A Critical Review of Art Education in South Korea

88 Education through Art after the Second World War: A Critical Review of Art Education in South Korea

Hyungsook Kim

Abstract

This article examines how progressive educa- Keywords tion was introduced to South Korea after the progressive education, George Peabody Second World War and takes a closer look at College for Teachers Mission, creative critical studies of this history. It argues that the self-expressionism, post-colonisation, America-led progressive education policies, art education which focused on art education, were an uncrit- ical adaptation of the superpower’s educational ideology and did not contribute to the advancement of education in Korea. In order to clear the vestiges of Japanese colonial rule, many progressive reform projects, including the refor- mation of the curriculum, were set into motion. However, these initiatives did not address South Korea’s social and economic issues but helped to maintain traces of colonial rule. They influenced the Korean people to develop a negative view of their own roots, culture and traditions. It encouraged people to consider themselves as the subjects of Westernisation and was a strat- egy implemented by America to have influence on South Korea.

iJADE 33.1 (2014) © 2014 The Author. iJADE © 2014 NSEAD/John Wiley & Sons Ltd This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution license, which permits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

BW147 Jade 33.1_text_AW.indd 88 12/02/2014 12:15 Introduction The purpose of this article is to raise questions 89 At the end of the Second World War, ‘progres- about this dominant perspective in the field of Hyungsook Kim sive education’ [1] had a significant impact on art art education; it raises questions about the influ- education in the USA and also in South Korea. ence of progressive education as it was intro- Independence from Japan in 1945 demanded duced during the US military occupation of that Korea fundamentally reorganise itself, and Korea. This study also examines political impli- during this period the Korean education commu- cations, and the evaluation that progressive nity began restructuring its educational system. education has positively contributed to the Progressive educational philosophy was advo- modernisation of Korean education. The article cated as a model of an advanced educational argues that the educational reform measures system that would overcome ‘colonial intellect’, taken in South Korea, in the name of modernisa- the remnants of Japanese imperialism in Korea, tion and national advancement, were in fact part and advance democracy and human rights. This of the post-colonisation process. Specifically, it philosophy was complex and the version that discusses, with examples, how the reform was adopted was child-centred and empha- measures were applied and interpreted in the sised art education in daily life as well. It field of art education. It also examines the provided a philosophical paradigm for the mimetic characteristics, typical of a colonised Korean education community as it sought to country, of the practice of a progressive educa- pursue a direction toward democratic educational philosophy in South Korea in the name of tion. A key question in studying post-Second Westernisation and modernisation. World War education and culture in South Korea is the impact of progressive education. Specifi- Progressive education for building democracy cally, how did progressive education shape art At the beginning of the twentieth century in education in Korea, and what were its ideologi- the USA, a movement for progressive educa- cal implications? tion developed, the leaders of which empha- In general, studies of this question highlight sised different aims and agendas of education the modern and democratic attributes of Ameri- perspectives. For instance, Lawrence Cremin can educational theory and overlook its negative (1962, 1988) advocated a precise definition of impact on Korean education. One can find stud- progressive education in the United States ies in Korea that attempt to overcome this limita- that took hold in the twentieth century. He tion; such studies, which are critical of the argued that the movement was essentially changes in Korea’s post-independence educa- pluralistic and sometimes contradictory tional system take a revisionist point of view (Cremin 1988, 228). Arthur Zilversmit (1933, 1) (Kang 2002; Kim 1992; Lee 2007). In the field of agreed that it is difficult to define progressive art education, critical studies were practically education. However, it can be argued that the non-existent, revisionist or otherwise. The art vision of progressive education was to education community categorically accepted promote the basic principles of democracy, the introduction of progressive education posi- such as freedom, peace and human rights. To tively and the American influence was consid- achieve this goal, it emphasised child-centred ered to be ‘new’ and ‘modern’ (Park 1998; Kim and reconstructionist ideology. However, it is 1999; Kim 2001b). During the period of its mili- difficult to pin down progressive education tary occupation of Korea, the USA had a deep since there are various perspectives and and extensive influence across all sectors of discussions of the subject, though John Korean society, a situation that continued with Dewey’s educational philosophy provided its little structural changes until recently; and it central thought. would not be an overstatement to say that this In South Korea, progressive education was American influence determined the ideological introduced at the end of the Second World War. direction of art education in Korea. During this time, there were strong sentiments

BW147 Jade 33.1_text_AW.indd 89 12/02/2014 12:15 90 within the Korean education community to goals as follows. First, he rejected class discrim- Hyungsook Kim purge the country of the educational system left ination in traditional education. Second, he behind by the Japanese colonial authorities. It opposed education philosophy which aimed to was also a time when Korea found itself under instrumentalise human beings. Further, he rose US military occupation. Koreans who had stud- up against the characteristic oppressiveness of ied Dewey and his educational philosophy at past education and aspired toward education Columbia University’s Teachers College were at based on freedom. the forefront of this movement. Dewey’s A major change that came with the adoption Democracy and Education, which was trans- of progressive education was the introduction lated into Korean by Lim Han-yeong and Oh of the 6–3–3 school system, which empha- Cheon-seok, was used as the main textbook for sised respect for individual aptitude and ability. training teachers, indicating the high level of Under this system, entrance to a school of interest Korean educators had in Dewey. The higher quality was open to everyone and it US-educated Korean scholars who were lead- seemed to guarantee equal educational oppor- ing education reform in Korea based their tunities for all. It was introduced as a system Korean-style progressive education on their that would overcome the problems of the interpretation of Dewey. They emphasised undemocratic double-track system from the child-oriented education, which they saw as Japanese Colonial Period; the old system being central to Dewey’s philosophy (Dewey discriminated against Koreans by restricting 1916, 10, 16, 140; Dewey 1928, 197–204; Dewey their educational opportunities, implemented 1965, 2; Zilversmit 1993, 7–8). Oh Cheon-seok, differentiated education and was based on the one of the leading figures of progressive educa- principle of educating a small core of elites. In tion in Korea criticised traditional education and the new system, students were to attend called for reform; however, in bringing progres- school for a total of 16 years, with co-ed educa- sive education from the USA, these scholars tion as a rule. This single-track system had the succeeded in transplanting in Korea what was aim of providing equal opportunity to all only the façade of a Western foundation of students regardless of their socio-economic education. Confucianism and the colonial background or gender. It was similar to the US legacy of Japanese modern education still main- school system and led some critics to claim that tained a strong presence and there was much Koreans had imitated the US system due to difficulty in applying the precepts of progressive pressure from the USA (Kim 1992; Lee 2007). In education in schools and classrooms. response, Oh (1964) and Son In-su (1973) The ‘new education’ movement was a major acknowledged the similarity but argued that it component of progressive education in South was not the result of blind imitation but a choice Korea. It began after the election of the separate to maximise the educational objectives of the southern and northern governments in South time (Oh & Choi 1993; Oh 1975a; Son 1973). Korea and amidst a national campaign to reor- In 1950, the Korean government organised ganise the school curriculum. Its aim was to the Council on Core Curriculum Selection (gyosu liquidate all remnants of Japanese imperialism yomok jejeong simuihoe); in 1951, and as a and to build a new Korean national educational result, the Curriculum Study Committee system. Oh Cheon-seok, an ardent supporter of (gyogwa gwajeong yeongu wiwonhoe) was progressive educational philosophy, was a lead- created. The two bodies were charged with ing figure of the new education movement; he determining what courses should be taught and believed progressive education should consti- for how many hours, and what courses should tute the core of educational reform in Korea. be requirements or electives for each school When he presented the goals for new educa- grade. As a result, in June 1953, the Govern- tion, his aim was to implement democratic ment announced the ‘Basic Guidelines For education based on freedom. He presented the Curriculum Reform’, which retained the eight

BW147 Jade 33.1_text_AW.indd 90 12/02/2014 12:15 subjects from the previous curriculum but reor- education made the establishment of this new 91 ganised and integrated them into a ‘broad- school system possible. Oh Cheon-seok, Kim Hyungsook Kim bundling curriculum’ consisting of five major Seong-su and other educational scholars who headings: (1) Social Life/Nature (2) Korean/Math were influenced by the education system in the (3) Music/Art (4) Public Health (5) Practicum. USA supported the 6–3–3 system, offering their These national guidelines allowed room for theoretical and academic credentials in support. local governments and schools to reflect on They argued that the 6–3–3 system secured their particular local needs and to exercise equal educational opportunities and that it was autonomy in terms of credit-hour allocation, in tune with the psychological principles of within the range of the overall guidelines. In human development (Werth 1949; Oh 1975b). terms of the arts, the new guidelines stipulated The policy of the 6–3–3 system was to that music, art and crafts be taught in middle expand popular educational opportunity and it school. In high school, music and art were each played a great role in spreading the popular offered separately as an elective course. Under perception that education was a tool for upward the 6–3–3 system, the Secondary Education social mobility. A two-track secondary educa- Curriculum was developed by the Sub-Commit- tional system was not a system that provided tee on Secondary Education. This curriculum equal educational opportunities to all students was used as a core curriculum by the Council on (Dewey 1916, 318; Arnowitz & Giroux 1985; Core Curriculum Selection mentioned above, Spring 1972; Bowles & Gintis 1976). Thus, many and its selection was based on the rationale of parents and students now saw education as a maintaining social homogeneity. Social science, tool for upgrading their social status. a core subject essential for building democratic society, was recognised as an important curric- Progressive education and the George ulum subject by the US military occupation Peabody College for Teachers Mission in authorities. However, during the US military South Korea occupation period, social science classes in US educational missions played a decisive role schools avoided controversial issues; if they in spreading and establishing the theory and were dealt with at all, the lessons emphasised practice of progressive education in South non-controversial conclusions. Thus social Korea. The missions occurred in four periods science was used to produce social homogene- over a ten-year period. The first was October ity, which was an aim of the US military occupa- 1952 – June 1953; the second, September tion authorities (Kim 1992, 61–3). 1953 – June 1954; the third, September 1954 The 6–3–3 school system overcame the limi- – June 1955; and the fourth, October 1956 – tations of the modern education system left June 1962 [2]. The mission delegates behind by the Japanese colonial authorities and conducted teacher re-training sessions and it provided equal educational opportunity. The other workshops and suggested new teaching model was the US school system. Under the methods to be applied in classrooms and new 6–3–3 system, elementary school educa- included when developing curriculum and tion continued for six years, the same as under writing textbooks. ‘Creative self-expression’, a the Japanese system; however it became branch of progressive education, was adopted compulsory. What used to be four years of in earnest in Korea through these missions. secondary education under the colonial system The fourth mission in particular, the George was now expanded to six years. Further, the Peabody College for Teachers Mission, had occupational and college-preparation schools great influence in Korea, especially in the of the double-track system of the Colonial implementation of progressive education and Period were now integrated into a single-track the teaching and learning methods it advo- system (although, in reality, they were never cated. The delegates of the fourth mission fully integrated). The influence of progressive stayed in Korea from 1956 to 1962 and imple-

BW147 Jade 33.1_text_AW.indd 91 12/02/2014 12:15 92 mented the US educational aid programme. citizen in democracy society. The image of a Hyungsook Kim They were engaged in teacher-training whole person in Korean education was one programmes in colleges and universities, who was qualified with knowledge and experi- research projects, curriculum development ence in their life. The main ideal that art educa- and textbook editing, workshops for promot- tion pursued was the development of citizens ing the democratic operation of schools and who were culturally disposed and who were other activities (Oh & Choi 1993; Kim 1999, 3). able to enjoy culture aesthetically. The whole The position of the new education move- person represented freedom by pursuing ment, which was to expand artistic and appreciation and creative activity in the arts; the aesthetic experience as much as possible, values implicit in this goal were very much the focused on the democratic characteristics of values espoused by the proponents of creative the arts and aesthetics, was strengthened by self-expression to enhance citizenship in the the presence of the Peabody Mission in Korea. democratic society of the USA in the early According to the Joseon Council on Education, twentieth century. which revised the goals that had been In particular, the Peabody College for Teach- announced earlier during the ‘core curriculum’ ers Mission aimed to teach arts and crafts period, arts education emphasised ‘the nurtur- through workshop programmes on studio art ing of a gentle and well-rounded character by and crafts. Don Sudlow was an expert in arts and heightening appreciation and creativity for the crafts and a member of the Peabody Mission. sublime in the arts’ (Oh 1975b, 25). In other His activities in Korea had a great impact in trans- words, the goal of art education was to ensure forming the field of art education, which was that students appreciate art, promote their socially and economically devastated after the creative impulses and guide them to become Korean War. He taught craft classes in wood, perfect people which could fulfill the ideal of the clay and bamboo, which were materials that

BW147 Jade 33.1_text_AW.indd 92 12/02/2014 12:15 both teachers and students could easily find in Mission was to play a pivotal role in influencing 93 Korea at that time. the direction of art education in South Korea, Hyungsook Kim The mission also organised an exchange art where the new focus became creative self- exhibition with participation from the art expression, based on child-oriented and recon- students of Busan Teachers College and structionist art education. During the Japanese students from the USA. The students submitted Colonial Period, art education emphasised the paintings and prints for the exhibition. After the imitation of objects or nature; the main art text- exhibition, selected students were sent to the books were Dohwa Imbon (Art Textbooks of USA to study. Also, in the summer of 1959 and Drawing for Use in Primary Schools) (Figure 1) the winter of 1960, to improve the quality of art and Botong Hakgyo Dohwa-cheop (Art Text- teachers in teachers colleges throughout the books of Drawing for Use in Primary Schools) country, the mission held an arts & crafts work- (Figure 2). shop at Busan Teachers College and an exhibi- It was a strong momentum that enabled tion for students nationwide. The students Peabody activities to transform the direction of submitted works of art that used gourds, clam art education from its traditional emphasis on shells, bamboo and other natural materials, as copying what is found in nature or in one’s well as ceramic and print works. Sudlow, in surroundings to the emphasis on creative self- particular, taught teacher education courses and expression and art reflecting the students’ daily toured colleges and universities to give lectures, life experiences. including special lectures to primary school The root ideas of the Peabody Mission are teachers. He also supported the construction of found in the work of Franz Cizek, Francis studio buildings in Busan Teachers College and Wayland Parker and Viktor Lowenfeld. Czek Daegu Teachers College (Kim 1999, 5–9). (1865–1946) discovered that children’s art has The outstanding achievement of the Peabody value as a subject of research. He believed that

Opposite page: Figure 1 Dohwa Imbon (Art Textbooks of Drawing for Use in Primary Schools) (Source: Japanese Government General of Korea (1908) This page: Figure 2 Botong Hakgyo Dohwa-cheop (Art Textbooks of Drawing for Use in Primary Schools) (Source: Japanese Government General of Korea (1926)

BW147 Jade 33.1_text_AW.indd 93 12/02/2014 12:15 94 children’s feelings and their emotional life out their childhood (Korzenik 1984, 290; Efland Hyungsook Kim should not be repressed, and that they should 1990, 168). Parker’s theory was further devel- be sublimated into higher social values. He oped by Lowenfeld (1903–60) as ‘free expres- argued that discovering the potential talents of sion’. Lowenfeld observed the therapeutic func- children and their free expression of feelings, tion of children’s creative activities (Figure 3). He and recognising them as a dynamic driving took an interest in the aesthetic aspect of chil- force, should be the aim of art education (Efland dren’s art and their expression. He believed in 1990, 197–8). stages of psychological development and A continuity of Cizek’s philosophy is found in believed that art activities involving the use of Francis Wayland Parker’s theory of children’s the hands had a great impact on childhood art. Parker (1837–1902) recognised the impor- development. Figure 4 illustrates an art class at tance of the senses, of children’s looking, listen- the Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) in New ing and touching, and he viewed ‘expression’ as York where Vitor D’Amico created a museum the essence of arts education. An expression education course for children that was influ- can be a gesture, a voice, talking, the making of enced by creative self-expression. He played a music, sculpting, painting, drawing and writing. pivotal role in the history of museum education Accordingly, Parker believed that children’s as well as art education. Relying upon the theo- education must incorporate creative expression ries of Dewey, D’Amico developed and elabo- using various media. He argued that every child rated educational programs and activities at the is born with artistic talent and that children MoMA for children, veterans and adults. He also express themselves through play. He also founded the Museum’s Young People’s Gallery, argued that children’s expressive acts are devel- the War Veterans Art Center and the People’s oped spontaneously and continuously through- Art Center (Kim 2001a, 24). The Peabody Mission carried out workshops focusing on training teachers; they also promoted discussions to encourage children’s creative self-expression. Sudlow, in particular, as an expert in arts and crafts and in teacher training, conducted arts and crafts workshops. The purpose was to enrich the aesthetic sensi- tivity of the participants and provide them with an opportunity to experience creative self- expressionism. Sudlow focused on teacher education under the theme of ‘The Need for Creative People in Korea’, and most of his classroom sessions consisted of free expression using diverse materials. He offered workshops during which students created artworks using natural objects such as gourds and seashells and bamboo craft, ceramic art and prints. From the testimonies of teachers from this period, it is clear that the arts and crafts workshop offered by Sudlow introduced new pedagogy to Korea based on creative self-expressionism:

Since the visit of the George Peabody College for Teachers Mission to Korea, a new methodology in art education was being sought in South

BW147 Jade 33.1_text_AW.indd 94 12/02/2014 12:15 Korea. At the workshop supervised by Sudlow… 95 30–40 students from first to six grades 1–6 could Hyungsook Kim be contacted were gathered and presented with Dr. Sudlow’s art demonstration . . . Most school teachers followed the rule that artwork should be created as drawings or according to academic techniques in that the teaching of such depictive techniques was considered to be the principal method and goal of art education. The art education presented by Sudlow, however, was considerably free, allowing students free expression; his classes were characterised by diverse ages, diverse themes, and diverse materials. Such pedagogy differed considerably from our ideas of art education at the time. . . It could be seen as an excessively laisses-faire class. Such a class was viewed as greatly shocking and unconven- tional to teachers at the time. (Kim 2002, 9)

The values espoused by the mission were based on the creative self-expression of progressive education (George Peabody College for Teachers 1962, 38). Moreover, creative self-expression was supported by the textbook Creative and Mental Growth by introduced into South Korea emphasised Lowenfeld (Efland 1990, 235). Interestingly, respect for individual freedom only; it was not Abstract Expressionism (which Harold Rosen- linked with movements for social and economic berg referred to as action painting) after the reform in the country. Accordingly, educational Second World War also appeared as a new art reform brought about by progressive education movement focusing on expression and action. was used as a tool for achieving the political One’s inner impulsive intuition and expression objective of pacifying social conflicts (Oh & Choi were stressed in both creative self-expres- 1993, 168–222; Compilation Committee of sionism and Abstract Expression. Creative Korean Education for 10 Years 1960, 77). Rather Opposite page: self-expression, as practised by the Peabody than interpreting democracy from social, politi- Figure 3 The opportunity for Mission, brought a surge of interest in chil- cal and economic contexts, the proponents of young children to dren’s creativity and expressive activities. It progressive education in South Korea draw provides a moved instruction away from the teacher- approached it as a problem of individual psychol- basis for developing self-expression centred imitation and nature-drawing focus of ogy. In other words, as a leading figure of (Source: Lowenfeld colonial art education. progressive education, Oh & Choi did not inter- 1987) As I have reviewed above, education pret progressive education as the social recon- This page: missions from the USA in the 1950s laid the structionist perspective to solve education Figure 4 groundwork for progressive education to take reform of economic, social and political prob- Art education hold in South Korea. The educational reform that lems in South Korea. Rather they interpreted program at the Museum of Modern began in South Korea after the Second World progressive education as an aspect of creative Art, New York, 1958 War was part of an attempt to build a demo- self-expression. In this context, they failed to (Source: Milbank cratic nation and it was in this context that understand the meaning of democracy to influ- Memorial Library, Teacher’s College, progressive education was embraced. ence structural reform. Columbia University, However, the progressive educational paradigm New York)

BW147 Jade 33.1_text_AW.indd 95 12/02/2014 12:15 96 Application and interpretation of progressive calligraphy, drawing and embroidery were Hyungsook Kim education in art education integrated (Park 1998, 323; Ahn 1956, 38). The Peabody Mission in Korea brought changes The First National Curriculum emphasised in school classrooms and also in textbooks. At the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and habits that the end of Japanese rule in Korea, the School students can learn from daily life experiences Affairs Bureau of the US Military Government and activities. The art education of the Colonial established a two-year plan to revise school Period focused on an imitated rendering of the textbooks. The Bureau’s editorial staff partici- world, rather than on developing students’ crea- pated in the editing of the textbooks and they tivity (Department of Education 1957, 18–19). emphasised that these books must reflect a However, during the First National Curriculum ‘modern’ perspective. Here, a ‘modern’ after the Second World War, the monotonous perspective meant an American perspective art education of the Colonial Period was [3]. The USA was considered modern in avoided and the values espoused by progres- comparison to Korea and it was decided that sive education, such as the focus on the child, experts who were familiar with the US world- art experience in daily life and the nurturing of view should write the textbooks. In the name of creativity, were considered the key direction. political neutrality, the new textbooks did not The values of progressive education aimed to include any controversial content that could achieve several goals. First, it aimed to facilitate instigate political and social conflicts. In accord- the application of expressive abilities in a social ance with strategic arguments of the US occu- environment and thereby nurture Korea’s pation authorities, who advocated ‘the separa- capacity to improve living standards at home, in tion of education from politics’, any issue that school and in local communities by developing might be construed as controversial was the competencies of students further so that deleted from the new textbooks (Goode- they may even transmit ideas and emotions now1983; Kim 1992, 65). The US occupation [through art]; second, to promote the cultivation authorities were in fact political rather than of students’ abilities to appreciate the meaning neutral in proposing that Korean people should and value of activities in the visual arts; third, to not have attention drawn to political and social foster civic habits and attitudes through the use problems in their own society. of various materials and tools; and lastly, nour- In producing secondary school textbooks ish individual talents through artistic activities for Korean, English and Social Science and develop students’ economic abilities for subjects, the US occupation authorities had a social development. direct influence on producing textbooks that Art textbooks published after the announce- avoided political and ideological issues. In the ment of The First National Curriculum were case of art education textbooks, the term influenced by the Peabody Mission and, by misul (art) was used for the first time in the extension, the teachings of progressive educa- educational curriculum in the ‘Primary School tion. It is particularly noticeable that these art Guidelines’, which took effect in 1946. During textbooks contained many images of artwork the Japanese Colonial Period, art was taught that reflected the experience of learners in their under the headings of ‘Yeneung gwa Dohwa’ daily lives (Figure 5) [4]. The chapter titles for (Talented skills and drawing) and ‘Yeneung each grade were selected to reflect the daily life gwa Gongjak’ (Talented skills and craft). After experiences of students, and related classroom 1945, under the new curriculum, the two were activities were included. The following are integrated under the single subject of ‘Misul’ some examples: ‘Draw a scene that was most (art). These guidelines allocated class time for memorable to you during a field trip’ (fifth art and added calligraphy, drawing and crafts grade); ‘Use colored paper to depict a snowy to the curriculum. In middle school, calligraphy landscape’ (third grade); ‘Play “store” and make and drawing were integrated; in high school, dummy objects of chuseok food’ (second

BW147 Jade 33.1_text_AW.indd 96 12/02/2014 12:15 grade); and ‘Draw your experience of riding on tudes and habits required in the everyday lives 97 a bus or train’ (first grade). of students were established as the major Hyungsook Kim One suggestion in the Art Curriculum was goals, and lessons were designed accordingly. ‘individual instruction for the improvement of To train the artists or industrial designers that craft-learning capacity’ (Kim 2002). Don were required in society, a systematic Sudlow, as an expert in both arts and crafts, approach was taken. The Curriculum empha- taught creative self-expressionism through a sised the provision of skills training based on variety of craft activities. Of the many subjects repetition, on the one hand, and nurturing the in art education, ‘crafts’ was chosen by the basic qualities of an artist, on the other. Art Ministry of Culture and Education at the time as education, previously limited to drawing, now the subject of a three-year plan. It suggests that included the subjects of design, crafts and art teachers surveyed students’ abilities to handle appreciation, all of which more closely tools to gauge their level of understanding and reflected art in daily life experience (Lyo 2006, interest in the different craft materials. It then 31; Park 2009). In the First National Curriculum, suggests activities that could improve an indi- art was universalised as a regular subject in vidual student’s skills and understanding. The the school curriculum. This created an oppor- fact that crafts as a subject was emphasised in tunity to expand the base of aesthetic appre- elementary school art education is related to ciation through education in the arts and the influence of the Peabody Mission. culture [5]. However, such efforts to develop In the meantime, secondary school text- the potential of individual learners were made books reflected art that emphasised the daily with the belief that they would not challenge life experiences of students. The transfer of the US hegemony in leading social reforms in knowledge and skills, and cultivation of atti- South Korea after the Second World War.

This page: Figure 5 Art textbooks published after the announcement of The First National Curriculum (2nd Grade in Primary School), 1956, Department of Education, South Korea (Source: Department of Education (1956)

BW147 Jade 33.1_text_AW.indd 97 12/02/2014 12:15 98 As mentioned previously, progressive educa- It was clear that art education during this period Hyungsook Kim tional philosophy was introduced as an was supported by US educational aid to South educational theory espousing democracy Korea. Sung-Sook Kim (2002, 25) points out that and it put great stress on individual freedom; Sudlow and the Peabody Education Mission furthermore, it laid the foundation for a came to Korea as part of US educational aid and modern educational system in South Korea. that their activities opened a new horizon for However, its adoption had all the attributes of spreading educational progressivism in art colonisation in that education in South Korea education. In particular she praises Sudlow as became a tool for state power. The progres- someone ‘who loved Korea, who tried to teach sive educational theory that swept through and to give much to art educators in Korea . . . the USA in the twentieth century played the [and who deserved] to be thanked’ (Kim 1999, role of providing the necessary education for 25). She further states that he played ‘an epochal individuals to adapt to a rapidly changing role in laying the groundwork and planting of the society. Education functioned as a social seeds’ for art education in Korea (Kim 1999, 41). institution responsible for carrying out the In terms of the impact of the USA on art educa- role bestowed upon it by society of maintain- tion in Korea, she also underscores its positive ing and advancing social order (U.S. Depart- aspects and good intentions. ment of State 1946, 675). Hwi-rak Park (1998), an art education scholar, The introduction of this progressive educa- argues that the progressive educational philos- tional philosophy, the revised school curricu- ophy shifted the teacher- and curriculum- lum, the new school textbooks and the new oriented art education to child- and student- 6–3–3 school system resulted in the mainte- oriented education. He summarises the impact nance and further advancement of the colonial of progressive education in Korean art educa- legacy of inequitable socio-economic systems tion as having given importance to children’s in South Korea. The system they supported interests and freedom of expression. He thus was essentially an unequal system, and focuses on the value of creative self-expres- progressive education was accepted because sionism. What is notable here is the emphasis it conformed to the interests of the conserva- on ‘creativity’. There was need for education to tives in Korea at that time. For instance, the nurture creativity in students in order for them 6–3–3 system, which was related to curricu- to be able to contribute to building a democ- lum and school textbooks, was an unequal racy; however, Park’s version of education for system because it was still a two-track system democracy ignored efforts to reform structural that segregated occupational and college- social inequalities. Art education, which cham- preparation schools and provided differenti- pioned individual creativity, became a tool for ated programs of study. Rather than address- mass-producing citizens for a democracy. ing social contradictions and inequalities, In this context, the progressive educational progressive education focused its attention philosophy was introduced in South Korea with only on the psychological aspects of children’s the support of education aid from the USA, and learning and in this way inculcated what was it cultivated liberal consciousness among Kore- necessary to maintain American hegemony. ans and spread the American-style educational Although it was introduced as a model of system in Korea. However, it had post-colonisa- educational reform espousing democracy, tion attributes in the following aspects. First, it progressive education in South Korea did not promoted a liberal democratic ideology in align itself with efforts for the country’s demo- formal educational institutions and thus justi- cratic transformation; thus one could say that fied the left–right controversy that consumed progressive education in South Korea was part Korean society at the time in the context of the of a colonisation phenomenon that consoli- North–South division. In other words, American dated and strengthened American hegemony. educational aid to South Korea had the positive

BW147 Jade 33.1_text_AW.indd 98 12/02/2014 12:15 aspect of providing an opportunity to practise a Conclusion 99 new educational philosophy based on demo- As mentioned previously, the perspective that Hyungsook Kim cratic values. However, one cannot overlook the modern art education in South Korea began main negative aspect, which is that a frame- after the Second World War has been based work for modern education was built on a colo- on the assumption that the country began nial imitation of American educational theory imitating Western educational philosophy and and its system. its system. It was meant to introduce modern Second, I have examined above how the education and to eradicate remnants of Japa- introduction of progressive education into South nese colonisation, and in the process it Korea, as it is reflected in art education, can be embraced progressive education from the interpreted as another process of colonisation. USA. However, it did not eradicate the colonial Upon examining art education textbooks, one intellect and it showed characteristics of post- finds that much of the progressive educational colonialism. The new educational system in philosophy and Western-style art teaching Korea ignored the problem of unequal educa- methods were accepted with the aim of over- tional opportunities, and primary education coming the remnant of Japanese imperialism in became compulsory; also, the expansion of Korea, and guaranteeing modernity. The signifi- educational opportunities, and the revision of cance of the art education reform under the First and new developments in the curricula were National Curriculum – which carried the banner pursued to cultivate in students civic qualities of educational progressivism, liberal democracy befitting a democratic nation. and student-oriented education – can be found However, educational reform efforts at the in the value it placed on the freedom of creative time, embedded in a progressive educational self-expression and how it championed self- philosophy, were introduced in the context of expression and creative activities. thwarted reform efforts which aimed for a Finally, progressive education during this broader social and economic transformation. period was successful in its attempt to depoliti- These efforts contributed to the maintenance cise educational reform, and consequently and further advancement of an inequitable strengthened the politics of post-colonial socio-economic system that was the hallmark hegemonic power. In addition, it meant that the of the Japanese Colonial Period. citizens of Korea the subordinate country were Thus, educational reform efforts stopped denied their own culture and traditions, the short of simply imitating the American educa- source of their identity, and turned themselves tional system. The introduction of the 6–3–3 into the ‘other’ of the West. Even though over- system, a child-centred educational philosophy, coming Japan’s colonial intellect was a signifi- creative self-expressionism that had been cant achievement, Korean art educators did not emphasised by the Peabody Mission and the look at the tradition of Korean art education implementation of other measures introduced before Japanese colonisation. They did not as a result of educational reforms, enabled art interpret the ideal of ‘the whole person’ in art education to be approached from the perspec- education. Rather, they looked at the Western tive of encouraging the psychological and education system and progressive education as emotional development of children at an indi- a modern style, and accepted this as the new vidual level. By doing so, it shied away from the paradigm and model of art education. There- perspective of nurturing critical capacities for fore, a significant opportunity to construct Kore- reforming sociopolitical contradictions through an’s own identity was missed laying the founda- art under the US Military Government in Korea. tion for Western-influenced art education to Considering such interpretations of modern gain a foothold. art education in South Korea, in this study, I have argued that during the period South Korea was under occupation by the US Military Govern-

BW147 Jade 33.1_text_AW.indd 99 12/02/2014 12:15 100 ment, the reform policies of introducing a new textbooks as samples, art education during Hyungsook Kim educational philosophy, a new school system, the Japanese Colonial Period centred on the new teaching methods of creative self-expres- training of the eye and the hand. sionism and a new national curriculum and textbooks were initiated. However, these reform 4. The First National Curriculum was legislated programs were not meant to contribute to a and officially announced on 1 August 1955 as larger social reform for democracy in South the 44th, 45th and 46th ordinances of the Korea, and they in fact became the means to Ministry of Culture and Education. It divided build and strengthen pro-American hegemony. school activities into curricular and special In this context, I argue that modern art educa- (non-curricular) activities. Art classes were tion after the Second World War represents a generally allotted two hours per week. For the post-colonial phenomenon. In other words, it primary school art curriculum, each grade had can be said that the introduction of progressive specific goals and activities for drawing, educational philosophy into South Korea was crafts, and writing (Association of Curriculum not so much a starting point for modernising the & Textbook 1990, 250–2; Row 1999, 203–7). educational system away from Japanese colonial influence, but a form of continuing and 5. A significant point of the paradigm shift in art systematic colonial rule under the USA. education in the First National Curriculum was the overcoming of limitations of drawing- Notes oriented art education, which was closely 1. Progressive education aimed to resolve the linked to the Japanese Colonial Period. Art was issues of social, political and economic conceived of as no more than a tool or a means conflicts arising out of rapid industrialisation for something other than itself. However, art and urbanisation following the Korean War and education should be focused on the learners’ to harmoniously and organically establish a creative self-expression and on issues centred laissez-faire capitalist economy in South on art in daily life (Lyo 2006, 6–9; Ahn 1956, 38). Korea; it aimed to establish a framework for new liberalism pursuing managed economy, Hyungsook Kim is an associate professor of art government planning, collectivist thinking and education in the College of Fine Arts of Seoul planned changes (Kim 1992, 46–7; Efland National University in Korea. She formerly 1990, 187–223). served as the chair of the 2007 InSEA Asian Regional Congress and the world council of 2. The process began in October 1945 when InSEA. The Seoul Congress was successful in General Archer L. Lerch ordered various US establishing a rich network between the East military government offices in Korea to prepare and the West, with art educators from 17 coun- a request for educational aid. In response, the tries around the world attending the meeting. School Affairs Bureau established the Korean Currently, Hyungsook is the president of the Council on Educational Aid from America, Korea Society for Education through Art. She under the Joseon Council on Education, and believes visual art education substantially prepared applications for aid in educational contributes to increased understanding of and cultural field. others, reflection of the self, visual thinking and establishment of social cohesion. Her 3. Liberation (15 August 1945) is seen as the research interests focus on the areas of starting point of modern art education in South museum education, art history and criticism in Korea because art education during the art education, curriculum developmen, and preceding Japanese Colonial Period was policy of art education. She has contributed to based on the reproduction of existing works. developing a long-term cultural art education Stressing the imitation of works presented in plan and the national art curriculum as the

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