Companion Planting, Polycultures and Guilds

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Companion Planting, Polycultures and Guilds Companion Planting, Polycultures and Guilds Companion planting, polycultures and guilds are integral parts of permaculture growing systems. (Gardening or farming in a way that is as abundant as possible while taking care of our planet and humanity.) These methods all share in common the idea that we should value and promote diversity as much as possible, and integrate rather than segregating when it comes to growing our food. What is Companion Planting? Companion planting is simply planting at least one plant as a 'companion' to another. The central idea in companion planting is that monocultures are a bad thing. A monoculture is a plantation of just one crop (as you would typically often see in large farm fields). The problem with monocultures is that they are inherently unnatural. They take more resources (water, energy, etc.) to maintain, and can damage the soil ecosystem. And since they are more prone to problems with pests and diseases, they are harder (if not impossible) to manage organically. By carefully choosing which plants to place next to each other, we can find solutions to many of the problems that are commonly found in mono-crop systems. We know surprisingly little about the many different ways that different plants interact. But we do know that plants can help each other in a range of surprising ways. The simplest form of companion planting involves individual plants to sow and grow alongside one of our main crops. Companion plants can be dotted throughout a bed, placed with the main plant in a pot or container, or planted around the edges of a growing area. Companion planting is an inexact science. Many different plant combinations can bring beneficial effects. But many companion planting guides state categorically that two plants are excellent companions for one another when in fact, any evidence for this is merely anecdotal. It is important to remember that what works well in one situation, in one area, will not necessarily be as successful in another. However, through trial and error, it is possible to choose companion plants that can increase your overall yield, protect the soil, and improve your growing systems. So what makes an excellent companion plant? Well, to answer that question, it is necessary to think about what one plant can do for another. A companion plant may be a good companion because it requires roughly the same conditions. It may also, however, aid its companion by: 1. Improving environmental conditions. (By providing shade, or ground cover, for example.) 2. Dynamically accumulating nutrients. (Co-operating with bacteria in its root rhizomes to fix nitrogen - taking it from the air and making it available in the soil. Or gathering nutrients from deep below the soil surface that can be returned to the higher layers of the topsoil by chopping and dropping the plant.) 3. Attracting beneficial insects. (Both for pollination and pest predation.) 4. Repelling or distracting pest species. (Either by discouraging pests to come near, by making it harder for them to 'smell' and discover certain plants, or by acting as a sacrificial 'trap crop' which will draw pests to itself to keep them off more valuable plants.) Inter-cropping is a form of companion planting that is usually employed on a larger, farm-scale but which can also have application in a garden setting. As the name implies, it involves growing a second crop alongside a first one. Often (though not always), this word is used to describe companion planting when the two plants involved are sown in rows. Inter-cropping, like smaller-scale companion planting, can have a wide range of benefits. By growing a secondary crop in a growing area, it is often possible to increase overall yield, even though the competition may reduce the yield of a primary crop. Intercropping with certain plants can help in the various ways described above. But it can also allow gardeners and farmers to make the most of both space and time available. For example, by intercropping cabbages with lettuce, lettuce can be harvested before the cabbages grow and require space and nutrients. Polycultures take the idea of companion planting one stage further. Rather than thinking in terms of a primary crop, grown with companion plants or a secondary crop, polyculture planting involves thinking about each growing area as a whole ecosystem. In a polyculture, several different plants are grown together. Each one is carefully selected to benefit the whole. Polycultures are a fantastic solution for a wide range of situations. They can be implemented on many different scales, from a small garden bed or container right up to a complete, thriving food forest. Polycultures can include annual crops, be made up entirely of perennial plants, or have a combination of both. Polycultures are based on the principle that the more beneficial interactions between elements in a system we can create, the more stable and resilient that the system will be. Polycultures are diverse and abundant planting schemes that mimic the polycultures found in nature all around us. They allow us to create beneficial combinations of plants to benefit ourselves, local wildlife, and the broader environment. One example of a polyculture planting scheme is the 'three sisters' combination. In this combination, corn, beans and squash are grown together. The corn provides support for the beans; the beans fix nitrogen, the squash provides ground cover. But proponents of polyculture gardening might also include, for example, nasturtiums and various aromatic herbs to repel pests and attract beneficial insects. Guilds are a particular type of polyculture. This type of polyculture focusses on creating a helpful 'guild' of plants around a key, central tree or other plant. In a polyculture, there is not necessarily a hierarchy. But in a guild, plants are chosen to aid one focal species. Guilds are the type of polyculture frequently seen around the fruit trees in a forest garden. Each of the plants in the layers of planting around each tree are carefully chosen to aid that central tree. Guilds can also be created around key annual crops. A gardener might make a tomato plant the centre of a guild, and choose plants like alliums, basil, oregano, borage and marigolds, for example, as companions to aid the growth and maintain the health of that central plant. There is a lot to learn about companion plants, polycultures and guilds. Much of it learned not through reading but observation and doing. So when planning your garden, don't isolate different types of plant – grow them together. Like us, plants to better together than they can do alone. Source: Plants For A Future https://pfaf.org .
Recommended publications
  • Companion Planting in the Vegetable Garden
    Companion Planting in the Vegetable Garden Companion planting is growing two (or more) crops near each other with the theory that they help each other in nutrient update, improved pest management and reduced pesticide use, enhanced pollination and higher vegetable yields. Consider the following approaches to incorporate companion planting into your backyard vegetable plot. Encouraging Beneficials to Manage Pests and Promote Pollination Gardeners can enlist the aid of beneficial organisms (e.g. ladybird beetles, lacewings, mantids, spiders, and predatory mites) in the battle against pest populations by growing plants that create habitat for those beneficials in close proximity to vegetables under siege. Plants such as basil, cilantro, dill, fennel, and parsley are among those that provide shelter and food for various life stages of predatory and parasitic beneficial. In addition to attracting the natural enemies of garden pests, companion species are useful in luring and retaining pollinators in the garden. Plants such as buckwheat and clover are excellent choices for attracting bees to adjacent pollinator-requiring crops (with the added benefit of serving as weed-suppressing cover crops). Using Plant Characteristics to Maximize Yield Companion planting corn, pole beans, and winter squash (a grouping often described as “the three sisters” in Native American references) is one way to make the most of a small garden plot. Because of the individual species’ growth habits, the three grow well in the same space (though competition for nutrients still exists). Cornstalks, with their tall, thin habit provide a living trellis for the beans to climb, while low-growing, large-leaved squash plants shade the ground to help the soil stay moist and suppress weeds.
    [Show full text]
  • Efficacy of Intercropping Pattern in Reducing Weeds Infestation in Okra, Maize and Pepper Intercrop
    International Journal of Weed Science and Technology ISSN 4825-3499 Vol. 2 (1), pp. 063-069, January, 2018. Available online at www.advancedscholarsjournals.org © Advanced Scholars Journals Full Length Research Paper Efficacy of intercropping pattern in reducing weeds infestation in okra, maize and pepper intercrop *Ubini C. Thomas, Jaymiwhie Obanna and Ikogho B. Patrick Department of Crop and Soil Science, University of Port Harcourt, P. M. B 5323 Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Accepted 15 January, 2018 Field study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of intercropping pattern in reducing weed infestation in okra, maize and pepper intercrop; at the teaching and research farm of Rivers State University of Science and Technology Port Harcourt, Nigeria during 2009 and 2010 cropping season. Three intercropping pattern namely; alternate row intercropping, strip row intercropping and mixed intercropping were compared to sole cropping in a randomized complete block design replicated three times. The result reveal that weed biomass were significantly lower in both years in all forms of intercropping pattern compared to sole cropping or mono-cropping. Weed smothering efficiency in both years showed that mixed pattern (45.7%) >alternate row pattern (33.4%) > strip row pattern (11.5%). Crop yield were better in an intercrop system for maize and pepper in both years compared to -1 sole crop. However, mean okra fruit yield was highest in sole cropping (3253 kg ha ) when compared -1 to intercropping pattern. Maize yield was highest in mixed pattern (8,987 kg ha ) and lowest in sole -1 -1 cropping (6,955 kg ha ) while pepper fruit yield was highest in strip row pattern (5,435 kg ha ) and -1 lowest in mixed pattern (1,562 kg ha ).
    [Show full text]
  • Course Handout for Introduction to Forest Gardening
    COURSE HANDOUT FOR INTRODUCTION TO FOREST GARDENING Complied by Jess Clynewood and Rich Wright Held at Coed Hills Rural Art Space 2010 ETHICS AND PRINCIPLES OF PERMACULTURE Care for the Earth v Care for the people v Fair shares PRINCIPLES Make the least change for the greatest effect v Mistakes are tools for learning v The only limits to the yield of a system are imagination and understanding Observation – Protracted and thoughtful observation rather than prolonged and thoughtless action. Observation is a key tool to re-learn. We need to know what is going on already so that we don’t make changes we will later regret. Use and value diversity - Diversity allows us to build a strong web of beneficial connections. Monocultures are incredibly fragile and prone to pests and diseases – diverse systems are far more robust and are intrinsically more resilient. Relative Location and Beneficial Connections – View design components not in isolation but as part of a holistic system. Place elements to maximise their potential to create beneficial connections with other elements. Multi-functional Design – Try and gain as many yields or outputs from each element in your design as possible. Meet every need in multiple ways, as many elements supporting each important function creates stability and resilience. Perennial systems – minimum effort for maximum gain Create no waste - The concept of waste is essentially a reflection of poor design. Every output from one system could become the input to another system. We need to think cyclically rather than in linear systems. Unmet needs = work, unused output = pollution. Stacking – Make use of vertical as well as horizontal space, filling as many niches as possible.
    [Show full text]
  • Land Tenure Insecurity Constrains Cropping System Investment in the Jordan Valley of the West Bank
    sustainability Article Land Tenure Insecurity Constrains Cropping System Investment in the Jordan Valley of the West Bank Mark E. Caulfield 1,2,* , James Hammond 2 , Steven J. Fonte 1 and Mark van Wijk 2 1 Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523-1170, USA; [email protected] 2 International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Livestock Systems and the Environment, Nairobi 00100, Kenya; [email protected] (J.H.); [email protected] (M.v.W.) * Correspondence: markcaulfi[email protected]; Tel.: +212-(0)-6-39-59-89-18 Received: 17 July 2020; Accepted: 8 August 2020; Published: 13 August 2020 Abstract: The annual income of small-scale farmers in the Jordan Valley, West Bank, Palestine remains persistently low compared to other sectors. The objective of this study was therefore to explore some of the main barriers to reducing poverty and increasing farm income in the region. A “Rural Household Multi-Indicator Survey” (RHoMIS) was conducted with 248 farmers in the three governorates of the Jordan Valley. The results of the survey were verified in a series of stakeholder interviews and participatory workshops where farmers and stakeholders provided detailed insight with regard to the relationships between land tenure status, farm management, and poverty. The analyses of the data revealed that differences in cropping system were significantly associated with land tenure status, such that rented land displayed a greater proportion of open field cropping, while owned land and sharecropping tenure status displayed greater proportions of production systems that require greater initial investment (i.e., perennial and greenhouse).
    [Show full text]
  • Sustainable Development: Intercropping for Agricultural Production
    Session 3551 Sustainable Development: Intercropping for Agricultural Production Saeed D. Foroudastan, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Olivia Dees, Research Assistant Engineering Technology and Industrial Studies Department Middle Tennessee State University Abstract The damaging effects of monoculture threaten the sustainability of our world. Genetic engineering, or biotechnology, gravely endangers the future integrity of genes with possible unforeseen mutations. For example, Monsanto has created a terminator technology that will not allow farmers to reproduce their own plants from secondary seeds. This minimizes the diversity of plant crop varieties by which farmers have relied upon for centuries. Biotechnology may thereby cause irreparable damage to the sustainability of the world’s food supply. Although all biotechnology is not wrongful, most genetically engineered crops are potentially so dangerous that even insurance companies will not cover farmers that use them. Furthermore, the introduction of patent clone seeds will undermine the ability of rural farmers to compete for survival by raising prices on conventional seeds. This corners decision making into acceptance of the same crop cultivation. Environmental effects are devastating as more pesticides and herbicides are used for these plants, and resistant pests may abound. In addition, exponential population growth in cities presents the problem of land availability. The trick is to make the maximum use of space while balancing the environment. The beauty of intercropping is that many types exist so that specialization for different climates and terrain may be applied to a particular region. Research shows successful results with intercropping. Organic farmers often have superior net cash returns, making it a feasible option for mass production.
    [Show full text]
  • CUBA's TRANSITION to ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY in Swedish
    CUBA’S TRANSITION TO ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY Jan Strömdahl KUWAIT 6 5 DENMARK USA 4 SWEDEN 3 GERMANY JAPAN RUSSIA 2 SOUTH AFRICA BRAZIL 1 CHINA CUBA NIGERIA ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT, NUMBER OF GLOBES/PERSON FOOTPRINT, ECOLOGICAL HAITI INDIA 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 LOW HDI MEDIUM HDI HIGH HDI VERY HIGH HDI HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX, HDI TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION 4 2. CUBA AND SUSTAINABILITY 5 2.1 The Human Development Index 6 2.2 Ecological footprint 8 2.3 Later Living Planet Reports 10 2.4 Conclusions in the Living Planet Reports 12 2.5 Analysis of ecological footprints for selected countries 13 2.6 Global target for sustainability 14 2.7 Measures for protection against climate change 15 2.8 How has Cuba succeeded so far? 16 3. AGRICULTURAL AND OTHER LAND USE 18 3.1 Exploitation and Revolution - a historical background 18 3.2 Present situation 20 3.3 Food security 24 3.4 Organic farming 26 3.5 Organic urban and suburban agriculture 27 3.6 Permaculture 30 3.7 Environmental and health aspects 33 3.8 Outlook 33 4. WATER 36 4.1 Present situation 37 4.2 Water footprints 39 4.3 Fisheries 40 4.4 Water pollution 41 4.5 Water and sewage supply 43 4.6 Closing remarks 44 5 ENERGY 46 5.1 Energy revolution starts 47 5.2 Oil still dominate 50 5.3 Renewable fuels and technologies 50 5.4 Fossil fuels and technologies 54 5.5 The rise and fall of nuclear power 54 5.6 Efficiency and savings 57 5.7 Two forerunners - Granma and Guamá 57 5.8 A second energy revolution 59 5.9 Environmental and health impacts 62 5:10 Social aspects 63 6 TRANSPORTATION 65 6.1 Horses and bikes dominate locally 67 6.2 Railway tradition 71 6.3 Freight most by truck 73 6.3 Decentralization and improved effectiveness 73 6.4 Environmental and health implications 75 6.5 Social aspects 76 6.6 Cuba´s challenges 76 2 7 HOUSING 78 7.1 The housing policy of revolution 79 7.2 Current situation 81 7.3 Building tecchnics and materials 83 7.4 Havana 86 7.5 Housing as social right 86 7.6 What about the future? 87 8.
    [Show full text]
  • Companion Planting and Insect Pest Control
    Chapter 1 Companion Planting and Insect Pest Control Joyce E. Parker, William E. Snyder, George C. Hamilton and Cesar Rodriguez‐Saona Additional information is available at the end of the chapter http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/55044 1. Introduction There is growing public concern about pesticides’ non-target effects on humans and other organisms, and many pests have evolved resistance to some of the most commonly-used pesticides. Together, these factors have led to increasing interest in non-chemical, ecologically- sound ways to manage pests [1]. One pest-management alternative is the diversification of agricultural fields by establishing “polycultures” that include one or more different crop varieties or species within the same field, to more-closely match the higher species richness typical of natural systems [2, 3]. After all, destructive, explosive herbivore outbreaks typical of agricultural monocultures are rarely seen in highly-diverse unmanaged communities. There are several reasons that diverse plantings might experience fewer pest problems. First, it can be more difficult for specialized herbivores to “find” their host plant against a back‐ ground of one or more non-host species [4]. Second, diverse plantings may provide a broader base of resources for natural enemies to exploit, both in terms of non-pest prey species and resources such as pollen and nectar provided by the plant themselves, building natural enemy communities and strengthening their impacts on pests [4]. Both host-hiding and encourage‐ ment of natural enemies have the potential to depress pest populations, reducing the need for pesticide applications and increasing crop yields [5, 6]. On the other hand, crop diversification can present management and economic challenges for farmers, making these schemes difficult to implement.
    [Show full text]
  • INTERCROPPING Proceedings of the Second Symposium on Intercropping in Semi-Arid Areas, Held at Morogoro, Tanzania, 4-7 August 1980 INTERCROPPING
    IDRC-186e INTERCROPPING Proceedings of the Second Symposium on Intercropping in Semi-Arid Areas, held at Morogoro, Tanzania, 4-7 August 1980 INTERCROPPING Proceedings of the Second Symposium on Intercropping in Semi-Arid Areas, held at Morogoro, Tanzania, 4-7 August 1980 Editors: C.L. Keswani and B.J. Ndunguru University of Dar es Salaam Tanzania National Scientific Research Council International Development Research Centre The International Development Research Centre is a public corporation created by the Parliament of Canada in 1970 to support research designed to adapt science and technology to the needs of developing countries. The Centre's activity is concentrated in five sectors: agriculture, food and nutrition sciences; health sciences; information sciences; social sciences; and com- munications. IDRC is financed solely by the Parliament of Canada; its policies, however, are set by an international Board of Governors. The Centre's headquarters are in Ottawa, Canada. Regional offices are located in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East. ©1982 International Development Research Centre Postal Address: Box 8500, Ottawa, Canada K1G 3H9 Head Office: 60 Queen Street, Ottawa Keswani, C.L. Ndunguru, B.J. University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam TZ Tanzania National Scientific Research Council, Dar es Salaam TZ International Development Research Centre, Ottawa CA IDRC-186e Intercropping : proceedings of the Second Symposium on Intercropping in Semi-Arid Areas, held at Morogoro, Tanzania, 4-7 August, 1980. Ottawa, Ont., IDRC, 1982. 168 p. : ill. /Intercropping/, /semi-arid zone/-/agricultural research/, /Africa/, /culti- vation practices/, /plant breeding/, /plant protection/, /crop yield/, /research results/, /research methods/. UDC: 631.584(213) ISBN: 0-88936-318-8 Microfiche edition available Contents Foreword R.
    [Show full text]
  • Foodscape Knox
    Written By: Caroline Conley Advisor: Tom Graves Company Description Market and Industry Analysis Company Structure FoodScape Knox is an edible landscaping Political Economic Social Technological Operations Strategy: - Attention on social -Consumer spending -Increase in health and -Increase in Social 1. Initial Contact service and social enterprise located in justice and income increase 3.8% in 4th fitness initiatives Media Usage 2. Consultation and Design inequality quarter 2017 -Increase in social -E-technology and 3. Installation Knoxville, TN. Our target market is the 4. Follow Up Visit - Decrease in - Following Recession, consciousness vertical farming. health conscious middle upper class of 5. Maintenance (Optional) government consumers have not -Increased interest in -Factory Farming Knox county. For every landscape installed, sustainability efforts ceased to continue in food production and techniques another landscape is implemented in a low - Increase in industry the thrifty habits unification of gardeners and grassroots developed during the via social media income neighborhood within Knoxville. sustainability economic downturn -Celebrities are initiatives growing organic The uniqueness of our service combined with the effort towards community development will act as the primary Key Visuals competitive advantage. In the long run, FoodScape Knox will start offering edible Visuals for Landscape designs utilizing Critical Success Factors: landscaping services to businesses and permaculture methodology. Excellent Design- Landscapes
    [Show full text]
  • A Substantial Component in Sustainable Organic Agriculture
    Udhaya Nandhini and SomasundaramAvailable Ind. online J. Pure at App.www.ijpab.com Biosci. (2020 ) 8(2), 133-143 ISSN: 2582 – 2845 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.18782/2582-2845.8007 ISSN: 2582 – 2845 Ind. J. Pure App. Biosci. (2020) 8(2), 133-143 Review Article Intercropping – A Substantial Component in Sustainable Organic Agriculture D. Udhaya Nandhini1* and E. Somasundaram2 1Post Doctoral Fellow, Centre of Excellence in sustaining Soil Health, Anbil Dharmalingam Agricultural College & Research Institute, Trichy-620 027 Tamil Nadu 2Professor and Head, Department of Sustainable Organic Agriculture, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-641 003, Tamil Nadu, India *Corresponding Author E-mail: [email protected] Received: 3.03.2020 | Revised: 7.04.2020 | Accepted: 11.04.2020 ABSTRACT st The greatest challenge of the 21 century in many developing countries are to produce more and more basic necessities namely food, fodder, fuel and fibre for ever increasing human and animal population from the limited available land. The availability of land for agriculture is shrinking every day as it is increasingly utilized for non-agricultural purposes. Under this situation, one of the important strategies to increase agricultural output is development of high intensity cropping systems including intercropping system which involves biotic and abiotic stress resistant, soil building, protein rich and oil producing crops. Intercropping is a ways to increase diversity in an agricultural ecosystem. This review summarizes the most important aspects of intercropping system in organic agriculture. Keywords: Intercropping, Stress resistant, Agricultural ecosystem, Diversity INTRODUCTION agricultural systems following objectives such Sustainable agriculture is a type of agriculture as: ecological balance, more utilization of that is more efficient in use of resources, for resources, increasing the quantity and quality the benefit of human, and is in balance with and reduce yield damage to pests, diseases and the environment.
    [Show full text]
  • Permaculture Cairns Newsletter
    Permaculture Cairns Inc. Established July, 2007 Web site: www.permaculturecairns.org.au Permaculture Cairns News Empowering communities with sustainable solutions Care for the Earth, Care for people, Share the excess Care of the Earth, Care of People, Share the excess _________________________________________________________________________________ November Public Info & General Meeting Night th Tuesday 19 6:30pm for 7pm start. Flexible Learning Centre, 90 Clarke Street, Manunda Clarke Street comes off Hoare on the Salvos Corner. There is wheel chair access. If you can spare the time, come early (6.15) to help us set up tables and chairs. Members please bring a plate of food to share for dinner, or make a small donation towards the refreshment costs. OOH! and bring a friend, all welcome but ! Financial Members are free. Un- financial members and non members pay $5 for the info night and dinner SPEAKERS for the month: Steve Bailey from Terrain Natural Resource Management will be our November Guest Speaker. Steve has recently been involved on a broad range of catchment issues with a wide variety of stakeholder groups. Some examples of relevant projects: Prioritisation of cactchment repair programs Strategic targeting of weed control Trials of new erosion control measures in riparian areas Revegetation of degraded sites for habitat connectivity – working with local Landcare groups. Building constructed wetlands as nutrient and sediment sinks on farm lands. Water quality monitoring – in particular looking at pesticide/herbicide runoff. Working with primary producers to help transition a move away from some conventional farming methods and adopting alternative practices where possible. LAST MONTHS’ GUEST SPEAKER Jaide from King Brown Technologies, the makers of King Brown Compost was our guest speaker at the last meeting.
    [Show full text]
  • Walden III Or Cult: Examining the Organization and Structure of Life Within Contemporary Intentional Permaculture Communities Abstract Approved
    Walden III or Cult: Examining the Organization and Structure of Life within Contemporary Intentional Permaculture Communities By Suzanne M. Moberly Submitted to Plymouth State University In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education November 17, 2014 AN ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OF Suzanne M. Moberly for the degree of Doctor of Education, Learning, Leadership, and Community presented on November 17, 2014. Title: Walden III or Cult: Examining the Organization and Structure of Life within Contemporary Intentional Permaculture Communities Abstract approved: Marcel Lebrun, PhD Dissertation Committee Chair Despite decades of economic and medical improvements since the end of World War II, Americans report they are less satisfied with their lives and more unhappy than they were 20 to 30 years ago. Americans in general enjoy a high standard of living, but also report feeling more stressed than individuals living in Third World countries. The spread of this cultural malaise has coincided with American communities across the country reporting a precipitous drop in the level of civic engagement. This has occurred in tandem with the dawning realization that personal happiness and well- being does not correlate with increased income levels beyond the point of meeting basic needs. This research focused on three intentional permaculture communities and determined there were factors of community cohesiveness and commitment that could transfer back into mainstream communities to rejuvenate depleted levels of social capital and civic engagement. Part of the requirement of residency in intentional permaculture communities is the expectation residents contribute to the community and share their life with other residents while leading a sustainable lifestyle.
    [Show full text]