The Weddell Sea: an Historical Retrospect Dr

Home , Benjamin Morrell, New South Greenland

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Scottish Geographical Magazine Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rsgj19 The Weddell Sea: An historical retrospect Dr. Wm.S. Bruce Published online: 30 Jan 2008.

To cite this article: Dr. Wm.S. Bruce (1917) The Weddell Sea: An historical retrospect, Scottish Geographical Magazine, 33:6, 241-258, DOI: 10.1080/14702541708554307 To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/14702541708554307

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THE WEDDELL SEA: AN HISTORICAL I%ETI%OSPECT3 By Dr. W~. S. BRrJCE.

TJzE Weddel] Sea ~ may be defined as the southern extension of the South Atlantic Oce~on beyond the parMlel of 60 ° S. to about 78 ° S., between the meridian of C-reenwich and the shores of the Graham Land peninsula ~o ~he west. The South Shetlands and Bransfield Strai~ should be considered as outside ~he area which bears this name, lying as they do for the most par b to the north and north-west of Graham Land. The first explorers of the Weddell Sea were William Smith, of Blyth, master and part-owner of the brig Wil[ia~s, ~ Edward Bransfield, R.N., master of H.M.S. ~4ndromaehe, and Captain Fabian Gottlieb yon Bellings- hausen, all during the summer season of 1819-20. An interesting account of the voyage of the Wi~Iia~s appears to have been los~ sigh~ of entirely by recent writers 4 on the history of Antarctic discovery l I found it in the London Literary G~zette, having taken the hint from Weddeil in a footnote on page 118 of his Voyage towards the SoutA Pole. The Literary Gazette of tha~ period has several notices of Smith's discovery of the New South Shetlands, in February 1819, and Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015

i I am especially indebted to Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown for valuable assistance in revision of this article. 2 Styled by Jamss ~Veddell "The Sea of George the Fourth." The name of this brig is spelt "Williams," not " William," as it has been frequently mis-spslt. The ~Villiams was built at Blythin 1813. Sho was of 2t6 tons. Smith was part- owner and master from 1815 to at least 1823. She was afterwards sold at Sunderland to one Hutchinson, who was then master of her, and engsged in co~sting trade. 4 The careless slandering of William Smith by Mr. Raeovitza shows that the latter is not conversant with Smith's excelient and trustworthy records. ~s~dtats du Voycege d.~ S.Y. "Belgicc~": ZooZogy--CJtac~s--Exame~ critique, etc.--" Voyage of William Smith," chap. ii. p. 65~ by Emil~ G. P~acovitza. Antwerp, 1903. VOL. XXXIII. Q 242 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL I~[AGAZINE.

the volume for 182t contains the best account of Bransfield and Smith's voyage in 1820 that I have so far come across. It is in great part actually extracts and in part an abstract of an evidently reliable tog kept on board the Will ia~ns by one of the officers, though I have not been able, so far, to decide whose log it is. It corrects blanks and gross mis-statements tha~ have crept into laser aecounts, and it is regrettable that one of these was, evidently through misinformation, made by 1%. H. Laurie as early as 1822) The log clearly says that it was towards the end of February 1820, and not January, as stated, that Bransfie!d and Smith pushed south into this then unknown sea. After discovering Clarence Island, the eastermost island of the South Shetlands, Bransfield and Smith made this first penetration of the north-western part of the Weddell Sea. "When in W. longitude 52 ° 23' 45 ~' and S. latitude 61 ° 30' S., on the 22nd February (1820), the brig made a dash to the southward, determined to enter the Antarctic regions, no ice being visible on ~he eastern coast, or tha~ which they had just quitted. After a run of 40 miles, however, with a fine N.E. breeze, icebergs were encountered in immense numbers, and towards evening loose pieces of sheet-ice stopped their progress. The attempt was persevered in on the 23rd; bus the accumulation of ice rendered it altogether abortive, and the ship's head was turned once more towards Cape Bowles. "e The position of the W~lZia,ms on turning was 6¢ ° 50' S. 52 ° 30' %V.7 Bellingshausen, after his survey of the Sandwich Group, which he definitely proved insular and not continental, penetrated a month earlier, viz. on the 27tb January, to as high a latitude as 69 ° 38' S., in 1 ° ~3' W., where he wan also stopped by impenetrable ice. I~ is of special interest to note that the position of the highest latitude oi the WiZZiams (1820)in ~hese longitudes falls on the track of Dr. O~go Nordenskjhld in the A~da~,ciic (1902), who was also unable to attain a higher latitude here for the same reason, namely, the tight ice of this locMity; and that the jam of ice that s~opped Bransfield and NordenskjhId is on!y slightly south of the region where Ross, in 1843, Fairweather, in the 2aI:e.p,a, on which i was naturalist, in 1892, and Larsen, in 1893, were unable to p~netrate to the south on accoun~ of the same jammed condition of the pack-ice and floes. It was also in approximately the same latitude, and less than 80 miles farther eas% ~hat Sir James i~oss, Captain Crozier, and several officers, both on the E~'ebus and Ter~v~, reported a "sboc~g a22Jeara~ce of la~d." It was on this Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 voyage ~hat Bransfield and Smith discovered the Antarctic Continent. Bransfieid's excellent chart, s published by the AdmirMty in 1822,

'~ (~) "Chart of South Shetland, including Coronation Island, etc., from the exploration of the Sloop l)ove in the years 1821 and 1822, by George Powell, etc." R. if. Laurie, London, 1822. (b) "Notes on South Shetlands, etc., by George Powell," p. 8, footnote. P~. H. Laurie, London, !822. "New Shetland," in Literary Gazette, No. 250, p. 691 ; No, 25t, p. 712 ; No. 253, p. 749. London, 1821. 7 Laurie charts their highest latitude as 6i ~ 54' S., while the Admiralty makes it 64 ~ 50' S. s ~ Chart of New or South Shetland seen in 1819 by Willm. Smith, Master of the Br~g Wi7gicans. Surveyed by E. Bransfield, Master, R.N., in 1820." AdmiraIty, 1822. THE WEDDELL SEA: AN HISTORICAL RETROSPECT. 2~8

extending the discoveries of Smith, is too little known, and Bransfield has been deprived of the credit he so well deserved, owing to the erroneous and highly misleading statement already referred to, published by an authority otherwise so reliable as R. H. Laurie, evidently with in- complete data at his disposal. This error was not, as far as I can ascertain, corrected by Laurie till 1828, ~ and again in 1831,1° in Laurie's large chart, then revised by Captain Robert Fildes. It must here be mentioned that this Antarctic expedition was organised by the energy and patriotism of Captain William Henry Shirreff, R.N., of the frigate H.M.S. zlndromache of 4;4 guns, then stationed at Ya!paraiso. Captain Shirreff, of his own accord, on behalf of the Admiralty, chartered the Wi[lias~s from Smith, who had made a point of reporting his discoveries and emphasising their importance to Captain Shirrcff. 8hirreff put the master of the 3.~,cb'omache, Mr. Edward Bransficld, on board, as well as Messrs. Poynter (mate), Bone, and Blake, three .4,m~ro~ache midshipmen, and Surgeon Adam Youfig of H.M.S. ,S'[a,r~ey of 20 guns, in order to make g more detailed survey of Smith's new la~d, and to take official possession .of i~ in the name of the British Crown. Wiliiam Smith, Robert Fildes, Richard Sherratt, James Weddell, and many others were a~ the South Shetlands in the season 1820-fil, reports of the sealing industry having spread like wildfire especially to British and American sealing communities. ~Veddell, defiinitely, in December 1821, cruised into the north-western corner of the WeddelI Sea in the cutter 2sa~@~y of London, Mmost synchronously with Powell and N. B. Palmer, but scarcely so far east, and almost simultaneously discovered the South Orkneys, reaching 62 ° 28' S. in 52 ° 00' W.

Regarding <5he "appearance of land" above rr:entioned on British Admiralty charts, Dr. Otto NordenskjSld 11 points out that, "Eine Mit- tMlung yon dcr Bcobachtung selbst, auf dcr diese Angabe basiert, finder aieh jedoeh nicht im ~eisewerk yen P~oss,und es ist deshalb anzunehmen, dass dieselbe besonders rag gewesen ist; cs ist sogar recht wahrsehein- lich, dass sic vollstgndig yon einem grSsseren Eisberg mit eigentfimlicher Form hervorgerufen worden ist." Dr. NordenskjSld then recounts the experience of his companions and himself in that very district, of an appearance of land, which proved to be ice, an experience which every Arctic or Antarctic explorer has had at different) ~imes. Dr. NordenskjSld is, however, mistM~en in Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 saying that Ross% indications may be assumed to have been "very vague" (besonders rag) , for if he refers to Admiralty Chart 1240 he will

"Chart of South Shetland, An Archipelago discovered By l%[r.Wm. Smith, in the Brig T,'ViUiams, February 1819. Reduced from the large Chart By Capt ll. Gee e. PoweI1. With Additions, 182~." ~0 - Chart of South Shetland, including Coronation Island, etc., from the Exploration of the Sloop Dove, in {he years 18~I and 1822, By George Powell, Commander of the same." R. H. Laurie, 1822. Second Edition. With -Various Additions by Capt'. Rob ~. Fildes, i881. i~ 7Die Schwedische S~dpo[a¢-F~xioedi~io~ 'und ihre Geoffray)hisehe Ti~tiffkeit. Stoekhohn, 1911. Band i, Lief. i. p, 47. SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL NiGAZINE.

read the legend between 47 ° 40' W. and 49 ° 00 ~ W., "stro~g a2Tearance of Ia~&" Ress's omission in the text of his popular narrative is evidently merely a slip. I have examined the original logs, both of the E~eb~ts and Terror, and also Ross's original chart, and I find that the "appearance of land" was by no means "vague," but that it is repeatedly indicated watch after watch in the logs of both ships during three days as "strong." !~ 1V~oreover,by plotting off the numerous records signed independently by the different officers of each watch, I have found that there were welt-marked appearances of land no~ only as plotted on the Admiralty charts in about 65 ° S. and about 48 o to i9 ° W., but as extensively as from 45 ° W. to 49 ° W°--an east and west stretch of 100 miles. Ros~ even indicates on his chart the possibility (in pencil notes, not confirmed by inking in) of land existing as far east as 41 ~ W., but has evidently rejected these observations on account of Weddell's track passing through one of the positions. The scrupulous care with which goss's original" chart is laid down, even to the insertion of his predecessor's tracks as well as his own ; the eopiou% detailed, and careful notes along his own {~racks, backed by many years' Arctic, and three seasons' Antarctic experience, make it impossible to aecep~ NordenskjSld's suggestion that the indications of land that Ross saw were "very vague" in this locality, and only "a large iceberg of peculiar form." In my opinion, therefore, Ross's observations cannot be dismissed by any evidence that has been brought forward up to the present time, and are alone strongly indicative of land in that locality. Dr. NordenskjbId does not take into accoun*o the strong meteorological evidence brought forward by Mossman and myself, the result of the Scottish and Argentine observations at Scotia Bay, nor even his own expedition's observations at Snowhill and Paulet Island. It is of special interest to note that when the Scotia was in close proximity to the above recorded "st;'onj aTTearance of la.;~d" of Ross, namely on 12th, 13th, and 14th March i903, that there was a sudden and well-marked fall in temperature, the lowest temperatures recorded during the voyage except in the vicinity of Coats Land. This occurred with the wind at the time blowing off this region, a feature strongly indicative of land masses a~ least in the Antarctic regions. On the 14th March as we were steering north-eastward away from Ross's "st¢ong a22eara~ce of ia~d," the temperature again rose rapidly and markedly with the wind blowing Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 ~owards this region from the north-east. It should also be noted that the humidity of the air on the days mentioned was considerably below the average. Although the weather was fine, the sky was completely over- cast wi~.h low stratus clouds, so that we could not hope to see land without being very close to it, and certainly not at a distance of fully 60 miles to the west. It is also interesting to note that on the 12th of March we observed snowy petrels, which were., probably, not at a great 1-~ I have previouslydwelt on this subject in a paper I read beforethe Swiss Natural History Society at Basle on 7th September i910, entitled "Ueber die Fortsetzungdes Antarktischen Festlandes zwischen Enderbyland, Coatsland, und Grahamland sowie das Vorhandensein yon Neu Siidgr~nland." Publishedby Scottish Oceanographical Laboratory, Edinburgh. THE WEDDELL SEA: AN HISTORICAL RETROSPECT. "245

distance from their nesting-places. Mossman i~ believes that the crowding of ~he isotherms on the east side of Graham Land is clearly due to the presence of an extensive land mass such as I have indicated. I cannot agree with Dr. Nordenskjhld that the Swedish soundings obliterate the possibility of land in this locality; Nordenskjhld's only sounding, published in 1905, in that locality was 2031 fathoms, at least 45 miles from the westermost point of Ross's "st~'oag ap2eara~ce of land," while the Scotia had a depth of 2370 fathoms 50 miles off Coats L~nd, and 2110 fathoms 70 miles off, and 17~6 fathoms about 10 miles off the South Orkneys. I~ecently Dr. Nordenskjhld has kindly furnished me with o~her soundings of similar depth in this region, but ~hese are not deeper, and are all more distant from Ross's "strong ad)2)ea~'~,:nceof land." He has eriticised me for crowding my isobaths in this locality, but this was necessary, not only on account of Ross's "st.ro~y a22eam.nce of ta~d," but from the direct evidence of my own soundings of 2500 fathoms in 65 ° 29' S. 44 ° 06' W. 70 miles off, and of 24;85 fathoms in 64;° 4;8' S. 44; ° 26' W. G0 relies off. Neither is it erroneous to suppose that isobaths may be more crowded in one region than another. Those in the vicinity of the South Orkneys and Coats Land have actually this characteristic. it was because of ~he evidence of Ross and of the Scotia thet I was inclined in the construction of my Bathymetrical Chart of 1905 to take notice of land described by Morrell to the south of 65 ° S. Benjamin Morrell, sailing from the eastward, crossed the meridian of Greenwich in 69 ° 42' S. in the vicinity of Bellingshausen's highest south record on the 23rd of February 1823, the same day that Weddell attained his highest south latitude in a sea clear of field ice a few degrees farther west, during the re.os~ remarkable year yet recorded for open waSer in the Weddeli Sea. From thence he sailed in a north- westerly direction across the Weddell Sea to the Sandwich Group, 1~ and thereafter in a generally south-westerly direction, finding, like Weddell, an open sea, which he penetrated to 70 ° 14;' S. I do not propose ~o follow recent critics, beginning with Karl Frieker to a recent anonymous writer in 2~rature,~5 by hurling opprobrious epithets'a~ i~iorrell, nor do I intend to expect from any but a most exceptional sealer the detailed accuracy of trMned scientist, and appreciation of exactness outside the lines of his special calling. A review of Morrell's narrative in the Nautica~ Magazi.ne of i833 said tha~ "although we perceive in it here and there a sprinkling of the marvellous, yet there is so much interesting detail Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015

I~ lq,.C. l~iossman on " The Meteorology of the Weddell Quadrant and Adjacent Areas," ~el)ort on J~e Scie~.tifie Results qf ~he Voyage of S. tL " Scolla," vol. x. part i pp. 20 and 21, also Tra~s. Roy. Soc.~.2gdi~., vol. xlvii, lOp. 118, 119. 14 This distance of 830 miles is the only case where 5Iorrell's daily runs are possibly open to criticism. Even here I would point out that he previously remarks that the tVazp was a "fast sailing schooner," and the daily runs on this distance do not work out at more than 8½ knots. I myself have sailed in a Norwegian sealing sloop in ten degrees higher latitudes in Arctic seas at a speed exceeding 9 knots for three consecutive days. BeIlingshausen records runs of 9 and even 10 knots in even higher southern latitudes in the Vos~o7~, and repeatedly runs of 7 to 8 knots, navigating in ice, and held back by the slower speed of his sister ship the ~Iirai. 15 :Vcd~u','e, voi. 97, June 8th, 1o. 302, 2~6 ~OTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.

mixed up with downright good information that we are content to take him as he is." I believe the only record of a harbour in the Sandwich Group is Morreli's, which does not yet appear on any chart, but which has quite recently been confirmed and roughly charted, along with an even better harbour on the eastern island, and is absolutely in accord- ance with MorrelFs description, when he says, "we arrived at the Southern Thule, where, on the north-east of the westernmost island, we found a good haF~our, ''i~ He also mentions seeing nine volcanoes on the Sandwich Group, a statement jeered at by his critics, hut not~ generally inconsistent with the little we know of these islands, provided we do not extend his meaning by assuming that he saw nine islands in eruption. Qui~e apart from other evidence, there seems to be good reason, because of the reliable observations of Ross and his experienced craters in the Ereb~s and in the Tee'rot, not to reject Morreil's observation of having been close in to land to the south of 65 ° S. in those same longitudes. This, as a matter of fact, is the only very definite accoun~ he gives of being in touch with the land, except where he says he was close ~o the north cape of New South Greenland. That appears to be an illusion probably due to weather conditions and to one or more icebergs, such as NordenskjSld 17 and many other voyagers is acknowledge they have experienced in these seas, and was surely quite pardonable in view of the fact that Palmer and others had, according to Fanning, reported land in ~he vicinity, blorrell'sstatement of land to the south of 65 ° is very circumstantial. He makes no claim of a discovery, which he attributes ~o his previous master, Captain Johnson, 19 of whom Fanning says~ 2° "this most meritorious mariner (Captain Johnson) was a pupil to~ and made his first voyage to ~he South Se~s with, the author, with whom also he remained, rising ~o different stations, and finally became one of his best o~cers." Morrell simply says 2~ : ,, On Saturday, 1Vfarch 15th, at 2 ~.~I., land w~s seen from ~he masthead, bearing west, distan~ three leagues. At this time the wind had hauled to the south-west, and at half-pas~ ¢ p.~i° we were close in with the eastern coast of the body of land to which Captain Johnson had given the name of New South Greenland. At 6 I".M. the wind hauled off the land, when we tacked and stood to the south, along the coast, which runs about south-by-east our boats being out, and searching the shore for seals until 9 P.M.~ when they returned to the schooner. "March 16Zh.--On the following morning, Sunday, the 16th, the boats Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 continued t.heir search, the vessel following or keeping abreast of them; about two miles from the land, until the new day, at 4 p.sI., when we

is Benjamin 3forrell, A z)}~rr~tive of Four Voyayes, etc., p. 66. t7 Antarctica. By Otto NordenskjSld. London, 1905. ~ In 1892 i saw bergs II and 30 miles long near here, and when I first saw them I ooulc~ hardly conceive that they were not at least attached to land.--W. S. 13. 19 The An~c~rc~i,; ~egio~z.s, by K~rl Yricker (Translation), London, 1900, p. 64. Frie.ker refers to Captain Johnson as ~''apocryphM.'' He was no more "~poeryphal" than Frioker himself. ~0 F~nning, Voyag"e~ Rou~d ~he WorZd, p. 437. m Benjamin Morrei], A ~Vg~'rative off;'ou~" Voyc~yes, etc., p. 69. THE WEDDELL SEA: AN HISTORICAL RETROSPECT° 247

were in lot. 67 ° 52' S., long. 48 ° 11' W. ; at which time we took a fresh breeze from the south, attended with light snow-squalls. Variation per azimuth at 9 A.bf. 16 ° 4' easterly. The coast here tended about S.E. by S., and we thought we could discern some of the mountains of snow, about seventy-five miles to the southward. "~ Under the circumstances before mentioned, being without wood, on a short allowance of water, and the season far advanced, it was judged imprudent to proceed farther south ; although I felt very anxious (being now in an open sea) to ascertain the extent of this land towards the south. We therefore tacked about, and stood to the north. "2~fa~c/~ 19~h.--On Wednesday, the 19th, we were close in with the noreh cape of New South Greenland; 1at. 62 ° 41' S., long. 4~7° 21' W° by dead reckoning, not having had an observation for three days o.2 ; coast tending to the south, and S. by V¢." BransfiMd (1820), Weddell, d'Urville, Ross, and Larsen (1893), etc., obliterated land north of 65 ° S. in these longitudes which Morrell had scarcely more ~han suggested. But I noted on my chart (1905) ~3 Morrell's farthest south position, and roughly indicated land seen by him farther west. This would have been better indicated by a dotted, instead of a solid line, for I had absolutely no intention of affirming that the coast-line I then marked was a definitely charted coast-line. It is well known that there is no charted record known, but only Morrell's general description. I severely question the attitude of those who indescrimin- ately hurl abuse at ~orrell, who absurdly refer to the existence of Captain Johnson as "apocryphal," who obliterate all l~Iorrell's records, who call him a "5'Iunchausen," who go to the length of saying "that his honour would not even be restored if we should find such a coast." 2~ As a matter of fact, what may be the first concrete evidence against the existence of New South Greenland~ where 3/Iorrell definitely reports he saw and sailed close along land, and had boats out searching the shore for seals, appears to be from Shackleton, who says that he has obtained a sounding of 1900 fathoms apparently somewhere to the west of it, But Shackleton in his brief telegraphic message so far gives neither latitude nor longitude for this sounding, and he has not yet told us where or what his other soundings are. As a matter of fact, the depth of 1900 fathoms in other parts of the Yv'eddel] Sea may predict proximity to land. It is necessary, therefore, to wait until we have Sir Ernest Shackleton's full evidenae on the subject before we reject entirely the Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 existence of land in this locality, considering the strong hints which /have been given to its existence especially by the exploration of Ross, supported by those of the Sco~ia, qui~e independently of Morrell's statement, Even if such land is not continuous with the continent, it may be possible that Shackleton has drifted to the west of the "chester of isla~zds" which the officers in the E,rebus behaved they saw simultaneously

20. Dead reckoning; position doubtful. Obviously very cloudy, if not actually foggy weather. -°3 ~' Bathymetrieal Survey of the South Atlantic Ocean and Weddell Sea." By W. S. Bruce. Scot. (/eeg. ~f~.q., pp. 402-412. August, 1905. -"4 Fricker, IFa~ure~ Nordenskj61d and others, ~oc. ci~. 248 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE.

with those in the Terror reporting "a stretch al~earance of land." It may be, when Sir Ernest Shackleton gives his detailed report, that we shall have to decide against land in this locality, but as yet he has not given sufficient details. Bellingshausen extended Cook's sarvey of the South Sandwich Group, discovered other islands there, and determined definitely that it was a group of islands and not mainland, a fact which weather conditions prevented Cook from deciding, but it is outside my present subject to refer in detail to his explorations in South Georgia and the Sandwich Group. During his voyage to the south, Bellingshausen had difficulties with the dense pack ice and had to retreat before it in the latitude of 60 ° S. between 7 ° and 15 ° W., before penetrating to the sough, but ultimately he reached 69 ° 21' S. in 2 ° 15' W., when he was stopped by " a solid stretch of ice ahead." This ice would appear to be the same impenetrable pack that has been fallen in with subsequently by Ross, myself, and Shackleton, in the vicinity of Coats Land. This holding up of Be'iingshausen was similar to the holding up of l~oss, which must have been due to the pack ice jamming against Coats Land, which sixty years later -we discovered in the Scoga. It is unfortunate that no deep soundings were obtained by Bellingshausen in this position, because they would have helped to decide whether our surmise that he was near land is correct~ but Beilingshausen was before the time when much attention was paid to such deep-sea sounding, s~ Smith and Bransfield's explorations in the South Shetlands and in the north-west of the Weddell Sea at the beginning of 1820 were immediately followed up by British and American sealers simultaneously putting in their first appearance in the following season, namely the summer, 1820-21. Fanning 2~ says that in July of 1819 the brig Hersilic~ sailed from Stonington, and he says that Captain Smith of the Williams was there ." fifteen months prior to the arrival of the Hersilia," which makes the arrival of the He rsilia at the South Shetlands May 1820~ Some of these sealers, in search of new sealing grounds, extended their voyages into the Weddell Sea. On the 6th December Mr. George Powell in the Dove of London, in company with the American sealer N. ]3. Palmer in the dam.es Men.roe, looking for more profi~abie sealing grounds, sailed eastward from Elephant Island ~7 and discovered the Poweii Group, more generally known as the South Orkneys. In his "Journal" Powell does not call these islands by any Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 particular name, only emphasising the name of Coronation Island, which

s~ Bell[ngshausen's record of land in 69 ~ 24' S. 15 ° 51' E. is strong evidence that Coats Land extends well to the eastwarcL Vide p. 190~ I. 26, Two Voyages i~ the A~ta.rctic Ocean and Voyage round the Worh~ fl'o~ 1819-21 on the "Vostok" a~d ~' ~[irni," under the co,amend of Captain BdJingshausen, etc. Issued by ]toys1 Command. St. Petersburg, 1851. ss Voyayes Rouf~d t~e World, by Edmund Fanning, 2834, pp. 428-432. Fanning's date is evidently wrong. There is much of interest in this volume, but it is obviously to a ]argo extent written from memory, published many years late% and too often not from original records, and can in eonsequenceonly be partially accepted. Owing, however~ to the slender accounts that exist regarding these American seaiers~ it is wise not to reject entirely such narratives. T})ey must be taken for what they are worth. ~7 Originally called Sea-Elephant Island. THE WEDDELL SEA: AN HISTORICAL RETROSPECT. 249

he named and took possession of for the British Crown on December 6, 1821, the coronation year of George Iv. Powell obviously treated these islands merely as an extension of the South Shetlands, regarding Coronation Island as being an island of special importance. They first appear under the name of Powell Group, however, on the chart published by Laurie in 1822, predominance also being there given to Coronation Island, included as a "South Shetland" island. This chart, and notes accompanying it, were apparently published during Powell's absence on another voyage, because Mr. Laurie ackno~vledges indebtedness to Mr. Lewthwaite, teacher of navigation in Rotherhithe, for the use of Powell's Journal. It is to be regretted that this able young navigator, when only about twenty-nine years of age, was killed at the Vavu Group of the Tonga or Friendly Islands in April 1824. Powell, more enterprising and evidently more able than Palmer, carried out this first survey of the PoweI1 Group, es or South Orkneys, as well as an excellent survey of the South Shetlands. This work was done in conjunction with his duties as a sealer. On his return from the Son~h Orkneys Powetl pushed southward to" 62 ° 30' S. in 46 ° W., and I presume that Palmer was still in company with him, although I have not seen this stated. Unfortunately Powell's good records are not well enough known, being now rare and difficult of access. Fanning says that Palmer "coasted along this continent ~9 upwards of fifteen degrees, viz. from 64 ° S. and odd down to below the 49th of west longitude. The coast, as he proceeded to the eastward, became clear of ice, so that he was able to trace the shore better ; in 61 ° 41' South latitude, a strait was discovered which he named Washington Strait, this he entered and about a league within came to a fine bay which he named Munroe Bay, at the head of this was a good harbour ; here they anchored, calling it Palmer's Harbour." This is part of a very erroneous aeco~ant of Palmer's voyage with Powell from Elephant island; for Washington Strait occurs on Powell's map of the South Orkneys and Poweli records the fact that Palmer sailed through it, while he (Powe!l) sailed through Lewthwaite StraitY ° PowelI anchored in Spcnce's Iiarbour (which he named), in 14 fathoms, and Palmer anchored there with him. Powell charted a Palmer's Bay west of Cape Bennett, but they do not appear to have anchored there as Fanning relates. The whereabouts of Fanning's Munroe B~y is qui~e vague. It may possibly be Wilton Bay. Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 Mr. Belch has recorded the fragment of a letter, which indicates that Nathaniel B. Palmer, besides visiting the South Orkneys, may also have during 1821-22 "proceeded as far south as 68 ° south let. in long. 58 ° and 60 ° and odd west of Greenwich," that is to say into the Weddell Sea almost exactly to the same position as Larsen's farthest south, viz.

ss The application of the name of Powell C-roup to the Clarence-Elephant Island Group (by Dr. Nor4enskj~Id)~ discovered and charted by Bransfield, is misleading. It was done with the intention of honouring Powell, but this is unnecessary now that full acknowledg- ment is made of Powe!Fs excellent work. Palmer Land, previously named Trinity Land by Bransfield. so Voyages .Round the World, by Edmund Fanning, 1834. 250 S00TrlSH GEOGRAPHICAL MAGAZINE,

67 ° 50' S. 59 ° 59' W. on December 7, 1893, when he discovered the Oscar and Foyn coasts of Graham Land. si In this account of the Wedde]l Sea it is not especially to the point, and i~ would require more space than is at my disposal, to go into the details of the exploration of the South Shetlands, of Bransfield Sgrait,~ and of the adjacent coasts of the mainland across Bransfield Strait, which appear to be part of the continent of Antarctica, ~2 which was discovered at the beginning of 1820 by Bransfield and Smith, and first charted and named Trinity Land by Bransfield ; but it is important to note that ghe AdmirMty published Bransfield's earlier surveys during the same month as Laurie published Powell's chart, namely in November t822° These two charts are interesting because they definitely prove that Brans- field with Smith and not Palmer sa were the first not only to sight, but also to name, and chart a portion of the Antarctic continent--an epoch- making discovery, which has been overlooked by Antarctic historians. i~ was no~ ~ill 1823 that special interest was shown in the Wedde!i Sea, when Mr. James Weddell, Master, 2~.N., s~ who had previously penetrated to G2 ° 28' S. 52 ° 02' W. in December 1821, as mentioned above, attained, wi~h the brig Jane of Leith (120 tons), and-the cutter t~eaujby of London (60 tons), the remarkable latitude of 74 ° 15' S., midway between the longitudes of Bransfield and Smith, and Bcllingshausen. Here, in 74 ° 15 ~ S. 34 ° 16' 45" W., Weddell reported a sea free of field ice with only four icebergs in sight. This sea he charted "Navigable" and named it "The Sea of George the Fourth," a cumbersome name which has for long been re~laced by the brief and significant name of WeddelI Sea. s'~ It must, however, be remembered that Weddell's navigation through

sl ~'Stonington Antarctic Explorers" by E. S. Balch~ Aug. Ame~'. Geog. £'oc,, vol. xli, 2/0. 8, i909, p. ~78. s~ Unless there is possibly a break to the south and east of Alexander Land uniting Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. ss (a)A,zla.rctica, by E. S. B~leh, pp. 85k88. {b) "Stonington Antarctic Explorers," by E. S. Baloh, BuJ. Am~r. Geog. Soc., re1. xli., No. 8, 1909, p. 478. Note A. S. Palraer's statement, "hfy brother discovered Pahner Land latter part Jannary or first part of. February, 1821," that is, a full year after Br'ans~eld's discovery. (e) "American Discoverers of the Antarctic Continent," by Najor-General A. W. Greely, ~'ag. Geog..May, bIarch 191% pp. 298-312, Vtashington. s4 A Voyage towards the South Pole, etc. by James Weddell, F.R.S.E. Second edition. Loudon~ 1827. ss Perhaps it is not out of place to suggest that such cmnbersome names as " Sea of

Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 George the Fourth" should not in future be given, and that those that exist should, by general consent of Antarctic explorers and cartographers, be reduced at the earliest possible opportunity to single names before they are changed or obliterated by a future generation. Surely "Edward Land" is more striking than "King Edward vii. Land" (besides more historically and geographically correct), and honours equally the ]3ritish sovereign after whom it was neomed by a respected explorer whose name will for ever shine in the history of Antarctic exploration. Among others are--" Kaiser Wilhelm ~I. Land': which would become "Wi!hetm Land "; ~ Crown Prince Gustav Channel" which would beeonie ~' Gus~a~ Channel." As in the case of Edward Land, ~hese abbreviations do equal honour to those Royal persons after whom they are named, it being well recorded for all time who the explorers were who gave the names, and the exact date on which they made their respective discoveries. It might also be better to adopt, except for new tracts of coast discovered, the term "Coast" rather than "Land," as Sir Ernest Shackleton has wisely done (CMrd Coast.), and as THE WEDDELL SEA: AN BISTOItICAL RETROSPECT. 25I

the Weddell Sea was not altogether without difficulties in less high latitudes, for on the l~th of February, in 68 ° 28' S. 29 ° ~3' W., he says, "Ice islands were so numerous as almost to prevent one passing ; sixty were counted around us, and for 50 miles to the south we seldom had fewer in sight." But in 70 ° 26" S. 29 ° 58' W. "ice islands had utmost diaappeared." On the 17gh February Weddell passed Cook's farthest south during settled weather in 30 ° 12' W. At noon on the iSth February he was in 72 ° 38' S., where he saw m~ny whMes in a sea " life.rally cove,red" with blue petrels. "NOT A _~A~TIOLE O~ ICE OF aNY DESCRIPTION Yg&S TO BE SEEN." It is no~ generally reeognised that while Powell, in corr~pany w.ith Palmer, discovered the Powell Group on the 6th December 1822, WeddelI sighted the islands independently only six days later 3~ and named them Sough Orkneys. He reported his discovery to "the Commissioners of His Majesty's Navy" s6~ on his arrival in Britain on July 12, i822, and sailed from London again on the 16th September, i.e. six weeks before Powell's Chart of South Shetlands, with "Powell's Group" included, was published by Laurie, and only three weeks after Powell's return to London on August 26. Thus duplicate nomenclature was on this aeceunt, and because of the almost synchronous discovery by PoweI1 and Weddell, scarcely avoidable. The name South Orkneys is now so familiar in modern scientific records that it is well not to attempt to make a change provided we duly record Powell's prior discovery and his excellent survey in association with them. ~7 On Laurie's chart of 1831 both names are given as alternatives. Weddell fills up gaps in Powell's work, especially on the south coast of Coronation Island, which he named Pomona Island, and also at the east end of Laurie Isiand, which he named Melville's Island. Powell's surveys appear to me to be more effieien~ than those of Weddel], though both are useful. Weddell, however, definitely determined that this group of islands terminated to the eastward with Cape Dundas, whereas Powell remained uncertain as to how far the land extended to the eas~° Po~,~eli's names should, on ~he whole, have priority over those of Weddell. Powell landed on Coronation Island and Weddell landed on Sadd!e Island, and at Cape Dundas, on Laurie Island. &s stated, during the same season as Weddell, the American sealer ]Benjamin Morrell sailed into the Weddell Sea. I have discussed charges levelled against 1Viorrell's veracity, and need only point out here Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 that Morretl, like Fanning, probably too often trusted to memory rather than actual log notes. In fact, like nine out of ten sealers of the present day, he probably never kept a regular daily log. Morrell gives an

Dr. Otto Nordenskjbld is also inclined to adopt. This especial]y where names of "Lands" become too nmnerous, as, for instance, in Graham Land~ where one name ought to predo- minate over all the others, and most appropriately that name which has been generally adopted for the very definite records of Biscoe. ~s A Voyage ~wclrds ~he So~th Pole, by James Weddell, F.R.S.E. London, 1827; (~) Track char~ opposite page 1 ; (b) page 20. 3~ It is regrettable, however, to attempt to apply the name ~' Powell Group " to any other group, especially to ene discovered by Bransfield and not Powe]l. Vide Die Sehwedischs S'gdpolar-NxlJsdition ,end ihre Geographische T~ttigkeit~ yon Otto NordenskjlJld. 252 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL _~IAGAZINE.

account of an open condition of the Weddell Sea in 1823 ; this is confirmed by WcddelFs account. The only three of Morrell's critics worth considering on this question are Nordenskjbld, Filchner, and Shaekleton, who, like myself and my colleagues on the Scofia, have been in this neighbourhood, and have practical acquaintance with land, ice, sea, and weather conditions there. Nordenskjbld's arguments I have answered, and, like Filchner, i consider he has no substantial proof against land between 87 ° 40" S. 4:9° W. and 69 ~) S. ~5 ° 30'W., where Morrell describes it. filehner's assertion of the non-existence of Morrell's lsmd ~:s based on a sledge journey which he made, but gt the termination of it he was fully g0 miles to the southward of where Morrell definitely reported land, and the assertion is therefore untenable on the face of it. Filchner's journey towards Morrell's land was in a south-westerly direction from 70 ° 12' S. 4=8° W., to 70 ° 3~' S. ~5 ° W., whereas he shou!d, from his starting point of the sledge journey, have travelled in a more or less nor~h-wester!y instead of a south-westerly direction to find it. He was actually nearer to its supposed position sixteen days later in the 2)eutsch- La~d, when she was drifting in let. 69 ° 18' S° 4~ ° 20' W., 'out even then fully thirty miles to the S.E. of the most southern point that we can estimate from Morrell's description that he definitely sighted land, a distance at which we even failed to sight Coats Land with the S~otia. The fact that every one of the many ships that has attempted to penetrate the pack south of 65 ° S. between abou~ 45 ° W. and 50 ° ~vV., h'om ]3ransfield onwards during nearly a century, has failed, because the ice is nearly always jammed tight in this neighbourhood; also, that ships like the ~arctic and 2ndu~'ancs have been crushed in the neighbourhood with ice pressure due to some obviously special cause, makes one ask, "Is tha~ cause land ?"; especially when, in addition, we have strong suspicion expressed by several competent authorities on both l~oss's ships for several days that there were sboong appearances of land. Under these circumstances I maintain that that definite and simple report of Morrell, not of a great discovery, but of his boats and ship cruising along and close to about forty miles of coast between approximately latitude 68 ° S. and 69 ° S., and very roughly in longitude 45 ° 30' W. ~:8 ° W., with possibly a slight extension to the N~V. and SE. of this for another forty miles in each direction, should not be rejected until it is absolutely disproved. Skilled nautical surveyors, much later than !823, were often many miles out in longitude, and even considerably so in lati- Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 tude, especially under difficult polar conditions of fog, a low sun or none, and ice on the horizon, that it is only fair to allow a very broad margin of error for a record like Morrell's, ss whose instruments also could certainly not have been so reliable as those on ships like P~oss's and those of modern scientific expeditions. After MorrelI, Bisect crossed the north-eastern corner of the Weddetl Sea in t830, but there is nothing of special interest to record during

~s Id~n~., p. 67. 2v[orreil says he was then without fuel and with only twenty days' water supply, and adds'he was " destitute of the various nautical and mathematical instruments requisite for such an enterprise, and without the aid of such scientific gentlemen as dis- eovery ships should always be supplied with." T!IE WEDDELL SEA: AN ~ISTORICAL RETROSPECT. 253

this par~ of his voyage, the important part of Biscoe's work being carried out in other longitudes. Dumon~ d'Urville followed in 1838, afte~ sighting and charting in greater detail Bransfield's mainland, which d'Urville (unacquainted with Bransfield's surveys) called Terre Louis Philippe and Terre Joinville. D'Urville sailed eastward to the South Orkneys and made a general examination of the isiands during about five days. During this visit he landed, and approximately determined the heights of some of the hills. ice prevented d'Urville from penetrating farther south than 63 ° 50' S. in 45 ° 08' "~V. It is interesting to note that on the 23rd January 1838 d'Urvilie also believed he saw land in this vicinity, afterwards negativing his observation. Sir James Clark t%oss with the ~,'~'eb.us and I'e;'~'or, after his great researches in the :Ross Sea and Victoria Land between 160 ° E. and 160 ° V/. during two seasons, followed on d'Urviile in 1842-43. I have already found i~ necessary ~o refer to some of his work in the ~Neddeli Sea. s9 After wintering at the Falkland Islands, :Ross sailed southward and followed up Bransfield's and d'Urville's surveys to the south of Joinville Island, discovering more land, which he faithfully charted, and which formed the shores of what he named Erebus and Terror Gulf ; not being able, however, to attain even the sixty-fifvh degree of latitude in this longitude, he sailed to the east. On Weddell's homeward track he just crossed the sixty-fifth parallel, but was again pushed north by the pack to between 62 ° S. and 63 ° S. between 20 ° W. and 30 ° W. It was during this eastern voyage that his most interesting observation regarding a "~'[~v.~g adJ2)e~'~.nce of lan.d" was recorded in approximately 65 ° S., which appears in the " Rough" and in the published Admiralty charts, 1238, 1240, 3176, between 46 ° 50' lV. and 49 ° 00' W., but indications of which, according to the ships' logs, were even more extensive, as I have above mentioned, namely, between 45 ° ~V. to 49 ° W. It is interesting to quote here from the Captain's and Masters' logs of the E rdn~s and Yea'rot for the 9th, 10th, and ilth February 18~3, in order to show that it has been worth considering the possible existence of land in this locality, far which I have been so severely eriticised by Dr. Otto NordenskjJld and others ; for :Ross, after his many years' experience in Arctic exploration, and during his third successive season in Antarctic explora~imL must be most weightily considered, and cannot be so lightly dismissed as has been suggested by :Dr. NordenskjJld. Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 METEOROLOGICAL REGISTER OF H.M.S. "EREBUS." LOG AND PROCEEDINGS OF I-I.~i.S. ":E!~EBUS?'

CAPTAIN'S LOG. 1843. Thursday, 8 P.i~. ~li?t~ st.tong 40 from E ~ N to SE ½ S. Saw many whales, 9th ~eb. Cape pigeons and a few white petrel. "Terror" NNW 1 mile. ~9 Voyage of Discovery and Research. i~ the Anta~'ctic t~egions, etc. By Sir James Clark Ross, R.N.~ etc.~ 1847. Vide vo]. it. chaps, xii. and xiii. s0 The italics are mine. 254 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPiIICAL MAGAZINE.

10 Po~. Saw a few tern, white petrels and wMles. In studding sails. 12e.~L A ~trony bl.inlc from SE by S to E ~ N; "Terror" N by W~W.it Lat. 64 ° ]9' S. Long. 50 ° ~4' W. Signal from "Terror/~ ,, 64 ° 18' S. ,, 50 ° 23' W. Friday, ~0th Felo~ 1.50 x.I¢. A berg E by N. Saw 2 whales ; several ~sh co]oured and white petrel; some Cape pigeons. Stro~g bl~Jz from E N to S by E. 4.50 A.~. Ice bli~k to E by S. 5 .¢.~L Saw several tern, white petrel and Cape pigeons. 6.45 ;~.~¢. Saw a very large flock of birds, apparently white petrel, going to the SW. !1 _a.~. Appec~rc~ce of lc~nd ESE. Passed several pieces of heavy berg ice. Saw m~ny Cape pigeons, white petrel and whales. Noon. Ice blink SW by W to SE. Lc~nd blink SE ~o E ½ S. "Terror" NNW ½ mile. 1 P.~. Saw several whales. White and stormy pe~ret ~nd some Cape pigeons. 3 P.~. Berg S by W 2'. 4 ~.~. " Terror" North 9'. Ice blink from W to S by E ½ ]~. A22c~rc~ La~d Bli~k from S by E ~ E to E ~ N. A cloister apT;ar,ntZy of is~anc~s seen from masthead bearing by compass E ½ S. 5.50 p.~. Ea't~'eme of bli,~k E ½ N to SW. 6 P.~i. A berg E by S 5'. Saw a few tern and many white petrel 7 ~.~. Berg E by N 6'. (Signal to "Terror" 64 ° 31' S 47 ° 44~ W.) ( , from "Terror" 64 ° 49' S 47: 40' W.) Saburday~ llthFeb. ~.15 ~.~. Extreme ofa s~ong hi'ink E by N to S by E. 8 ~.~. Saw iceberg. East 5' a strong ice bI:~nk from South to E ½ N- 10 ~.~. Saw several whales ; white, blue and stormy petrel and Cape pigeons. Noon. Stro~cd ice blinh E by N to SW by S. Bergs. 1.40 ~.~r. A long low barrier berg ENE 10'. 4 P.~. Long berg east end ES]~ 7'. East extreme of pack E by S as seen from masthead. Ice blin~ E to SS~ T. 9 ~.~. Tacked among loose pack ice o~f the pack. A stro~g c~27~ca~,'- ante of a~. ~dand, centre of it SSE by E. Lat. 64 ° 37' S. Long. 45 ° 39 ~Wo

Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 Signal from " Terror," 64 ° 40' S. ,, 45 ° 43' W. Midnight. fee bt.in~: E by N to SSW.

~/~ETEOROLOGICAL ~EGISTEI~ AND Lo~ AND PROCEEDINGS OF [q.]~.S. ~'EP~EBUS. ~' (These are apparently additional and separate log notes.--W. S. ~.) ~As~'s Los. ~ 1843o 10~h Feb. ii ~.~. Appearance of land ESE. Passed several pieces of heavy berg ice. Saw many Cape pigeons, white petrel and whales. 4t This ~iastefs Log, ere., is signed throughout by C. T. Tucker, Master of Erebus; H. ]3. Yule, 2nd Master; K. Oakley, i~fate ; A. J. Smith, N[kte" J. F. L. Wood~ Lieu- Senant ; and H. B. M, ? (not identified), THE WEDDELL SEA: AN HISTORICAL RETROSPECT. 255

9.30 ~u~. Lc~nd blink SE to E ½ 8. " Terror'" NEW ½ (mile ?). 3.!0 a.5~. Apsaaren~ land blin].~ from S by E ½ E to E ~ N. A ~cluster cpp~'ently of islands seen from masthead bearing by compass E ½ S. 5.50 A.~. ~xtreme of blink E ½ N to SW. 11.15 -~.~. Ice thickening. Tacked ship. 2~lidnigh~. " Tee'roe" SE by S half a mileo

IV~ETEOROLOGICAL REGISTER OF H.bI°S. "TERROR."

3lskSTESg~S LOG. 42 1843. ]Feb. 9the From 6 to 8 ~.~. saw two whales, several penguins, Cape pigeons, Pro. Nivea, Prec. Glacialis, ~nd two terns. 4 r.~. "Erebus" south two cahles~ 4 small bergs bearing NN%V, I~ by W, N, and Ni~TE. S ~.~[..4_ brightness on the horizon having a22ear~nce of Ic~nd blin~ bearing E by N and 8E by E. i~ A strong bli.~# from east to SE ½ E. "Erebas" SSE ~ cables Hd. East. lOgh. "2.30 ~,.g. Obse.e.red ~he al)2)eafanec of Ia~d E by S. 4 A.5~. Afpec~rc~ee of laJzd E ½ S to ESE. 8 ~.~-L A strong appec~rance of ]and ]~ by 8 to SE by 8. 12 Noon. Strong appearance of la~d from SW by S to E by S. ~fong bli~}~ from E by S go WSW. 1 r.~. ANpea~ranee of land no longer observed: Many birds recorded. The presence o~ so many birds during the nesting season is strongly indicative of land. " Ice blink," severai times referred to, over an ice-clad land, such as, for instance, Coats Land, is almost synonymous with "land blink" ; on the other hand, it may indicate an absolutely continuous stretch of sea- ice. But even if Ross's officers had seen no other indications of land at all, I emphasise, What so continually and so persistently holds this ice together in this locality ? Baffled at no~ finding a way to the south either by Weddell's homeward or outward ~racks, Ross, with his characteristic energy and good

Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 judgment, pushed to the eastward, and at last, having been repulsed to about the sixty-second parallel~ found the pack edge trending to the south, and ultimately succeeded in attaining ~he latitude of 71 ° 30' S. in 14` ° 5t' W° on 5th March 184,3. In this position he was held up again by ice and terrific weather conditions. On this occasion Ross did not report any "appeafa~ee of land," but now we know from the researches of the ScoXia that he was within forty miles of it, and that on this occasion, at least, his failure to get far~her to the south was actually because

4s This Master's Log, etc., is signed throughout by Pownall P. Cotter, Masier of Terror; C. O. Phillips~ Lieutenant; F. E. M. ! (=possibly Thomas E. L. Moore, Mate, ?Warrant~ or Chief Petty Officer). 256 SCOTTISH GEOGRAPHICAL 3[AGAZINE,

land was holding up the ice, just as it did with Bellingshausen and when ~he S'co~ict was there in 1903 and in 1904. After Ross's era-marking voyage, the Weddell Sea and indeed the Antarctic regions generally were left severely alone for half a century, with the exception of Moore's magnetic voyage in the Pagoda in 1845, and of a flying visit for a few days by the Challenyer in 1874. Neither Moore, nor Nares and Thomson, however, entered the Weddell Sea. In 1892, Scotland, which, had previously been prominently represented by Weddell and Ross, once more created an interest in those parts by despatching four whalers to the Weddell Sea in the region of Erebus and Terror Gulf, discovered and charted by Ross. It was on the strength of i~oss's reports concerning the whales that these ships sailed. This voyage is well known and has been recorded in the &ottish GeoyraThical Mayazine and in the Geoyr~vhical Jouncing, in "From Edinburgh to the Antarctic," by W. G. Burn-Murdoch, and elsewhere, and need not be dealt with at length at the present time. T"he whalers were .BaZooka, Active, Dialog and Polar Ate;', and by the influence and assistance of the well-known Arctic veteran, the late Mr. B. Leigh Smith, it was arranged that naturalists and an artist should accompany the expedition. Facili- ties for scientific research on these ships were very restricted, yet extensive and detailed meteorological observations were kept on all the ships, and on the Balcen~ and Adi.ce biological collections under very adverse and difficult conditions were made, as well as highly interesting though limited geological collections. Mr. Bnrn-Murdoch brought back a large series of most interesting records with his brush and pen, unequalled since the voyage of d'Urville. Besides the above I took some soundings, secured samples of sea wa~er, and for the first time in Antarctic seas brought back some serial deep-sea temperatures with Negretti and Zambra's reversing thermometers in the Scottish reversing frame. Some land discoveries were made. The Active steamed through an uncharted channel now known as Firth of Tay, cutting off Dundee Island from Joinville Island, which Captain l~obert- son and Dr. Donald charted. We in the t?cdce~a were able to record new land south-west of Seymour Island, viz. Seal Islands. Norway, hearing of the Scottish venture, also sent a ship, the Jaso~ (Captain Larsen). Larsen landed on Seymour Island and obtained some tertiary fossils and also cruised as far east as the South Orkneys, but like ourselves was held up by tight ice and unable to penetrate south of 65 ° S. Next year Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 Larsen again visited the }Veddell Sea and succeeded in reaching about 68 ° S., along the east coast of Graham Land, and named the Seal Islands and Oscar H. Coast, which we in the .Balc na, as above stated, had sighted and roughly charted the previous year. Tight ice prevented Larsen penetrating eastward along this track. Again I ask, What was holding this ice to the eastward? Dr. Otto Nordenskjhld was the next explorer of the ~reddell Sea, 1901-1903, in the Aq~ta~'ctic, which had previously sailed to the Ross Sea. The recently published and detailed accounts of this voyage makes it unnecessary to give a long account of it. But, as above noted, the A~ardic, like all her predecessors, failed to pass the 65th degree of latitude between 45 ° W THE WEDDELL SEA: AN HISTORICAL RETROSPECT. 257

and 55 ° W. on account of impenetrable ice, and was finally crushed and sank off th8 Danger Islets. Three parties, separated from one another, wintered under most severe conditions, on Seymour Island, on Paulet Island, and in Antarctic Sound, and were finally rescued by the Argen- tine gunboat ~.'uguay from their perilous position. Among Nordens- kjSld's contributions to our knowledge of the Weddell Sea was the more accurate survey of the east coast of Graham Land, namely, Oscar Coast and Foyn Coast, and of Erebus and Terror Gulf. He made most valuable geological researches, and also took a number of soundings, sea temperatures, and salinities. Those taken to the eastward in deeper water are of particular interest, and have already been specially referred to in relation to the "sh'ony ap2earauce of la~d" charted by Ross. Nor- denskjSld's expedition did valuable work outside the Weddell Sea in Bransfield Strait, Belgica Strait,-,and at South Georgia and seas adjacent, but these areas are outside the scope of this paper. The Scottish National Antarctic Expedition in the Scotia (1902-4), under my leadership, followed close in the wake of the Swedes. The Scottish Expedition differed from the other expeditions sailing at the beginning of this century in that it was thoroughly equipped for deep-sea research and concentrated on work at sea rather than on shore. The results of the Scotia's work are also well known and need not be gone into in detail on the present occasion. The Scotia cleared up many problems. The south-eastern boundary of the Weddell Sea was mapped out by the discovery of Coats Land, part of ~he Antarctic Continent, which was generally believed to be much farther south in this locality. 4s The Ross sounding of 4000 fathoms, no bottom, was refuted, although it was determined that the general depth of ~he Weddell Sea considerably exceeded 2000 fathoms, and approached a depth of 3000 towards the meridian of Greenwich. A "Rise" of much less than 2000 fathoms was found connecting Graham Land through South Orkneys to theSandwich Group, and appears to continue from thence westward through South Georgia and the :Falkland Islands to South America. This "Rise" possibly extends to Bouvet Island, forming, as it were, with the South Orkneys the northern boundary of the Weddell Sea along the sixtieth parallel of latitude, except towards its eastern extremity where it trends north of east. Besides a thorough bathymetrieal survey, the 5~otia also determined the nature of the bottom of the Weddell Sea. Dr. Pirie has shown 44 that the bottom Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 is composed almost entirely of glacial mud, a modification of blue mud, which is bounded to the north by a belt of diatom ooze. Most inter- estingly we obtained rock specimens with the trawl of fossiliferous lime- stone with specimens of arch~eoeyathin~e in 1775 fathoms about eighty miles ESE. of Cape Dundas. Over five hundred samples of water taken from different depths from the surface to the bottom were taken and

43 Sir John ~Iu~ay, "Renewal of Antarctic Exploration," Geogrc~phicct~ Jou~'nal,. voi. iii. No. 1, January 1894. "Deep Sea Deposits" (with a map), byDr. J. H. Harvey Pirie, Rejoort on the Scientific Results ofghe Voy(tge of£'. 2\ "NcotiG" ;col viii. No. 1, pp. 3-48. VOL. X.XXIIL R 258 8OOTTIStt GEOGRAPHIOAL MAGAZINE.

tested for their specific gravities, eta3 ~ Systematic meteorological 46 observations were taken over the Weddell Sea between 10 ° W. and 4[5 ° W. from 60 ° S. to 74 ° S. during two seasons, besides those taken at the Sou~h Orkneys, which have, since 1901, been continued by the Argentine Republic, to whom I handed over the Scotia Bay Meteoro- logical and M~gnetic Station, established.by us in 1903. Extensive deep- sea, intermedia,~e, and surface zoological collections were secured, etcN I wish spsciMly to refer to Mr. Mossman's excellent paper recently given to the Royal Geographical Society, ~s when he discussed very fully physical problems associated with the Weddell Sea, and with whose conclusions I acquiesce, and consequently need not repeat, and make final reference to the expeditions of Lheutenant Filehner and Sir Ernest Shackleton, which completes this retrospect of the Weddell Sea. Fitchner followed up the work of the Scotia and .4ntarct~e by an expedition in ~he Deutschland. He followed the south-western extension of Coats Land and called it Kron Prinz Luitpold Land, which I suggest should be contracted to Luitpold Coast. Here he attempted to set up a winter station but was repulsed, and finally got caught in the pack ice, and drifted northward. Filchner took a good series of soundings, usefully supplementing those of the Scotia, and extended our knowledge of the Weddell Sea to 78 ° S. The result of a short sledge journey, by which he claims to have refuted the existence of Johnson's New South Greenland, I have discussed above. Filehner defined more clearly the "~ise" between South Orkneys and Sandwich Group by an addi- tionM transverse line of soundings, which confirms more fully the conclusions derived from the soundings yukon in the ,Scotia. Sir Ernest Shaokleton is the last to add to our knowledge of the Weddeit S~a, and we awMt with interest his full reports. From his telegrapMc reports, however, it appears that he has united Coats Land with Luitpold Coast by his discovery of Caird Coast. We are eager to get the e~:act line of his drift and the latitude and longitude of his soundings, for it would appear that the drift of the Endurance is the first actual shadow of a doubt thrown over the existence of Johnson's New South Greenland. It is remarkable how Graham Land and its archipelago are topo- graphicMly reflected as an inverted image of South America, and such a "chester of islands" would more fully complete the reflection by a balancing of the Falkland Islands "clusier of islands." I do not assert Downloaded by [University of New England] at 04:23 22 January 2015 that there should be such a balancing, but the idea is at least suggestive, especially if the geology were also reflected, as for instance it is with the Andean Range continuing, its existence in Graham Land. ~5 - Temperatures, Specific Gravities, and Salinities of theWeddeIl Sea," by W. S. Bruce~ Andrew King, and D. W. Wilton, ~e2or! on the Scientific ]~esctlts qf the Voyc~ge of S. Y. "Scotia," vol. x. pt. ii. pp. 39-142. "Meteorological Results," by R. O. Mossman, Report or~ the Scie.nt.~c Results of the Voyage of S.Y. "Scotic4" vol. ii. pt. i. pp. i-v and 1-306, 9 plates, 2 maps. ~7 Igeport o~ the Scientific ]~esults of the Voyage orS. Y. "Scotia," vols. iv. v. vi. vii. ix., etc. 4s "The Physical Conditions of the Wed.dell Se~," by g. C. Mossmam geoffra_phical dournM~ vol. xlvfi. No. 6~ Dec. 1916, pp. 479-500.