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Building Practices and Carpenters' That Created Alexandria's Kent Plantation House

By N. H. Sand and Peter Koch SouthernForest ExperimentStation Forest Service. U. S. Departmentof Agriculture

I t is the year 1796or thereabouts. ily, and he succeeds so well that designed and made with good Louisiana is a Spanish colony with the dwelling still remains sound and materials. French traditions and culture. attractive after 175 years, a very Now known (from a later owner) Pierre Baillio II, of a prominent great age for a house in America. asthe Kent PlantationHouse, Bail- French family, has a sizeable grant To reach it takes good luck-escape lio's home has recently beenmade of land along the Red River near from fire, flood and the Civil War. into a museum in Alexandria, a a small town called EI Rapido. Continuous occupancy and the care short distance from where it was Baillio undertakes to have a that goes with it also helps. Most originally constructed. There it house built for himself and his fam- of all, the house must be soundly standsas testimony to the skins of early Louisiana crafts- men. In contrast to architects, who seemto leapinto print with no great difficulty, carpenters are a silent tribe. They come to the job with their chests, exercise many skins of construction and some of design, and then pass on. Often their works are their only record. Occasionally some tools survive and, after generationsof neglectand abuse,these may find their way int() antique shopsor museums. Thus it is difficult to speakin de- tail of the builders of any given house. Here, methods, materials and tools of colonial Louisianawin be described in general terms but with the Kent House drawn upon fM examples. By 1800,when Baillio's houseis completed,the Louisiana Purchase is 3 years away.The IndustrialRev-

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p~ olution has not yet progressedfar in America. The first Mississippi River steamboat win not appear until 1811. Upriver transport is limited, roadsare few and poor and the cost of hauling freight by land is immensely high. Human travel overland is tedious. Iron is scarce and steel for tools is scarcer yet. is scarcetoo, at least in Carpentrytools typal of those used in ttIe construction of Kent House. one sense.There is no shortageof Ph«CWfBphby ThomasSend. timber but turning the trees into Kent House Plantat.ion, built 1798-1800, by Pierre Baillio II and named, by a subsequent owner, for Kent County, Maryland.

in a few decades steam power will be widely used in transportation and to drive machinery. Yet at the turn of the century build- ing technology in Louisiana con- sists mostly of taking local materials and transforming them with tools powered by the human arm.

Mud and Moss

The design and construction methods that Baillio chose were typical of the French and Spanish colonial period in Louisiana. The plan called for two large, almost , rooms surrounded on all sides by a wide gallery. There was no second floor. A big hipped roof extended with- out break over the galleries, shading boards and planks is another matter Possibly some horse-powered mills the walls and allowing doors and windows to be kept open for ventila- for are few and primitive. exist. There are no large circular In New Orleans several mills are yet and certainly no band- tion even during heavy rains. The located along the Mississippi River saws. Instead, mills operate with end galleries probably were en- and are driven by water wheels set a straight set vertically in a closed before construction was in ditches cut in the levee. When wooden frame or sashthat is pushed complete, creating another room at the river is high the mills run brisk- up and pulled down by a pitman or each end and a smaller one at each Iy, mainly sawing cypress. Whc=n connecting rod attached to the rear comer. the river falls the mills shut down. power source. There are no Still in the tradition of country In general, however, the streams of mills for dressing boards and mak- architecture, Baillio had brick piers built as a foundation. He thus raised Louisiana don't offer nearly as ing mouldings. many wheel sites as do the small But important technological the main floor for easy passagebe- neath his house but he may also waterways of rocky New England. developments are in progress and FOR MUD-AND-MOSS WALL ,. THE BROAD AX end Ke ue. ~'" '-, tA-iOI---~~ ~"'illwi'. -:. -- -~:. ~ ,-,. ,~ _-a. cuI.IS iOIiI_- -->..

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have been thinking of protection feather-edgedcypress boards. made with a circularsaw. from floods in the spring and cooling In that ageof poor transportation, Cypressheartwood is very resis- effects in the summer. materialswere taken close at hand. tant to both decayand termites, and Large timber sills were laid down The rose-coloredbricks were made in the slow-grownstands of that day on the piers and hewn vertical mem- on site from local clay, the timber the stems were nearly all heart- bers were mortised into them and cut from nearbyforests. Dr. Floyd . Southernpine is strongerand the ceiling plates above. These ver- G. Manwiller, of the U. S. Forest thus serves well where resistance ticals were less numerous than the Service in Pineville, has sampled to bending is wanted-as in floor studs in a modern house and much wood from various parts of the andceiling joists of largerooms and heavier. Some were set at an angle house and found it predominantly rafters of long span. But the to provide bracing. Probably the baldcypress.The only other wood was more difficult to work with framing was jointed and assembled is southern pine, probably the fa- hand tools and so, as one student on the ground and the sections for bled longleaf pine, which also of the subject remarks, "If you the various walls then erected with aboundedin the region. One of the needed more strength, you just the aid of pulleys and push poles. 12-by 12-inchmain sills is pine. It hewed the cypress pieces larger." When the frame was up and the is probably a replacementsince it The framing was carefully put roof in place, the spaces between shows the witness marks of together with mortise-and-tenon or the timbers were filled to ceiling teeth rather than the broad-ax lap joints locked in place with pegs markscommon to the cypresssills. driven into auger holes. Such joints height with mud-largely clay-in are probably better than those made which Spanish moss or. sometimes Also pine are the cap beam over deer hair was mixed as a binder. the east wall of the original house, with spikes. Typically again, the This mud-and-moss wall filling, someof the raftersand someceiling roof was covered with hand-rived called bousillage, is also seen in the boards. Rather surprisingly, the cypress shingles. Window wood- Rogue House of Natchitoches. The panelover the mantlein the original work is cypress,shutters and doors Kent House walls are about 6Y4 east room is pine also. Any or all also. Moulding was sparinglyused. inches thick and contain both deer of thesepine pieces may be replace- Ironwork such as hingesand fas- hair and moss. ments but the cap beam at least is teners was simple and may have As it aged, the mud became very probably original. Floors of the been forged locally from iron bars dry and hard. The roof overhang southeastand southwestrooms are and strips purchased from New sheltered it in many places and else- cypress.The northeastroom, add- Orleansimporters. It may also have where it was covered with wide, ed about 1842, has pine flooring been purchasedready-made from ORAWKNIFE end SHAVINGHORSE THE CARPENTER'S ADZ T- ADZ... -- -.

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France. Window glass was similarly value and might help to stop an and other states of the recently inde- available in New Orleans as an im- Indian's bullet or arrow. It provided pendent Union which Louisiana port. In simpler country houses of an inside wall that could be coated was yet to join in 1812.C. C. Robin, the time locks and hinges were often with lime or other preparation and a Frenchman who traveled in Lou- of wood and window panes verged then painted. Outside walls pro- isiana from 1803to 1805, observed on luxury. tected from rain by galleries or roof that carpenters' wages were excel- Machines for making old-style overhang could be given the same lent. rectangular shaped nails were in finish or left bare, at a saving of It is also clear that many who production in the eastern states but siding lumber. The method was called themselves carpenters were by 1800 most nails were probably popular in Louisiana for almost a capable of performing duties of an still hand wrought. The trade of century after the early settlers architect and contractor. Some had maker was a recognized one and arrived in the 1720s. skilled slaves of their own. An could be practiced wherever iron advertisement in the New Orleans was available. Whether purchased The Builders Louisiana Gazette for November or made locally. nails were expen- 15, 1806, reads: sive. While no records are known. it Bousillage walls were a common is likely that actual construction of O. P. Roberts, having lately choice of country builders even Kent House was done by slave la- arrived in this city, offers his ser- when they had considerably less bor. Newspaper advertisements of vices to the public asan ARCHI- means than Baillio. Log cabins. it the time often mentioned slaves TECT and HOUSE CARPEN- has been said. did not become com- with skills. Perhaps Bail- TER and presumeshe can give mon until English-speaking people lio had sufficient expertise among every satisfactionin his branch from the Southeastern United his own slaves but he probably also of business. .. .Either public or States came to northern Louisiana had the option of borrowing or hir- private buildings executed in after 1830. ing such craftsmen from other plan- every stile (sic) with a general What was the appeal of this meth- tation owners. estimate of materials necessary od? Besides being adapted to local To supervise the workers he may for the same. Any communica- material. it required less work and have employed a master carpenter. tion left at the store of Messrs. time than brick const4"uction perhaps a freed slave but more David and Harper, will be duly (though brick-between-posts was probably an itinerant carpenter. attendedto. also in use. especially in New Or- Records show that many carpenters leans). It gave weight and perhaps emigrated from France during the Architects with formal training rigidity to a house-an advantage eighteenth century and there prob- lived in New Orleansand bookson in windstorms. It had insulating ably were others from New England planter decided to erect a dwelling. early, perhaps about 1900 to 1400 One of Northrup's supervisors B. C. This iron was almost free of was a carpenter named Bass. Bass carbon and therefore was easily bent and much too soft to hold a house designs were available but resided in Marksville but was a Baillio probably used neither. The Canadian by birth and had traveled cutting edge. Very early men also, learned that heating the iron in traditional house he had in mind widely in practice of his craft, being most recently from Illinois. He was exposure to carbon would produce could have been executed by any regarded as an eccentric and an a surface layer of steel tHat greatly good carpenter. enhanced the properties of all kinds It seemslikely that he sent slaves, abolitionist. but also as an excellent of cutlery, from swords to saws. armed with and saws, to cy- carpenter, and hence nearly indis- This cementation process served press stands of the nearby Red pensable to the community. (True through long ages,and until the mid- River bottoms to cut timber for the to this characterization of his politi- dle of the eighteenth century the wood he needed. The workers may cal views, he left his work and jour- reliance of carpenters was on a form have girdled the big trees in neyed to New York State to enable of it that yielded "blister steel." advance, let them stand for a year Northrup to regain freedom.) The steel was made by heating a or so to partially dry out, and finally Steel Tools Are Best felled and floated them to high good grade of soft iron in conjuntion ground. Shaping of the logs into tim- In basic form, the hand tools of with carbon-containing substances bers could have been done at the woodworkers are very old. The por- -charcoal, wood ashes, bones or the like. After a week or more of landing to save hauling weight or table power tools of our own day the entire logs could have been have heavily infringed on a tradition heating the iron absorbed enough carbon and also displayed surface transported to the building site that began when Stone Age man blisters created by a reaction be- before being shaped into dimension chipped an ax blade out of flint and created the hammer by hafting a tween the carbon and slag in the materials. iron. After being worked to improve Though his testimony is from the stone to a stick. distribution of the carbon the steel If we can imagine a nineteenth- 1850s, the experience of Solomon was ready for use. In the Louisiana Northrup may apply also to the century carpenter dying and taking Gazette for July 7, ]810, two New times of the Kent House. Northrup his tools with him to the far shore, Orleans merchants advertised that was a free man who had been kid- we can also imagine that he would napped in Washington, D. C., and find it easy to explain their use to they had received, "per ship Mary from Philadelphia... 20 bundles sent to A voyelles Parish, adjoining a Roman of the time of Christ. And the parish where Baillio had his he would not encounter undue diffi- Blistered Steal." (sic) land. Here he was put to work under culty with an Egyptian of 1,500B.C. In 1742 or thereabouts the En- itinerant white carpenters. He Both ancient carpenters would be glishman Benjamin Huntsman relates that he was once sent out surprised to see handsaws cutting greatly improved the quality by with a crew that included on the push stroke instead of the melting pieces of blister steel in a four women who proved to be ex- pull. The Egyptian would find closed crucible. Fluxes removed cellent choppers and equal to men planes new to him but, being accus- impurities and melting made the in piling logs. Since there were no tomed to doing fine joinery with metal homogeneous. At the end of sites for water-power sawmills copper tools, he would be most each crucible run, the steel was cast within many miles, Northrup astonished by the cutting properties into ingots that were later reheated added, planks and boards were of the new arrival's steel-edged and formed into bars and flat stock generally made by slaves with whip- tools. The Roman may have had from which tool bits could be made. saws. Thus, he commented in his steel available if he could pay a high The advantages of this crucible autobiography, there was plenty of price. (or cast) steel seemingly were first extra work for the slaves when a Men learned to smelt iron very appreciated in France. The British SMALL teenth century but thereafter for streight end curved cuts U.., ,...104 fROEwilh . .1.. I. with pretensions to quality were o,lil ohiOtl.. I... 0 t .t ;:- -. , also labeled as cast steel, a practice w" ~ ~.~~ ~-).~ 110"co. .. ..- ., which survived until well into our '. l..\.~tr1 '.'.i.. .~, .. I..., own century. Blister steel con- c tinued to be manufactured but could /0( j not compete in prestige. FAOE I '.r (" . Whether cast or blistered, steel \ / ~\ was expensive. Whenever possible, i; ',-- ~ y it was used only for the cutting .~ ~, .AI '~I J r edges.The rest of the tool was made ~q~ ; of soft iron. Blacksmiths made many tools locally by welding but ,-,.f it took skill to get both metals to ./ '{~- the right temperature at the same nJ .,...J.- ;r moment. Too much heat would L \ 11-. bum the steel, whereas the iron had r. '1 to be very hot before it could be welded. Wherever the tool was made, the weld between the hard steel edge ~ T.iS is t. twi81., ,lit l!i co,,0.' 'h" to"""", and the soft iron body can easily I' {A" ,.. '10" be seen when the rust is scraped ~f!'~ .: ri off old axes, or blades. Some tools, like files, were ~. of steel throughout.

regarded it as unnecessarily hard. The Tools Themselves Louisiana abandoned the tools they French carpenters moving to Loui- had brought with them and adopted siana may have had tools so edged. In general design as well as in English ones. He particularly At any rate, French competition edges, English tools became the admired the handsaws, thinking caused manufacturers in the great standard in America. The traveller thern less clumsy and tiring than British tool-making city of Sheffield C. C. Robin observed that in 1803- French frame saws. For a reason- to step up their export production 1805 all tools used by the wheel- able sum, he said, one can import and promotional efforts. Modern wrights, carpenters, and coopers of a chest of carpenter's tools from tool collectors cannot escape the New Orleans were of English man- Phil adelphia. impression that thousands of Shef- ufacture. Though inclined to mea- Though Robin's comments indi- field workers must have spent their sure things by the standard of Paris, cate that complete tools were being entire lives stamping "cast steel" Robin concluded that English tools imported, many craftsmen on the many edge tools made in that were superior in shape and finish purchased blades and made the city. Manufacture did not begin in to French ones. So much so, he wooden parts themselves. They this country until well into the nine- aven-ed, that Frenchmen arriving in cou ld thus suit their own ideas

~ about designand also savemoney. AUGER With a blade in hand,for example, T------. - .. - . -.. - it is easyto makethe rest of a frame- saw and old woodsmenoften had their own personalizedpatterns for ax and adz handles.A testimony ~ 1M- -- to the scarcity of metal is the con- .- ~ ...,.. ~ siderablenumber of survivingtools ~""' iI c;;:;:-:-:-;-- ~.""--- with blades formed by reshaping ~- and retemperingworn-out files and -~ . ...""--- Many tools of colonial times are readily recognizable in modern counterparts.A chief differenceis in items madeobsolete by the com- I ing of steam-poweredsawmills and ~ planingmills. Another differenceis that many tools formerly made of wood are now of metal. Following are brief descriptionsof tools that a journeyman or master carpenter of 1800probably owned. To protect Northrup said that plastered rooms and transport the smaller tools he were rare in A voyeUes Parish even typically built for himself a stout as late as the l850s. woodenchest with dovetailedcor- To aid in making the rectangular ners and a paneledtop. holes for tenons of mating beams, A modernbuilder is likely to have the carpenter may have had a short- an ax and a ,but an earlier handled mortise ax. For smoothing carpenter had several. Besides a the rough cuts of this ax, he may choppingax, he had a wide-bladed also have owned a twibiU, a kind broadaxfor squaringtimbers out of of cross between an ax and a . logs. To use it, he propped the were premier tools of ship- roundlog a foot or so off the ground builders in an era when most long- and with twine and chalk snapped distance transport was by water. a line alongthe length to mark the House carpenters used them also, first face. Next he took an ordinary as when they. wished to smooth off ax and choppedguide cuts at right broad-ax marks on beams exposed anglesto the log lengthand as deep inside the house. Good adz work as the line. Then he broad-axedhis looks much like planing. Contrary way down the log, cutting parallel to someopinion, adzes were seldom to the grain. It was a man familiar employed for squaring timbers out with broadax technique who first of logs. But since the adz can be said, "Hew to the line, and let the used to dress top surfaces of timbers chips fall where they may." De- (while the heavier broad-ax is re- pendingon how the -timber was to stricted to side surfaces), it was be used,the worker then turned the handy for trimming and leveling log and hewed only the opposite after framing was in place but before face,or squaredall four faces.Some floors were laid. It could also be beamsof the Kent House plainly used to surface beams exposed to show the transverseguide cuts of view inside the house. broad-axwork. An adz must be very sharp to do The side of the broadax toward good work, and the direction of the finished face of the beam was swing is toward the user. Thus the flat, the sharpening being tool was dangerous to feet. It has entirely on the chip side. The car- been said, one hopes untruly, that pentertypically had a large expert adzmen sometimes used hatchetsharpened in the sameway their toes as chip breakers. asa broadaxand also used for shap- The carpenter needed a variety ing timber. He probably had a of . Perhaps his most unusual shinglinghatchet. He mayor may one had two cutting edges, at an not have had a flat-topped hatchet angle of 90 degrees to each other for splitting and nailing on lath, for for cleaning out the corners of mor- the involuntary carpenterSolomon tises. He also had conventional let for striking the handles of chisels it cut at any desired distance from work. Such beads can be seen in and driving pegs into joints. He the edge of the board. Further, a the Kent Hou:se. Beading planes might have a very large two-handed shoe could be set to regulate the came in sizesfrom one-eightof an , called by English carpenters depth of cut. inch to morethan an inch-a differ- a commander, for driving home the Additionally, the carpenter ent plane for each size. joints of heavy framing. A screw- would want at least a few planes Because there was no other driver may also have been among for making simple mouldings. source of millwork, the carpenter his fastening tools, but screws were Partly for decoration, partly to neededa planefor making wooden sparingly used. They were manu- mask any unevennessbetween mat- window sash. factured in crude machines pow- ing boards, he often planed a If he wished to run somepurely ered by hand or water. Until 1846 on the edges of tongue-and- decorativemouldings, he hada very all had flat points. paneling or on corners of exposed wide choice in size and style of The planes in a colonial carpen- beams and other interior wood- planes.Hollows androunds, astrag- ter's tool set differed in at least two ways from those of a modem crafts- man. First, they were much more numerous and varied, 20 to 30 not being unusual. Second, they were made almost entirely of wood, except for the blades. To start off with; the carpenter needed a jack plan, a and a smooth plane. Hardly less neces- sary was ~ fourth plane for cutting in the edges of boards such as the joints in shiplap siding. When boards were used to cover a large surface (for example, the ceilings of some Kent House rooms), the edgeswere often mated with joints. Such joints helped to keep the boards in align- ment and also restricted the passage of air and light. Here the carpenter used a pair of planes, one to cut the tongue and one the groove. Often he had several pairs, for lum- ber of various thicknesses. Probably he also had a plow plane with 6 or 8 interchangeable blades for cutting grooves of different widths. The plow was the most complicated and expensive plane in the chest. It had a or guiding piece that could be adjusted to make OPEN PIT SAW sometimes cilled Tillf Fn- ~--.s." ...- -, ~- --.. ,...... - . ---- .,... - I...- -

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penter may have done further cut- als, , scotias, and ovalos were For raising heavy weights he may have carried a jack and tackle ting and fitting with a one-man only a few of his options. frame saw that could cut curves as was the primary wood for blocks.He probablyhad for splitting big logs to size at times well as straight lines. If he liked making all of these planes. It was English tools, however, he prob- hard, yet could be worked and in when it was inconvenientto use a saw. He touchedup his bladeswith ably preferred to do his straight use it developed a polish that made cutting with a handsawlike those it slide easily. Sometimes splines of whetstonesand did heavy sharpen- very hard boxwood were inserted ing on a circular ,turned seentoday. at points most exposed to wear, and by hand. He perhaps had a fine-toothed much less frequently iron or brass Finally, his tool set was com- saw, the back stiffened by a strip wear plates were installed. Blades pleted with a number of saws, of of iron or brass, for making dove- which the biggestwas a pit sawfor tails or small tenons, or for use in extended through holes skillfully a miter box. Probably he had a cut through the stock and were held ripping boards and planks out of squared-uplogs. Traditionally this . He may have had a in place by wooden wedges. A tap trenching sawfor use in stair build- on top of the blade would deepen saw consistedof a blade 5 feet or more in length, strainedin a rectan- ing. He kept his saws sharp with the cut, and a whack on the back files and set them with a wrest or of the stock would raise or loosen gular wooden frame. The log was the blade. But old carpenters sel- placed on a trestle or over a pit in a hammer. dom spoke of plane blades. In rec- the ground and a chalkline was snappedto mark the width of the It is a mistake to idealize the past, ognition of the reliance on wood, but interesting to study it. As one they referred to the cutting part as board to be cut. The saw required two men. One stood below, to pull becomes familiar with the tools and "the iron." Progressive-minded works of the old carpenters, he sees carpenters were likely to have dou- down for the cutting stroke. andthe how they and their work represent ble irons in their jack, jointer, and other stood on top to raise the saw smoothing planes. The second iron again. In a secondform of pitsaw, a close and very skillful accommo- probably more common in Ameri- dation to the materials, knowledge, did not cut but was a chip breaker and economic conditions of their to improve smoothness of work in ca, the frame was omitted and the day. In design the tools were clean contrary-grained wood. handles attached directly to each end. This was often called an open and almost entirely functional, mak- The carpenter also had a wooden ing them still appealing in their own spokeshave-in function a very pit saw or a whipsaw. Like the framed pitsaw, it was for ripping right to collectors. short-bedded plane for use on The carpenters themselves were curved surfaces. He may have had only. For treesor cuttingtim- bersin two, a two-mancrosscut saw human beings, and irrelevancies , and he surely had a . had not been as completely sifted A pincers, made by a local black- was used. from them as from their tools. They smith, was handy for pulling nails. Once he had his boards,the car- therefore sometimes made mistakes restoration. He gave us indispens- Mercer, H. C. 1960.Ancient Carpen- ters' Tools. Ed. 3. Bucks County or bungled jobs through careless- able aid in understanding early Historical Society, Doylestown, Pa. ness. But many worked in pride of building practices, and then com- 331 p. their calling, combining technical pounded our indebtedness by re- Moxon, J. 1678-1703.Mechanick Exer- skill with honesty of effort and viewing the manuscript. We are also cises. Reprinted 1970, ed. C. F. directness of purpose. The Kent obliged to the Louisiana State Montgomery.Praeger Publishers, N. House, among many others, re- Museum for advice and library ser- Y. 352 p. mains as a self-created memorial to vice, and to Mr. Dutch Flick for Northrup, S. 1854.Twelve Years A men who did as well as they could information on tools and their uses. Slave. Reprintedby Dover Publica- in their own time. Errors of fact and judgment un- tions, N. Y.. 336p. Baillio and his wife have their doubtedly remain, and are solely Overdyke, W. D. 1965.Louisiana Plan- chargeable to us. Since our refer- tation Homes:Colonial and Antebel- graves in Rapides Cemetery in lum. Architectural Book Publishing Pineville, across the Red River ences tended toward the Anglo- Co.,N.Y.206p. from Alexandria. Their workers are American tradition in tool design Robin, C. C. 1966.Voyage to Louisi- buried-who knows where? In their and use, we may have understated ana, 1803-1805.Abridged translation day, these craftsmen sustained a French influences. In addition, by S. O. Landry, Jr. PelicanPublish- tradition of woodworking that be- there were many aspects, such as ing Co., New Orleans.270 p. gan thousands of years ago. And wood seasoning,on which we found Sloane, E. 1973.A Museum of Early craftsmanship did not die with little or no published information. American Tools. Ballantine Books. them. N. Y., I~p. References Smith, H. R. B. 1966.Blacksmiths' and Acknowledgmentsand Apologies Farriers' Tools at ShelburneMuse- Early American Industries Associa- um. MuseumPamphlet 7.272 p. Shel- This article owes its existence to tion. Chronic/e. Various issues. the encouragementof Mrs. Noel T. burne. Vt. Goodman,W. L. 1968.British Plane Wildung. F. H. 1957.Woodworking Simmonds, President of Kent Plan- Makers from 1700. Bell and Sons, Tools at ShelburneMuseum. Muse- tation House, Inc. It could not have Ltd., London. 135p. um Pamphlet3. 79 p. Shelburne,Vt. been completed, however, without Goodman,W. L. 1964.The History of Wertenbaker, T. J. 1942. The Old the guidance of Mr. SamuelWilson, WoodworkingTools. Bell and Sons, South.Scribner's, N. Y. 364p. .. Jr., the architect in charge of the Ltd. London. 208p.

Reprinted Iran FORESTS. PEOPLE, volUDe 2S, number 3, pages 16-19,38-43. Third Quarter 1975.