against autonomists and the Socialist-Revolu­ Communism. tionaries parted. The autonomists If in the past the destiny of the chose to throw in their lot with Siberian autonomist movement was a Koltchak, which led them nowhere; purely Russian domestic affair, it has the Socialist-Revolutionaries organized now become a question of international a rising against him which brought importance of the first magnitude.