RUSSIAN GEOGRAPHICAL SOCIETY
FACULTY OF GEOGRAPHY, M.V. LOMONOSOV MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF GEOGRAPHY, RUSSIAN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
No. 01 [v. 04] 2011 GEOGRAPHY ENVIRONMENT SUSTAINABILITY
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2 Faculty ofScience, Czech Republic University, Masaryk Konečný Milan ofGeography,Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, A. Kolosov Vladimir ofGeography,Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, Kochurov BorisI. ofGeography,Institute Japan ofEducation, University Hokkaido Himiyama Yukio Association of Tunisian Geographers, Tunisia Hayder Adnane Russia Rosoboronexport, Gutenev Vladimir V. Chinese Academy ofSciences, China Guo Hua Tong ofEcologyandEvolution, Russia Institute Russian Academy ofSciences, Gunin Petr D. ofGeography,Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, Gritsay Olga V. Faculty ofGeography, Russia M.V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow D’yakonov KirillN. Faculty ofGeography, Russia M.V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow Dobrolubov Sergey A. Geography andGeoecology, Russia Sankt-Petersburg State University, Faculty of Dmitriev Vasily V. ofPlymouth,University UK Brian Chalkley Geographie, Germany fur Institut Ludwig Universitat Munchen, Maximilians Baume Otfried, Pacific ofGeography, Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, PetrBaklanov Ya. ofdeserts, Institute Turkmenistan Turkmenistan Academy ofSciences, Babaev Agadzhan G. Faculty ofGeography, Russia. M.V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow S. Tikunov Vladimir Russia University, Faculty ofGeography M.V. Lomonosov State Moscow Kasimov Nikolay S. EDITORS-IN-CHIEF: EDITORIAL BOARD (Secretary-General) Russia ofGeographyInstitute Russian Academy ofSciences KotlyakovM. Vladimir Finland Finnish Meteorological Institute, Zilitinkevich Sergey S. Russia ofEnvironmentalInstitute Geosciences, Russian Academy ofSciences, Viktorov Alexey S. Geographic Institute, Chile Military Vargas RodrigoBarriga et SciencesHumaines” France Université duHavre –UFR “Lettres Thorez Pierre ofGeography,Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, Tishkov A. Arkady ofGeography,Institute Russia Russian Academy ofSciences, OlgaN. Solomina Ukraine of Sciences, ofGeography Institute Academy National Ukrainean Rudenko Leonid G. and Regional Studies, Poland University Warsaw, Faculty ofGeography Andrzej Richling diGeografia, Italy Instituto Universita degliStudidiRoma “La Sapienza”, Palagiano Cosimo, ofGeography,Institute Mexico National Autonomous ofMexico, University Palacio-Prieto Jose Faculty ofGeography, Russia. M.V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow Mironenko Nikolay S. Faculty ofGeography, Azerbaijan State University,Baku Mamedov Ramiz Faculty ofGeography, Russia M.V. Lomonosov State University, Moscow Malkhazova Svetlana M. ofBehavioral Sciences,Institute USA ofColoradoUniversity atBoulder, O’Loughlin John The Netherlands Sciences, ofAppliedEarth Department of University Delft Technology Kroonenberg Salomon, Belgique Université Libre deBruxelles Vandermotten Christian 003.08.2011 14:38:11 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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Vladimir G.Konovalov Natalia E. Chubarova, Alexander Smirnov, BrentN.Holben Jean Radvanyi BaoYang M.Sonechkin, Dmitry Viktor I.Kruzhalin Alla A.Pakina, Plepys Andrius Nina N.Alexeeva, Nikolay S.Kasimov, Yuri L.Mazurov, Sven-Erik Österlund, Erland G.Kolomyts, GennadyS.Ro Raisa G.Gracheva, Tengiz F. Urushadze Jargalsaichan Luvsandorj Galina N.Ogureeva, InessaM.Miklayeva, MaximV. Bocharnikov, GEOGRAPHY NEWS &REVIEWS SUSTAINABILITY ENVIRONMENT 3 CONTENTS AND EXTREME YEARSAND ...... DISTRIBUTION OF RIVER RUNOFF AND ITS CLIMATE FACTORS IN AVERAGE STATEMOSCOW OF UNIVERSITY ...... MEASUREMENTS AT THE METEOROLOGICAL OBSERVATORY IN MOSCOWAEROSOL PROPERTIES ACCORDING TO 10 YEARS OF AERONET L’ÉDITIONATLAS,DE LESENGOUEMENT NOUVEL UN FRANÇAISE ...... 12 . . . ASPECTS ...... PASTRECONSTRUCTING TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS: SOME METHODOLOGICAL TOURISM AND RECREATION: FUNDAMENTAL AND APPLIED RESEARCH IN RUSSIA 104 . . . POTENTIAL RUSSIAN AND ...... SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF EDUCATION: SWEDISH REALITIES . . .IMPACTS .CAUCASUS, .RESOURCE-FORMING .GEORGIA) (SOUTH ...... 59 . . . LANDSLIDES IN A RURAL MOUNTAINOUS REGION: DAMAGING AND SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL VARIABILITY OF DRY STEPPES OF EASTERN MONGOLIA . . . . 46. LANDSCAPE-ECOLOGICAL PREDICTIVE MODELING LANDSCAPE-ECOLOGICAL PREDICTIVE ...... 69 . . . CARBON BALANCE OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS UNDER GLOBAL WARMING: zenberg, LarisaS.Sharaya ...... 4 ...... 33 ...... 86 ...... 19 . 003.08.2011 14:38:12 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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4 evidence oftheCurrent Warming unique. mentionsthiscircumstance asanreport with theCurrent Warming. The lastIPCC Period to belessstrong incomparison particular, theyshowtheMedieval Warm to berathersimilarwitheachother. In al., 2004].Alltheirreconstructionslook et al. 2001;Esperetal., 2002;Cook et 1999; Crowley andLowery, 2000;Briffa et al., 1998;Jones etal., etal., 1998;Mann etal., 1996;Mann 1000–2000 BP[Wang Hemisphere area for thetimeperiod averaged over thealmostwholeNorthern airtemperature variationsnear surface of climatologists to reconstruct tried thelatest decadeseveralDuring groups functions. orthogonal empirical widthdata,pastclimate normals, tree-ring reconstruction. the goalofpastmeteorological field expansionfor function orthogonal empirical anduseofthe multiscale climaticvariations; of consideration anintegral nonstationarity intopaleoclimatic information; taking width records asthemainsource ofproxy of proxy dataonanexampleoftree-ring reconstructions are considered: calibration essentialforThree aspects thepaleoclimatic 1* 2 M.Sonechkin Dmitry 260 Donggang West Road, 730000Lanzhou, China; Environmental andEngineering Research Institute, ChineseAcademy ofSciences, * Corresponding author Telephone: +74956875352Fax: [email protected] +74951245983e-mail: Hydrometeorological Research Center ofRussia,Moscow, Russia. INTRODUCTION KEY WORDS: ABSTRACT ASPECTS VARIATIONS: SOME METHODOLOGICAL RECONSTRUCTING PAST TEMPERATURE Key Laboratory of Desert and Desertification, Cold andAridRegions andDesertification, ofDesert KeyLaboratory P.P. Shirshov Oceanology Institute, RussianAcademy ofSciences, and
paleoclimatic reconstruction, 1* , Bao Yang 2 a rather good timing, and tree-ring width a rathergoodtiming, andtree-ring prominent bytheirannualresolution with paleoclimatic information. Tree-rings are widthrecordsring asthemainsource of because itiswidelyaccepted to usetree- onanexampleoftree-rings extrapolation Consider someconsequencesofsuch variations. inter-decadal those corresponding to theinter-annual and and environmental) candiffer variations from proxies (climatic to longer-living external becauseresponses ofsome extrapolation oftheproxy scalesisaninadmissible parts these calibrationsonto lower-frequency decadal temperature variations. Spreading forbe meaningful inter-annual andinter- so itisquite clearthatsuchcalibrationscan their overlapping. and isshort, This interval temperature record of over atimeinterval for areconstructionwith aninstrumental aproxy recordmanner comparing used calibrated thesescalesinasimplelinear theabove paleoclimatologistsfor certain, complexandnonlinear scales are very scale. Althoughthese with anunknown ofproxies isathermometer kind Every these reconstructionreliability. But somedoubtscanbevoiced asconcern OF TREE-RINGRECORDS WIDTH CALIBRATION ON AN EXAMPLE A PROBLEM OF THE PROXY DATA 003.08.2011 14:38:12 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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dependent quantity fordependent quantity bothjuvenile and widthisanage- thetree-ring Indeed, measure oftheannualwood production. widthindexisaninappropriate tree-ring increases even more because thetraditional inthetree growthThe difficulty calibration forest standchanges. is inversely-proportioned to longer-term that essentiallylongertimeintervals during forest stand, oftree-stems and2)thickening and underconditionofanalmostconstant to instantaneoustemperaturesproportioned of consequentyears oftree life thatiswell- anumber during oftree-stems 1) thickening tree growth into account: mustbetaken climatic variations,processes two ofthe Thus, assumingawiderangeofmultiscale ofthefolloweddeterioration tree growth. from implieda thisabundantgermination and theexcessive forest resulted density of tree seedsbecameto beabundant, favourable temperature, thegermination species beingsampled. Becauseofmore withinthetree areali.e. ofthetree very andupperlimitsofthetree growth, northern theselocationswereperiod fare from the inapasttime if climate wasmuchwarmer competition. However, onecansuppose: because ofabsenceany between-tree etc.)nutrition outto beratherfavorable turn the tree growth (thesunillumination,soil so otherenvironmental conditions for in suchalocationusuallyare large, and Therefore juvenile distancesbetween trees are sampledbydendrochronologists now. upper forest-limits usually where tree-rings and crops nearthenorthern germinates sensitive process. Asmallpercentofseed temperature)- is aclimate (inparticular scales. oftree thegermination Indeed, seeds ofthetree-ring and lower-frequency parts mentioned differentiation higher- between oftheafore- 2005] seemsto beafingerprint recent etal., decades[Briffa 1998;Datsenko, in many geographic regions afew during some depressive tree growth observed data have somedrawbacks. particular, In widthproxy these obviousmerits, three-ring broad geographic representative. spite of In record numerous andwith samplesare very 5 variations mentioned above.variations Even byeye this responses condition to the external the existence scalesintree oftwo growth this reconstruction. corroborates This fact withthelinearcalibrationof in comparison parabolic calibrationlooksto bepreferable calibration graphs showninFig. 2.Note a temperature asitisseen from variations the successinreproducing regionalits certain from etal., [Briffa 2002])reveals(extracted instrumental temperatures oftheregion ofthis A comparison with “toy”-chronology Russian team ofdendrochronologists). O.V. Sidorova –a memberofE.A. Vaganov’s (obtainedfrom Siberia from theNorth-East using thisnewindexfor theseven larches Fig. 1showsa created with “toy”-chronology widthindex. traditional ring modified, similarto However, itiseasyto prove thatanew difficult to handle. if themodified evenof standardization mustbepreserved widths. thisreason, ring By akind uppermost species, reveal apparent increase oftheir it isnotsoinrealitybecausesometree standardization inprinciple. Unfortunately, 2008]), andsoitcanbeusedwithoutany for mature trees (see:[BiondyandQeadan, seemsto beage-independent this quantity Moreover, ofthestem section. geometry isrobust toThis quasi-linearquantity the good measure ofthewood production. R(t) (where because thenature of used, pith-offset) and records (theso-called radius oftree-ring the valueofinnermost rule, there wasnoreliable information about paleoclimatic reconstructionsbecause, asa width index.But withthestandardizedcomparison tree-ring increment index( 1992; [Briffa, known Visser, 1995]basal-area atleastpartly. variations living external The suppresses responses oftrees to longer- standardizationused. inevitable Any tree-ring standardization is tree-ring the so-called mature trees. To remove thisdependence is the inner radius of this ring) isarather istheinnerradiusofthisring) dR(t) is the ring widthintheyear isthering BAI BAI BAI) isusedinstead ofthe wasusedinnorecent isabetter measure in BAI BAI , index isnonlinearand dR ( t ) •R t , and ( 003.08.2011 14:38:12 t 3 ) . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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6 index time series for seven larches. A general similarity with the the with similarity Ageneral larches. seven for series time index Fig. 2. A graph of correlation between the “toy”- the between correlation of Agraph 2. Fig. mean Hemisphere Northern temp instrumental temperatures of the North-east lines are shown together with the respective respective the with together shown are lines Fig. 1 A “toy”-chronology created with use of the the of use with created 1A“toy”-chronology Fig. chronology shown in Fig. 1 and the regional regional the 1and Fig. in shown chronology instrumental observation period can be seen even byeye even seen be can period observation instrumental Siberia. Linear and quadratic regression regression quadratic and Linear Siberia. equations erature variationserature during the dR(t)8R(t) the paleoclimaticnormal. thatcanbenamed paleoclimatic variations averaged)(temporally andspatiallyvery reconstruction isto reconstructmacroscale consequence, thefirstgoalofpaleoclimatic lookto bestatisticallystationary.series As a even ifhigher-frequency componentsofthe average almostfor ofthisseries certain behaviorsee atrend-like ofthemoving at any real onecan climatictimeseries locally chaoticprocess. Therefore, looking and dynamics isanintegrally nonstationary isofafinite length.But,theclimateseries in thefollowing. Each real climatictime consiststhe paleoclimaticreconstruction unsolved problem of important The next CLIMATIC NORMAL COORDINATION A PROBLEM OF PRESENT-DAY AND PAST - directly. temperatureshemispheric with respectto themean better to calibrate proxies any reconstruction,itisperhaps proxies atthefinalstageof as theprocedure ofaddingall calibration procedure aswell of the by thereason oflinearity general case.thisreason By and mean temperatures isthe withhemispheric in comparison local instrumentaltemperatures Worse ofregional quality and broader vicinity. and poorrepresentative for their revealtime intervals, datagaps, consideration cover ashorter station dataoftheregion under to beofratherbadquality. The instrumental temperatures seem temperatures becausestation even higherthanwithregional Hemisphere out turns Northern the meantemperature ofthe correlation270 years.with Its variations Hemisphere temperature rather well theNorthern reproduces “toy”-chronology during thelatest 003.08.2011 14:38:12 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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prove theirproclamation etal. Mann [2005] is notgrounded completely. order to In the Moberg etal. [2005] overestimationtemperature in variability al. [2005]ofanessentiallower-frequency this reason aproclamation et ofMann than thereal temperature By spectra. of theproxy dataerrors are even redder domain. Onecansupposethatthespectra data records inthefrequency overlap of thesereal anderrors ofproxy variations becausethespectra variations the normal underestimation ofthetruemagnitude of filtering. As arule, leadsto suchfiltering data of biased-,noisy-,andincomplete- Any isakind estimationofsuchanormal actual foractual thepresent climate anomalies. andsothesameEOFs whicharefunction, bythesamecovariationbe characterized respect ofthepresent can climate normal hope thatpastanomaliescalculated with normals. Moreover, itisimpossibleto badsurrogate ofpastclimateis avery thepresentUnfortunately climate normal to pastclimates.then applythisnormal period, and the instrumentalobservation paleoclimatologists for calculate anormal analysis. To overcome thisobstaclesome as suchisoutofscopetheEOF- climaticnormal. Any normala certain of anomaliescalculated withrespectto 1) EOFs isatool variations to depict following reasons: instrumental temperature records bythe on spatialEOFscalculated onthebaseof Finally, itisamisuseto expandproxy records creationthe pseudo-proxy isfalse. records.pseudo-proxy Suchtechnique of towhite create noiseseries low-resolution withother firstly smoothedmodeledseries series, andusedsimilarsummationsof temperature withwhite noise timeseries records bysimplesummationsofmodeled pseudo-proxy have created tree-ring-like RECONSTRUCTION IN THE PALEOCLIMATIC FIELD EMPIRICAL ORTHOGONAL FUNCTIONS A PROBLEM OF THE USE OF 7
reconstruction
are notessentialfor any reconstruction. An fields. fractal Buttheseeigen functions like corresponding smallereigenvalueslook ofrealfunctions temperature anomalies the Fourier course, theeigen expansion.Of to in beananalogofthefirstconstantterm sign over theentire area seems ofinterest. It 1971]. The firstEOFusuallyisofthesame traditional Fourier expansion [Sonechkin, inthe Cos- andSin-series two-dimensional the like functions family oftrigonometric larger eigenvalueslookto besimilarto a corresponding shapes oftheireigenfunctions or lesshomogeneous. thisreason By the Real temperature anomalieslookto bemore procedure mustbeimproved. still wishto applyEOFsthereconstruction we inthereconstructionproblem. If illusory sum,allbenefitsoftheEOFsuseare In calculating. ofsamplingand first EOFsisanartefact byafewof thetemperature fieldvariability and soany apparently fruitfulapproximation any calculated setofEOFsisrandomlyrotated, means unsolvable. It ill-posed andpractically that theeigenproblem for is suchamatrix etal., 1983] [Datsenko zero. iswell known It elements outofthemaindiagonalare near i.e.to beasparsematrix, almostallofits Therefore, out turns any matrix covariation etal., [Datsenko 2001]. as 1000–2000km relax to almostzero over distancesassmall temperatures real of covariations 3) Spatial data. EOF-analysis canbeappliedto theseproxy into stationpointsbefore(extrapolated) any ofraw proxy datamustbeinterpolated kind data netistemporally nonstationary. Thus, any are alsodifferent, andmoreover, theproxy differ from stationlocations. Their numbers locations. As arule, locationsofproxy data to thepresent-day meteorological station pairs ofgeographic pointscorresponding temperaturesbetween infinite numberof covariations depicts data. Suchamatrix can beestimated onthebaseofinstrumental function) (instead ofacontinuouscovariation 2) ofafinite order matrix A covariation 003.08.2011 14:38:13 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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8 tions of the near surface air temperature at 55 stations of the North Atlantic–Europe –North Asia area area Asia –North Atlantic–Europe North the of 55stations at temperature air surface near the of tions Fig. 3. 1–10: EOFs of the monthly mean temperatures calculated on the base of instrumental observa- Sin- are evident. The shapes of consequent EOFs look to be more and more dissimilar to the trigono- during the XX century. A similarity of several first EOFs with a family of two-dimensional Cos- and and Cos- two-dimensional of afamily with EOFs first several of Asimilarity century. XX the during metric functions 003.08.2011 14:38:13 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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6. Crowley, T.J., T. wasthe Medieval (2000)Howwarm Lowery Warm Period. Ambio, 29, 5. K.R., Briffa, T.J. F.H. Osborn, Schweingruber, P.D. Jones, S.G.Shiyatov, E.A. Vaganov (2002) 4. K.R., Briffa, T.J. Schweingruber, Osborn, P.D. I.C.Harris, Jones, S.G.Shiyatov, E.A. Vaganov 3. Schweingruber, K.R., Briffa, P.D. Jones, T.J. S.G.Shiyatov, Osborn, E.A. Vaganov (1998) 2. of productivity (1992)Increasing K.R. Briffa, “naturalgrowth” conifers inEurope over the 1. Biondi, F., F. Qeadan, standardization: approach to tree-ring (2008)Atheory-driven coefficients. ofthislatter procedure Instead the raw proxy datato thetrigonometric least-square procedure canbeusedto invert step ofreconstructingbecausearoutine oftheproxy datanetsatthis nonstationarity patterns. There isno problem withtemporal second guessreconstructionofpastclimate memberscanbeusedforSome next the guess reconstructionofpastclimate normals. members) canbeusedto obtainthefirst or, itmay be, afew numberofthefirst (most spatiallysmoothmemberofthisbasis basis.family constitutes afunction The first isbecausethetrigonometric day normal. It independentlyfromnormals any present- to estimateof apossibility pastclimatic expansionuseconsiststrigonometric consequenceofthe The mostimportant shown inFig. 3. is 2005])illustrating thesefacts Sonechkin, Asia area (from and [Monin Europe–North Atlantic– mean temperatures oftheNorth example ofthe1–10EOFsfor themonthly REFERENCES 9 51–54. regional climate signals. Holocene, 12,737–757. Hemisphere: Part1, localand dataaround theNorthern widthanddensity Three-ring J. Geophys. Res., 106,No. D3,2929–2941. network. (2001) Low-frequency tree density ring temperature from variations anorthern Nature, 391,678–682. ofrecentReduced sensitivity tree growth latitudes. to temperature at highnorthern Lund, 64–71. last century. In: andenvironment”,“tree rings Bartholin, T.S., etal. (eds.). LUNDQUA rep. 34, No. 2,81–96. defining thebiological trend from basalarea expected increment. Tree-ring Research, 64, Project (GrantNo. 29082762for Yang). the ChineseAcademy ofSciences100 Talents and 38) and40811120028for Sonechkin), Scientists (GrantsNo.International 2009S1- of Sciences Visiting Professorship for Senior (No. 2010CB950104),theChineseAcademy Research Program ofChina(973Program) bytheNationalBasic This studyissupported past climate patterns. can becalculated andusedto reconstruct (PC) advance. OnlythentheEOF-coefficients into considerationcanbelimitedtaken in coefficients the numberoftrigonometric the eigenproblem for because thismatrix computationof ofthenumerical solubility There isnoproblem withtheill-posed and secondlyto calculate EOFsofthismatrix. reconstructed pastclimateearlier normals, expansion for theanomalieswithrespectto ofcoefficientsthe trigonometric matrix it ispossiblefirstlyto calculate acovariation ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 003.08.2011 14:38:14 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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1 0 20. Wang, S.W., J.L. Ye, M.Bi(1996)Globaltemperature changeinthelastmillennium.In: 19. Visser, H.(1995)Note ontherelationwidthand basalarea ring between increments. 18. S 17. A.S.D.M. data. Monin, (2005)Oscillationsofclimate according to Sonechkin observation Moberg, Holmgren, A.,D.M. N.M.Datsenko, K. 16. Sonechkin, variable W. (2005)Highly Karlen M.E.,S.Rutherford, E. Mann, Wahl,15. C.Ammann(2005) Testing ofmethodsused thefidelity 14. hemisphere temperatures M.E.,R.S.Bradley, during Mann, Hughes(1999)Northern M.K. 13. M.E.,R.S. Bradley,Mann, Hughes (1998)Global-scaletemperature and patterns M.K. 12. Jones, P.D., Briffa, K.R. T.P. S.F.B. Barnett, Tett palaeoclimaticrecords (1998)High-resolution 11. Esper, J., F. E.R.Cook, Schweingruber (2002)Low signals frequency inlongtree-ring 10. Datsenko, N.M.,M.V. ofmultidecadaland Shabalova,D.M. (2001)Seasonality Sonechkin 9. Datsenko, N.M., V.I. Perfilov, D.M.for (1983)Method calculatingthenatural Sonechkin 8. Datsenko, N.M.(2005)Features reproduction climaticvariation by oflarge-scale 7. E.R.,J.Cook, Esper, R.D. D’Arrigo Hemisphere land Northern (2004)Extra-tropical 137–147 (inChinese). Compiles Council of Task 02ofProject 85-913,Beijing:ChinaMeteorological Press, simulation”,“Symposium onclimate change andnumerical Vol. 3,Edited by Thesis Forest Science, 41,No. 2,297–304. meteorological fields. Meteorologiya IGidrologiya, No. 3,22–29(inRussian). Publ., M.:Nauka Sun-inducedandothercycles. 191p.Thriple data. Nature, 433,613–617. Hemisphere temperatures reconstructedNorthern from low-andhigh-resolution proxy in proxy-based reconstructionsofpastclimate. J. Climate. 18,4097–4107. 759–762. the pastmillennium:inferences, andlimitations. Geophys. uncertainties, Res. Lett., 26, climate forcing over thepastsixcenturies. Nature, 392,779–787. model control-run temperatures. The Holocene, 8,455–471. for thelastmillennium:interpretation, integration withgeneralcirculation andcomparison chronologies for reconstructing pasttemperature variability. Science, 295,2250–2253. 106, No. D12,12449–12461. inEuropean temperatures:centennial variability The wavelet approach. J. Geophys. Res., 348–356 (inRussian). Physics, andOceanic Atmospheric 4, components ofmeteorological fields. Izvestyja, geographical, RAS,series 4,27–34–inRussian. dendrochronologies. Izvestyja 2074. ScienceReview, overtemperature 23,2063– thepast1000years. variability Quarternary onechkin, D.M. (1971) On estimation of empirical orthogonal constituentsof D.M. onechkin, orthogonal (1971)Onestimationofempirical 003.08.2011 14:38:14 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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1 1 universities andBeijingNanjingmeteorological institutes inChina. State University,at theKiew andonclimate dynamicsattheBeijingandLanjoustate many State during years. University Moscow Hedelivered onsatellite lectures meteorology he wasalectureronsatellite meteorology andlong-rangeweather forecasting atthe is theauthorofmore than2000publications, amongthem4monographs. As aprofessor institutes. academic conferences, andisinvited to give lectures atseveral universities keynote and Research journals,international suchas and Quaternary Science Reviews Science Quaternary M.Sonechkin Dmitry Database) articles. Some of these articles are publishedin Someofthesearticles Database) articles. analysis ofmeteorological fieldsandsatellite meteorology. He paleoclimatology, reconstructionofpastclimates, objective as well aslong-rangeweather forecasting, climate change, his research isinthearea andclimate dynamics, ofatmospheric present heisaleadingscientistoftheLaboratory. The focus of Hydrometeorological Research Center At ofRussia(Moscow). of Laboratory 2005 heheadedtheDynamical-Stochastical (Hydrometeorological Research 1974– Center ofRussia).In degree in1991.Since1993heisaFull Professor inGeophysics Geography in1959.Hereceived PhD degree in1966andD.Sc. Index) and30ChineseCSCD(ChineseScienceCitation Index) 10EI(Engineering including 40SCI(ScienceCitationIndex), therecentpapers asthefirstauthororcoauthorduring years, investigations. Hehaspublishedmore than70peer-reviewed dendrochronology ofthe Tibetan Plateau, glacialanddesert inmanyorganized fieldinvestigations, andtook part including fields are paleoclimatology anddendroclimatology. He ofChina,andhisspecial andclimate history climatic variability Chinese Academy specialinterests ofSciences. His are the Regions Environmental andEngineering Research Institute, Bao Yang Geophysical Research Letters, Journal of Geophysical , aresearch professor, attheCold works andArid . He also has made contributions to booksand . Healsohasmadecontributions graduated from theMSUFaculty of 003.08.2011 14:38:14 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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1 2 terrain. à l’époque, ontlargement débroussaillé le etc’estplus rien, dommage:cesont euxqui, Haushofer nenousdisent ouAlexanderRado riche. Lesaussi fort Neurath,Karl nomsd’Otto production danslesannées1920et1930fut trentaine d’annéesnousafaitoublierquela la profusionMais decesatlasdepuisune leur propre visiondumonde. del’organisationintellectuelle delaplanète, leurpropre etsurtout approcheleur style collections, ellesontchacuneleuridentité, proposées enouvragesuniquesou les publicationsfoisonnent. Qu’elles soient années, leséditeurs européens et rivalisent depuis. Au contraire, depuisquelques géostratégiques nes’est jamaiséteinte des atlasthématiques, géopolitiquesou Lancée danslesannées1980,lamode geographical publications phenomenon. origins andfeaturesdescribes ofthis ever-greater publicattention. The paper a real fashionofsmallatlasesattracting an emerging publishingnicheandcreated authors andpublishersrushedto occupy ofatlases,of newtypes many French to readerReacting interest inpublications e-mail: [email protected]: ProspektMoscow 117418,Nakhimovsky 51/21,tel +74991288801, Professor, Director oftheFrench-Russia research center inMoscow, INION, Jean Radvanyi INTRODUCTION KEY WORDS: ABSTRACT OF FRENCH PUBLISHERS ATLASES – THE NEW FASCINATION DE L’ÉDITION FRANÇAISE LES ATLAS, UN NOUVEL ENGOUEMENT atlas, geopolitics, history of atlas, geopolitics, history aux navigateurs etauxgouvernants, qui desterres etdesmers,de cartes permettant Longtemps, lesatlasfurent d’abord des recueils la géopolitique. d’ouvrages etdedébatssurlagéographie et point derencontre annueldesamateurs Festival degéographie, international leFIG, prétexte àlacréation duremarquable le mot “Amérique” (C’est de cequiaservi d’avoir lapremière oùfigure imprimé carte ville deSaint-Dié des Vosges s’enorgueillit qui inventèrent lesatlas, mêmesilapetite Ce nesontbiensûrniAutrement nilaFrance réchauffement climatiqueoulesmigrations. jusqu’aux thèmesàlamodecommele régionsles principales etpays duglobe couvrent unemultitudedesujets, depuis guerres etAtlasdesmégalopoles)qui (Monde, Mémoire,collections Atlasdes innovant. Aujourd’hui, ildéclinequatre les ventes decetéditeur indépendantet pourbeaucoupàrelancer1996, contribua d’atlas(Atlas créée Monde), collection en Autrement, donneletournis. Sapremière éditeur françaisd’atlas,principal leséditions de Moscou, des LeVikings... cataloguedu guerres napoléoniennes, delaguerre froide, langues, desmafias, delasexualité, des mondial, enEurope,minorités des dusport des fracturessocialesenFrance, des Atlas mondialdesvins, delagastronomie, UNE FAMILLE EN CROISSANCE 003.08.2011 14:38:15 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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française, inspirée incontestablement parles comme lanouvelle écoledegéopolitique dans lecadre decequ’on peut désigner d’autres impulsentunrenouveau dugenre traduire lespremiers atlasanglo-saxons, d’Autrement)de lasérie secontentent de (c’est lecaspour lespremiers ouvrages éditeurs plus ennombreux. Sicertains inférieur auA4)quiattirent unpublicde limite levolume, dansunformat àl’italienne pages réduit de laquadrichromie –leprix présentent souvent avec unnombre de aux grands atlastraditionnels, ceslivres se de cesoutilspetitformat (contrairement créant bientôt unevéritablemodeautour français selancentsurcecréneau éditorial, nouveau,type plusieursauteurs etéditeurs Saisissant vite l’intérêt decesouvrages d’un Heinemann àLondres en1983. Atlas, Ronald SegalchezPan Books, puisle Atlas lefameux particulier atlas” naissentenGrande-Bretagne, avec en les premiers exemples deces “nouveaux publié àLeipzig en1930[Neurath,1930], les symbolesetsonremarquable ouvrage précurseur delareprésentation spatialepar l’œuvre magistrale Neurath,grand d’Otto monde. Prolongeant, sanslaconnaître, du liésàl’actualité des sujetsparticuliers lesgraphiques(y compris etschémas), de sesdivers modesdereprésentation et par letruchementdelacartographie leurs activités, maisseproposant d’analyser, deshommesetde terres oularépartition desla simplelocalisation,description différents, mettantl’accentnonplussur avecun tournant, lamultiplicationd’atlas Les années1980marquent cependant l’Europe etdumonde. le XIXe siècle, de laparutiond’atlashistoriques ultérieurement àcelledel’histoire, avec, depuis simple représentation géographique, onpassa nouveaux territoires la etleursrichesses. De souverains leurcontrôle àaffirmer surces furent alorsdesoutilsefficacespouraiderles leurs voyages etleursconquêtes. Ces cartes d’organisercommandaient souvent cescartes, 1 3 , publié en 1981 par Michael Kidron et Kidron , publiéen1981parMichael publié par Kidron etDanSmith chez publiéparKidron The StateoftheWorld War premiers Pumain parus:Denise et Thérèse les française(citons parmi Documentation la maisondeGéographie RECLUS etla duterritoire”,“Dynamiques par parrainée géographes, etdedécideurs, d’urbanistes destinéeàunpublicde collection d’une En 1989paraissentlespremiers ouvrages n’a depuislorscessédecroître. et detélévision régulières). Cette production géopolitiques (etmêmed’émissions deradio la productiond’atlasgéostratégiques ou d’autres grilles delecture, et,defait,dynamise recomposition,en permanente nécessite et complexe, danslequellesalliances sont succède unpaysage géopolitiquemultiforme fin, en1989,dumondebipolaire, auquel del’èreles derniers delaguerre froide. La Touscoz [Touscoz, 1988].Ces ouvragessont secrets français[Marenches, 1988],etdeJean de Marenches, ancienchefdesservices parution desatlasgéopolitiquesd’Alexandre pays). Suivront de1988,la deprès, àpartir des mouvements nationalistes dedivers lespointsdevue monde entierexprimant du 2008,recueil fascinantde cartes Artaud, Le mondevud’ailleurs, Courrier international, ouvrages (Citons enparticulier la suitelargementdév puissances mondiales, thèmequiserapar espace géopolitiquepardifférents pays ou déjà lanotiondeperception deleurpropre qui constituel’essentiel del’ouvrage, introduit d’être terminée. L’étude descasrégionaux, la décolonisationetguerre froide alorsloin dusecondconflitmondial,siècle, l’héritage duXXe historique insistant surlecontexte (aires, religions, en puissancesimpériales) les grandes donnéesculturelles ethistoriques Mackinder, introduisant parlacartographie des pionniersdelagéopolitique, et Ratzel mais l’ouvrage estsolide, rappelantl’apport grands aplatscolorés sontassezsimples en 1983].Les[Chaliand etRageau, cartes avec Jean-Pierre chezFayard Rageau géostratégique queGérard Chaliandpublie Le estl’Atlas premier ouvragedecetype Hérodote. aux éditionsFrançois Maspero, delarevue Lacoste,travaux d’Yves lefondateur en1976, eloppé dansd’ L’Atlas desatlas. autres 003.08.2011 14:38:15 3
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1 4 l’Atlas duMondediplomatique libérale” (in Qualifié de “bréviaire contre lamondialisation n’emportent pastoujours l’adhésion. souvent simplistescartes, et peuinformatives, Victor, estunvifsuccèsdelibrairie, mêmesiles responsable dela série Jean-Christophe TV, cartes animées.avec descartes brûlanted’actualité sous uneforme attractive derendreminutes) permet sujet compte d’un très populaire. (7puis11 Le format court de télévision “Le dessousdescartes”, quidevient del’émission Arte) la chaînefranco-allemande lancement en1990(d’abord surLaSept,puis aura desprolongements inattendus avec le Guellec1999]. L’engouement pourlegenre appréciable 1999; despointsdevue[Le Robert toujours unrenouvellement analyses apporte et pionniers, sansquelaqualité descartes de bénéficieràleurtour dusuccèsdeces nombreuxDe auteurs etéditeurs tentèrent guerre froide [Sellier, 1993–1995]. de régions transformées parlafinde un large public intéressé parlesconvulsions très par lance cequidevientunesérie prisée culturelle. Le succèsdecepremier ouvrage grandecorrespondants auseind’une aire l’identité peuplesetdesEtats desprincipaux laformation aucoursdessièclesde cartes, historiques, avec l’appuidenombreuses est demontrer, pardesdéveloppements des peuplesd’Europe centrale. l’ publient, auxéditionsLaDécouverte, En 1991,lesfrères André etJeanSellier dans sonenvironnement mondial. etd’influenced’insertion européenne del’Union présentant unensemblecompletdesmodes l’Europe danslemonde [Brunet etal. 1995]ouleremarquable point surl’ex-URSS juste après sonéclatement Russie etdespaysproches, s’enrichir denombreux titres dont multiforme etexigeante, va cette collection documentée, baséesurunecartographie Milelli, Paris, Paris, Saint-Julien, , publiéchez Taillandier en 2005parle Nord-Pas-de-Calais Ile-de-France, unnouveau territoire Atlas desvillesdeFrance Le Monde [Didelon et al., 2009] [Didelonetal., 2009] et A-M. Lakota et C. etC. etA-M.Lakota une excellente mise au une excellente miseau , 24janvier 2003), L’Atlas des duDessous Le principe , puis Didier , puisDidier l’Atlas dela [Monde Atlas de Atlasde . Très Atlas Laffont sortent un Laffont sortent Atlas desmondalisations houlette dugéographe Grataloup, Christian Vie-Le Monde une leur premier ouvrage, publientchezArthaud Chaliand etJean-Pierre trente Rageau, ansaprès éditeurs selivraientàunecourseeffrénée: Gérard nouveautés d’atlasgéopolitiques, commesiles L’année en riche 2010aété particulièrement chapitre sur “La Russiedanslamondialisation”. Science Po, 2010]comprend unintéressant du jeu, etc. Lacinquièmeédition[Presses de transfrontaliers,acteurs lesnouvelles règles globaux quesontlesterritoires contestés, les mondial” ens’intéressant auxprocessus la compréhension del’espace contemporain Placidi-Frot) présente différentes “clefs pour Patrice Mitrano, Delphine Benoit Martin, Durand, (Marie-Françoise Philippe Copinschi, mondialisation précises. Proche, parsonesprit, à trois échellesdifférentes, deplusen à lire enmêmetemps) deprocessus complexes même page, commetrois couches dedessins à desreprésentations simultanées(surune parlerecours systématique cartographique travail, cette double parutioninnove surleplan présentée deplusieursdizainesd’années [Lacoste 2006,2009].Outre lasynthèseainsi qui complète sontraité degéopolitique chez Larousse, en2007,un géopolitique enFrance, Yves Lacoste, publie Le père durenouveau spirituel dela 2009]. 12[Kassel, et àlaDokumenta dansplusieursmuséeseuropéens artistiques format, ellessontexposéescommeobjets connaissent undestininattendu: engrand inachevé lemondeenpleinetransformation, de couleurs, représentant parleuraspect réaliséescartographiques, auxcrayons écologiques, stratégiques. Les esquisses cours, économiques, démographiques, lesprocessus quidéterminent facteurs en ses conflitsenanalysantl’ensemble des compte del’évolution dumondeetde diplomatique, 2003]tente derendre dirigée par dirigée Virginie enfinleremarquable Raisson; réalisé paruneéquipe prospectif etincertain, Géopolitique desEmpires s’associent pourpublier, sousla édité parl’équipe deSciencesPo Atlas desfutursdumonde ; Les éditions Robert ; Les éditionsRobert Atlas degéopolitique ; Les journaux l’Atlas dela 003.08.2011 14:38:15 plus plus 3 . 0 un un La La 8 . 2 0
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cartographie. Pourcartographie. neciter quelesprincipaux... monde bataille descartes, analysecritiquedesvisionsdu Foucher,ouvrage dugéographe Michel LES PRÉCURSEURS 1 5 Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft, Leipzig, 1930 Leipzig, Wirtschaft, und Gesellschaft Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft, Leipzig, 1930 Leipzig, Wirtschaft, und Gesellschaft Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft, Leipzig, 1930 Leipzig, Wirtschaft, und Gesellschaft , livre une passionnante réflexion sur la , livre unepassionnante réflexion surla Otto Neurath Otto Neurath Otto Neurath La La Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft, Leipzig, 1930 Leipzig, Wirtschaft, und Gesellschaft Gesellschaft und Wirtschaft, Leipzig, 1930 Leipzig, Wirtschaft, und Gesellschaft 1930 Leipzig, Wirtschaft, und Gesellschaft Otto Neurath Otto Neurath Otto Neurath 003.08.2011 14:38:15 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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1 6 Verlag, Heidelberg et Berlin. Avec Berlin. Verlag, et nos remerciements Heidelberg à Tjebbe van Tijenet et à son musée de l’imaginaire de musée àson et van Tijenet à Tjebbe Geopolitik des Pazifischen Ozeans, Kurt Vowinckel Kurt Ozeans, Pazifischen des Geopolitik Karl Haushofer Crédits internationaux, 1936 internationaux, Crédits (source inconnue), DR Otto Neurath Verlag, Heidelberg et Berlin. Avec Berlin. Verlag, et nos remerciements Heidelberg Avec Berlin. Verlag, et nosremerciements Heidelberg à Tjebbe van Tijenet et à son musée de l’imaginaire de musée àson et van Tijenet à Tjebbe l’imaginaire de musée àson et van Tijenet à Tjebbe Geopolitik des Pazifischen Ozeans, Kurt Vowinckel Kurt Ozeans, Pazifischen des Geopolitik Vowinckel Kurt Ozeans, Pazifischen des Geopolitik Karl Haushofer Karl Haushofer 003.08.2011 14:38:16 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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cette modeanglo-saxonne, quiatrouvé les plusréussis ontsuscitées. Peu àpeu, étrangèrestraductions que lesouvrages comme entémoignent lesnombreuses etgéopolitique, le domainecartographique a sus’enrichir dans solideexpérience d’une Ainsi, enquelquesannées, l’édition française CONCLUSION 1 Imperialismus”, Verlag Literatur Vienne fur undPolitik, 7 Verlag, Heidelberg et Berlin. Avec Berlin. Verlag, et nosremerciements Heidelberg et Berlin, 1930. Berlin, et van Avec àTjebbe nosremerciements Atlas fur Politik Wirtschaft Arbeiterbewegung; “I. Der Der “I. Arbeiterbewegung; PolitikAtlas Wirtschaft fur à Tjebbe van Tijenet et à son musée de l’imaginaire de musée àson et van Tijenet à Tjebbe Geopolitik des Pazifischen Ozeans, Kurt Vowinckel Kurt Ozeans, Pazifischen des Geopolitik Tijenet et à son musée de l’imaginaire de musée àson et Tijenet Alexander Rado Alexander Rado esthétiques. idéologiques et planète etsespartis-pris la représentation géopolitique denotre qu’estsur ungenre bien particulier devenu à étudesuniversitaires etcommentaires dans d’autres pays. yaurabientôt làmatière Il enFrance, etintellectuel éditorial serépand véritablement unépanouissementàlafois Imperialismus”, Verlag Literatur Vienne fur undPolitik, Verlag, Heidelberg et Berlin. Avec Berlin. Verlag, et nosremerciements Heidelberg et Berlin, 1930. Berlin, et van Avec àTjebbe nosremerciements Atlas fur Politik Wirtschaft Arbeiterbewegung; “I. Der Der “I. Arbeiterbewegung; PolitikAtlas Wirtschaft fur à Tjebbe van Tijenet et à son musée de l’imaginaire de musée àson et van Tijenet à Tjebbe Geopolitik des Pazifischen Ozeans, Kurt Vowinckel Kurt Ozeans, Pazifischen des Geopolitik Tijenet et à son musée de l’imaginaire de musée àson et Tijenet Alexander Rado Alexander Rado 003.08.2011 14:38:18 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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1 8 15. Touscoz15. Jean (1988)Atlasgéostratégique, Paris, Larousse. Sellier André etJean(1995)Atlasdespeuplesd’Europe occidentale, LaDécouverte. 14. (couvrantleMoyen- Sellier André etJean(1993)Atlas despeuplesd’Orient, LaDécouverte 13. Alexander(1930) Rado 12. Neurath, Otto, seehttp://www.stroom.nl/webdossiers/webdossier.php?wd_id=261574511. diplomatique(2003,2006puis2009)L’atlasMonde 10. dumondediplomatique, Paris. L’atlas 9.Marenches Alexandre de(1988)Atlasgéopolitique, Stock. (1999)Atlasgéopolitiqueetculturel,Le des complémentaudictionnaire Le Robert Robert 8. Lacoste 7. Yves (2006,2009)Géopolitique, lalonguehistoire d’aujourd’hui, Larousse. Guellec Jean(1999)Atlasdel’espace 6. mondial, Ellipse. 5. Foucher desvisionsdumonde, analysecritique (2010) Labatailledescartes, Michel 4. Didelon Clarisse, GraslandClaude, Richard Yann (2009)Atlasdel’Europe danslemonde. Jean-PierreChaliand Gérard etRageau (1983)Atlasstratégique. Géopolitiquedesrapports 3. Brunet Roger, etKolossov Denis française,Vladimir (1995)LaDocumentation Paris. 2. Eckert Autrement, http://www.autrement.com/rubriques.php?main_menu=64&ed=1 éditeur: 1. REFERENCES Orient, le Caucaseetl’AsieOrient, centrale). Verlag furLiteratur undPolitik, Vienne etBerlin. Achcar. etGilbert Samary Catherine Radvanyi, regroupeéditoriale –autour d’Alain etDominique Gresh, Philippe Rekacewicz Vidal –Jean sera repris enversion complètement renouvelée Colin, 2009.L’équipe chezArmand noms propres, EditionsLe Robert. François Paris. Bourin française,La Documentation Paris. de forces danslemonde, Fayard, Paris.
Atlas furPolitik Arbeiterbewegung; Wirtschaft Imperialismus”,“I. Der Professor 2007); Les EtatsPost-Soviétiques (3rd ed. Colin, 2011). Armand and ofseveral books: Lanouvelle Russie(2 diplomatique, Colin,2010; AtlasduMonde Paris Armand 2009, du Caucase(withN.Beroutchashvili), Ed. Autrement, Paris, ofseveralMoscow. atlases:Atlas Heistheauthororco-editor currently Director oftheFrench-Russia research center in for LanguagesandCivilizationinParis,Institute Oriental heis on Russian,Post-Soviet andCaucasian studies. Professor atthe Jean Radvanyi isaFrench geographer specializing nd ed. Colin, Armand 003.08.2011 14:38:20 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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* Corresponding author [email protected]: Moscow, gory, Russia; Leninskie 1,1199911, Tel. +74959392337, effective radiusof at dominating thefinemodeaerosol particles was shownto have a program. Volume aerosol size distribution AERONET ofinternational framework State withinthe University of Moscow 2010) attheMeteorological Observatory to the10years ofmeasurements (2001– ofaerosol wereproperties analyzed according Different microphysical, opticalandradiative 2 Natalia Ye.Chubarova 1 variation towardsvariation large aerosol content. decreasewas obtainedwithadistinct of concentration ofdifferent aerosol fractions volume between aerosolThe interaction conditions itissignificantly higher(SSA=0.95). decrease withwavelength whileinforest fires byadistinct at 675nmandischaracterized albedo(SSA)isabout0.9 single scattering these changes. For conditionsaerosol typical CAMS_OPI climatology showsthenature of withtheNOAA_NCEP_CPC_characteristics minimum inJune. The jointanalysisofaerosol increase towards withalocal period warm seasonal changesare bythe characterized = 1.49,REFI0.006for aerosol. smoke AOT REFI = refractive indexare byREFR=1.45, characterized of parts Realandimaginary (AOT). thickness 0.25 μmatextr conditions ABSTRACT 1 UNIVERSITY OBSERVATORY OF MOSCOW STATE ATMETEOROLOGICAL THE OF MEASUREMENTS AERONET ACCORDING TO10 YEARS AEROSOL PROPERTIES IN MOSCOW 9 NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, code 614.4,Greenbelt, MD20771,USA Senior scientist,FacultySenior ofGeography, M.V.Lomonosov Moscow State University, 0.01 respectively, changing to REFR= r eff-fine wasshownto increase to emely large aerosol optical emely large aerosol optical r eff-fine bimodal character with with bimodal character = 0.15 μm. In smoke smoke In =0.15μm. 1* , Alexander Smirnov optical thickness, single scattering albedo, singlescattering optical thickness, –refractiveaerosol index, aerosol properties anddifferentfunction, opticalandradiative effectivedistribution, radii,aerosol phase other inversion productsincludingsize aswell asmanyof aerosol opticalthickness data for dependence evaluatingaspectral near-infrared region spectral provide the photometer throughCIMEL sun/sky UVto measurementsAccurate by multi-channel continuous measurements allover theworld. of 1990swithmore than200sites with has beeninoperationsincethemiddle gsfc.nasa.gov/) [Holbenetal., 1998],which (http://aeronet. –AERONET Robotic Network ground-based istheAerosol aerosol networks even insign. Oneofthemostwidespread which cancausedifferent climate impact optical andradiative aerosol properties not enoughinformation onmicrophysical, whole climate system. However, stillthere is balance oftheatmosphere andhencethe influencingnetradiative factors important aerosolsAtmospheric are oneofthe aerosol pollution radiative aerosol, aerosol smoke properties, AERONET, microphysical, opticaland INTRODUCTION KEY WORDS: 2 , Brent N.Holben
aerosol climatology, Moscow, 2 003.08.2011 14:38:21 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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2 0 instrument attheroof oftheMeteorological Fig.1 presents apicture oftheCIMEL thesevereduring fire events. ofaerosoland someaspects characteristics main aerosol parameters, itsclimatology thispaperwe features analyzeIn typical of of different inMoscow. aerosol properties provides anexcellent datasetfor theanalysis 10-year ofcontinuousmeasurements period according to standards. theinternational The operation withtheinstrumentscalibrated haveof aerosol characteristics beenin measurementsregular spectral highquality program in2001,andsincethattime (MSUMO)joinedtheAERONET University State ofMoscow Meteorological Observatory 2000]. factor,asymmetry etc. [Dubovikand King, OF THE DATAOF THE ANDMETHOD THE DESCRIPTION Fig. 1. The Cimel sun/sky photometer at the roof of the Meteorological Observatory Observatory Meteorological the of roof the at photometer sun/sky 1. Cimel The Fig. of Moscow State University 1.2 plane are madewiththehelpofsecond the solaralmucantarandatprincipal daytime [Holben etal., 1998].Measurements in 15minutes during 870, 940and1020nmevery of viewcollimator at340,380,440,500,675, Sun measurements are madewith1.2 State University. ofMoscow Direct Observatory the slopeoflinearregression of wavelength exponent(α)iscomputed as W, andAngstrom exponent. The Angstrom is usedto estimate thetotal water content except thatfor 940nmchannel, which (AOT) used to compute aerosol opticalthickness daytime. SunmeasurementsThe direct are hourduring 440, 670,870and1020nmevery visible range and 0.02 in UV spectral range (Eck range(Eck visible rangeand0.02inUVspectral AOT measurements doesnotexceed 0.01in of or coarsemodeparticles. The uncertainty andtherelativedistribution dominanceoffine for qualifyingthemain features ofaerosol size wavelengths. characteristic This isanimportant versus ° fullfieldofviewcollimator infour channels: lnλ using the 440, 500, 675, and 870 nm usingthe440,500,675,and870nm ° full field fullfield lnAOT 003.08.2011 14:38:21 3 . 0 8 . 2 λ 0
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of 0.05 volume size inthesize distribution range estimated (i.e., aerosol refractive index, columncanbein thetotal atmospheric optical andradiative aerosol properties model. As aresult, different microphysical, 870 and1020nm)to aradiative transfer radiances –atfour wavelengths (440,670, ofsky radiance andtheangulardistribution entire measured fieldofradiances–sun improved aerosol retrievals byfittingthe [2000]. M. King providesThis algorithm developed byO.algorithm Dubovikand measurements are usedinaninversion Both direct anddiffuseAERONET ofmeasurementsquality intheworld. et al., 1999),whichiscurrently thebestachieved dataset. filters from theMSUMOcloud additional cloud-screening measurements withthe for processing theAERONET hasbeendeveloped software procedure. As aresult, aspecial the standard cloudscreening exclude automatically using hardclouds, to whichare very avoiding thinuniform cirrus of theaerosol climatology by improve significantly thequality This additionalfilter allowsusto Chubarova, andSmirnov, 2005]. been developed [Uliumdzhieva, basedonclouddatahas additional criteria on possiblecloudcontamination.Some MO provide additionalusefulinformation attheMSU hour visualcloudobservations data are assigned to thefinallevel 2.0.One calibration andsomeadditionalchecksthe assigned to thelevel thesecond 1.5.After pass theprocedure ofcloudscreening, are et al., 2000]. The data,whichsuccessfully screening hasbeendeveloped [Smirnov operated, aspecialsystem ofcloud- level 1.Sincetheinstrumentisautomatically time measurements are assigned to the data correspond to different levels. Allreal- theAERONET ontheirquality Depending effective radius, etc). 2 1 m
r
m 15μm,volume concentration, Fig. 2. Mean aerosol volume size distribution in different sea- statistically significant increase in concentration statistically significant increase inconcentration RAS inbackground conditionshasrevealed a Physics ofAtmospheric Institute the Obukhov and attheZvenigorod ScientificStationof of parallelmeasurements attheMSUMO [Dubovik etal., 2002].Ourdetailed analysis some additionalincrease incoarsemode by whichischaracterized type, of urban continental aerosol withsomefeatures for istypical note the thatthisdistribution concentration inallseasons. We should prevalence offineaerosol mode volume aerosol mode. However, there isadistinct can seemore pronounced increase incoarse one 0.15μm inotherseasons. spring During higher values( tomaximum offinemodeisshifted the both for fineandcoarse modesandthe dV mean volume aerosol size distribution ofaerosol.characteristics Fig. 2showsthe microphysicalmany andoptical important 2000]providesand King, theretrievals of inversion [Dubovik algorithm The AERONET characteristics inMoscow Microphysical andoptical aerosol of both fine( of m size 0.05μm the year intherangeofparticle in winter is in otherseasons. of The distribution the volume size differs distribution from that > 0.7μm)aerosol modes. However, inwinter RESULTS ( r r
sons. Moscow 2001–2010 )/ m d 15μm.Onecanseethepresence ln r (μm characterized by characterized r 3 <0.7μm)andcoarse( r /μm = 0.25μm) 2 ) for different seasonsof compared with lowervalues dV ( r )/ d r ln > m 003.08.2011 14:38:21 3 r
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Table 1. Diff erent microphysical and optical aerosol characteristics from AERONET data
Volume Volume Volume Real part of Imaginary part Single Eff ective Eff ective Factor of Concentration Concentration Concentration refractive of refractive scattering Statistics radius, μm radius, μm asymmetry, g (μm3/μm2) (μm3/μm2) (μm3/μm2) index, REFR index, REFI albedo, SSA r -fi ne r -coarse (675 nm) eff eff VolCon-total VolCon-fi ne VolCon-coarse (675 nm) (675 nm) (675 nm)
Average 0.15 2.34 0.07 0.04 0.03 1.45 0.01 0.90 0.62
Median 0.14 2.37 0.06 0.03 0.03 1.45 0.01 0.90 0.62
Max 0.27 3.74 0.47 0.38 0.24 1.59 0.04 0.98 0.75
Min 0.09 1.07 0.009 0.003 0.001 1.33 0.00 0.72 0.51
Sigma 0.02 0.41 0.05 0.04 0.02 0.06 0.007 0.05 0.04
Case number 1699 1699 1699 1699 1699 292 292 292 1699
Confi dence level 0.001 0.019 0.003 0.002 0.001 0.007 0.001 0.006 0.002 at 95%
Notes: 1. Eff ective radius and volume concentration are calculated as follows r rmax max rmax 3 2 reff = ∫ (r dN(r)/d lnr) d lnr/ ∫ (r dN(r)/d lnr)d lnr ; VolCon = ∫ (dV(r)/d lnr) d lnr ; r rmin min rmin r – radius, N(r) – aerosol number density, V(r) – volume aerosol concentration.
2. We should note that due to the increase in cloudy overcast situations and relatively small AOT it is almost impossible to retrieve refractive index and single scattering albedo during winter period. As a result, the obtained aerosol characteristics described above mainly characterize spring-summer-fall conditions (more than 92% of cases). 003.08.2011 14:38:22
3 3. The statistics on SSA and refractive index is less due to the necessity of additional restriction on the AOT440 >0.4 in the retrieval algorithm. . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
1 4 : 3 8 : 2 2 ggi111.indd 23 i 1 1 1 . i n d d
of about0.005–0.008μm of thecoarseaerosol modeover Moscow 0.009 to 0.47μm withinalarge andvaries rangefrom asymmetry aerosol positive concentrationalsohasadistinct withaclearpositive type ofeffectivedistribution radiihasalognormal for thecoarsemodeparticles. The frequency high,especially standard deviationisvery the prevalence offinem VolCon =0.07μm type of aerosol particles [Duboviketal., 2002]. ofaerosol particles type REFR correspond to thenon-hydroscopic a positive asymmetry. valuesof The typical with byalognormal type better described whilethatoftheREFIis law distribution, oftheREFRbelongsto anormal distribution and REFI=0.01±0.01. The frequency respectivelycomprise REFR=1.45±0.01 refractive index(REFRandREFI,see Table 1) of parts valuesofrealMean andimaginary 57% ofthetotal volume concentration). with mean effective radiusoffinemodeparticle for conditionscorresponds toMoscow the obtained meanvolume aerosol distribution ofrefractive index. part real andimaginary The fine andcoarsemodes, volume concentration, in Moscow, whichinclude effective radiifor 10yearsduring ofcontinuousmeasurements microphysical andopticalaerosol parameters Table 1presents thestatistics of main Sviridenkov, Smirnov, andHolben,2011]. particle with particle 2 Fig. 3. Seasonal change of mean ( a 3 r eff-fine = 0.15 μm and to the coarse mode andto thecoarsemode =0.15μm r eff-coarse 3 /μm 3 /μm 2 = 2.34 μm. However, =2.34μm. with the mean value of with themeanvalueof 2 . It is characterized by by is characterized . It ode particles (about ode particles 3 asymmetry. Volume /μm a 2 Moscow for the 2001–2010 the for period Moscow [Chubarova, ) and median ( b ) values of spectral aerosol optical thickness AOT in AOT in thickness optical aerosol spectral of ) values with anincrease ofwavelength. SinceAOT is aerosol coefficient decrease inanextinction [Liou, 1980]provides a theory to theMie relatively according smallaerosol particles previous section). The prevalence ofthe conditions (seeFig. 2anddiscussioninthe inMoscow fine modeaerosol observed smaller wavelengths dueto dominatingthe byanAOTcharacterized increase towards dependenceinAOT spectral There isadistinct according to thewhole2001–2010dataset. atdifferentoptical thickness wavelengths presents theseasonalchangesofaerosol radiative budgetoftheatmosphere. Fig. 3 isalsousedfor estimationofthe column. It the aerosol loadingwithintheatmospheric used aerosol parameter for characterizing isthemostwidely Aerosol opticalthickness Radiative characteristics ofaerosol aerosol Moscow conditions.typical (REFI =0.006± ofrefractive indexhasasmalldecreasepart conditions withforest fires theimaginary [Dubovik etal., 2002]. Atthesametimein other regions aerosol withbiomassburning accordance withtheresults obtainedin values even increase to 1.49,whichare in biomass were accompaniedbyahighamountof forest fire events of2002and2010,which size. thein theaerosol During particle do notsignificantly influencethechange field (for example, inrelative humidity) This meansthatchangesinmeteorological b burning smoke aerosol, smoke burning theREFR 0.0004) compared with 003.08.2011 14:38:22 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
1 23 GEOGRAPHY 4 : 3 8 : 2 2 ggi111.indd 24 i 1 1 1 . i n d d
24 GEOGRAPHY
2 4 in Angstrom exponent(withlower limits than 1.4to more than1.7.Similarincrease increase towards from period less warm ofAngstrom exponent tendency a distinct (median values, seeFig. 3,b). There isalso toDecember higherthan0.25inAugust towards from period lessthan0.1in warm to increasingmonth withatendency AOT pronounced changesinAOT from monthto features. Onecanseetheexistence ofthe vapor content hasrevealed someinteresting AOT, in Angstrom exponent,andinwater Fig. 3andFig. 4withseasonalchangesin WCRP, 1986]. The jointanalysisof Table 2, α exponent significantly differ from thevalue vapor content W. The values oftheAngstrom exponent within440–870nmandinwater Fig. 4showsseasonalchanges inAngstrom retrieveddistribution byinverse method. parameter thanthatfor volume size we have muchmore statisticsonthis obtained onlyviadirectSunmeasurements however, canbe sincethischaracteristics size distribution, for particle characterizing this parameter isusedonlyasafirstproxy much lessthanthewavelength). Note that withradii smallaerosolextremely particles large, mainly,very to 4(for cloudparticles) exponent, whichcanchangefrom zero (for dependence we usetheAngstrom wave order AOT to spectral In characterize geographical regions etal. 2000]. [O’Neill AOT was alsoshowninother distribution more robust. The deviationfrom normal the medianestimates showninFig. 3, for mostofthemonths positive asymmetry with bylognormal distribution characterized Fig. 4. Seasonal change in Angstrom exponent = 1 adopted for continental model [WMO =1adopted for continentalmodel [WMO and water vapor content W. Moscow, W. Moscow, content vapor water and the 2001–2010 period 2001–2010 the b are causes relatively high whichsometimes of muchsmallerparticles withtheprevalencethe Arctic advection However,particles. thiscanchangeduring relative increase insea-salt coarsemode exponent islow(below1.4)dueto possibly content are thelowest ones. The Angstrom AOT’s, Angstrom exponentandwater vapor strong westerlies andlowtemperatures the winter duetoplane. (December-January) In ofEuropean changes over thecentralpart aerosol possible explanationoftheobserved (http://iridl.ldeo.columbia.edu/res) showsthe data from theIRI/LDEOClimate DataLibrary parameters withtheNCEPCPCCAMS_OPI The jointanalysisofaerosol seasonal and for water vaporcontent itiscloseto 8. Angstrom parameter therangeisabout1.27 and medianmonthlymeanvalues. For are about4.8and3.4respectively for average changes from maximumto minimumAOT’s andinAugust.April Onaverage, relative minimum inMay-June maximain andtwo changes are byadistinct characterized air temperature variations. SeasonalAOT content W whichare mainlycorrespond to Fig. 4alsoshowsthechangesinwater vapor for etal., area 2005]. theSiberian [Sakerin both insummerandwinter) isobserved The beginning ofag bythelackofprecipitation. characterized areas,from thesteppe whichis anddesert winds with dominationofsouth-eastern circulationatmospheric over Europe Eastern 14.01.2003 with In spring (March-April) spring In distinct W growth towards period. warm the changesintemperatures, sowe have a in water vaporcontent relate mainlyto Changes accumulating theaerosol particles. precipitation andfavorable conditionsfor withlow ofAsian anticyclone periphery EuropeEastern are located onthewestern higher 58 areasalmost allEurope, except northern overincrease intheaerosol opticalthickness corresponds well withtheubiquitous February, theincrease inAOT inMoscow with strong fromIn advection north-west). ° N [Chubarova, 2009].Central and α =1.94inconditions
there is a similar type of there of isasimilartype α values(for example ricultural activity, 003.08.2011 14:38:22 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
1 4 : 3 8 : 2 2 ggi111.indd 25 i 1 1 1 . i n d d
2 5 Table 2. Several statistics of AOT500, water vapor content and Angstrom exponent for the 2001–2010 period. Monthly mean value, mean variation coeffi cient, mean minimum and maximum and mean day number
Day AOT_500 Water vapor content (cm) 440–870Angstrom number Month Mean Mean Mean Mean N Mean Mean Min Mean Max Mean Mean Min Mean Max Mean Mean Min Mean Max Cv,% Cv,% Cv,%
1 3.3 0.101 44.325 0.049 0.166 0.295 33.133 0.188 0.416 1.370 13.947 1.046 1.664
2 7.2 0.153 40.783 0.053 0.324 0.317 34.191 0.185 0.534 1.354 20.882 0.775 1.765
3 11.9 0.185 61.122 0.050 0.507 0.511 32.136 0.246 0.890 1.391 19.026 0.678 1.813
4 15.7 0.245 61.376 0.071 0.717 0.693 37.747 0.277 1.286 1.474 15.289 0.800 1.875
5 17.8 0.201 54.289 0.063 0.553 1.289 33.549 0.561 2.333 1.474 16.012 0.793 1.897
6 17.7 0.159 49.050 0.057 0.451 1.657 28.761 0.831 2.738 1.606 12.359 0.811 1.988
7 22.3 0.242 53.236 0.063 0.932 2.174 22.102 1.092 3.261 1.711 7.598 0.925 2.029
8 19.1 0.348 60.476 0.058 1.130 2.035 24.021 1.063 3.158 1.605 11.023 0.827 1.937
9 15.1 0.263 59.668 0.052 0.739 1.542 31.370 0.729 2.527 1.520 14.715 0.774 1.873
10 6.5 0.131 36.398 0.052 0.267 0.884 31.308 0.545 1.423 1.379 10.314 0.935 1.682
11 2.9 0.102 24.086 0.062 0.183 0.663 25.412 0.463 0.840 1.366 14.947 1.087 1.596
12 1.6 0.072 14.188 0.058 0.088 0.272 18.524 0.230 0.321 1.386 1.515 1.255 1.458
Year 0.184 46.583 0.057 0.505 1.028 29.355 0.534 1.644 1.470 13.136 0.892 1.798 003.08.2011 14:38:23 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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26 GEOGRAPHY
2 6 (VolCon-fine) comprises +0.01μm comprises (VolCon-fine) (difference infinemodevolume concentration creates aerosol additionalsource offine-mode accompanied usuallybytheprescribed fires, also July (AOT August AOT to approximately theAOT in years from thesamplehaschanged high aerosol loading. Excluding thesetwo 2002 and2010,whichhave ledto extremely is explainedbytheeffects offorest fires in atmosphere. The AOT maximuminAugust absence ofwet removal ofaerosol from the rates andelevated temperatures inthe emissions inconditionsofhighphotolysis from anthropogenicfine modeparticles due to theadditionalgenerationofaerosol as well asAngstrom exponentincrease Julyaerosolformation. opticalthickness In can alsoprevent mineraldustaerosol active water store insoilandvegetation, which tocan beattributed comparatively high addition,thislocalAOT2009]. In minimum of westerlies should decrease theaerosol photolysis rates aswell astheintensification September lower temperaturesIn and times increase inmonthlymeanAOT values. So theforest fires canberesponsible for 1.5 of 45 to thenorth over thevastterritory thickness for localminimuminaerosol distinct optical fromair advection thesouthare responsible Europe Eastern andceasingthe the northern increase ofprecipitation overJune further ofaerosoluptake bygrass andleaves. In Scandinavian regions andmore intensive from airadvection domination ofnorthern due to theincrease inprecipitation, the over Central Europe andEastern reduces area. Atthesametime, theaerosol loading spreading itswedges over theMediterranean and anticyclone with amplifyingtheAzore in thecirculation processes over Europe there May areIn pronounced changes some decrease ineffective radius r which isalsoaccompaniedbythedecrease in (difference in VolCon-coarse =+0.026μm volume concentrationofcoarsemodeparticle to 0.14 eff-coarse ° N andto theeastof15
from 2.5to 2.2μm. μ m. In addition, there is an increase in addition,there isanincreasem. In in ∼ 0.22 invisibleregion ofspectrum). ° E [Chubarova, r eff-fine 3 /μm
from 0.18 from 0.18 3 2 /μm ) with ) with 2 ), ), to thefollowing equations: measurements. They are definedaccording combination ofdirectanddiffuseradiance inversion usinga algorithm from AERONET albedo(SSA)–canbeobtained scattering aerosol (g)and phasefunction single ofthe factor of aerosol –anasymmetry radiative characteristics Another important AOT dropped to 0.06onAugust 20,2010. cleanairfrom thewestern regions,of very the circulation attheendofAugust and advection However, dueto thechangeinatmospheric thepreviousduring mega-fire event in2002. larger thanthe absolute maximumobserved approximately 5! This wasoneandahalftime on August, 7th,whenAOT500 reached The absolute AOT maximumwasobserved endofJulyto themiddleofSeptember.very values wasmuchlongerandlasted from the However, ofelevated AOT in2002theperiod higher thanthemeanvalueAOT500 =0.348). in 2010,whichexceed 1.1(more than3times highmonthlymeanAOTextremely maximum severe2010 during fire events. We hadan in August-September 2002andinAugust also observed. There are pronounced maxima AOT towards winter indifferent years canbe changes, somecommonfeatures ofdecreasing inyear-to-yearOne canseehighvariability AOT and year-to yearofAOT variations at500nm. Fig. 5demonstrates 3Dpicturewithseasonal [Chubarova,Ocean 2009]. to decreasingtendency towards theAtlantic values over thevastarea with adistinct attenuation oftheAngstrom exponent westerlies, whichisconsistent withthe dueto prevailingatmosphere isobserved October-November further decrease theAOT level bymore than30%.In fires in2002anditsremoving significantly level isalsoexplainedbytheeffects of loading. However, relatively highAOT aerosol phasefunction; where angle, θisthescattering g λ = − ∫ 1 1 cos − ∫ 1 1 Pd θ⋅ ()(cos) θθ P ( θ ) d (cos θ
) (1) cleaning ofthe Р (θ) isthe 003.08.2011 14:38:23 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
1 4 : 3 8 : 2 3 ggi111.indd 27 i 1 1 1 . i n d d
where
phase function has a distinct forward peak forward hasadistinct phase function much higherthanwavelength andaerosol is and iscloseto 1whenthesize ofparticles theshapeofphase function characterizes change from zero to 1. factor The asymmetry parameters are dimensionlessandcan According to theequations coefficient(1/cm). scattering 2 7 Fig. 5. Variations of monthly mean AOT500 values during the 2001–2010 period of observations SSA λ α Fig. 6. Spectral dependence of asymmetry factor (a) and single scattering albedo (b) = λ -extinction coefficient(1/c)σ -extinction α σ λ λ (2) g and SSA λ
–
aerosol asymmetry factor decreases factor within aerosol asymmetry albedo. andsinglescattering factor The dependenceofaerosolspectral asymmetry are shownin Table 1.Fig. 6presents the ofmeasurements whole period inMoscow at675nmover the ofasymmetry and factor to processes. scattering The statisticsofSSA onlydue and theattenuation isobserved isclosetoto zero 1whentheabsorption particles ( particles for largerange thiscanbeobserved cloud of scattering. For example, for visiblespectral r eff =7–8μm).SSAvaluesare close 003.08.2011 14:38:23 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
1 27 GEOGRAPHY 4 : 3 8 : 2 3 ggi111.indd 28 i 1 1 1 . i n d d
28 GEOGRAPHY
2 8 decreasing of the 440–1020nmfrom 0.69to 0.59with Fig. 7, inreal conditions. atmospheric properties microphysical, optical, andradiative aerosol if compare therelationship ofsome One canseesomeinteresting features and radiative aerosol properties Interaction microphysical, between optical etal.,[Dubovik etal., 2003]. 2002,Eck, for fires andBrasilia smouldering inAfrica agreement withtheprevious results obtained dependence. by lessspectral This isalsoin higher values(SSA aerosol aerosol mode, smoke has noticeably of refractive indexandtheprevalence offine aerosol. part Dueto smallervaluesofimaginary albedohaveof singlescattering thesmoke only0.02.Quite differentcomprises values onlyfordecrease smallAOT isobserved and in SSA[Chubarova etal., 2011].However, this conditions provide someadditionaldecrease WCRP, 1987]. We shouldmentionthaturban continentalaerosoltypical SSAvalues[WMO, These valuesare inagreement withthe interval. 0.87 withinthe440–1020nmspectral albedodecreasesSingle scattering from 0.9to situations. intypical is similarto thevaluesobserved factor aerosol conditionstheasymmetry aerosols.of smoke Note, thatfor thesmoke addition, Fig. 6alsoincludestheconditions higher valuesatlarger effective radii.In depends mainlyonthesize with distribution theory. the Mie The rangeofthischaracteristic Fig. 7. Aerosol effective radius of fine (a) and coarse (b) mode versus aerosol optical thickness thickness optical aerosol versus (b) mode (a) coarse and fine of radius 7. effective Fig. Aerosol a , b showsthedependenceofeffective r eff / λ ratioinaccordance with ∼ 0.95) and is characterized 0.95)andischaracterized at nm 500 (AOT500) can seeasignificant drop in insituationswithforestobserved fires. One mention thathighAOT500 (AOT500 >0.8)were at500nm. aerosol opticalthickness We should of radii offineandcoarsemodeasafunction from 1to described in[Duboviketal.,described 2002]. values were obtainedfor otherfire episodes conditions (REFR=1.49).SimilarhigherREFR (REFR =1.49)comparedaerosol withtypical is someREFRincrease infireconditions smoke refractive indexwithAOT increase (Fig. 9). There of part deviation bothinreal andinimaginary addition,theredecrease isadistinct in In withinlarge rangefrom 8to 90%. can vary fire aerosol smoke whilefor othersituationsit mode hasamaximumofabout20%for forest less 0.4. The volume concentrationofcoarse coarse modethere isamaximumatAOT mode concentrationwithAOT whilefor the approximately lineardependenceoffine volume concentration.Fig. 8showsthe modes volume concentrationto thetotal of different offineandcoarse contribution There isalsoaninteresting dependence further. of thisphenomenonshouldbestudied ofaerosol.on specifictype The explanation ofaerosol thatcandepend and properties This happenpossiblydueto different types r At smallerAOT we have high anextremely towards higherAOT500 from 2.8to 2.5μm. 0.25 μmanddecreasing coarsemoderadii the finemodeeffective radiifrom 0.18to AOT500 to increasing >0.8withatendency eff
variation fromvariation 0.1to r eff –fine =3.7μmatsmallAOT <0.15. r eff –fine r
= 0.26 μm and = 0.26μmand eff variation for variation 003.08.2011 14:38:24 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
1 4 : 3 8 : 2 4 ggi111.indd 29 i 1 1 1 . i n d d
effective radius at dominating finemodeaerosol particles with bybimodalcharacter is characterized obtained. Volume aerosol size distribution ofaerosol haveoptical characteristics been microphysicalSeveral and important area.Moscow oftheatmosphere oftheproperties us to thedifferent characterize aerosol program allows AERONET the international measurements attheMSUMOwithin 10 years ofcontinuousaerosol We of have retrieved part real andimaginary 0.18–0.25 aerosol byeffective ischaracterized radiusof deviation. Atthesametimesmoke high close to modalradiusandhasavery CONCLUSIONS 2 Fig. 8. Volume concentration (μm 9 μ m increasing towards higherAOT. concentration (VolCon-T) versus aerosol optical thickness at 500nm (AOT500) 500nm at thickness optical aerosol versus (VolCon-T) concentration Fig. 9. Real (REFR, left axis)) and imaginary (REFI, right axis) parts parts axis) right (REFI, imaginary and axis)) left (REFR, 9. Real Fig. r eff-fine of refractive index as a function of aerosol optical thickness thickness optical aerosol of afunction as index refractive of =0.15 3 μ /μm m, whichis 2 ) of fine (VolCon-F), coarse (VolCon-C) modes and total volume volume total and modes (VolCon-C) coarse (VolCon-F), fine ) of at 500nm (AOT500)at 500nm by the change in air advection. by thechangeinairadvection. The single nature ofthiseffect, which isdetermined with NOAA_NCEP climatology showsthe The jointanalysisofaerosol parameters andGorbarenko,in [Abakumova 2008]. described characteristics the transparency of observations standard actinometrical andisinagreement withlarge territory from satellite datafor acomparatively byourpreviousconfirmed results obtained with localminimuminJunewhichhasbeen by theAOT increase towards period warm Seasonal changesinAOT are characterized conditions.those valuesintypical (REFR =1.49)andlower REFI=0.006than aerosol wasshownto have higherREFR = 0.01±0.01)for conditions. Moscow Smoke refractive index(REFR=1.45±0.01,REFI 003.08.2011 14:38:24 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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3 0 concentrations ofdifferent aerosol fractions volume between Some interactions range of440–1020nm. change for theseaerosolwithinthe types doesnotsignificantly factor asymmetry aerosol.and offire smoke However, the inconditionsoftypical variations distinct albedowasshowntoscattering have 9. Sakerin S.M., Kabanov D.M., S.M.,Kabanov Panchenko Sakerin M.V., Polkin V.V., Holben B.N., A.V., Smirnov Beresnev 9. UliumdzhievaN.,Chubarova A.(2005)Aerosol N.andSmirnov ofthe characteristics 8. N.T., O’Neill Ignatov A.,HolbenB.N. andEck T.F. (2000) asa The lognormal distribution 7. Holben,B.N., Eck T.F., I., Slutsker Tanré D., BuisJ.P., Setzer A., Vermote E.,ReaganJ.A.,5. Kaufman Eck T.F., HolbenB.N., ReidJ.S., N.T., O’Neill Schafer J.S., DubovikO., A., Smirnov Yamasoe M.A. 4. Chubarova N.Y., A.andHolbenB.N. M.A.,Smirnov (2011)Assessments ofurban Sviridenkov 3. Chubarova N.Y., A.R.(2009)AMega-Fire N.G.,RublevA.N., Riebau Prilepsky Event in 2. G.M.,Gorbarenko, Abakumova E.V. (2008) oftheatmosphere The transparency inMoscow 1. REFERENCES Results of atmospheric aerosol monitoring in the Asian part of Russiain2004the aerosolResults ofatmospheric intheAsian monitoring part S.V.,S.A., Gorda S.Yu., Poddubnyi G.I.,Nikolashkin Kornienko V.A., Tashchilin M.A.(2005) N 1,pp.48–57. RussianwithEnglishsummary). (In atmosphere over moscowfrom cimelsunphotometer data.Meteorology andHydrology, sunphotometer data,J.multi-site Geophys. AERONET Lett., 27,20,3333–3336. reference foraerosol tests usingmulti-year, opticaldepthstatistics;Empirical reporting Press, 376p. N 66, pp. 1–16.6. radiation,(1980)Academic to Liou.atmospheric Introduction Kuo-Nan anddataarchiveinstrument network for Remote aerosol Sens.Environ., characterization. Y.J., Nakajima T., Lavenu F., A.(1998)AERONET-A I.andSmirnov Jankowiak federated doi:10.1029/2003GL017861. forof opticalproperties different source regions, Geophys. Res. Lett., 30(20),2035, P.and Artaxo aerosol events: opticaldepthbiomassburning Acomparison (2003)High www.atmos-meas-tech.net/4/367/2011/ doi:10.5194/amt-4-367-2011. aerosol anditsradiative effects, pollutioninMoscow Atmos. Meas. Tech., N4,pp. 367–378, 249–267. Volume andC.Andersen(Eds). ElsevierB.V. A.Riebau 8A.Bytnerowicz, M.Arbaugh, pp. Consequences for Subboreal Forest Plants. inEnvironmental Developments In Science. Central Russia:Fire Weather, Radiative, andOpticalProperties oftheAtmosphere, and 188 p. P ofRussia,LKI for thelast50years andthechangesover theterritory Federation #№02.740.11.0676). (contract of EducationandSciencetheRussian grants #10-05-01019,andby the Ministry bytheRFBR supported The research waspartly deviation towards larger AOT values. were decrease obtainedwithadistinct in ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ublishing House, 003.08.2011 14:38:25 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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11. WMO, cloudlessstandard atmosphere Commission, (1986)Apreliminary for Radiation 10. A.,HolbenB.N.,Smirnov Eck T.F., DubovikO. I.(2000)Cloudscreening and andSlutsker 3 1 on UV irradiance Atmos.on UVirradiance Meas. Tech., 2,593–608, 2009. Chubarova N. Y. over ofaerosol Europe Seasonaldistribution properties andtheirimpact andC.Andersen(Eds).ElsevierB.V. A.Riebau A. Bytnerowicz, M.Arbaugh, 249–267,2009; for Subboreal Forest Plants. inEnvironmental Developments In Science, Volume 8 Weather, Radiative, andOpticalProperties oftheAtmosphere, andConsequences N. Y., A.R.:AMega-Fire N.G.,RublevA.N.,Riebau Prilepsky Event inCentral Russia:Fire Rem.Sens.Env., 73,337–349, 2000. and I.Slutsker, database, Cloudscreeningcontrol for andquality algorithms theAERONET environments, J.Atm.Sci., A.,B.N.Holben, 59,501–523,2002.Smirnov T.F.Eck, O.Dubovik, I.Slutsker, C.Pietras, aerosol andR.Halthore, of atmospheric inmaritime Opticalproperties doi:10.1029/2008JD011257, 2009.Smirnov, A.,B.N.Holben, Y.J.Kaufman, O.Dubovik, T.F.Eck, J. asacomponentofAerosol Geophys.Network RoboticNetwork, Res., 114,D06204, P.Goloub, Moorthy, andF.Jourdin, R.Matarrese, E.J.Robertson, K.Krishna Aerosol Maritime S.Piketh, T.Zielinski, A.Proshutinsky, J.I.Goes, N.B.Nelson, P.Larouche, V.F.Radionov, for Meteorol. andAtmos. Phys., Geneva,53pp. radiation computations, WCP-112, WMO/TD-24, World Clim.Res. Programme, Assoc. Int. 73337–73349. database. Remote control for Sens.quality algorithms Environ., theAERONET N73,pp. RussianwithEnglishsummary). 968–975 (In program. andoceanicoptics», «Atmospheric ofAEROSIBNET framework V 18,N11,pp. Natalia Chubarova Alexander Smirnov model. Atmos. Chem.Phys., 8,2008,pp. 3025–3031.Chubarova G.Zibordi, P.K.Quinn, J.Sciare, M.Harvey, S.Kinne, T.J.Smyth, D.M.Giles, C.R.McClain, T.F.Eck, P.Croot, A.Macke, S.M.Sakerin, publications:Smirnov,Main A.,B.N.Holben, I.Slutsker, data analysis. aerosols,atmospheric remote sensinginstrumentation,and and groundinterests basedstudiesof includeship-borne Academy ofSciences, Moscow, research Russiain1988.His degree from theP.P.Shirshov ofOceanology, Institute Russian project since1996.Hereceived aCandidate of. Sciences according to UVmeasurements long-term andreconstruction in Moscow publications:N.E.Chubarova,Main UVvariability aerosol properties. attheEarth’sof ultraviolet irradiance andradiative surface physicsof atmospheric andmainlyare devoted to theanalysis State University.Moscow Herscientificinterests lieinthefield meteorology andclimatology chair, Faculty ofGeography (Diploma). Since1998sheisaleadingscientistofthe State in1985withtheMaster’s University Moscow degree graduated from Faculty ofGeography of is a Project scientist on the AERONET isaProject scientistontheAERONET 003.08.2011 14:38:25 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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3 2 Characterization, Rsens. Environ.E,Characterization, 66,1–16,1998. Smirnov, 1998.AERONET-A Federated andData Archive Network for Instrument Aerosol Buis, A.Setzer, E. Vermote, J.A. Reagan, Y.J. Kaufman, T. F. Nakajima, A. Lavenu, I.Jankowiak, 110, D06202,doi:10.1029/2004JD005274,2005.Holben,B.N., T.F. ISlutsker, Eck, D. Tanré, J.P. to thetropical Asiain centraleastern andaerosol mid-Pacific, transport J. Geophys. Res., S.C. Tsay, Q. Ji,D. Giles, andI.Slutsker, sites Columnar atAERONET aerosol opticalproperties Holben, O. A.Smirnov, Dubovik, P. Goloub, H.B. Chen,B. Chatenet, L.Gomes, X.Y. Zhang, Oceanic Technol., 26,1634–1651,DOI:10.1175/2009JTECHO654.1,2009.Eck, T.F., B.N. forAERONET-OC: ANetwork the Validation Products. Color Primary ofOcean J. Atmos. D.Berthon, Vandemark, H.Feng, G.Schuster, B.E. Fabbri, andJ. Seppälä,2009: S.Kaitala, publications:Zibordi,Main G.,B. Holben,I.Slutsker, D. Giles, D. D’Alimonte, F. J.F. Mélin, IRregion.sensing intheSWandMid andmeasurements, properties radiometric globalradiative forcing andvegetation remote exceeding 500andathird research exceeding 1000..His interests lieinaerosol opticaland award.Memorial withcitations two Holbenhasover 140peerreviewed articles, journal Goddard’s highestaward for to environmental contributions science, the William Nordberg systems. Holbenhasreceived several awards mostnotablyinNovember 2005for for validationprogram theEOSalgorithm aswell ofothersatellite asvalidationfor avariety Brent N.Holben that is providing aerosol spectral concentrations and properties that isproviding concentrationsandproperties aerosol spectral radiometer network sun-sky project leaderfor theAERONET calibration ofsatellite visibleandnear-IR sensors. Heisthe Additionally hehasdeveloped innovative methodsfor inorbit based andsatellite remote sensingofvegetation andaerosols. NASA’s research GSFCfor 32years inbothground- performing Goddard SpaceFlight Center. at Brent Holbenhasworked is the AERONET Project leaderatNASA’sis theAERONET 003.08.2011 14:38:25 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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the average boundary. altitudeoffirn ofgeographical coordinatesfunction and melting inlowandhighflow years asa the statisticalprobabilityofglaciers’ total equations were obtainedto calculate Piecewiseof reservoirs. linear multi-factor to stabilizenatural ability water balance becauseitprovidessectors additional beneficial for hydropower andagriculture the average years. isvery This peculiarity waterwith extreme yields compared to intheyearsglaciers meltingislessvariable ofthetotal volumespatial distribution of and runoff. wasfound outalsothatthe It ofclimaticfactorsof spatialdistribution years were revealed, significant differences standard deviationsofP. characteristic In year were received average valuesand a 30-year andfor sampleperiod each P were calculated from thesedatafor ofprobabilities ofdistribution function the ordinates ofanintegral empirical meteorological stationwithproper data), compilation. For (i.e. a eachpoint-element above sealevel, were usedinthemaps’ and 67.20–82.98°E,altitude122–4169m stations located along30.20–44.08°N at93meteorological1990 collected 1961– during (VI-IX) for June-September (I–XII) andonaverage airtemperatures on precipitation for January-December valuesofannualriverrunoff.extreme Data the areas studiedinyearsand withnormal average airtemperatures were obtainedfor of seasonalprecipitation amounts and Schematic mapsofspatialdistribution e-mail [email protected] e-mail Moscow, Russia, Staromonetny per. 29; Tel: 4959590035,fax0033, ofGlaciology,Leading Department Scientist, ofGeography, Institute 119017 Vladimir G. Konovalov ABSTRACT 3 IN AVERAGE AND EXTREME YEARS AND ITS CLIMATE FACTORS DISTRIBUTION OF RIVER RUNOFF 3 their climate have factors to bedonein a ofriverrunoff,variability glacierrunoff, and used for thetasks(a–b). the regional meteorological were network of precipitation andairtemperature at Regularorstandard datameasurementwork. runoff. These were ofour themainobjectives volumesyears andnormal of withextreme ofclimate in factors and (b)spatialvariability (a) regional ofclimate fields homogeneity isstudying: Morecharacteristic. important isanessentialbutlimited river basins. It conditions ofrunoffformation indifferent reflectsaveragefor sometimeinterval hydrographic parameters. obtained Amatrix watershedsthe distancebetween andother change ofcorrelation independentlyfrom region. certain runoff indifferent watersheds withina forcalculating thecorrelation matrix river of theproblem may beeasilyseenafter the needsofpopulation. The essence water managementandconsumption or high-water years thatinfluence strongly cases,true inextreme suchaslow-water environmental isespecially conditions. It understanding ofpast,current, andfuture temperature, etc.) play asignificant role in (i.e.,and itsclimaticfactors precipitation, air ofriverrunoff Spatial andtemporal variability extremes, glaciers melting precipitation,distribution, airtemperature, AND OBJECTIVES THE RESEARCH PROBLEM KEY WORDS: riverrunoff, Central Asia, spatial
Such matrix describes spatial describes Such matrix
Analysis ofspatial 003.08.2011 14:38:26 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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3 4 = 1– P ordinates ofintegral ofprobabilities distribution by transforming into allstudiedvariables common system ofunits. This wasachieved runoff isabout116-120km from Afghanistan. The long-timeaverage river of theformer flowing USSRandoftherivers flowingwithintheterritory other smallerrivers Zarafshan, Murgab, Tedjen, Chu, Talas, and Darya, Kashka of theblinddrainagerivers resources oftheregion alsoincludetherunoff thousands km areas oftheserivers’ basinsare 692.3and493.0 water sourcesprincipal oftheAralSea. The are the andAmuDarya SyrDarya The rivers Hydrology of Tien-Shan. while itisover 2000mmonthewestern slopes thepiedmontareas,mm. In itis400–500mm, the Aralregion, annualprecipitation is90–120 Ontheplainsof temperature inJulyis25–33°C). longsummerare high(theaverage remarkably oftheformer USSR. part Temperatures during considerably more solarenergy thanany other population (Dataof1996). receives The territory 200 zones canbeestimated atapproximately basins. river Darya Their runoffformation andSyr area islocated intheAmuDarya percentthe AralSeabasin.Eighty ofthis The runoffformation area isabout25%of drainage basinismostlysno source ofallrivers intheAralSea primary of 1765.9thousandskm withthetotal area the Central Asian territory Afghanistan. northern The region belongsto Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, of andparts Kirghizstan, the region embracestheentire areas of Shan. With regard to administrative divisions, of drainingthewesternsmaller rivers part Tien anumberof alsoincorporates watersheds. It AmuDarya, Tedjen,Darya, andMurgab rivers’ basin oftheAralSeaandincludesSyr The studiedregion islocated withinofaclosed AND BACKGROUND DATA THE RESEARCH AREA for thecorresponding function thousands km F ( X > x ). 2 , respectively. water The surface 2 for Amu Darya and160 for AmuDarya 2 and 41.686 millions and41.686millions 3 w/glacier runoff. peryear. The X , i.e. P ( X ) = 110 km basin in1969,thehigh-water year, wasabout example, theannualrunoffinAmuDarya hasmultiyear variations. Forand SyrDarya seasonal runoffofthebasinsAmuDarya years andlast5–6years July. 3–4 The low-water occurevery periods while thehighestwater discharge isinJune- was about65km km av Its (2,790 km). inCentral isthelongestriver Asia The SyrDarya 6–10y and high-water occurevery periods 4-5years occurevery oftheAmuDarya periods (8.5%)territories. Low-waterthe Uzbekistan from (14.6%)and theAfghanistan andIran of territory Tajikistan andtherest comes of itswater resources (72.8%)forms onthe long.Vakhsh rivers, is1,445km The a productoftheconfluencePiandj and thousands km measurements intheAralSeabasinwas The highestnumber of network areadjacent territories shownonFig. 1. basinsand river andAmuDarya Syr Darya precipitation andairtemperature withinthe ofsites forThe distribution measurement of low-water year of1983,itwasabout20km not stable during of20 not stableduring methods andtechnique ofmeasurements are anumberofpoints, structure ofnetwork, 100 years. inmany othercountries, Like the Economy. The longestrangeofdataexceeds and ofMelioration Waterby theMinistry conducted inthenetwork, data isobservations climate. The additionalsource ofhydrological of environment includingriver runoffand operational information onmany characteristics the Central Asia’s of outcollection states carry of The NationalHydrometeorological Services Hydrometeorological network consumesover 90%ofthisvolume.irrigation intheAralSeabasinis117.7km intake discharge is14.7 km water resources. Atpresent, theground water The Aralregion hasconsiderableground annual runoffwasabout70km in thesamehigh-water year of 1969,the 3 .The low-water period is October-March, low-water isOctober-March, .The period 3 . In thelow-water year. In of1974,it 2 for Syr Darya. for SyrDarya. The erage annualrunoffis40.8 3 . In the Syr Darya basin, basin, theSyrDarya . In 3 /yr. The annualwater th century and later. century . The annualand 3 , and in the , andinthe Amu Darya, Amu Darya, main part main part 3 003.08.2011 14:38:26 and and ears. 3 . 0 8 . 3 2 . 0 1 1
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annual precipitation, andmeanseasonal seasonal (April-September) river runoff, offor ouranalysisonspatialvariability 1961–1990waschosen The timeinterval sites [Chub, 2000]. of observational began aconstantreductionofthenumber reached 1).Sincethat,there by1985(Table 3 5 h eaiet 95()9. 0. 0. 2672.9 80.8 81.0 92.6 81.5 92.5 255 92.5 78.1 100.0 100.0 248 93.1 324 101.1 100.0 91.7 102.0 100.0 284 273 248 282 350 102.0 99.4 100.0 98.7 101.8 307 312 98.7 283 331 101.1 354 of(d)per1000km density 99.4 313 335 (h) relative to 1985(%) 98.3 306 361 348 (g) relative to 1985(%) relative to 303 1985(%) (f) 341 312 365 (e) relative to 1985(%) (d) relative to 1985(%) 333 302 355 (h) snowcover (N) (g) vaporpressure (N) temperature (N) soilsurface (f) (e) airtemperature (N) (d) precipitation (N) of(c)per1000km density of(b)per1000km density density of(h)per1000km density of(g)per1000km density per1000km of(f) density of(e)per1000km density c eaiet 95()8. 681008. 71.1 37.1 397 69.1 87.1 84.2 486 100.0 90.2 108 100.0 558 96.8 100.0 245 92.8 540 95.3 81.2 291 62.2 77.7 453 of(a)per1000km density 270 (c) relative to 1985(%) (b) relative to 1985(%) 181 (a) relative to 1985(%) (c) water level (N) (b) suspendedsediments(N) (a) runoff Measurement types N 1 0 3 7 366 478 530 505 412 (N) 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 Table 1. Hydrometeorological network in Central Asia Central in network Table 1. Hydrometeorological 9518 9519 1995 1990 1985 1980 1975 .2 .7 .9 .6 0.071 0.242 0.162 1.320 0.316 0.192 1.316 0.351 0.179 1.313 0.334 0.120 1.310 0.273 1.306 .3 .3 .3 .1 0.169 0.164 0.214 0.164 0.188 0.181 0.231 0.187 0.187 0.203 0.206 0.234 0.202 0.219 0.207 0.222 0.230 0.206 0.239 0.200 0.226 0.200 0.241 0.220 0.235 Number (N),percentage, ofmeasurement anddensity points Thus, thegeographical coordinates ofthe different conditionsofriverrunoffformation. the sampleusedare related to thevery maximal parameters ofthewatersheds in and 1967–1980].Minimal Characteristics were [Bodo, Hydrological 2000]and[Main The mainsources for thedataonrunoff ofairtemperature. values (June-September) years 003.08.2011 14:38:26 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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3 6 and Konovalov, 2008]. Database, GHCN, Network Version 2; Williams, Climatological 1891–1993; GlobalHistorical PrecipitationSoviet UnionMonthly Archive, m a.s.l. 44.08°N, 67.20–82.98°Eataltitudesof122–4,169 meteorological stationslocated along30.20– (abbreviated as 1961–1990at93 VI–IX) during average airtemperature for June-September this seasonisabbreviated asI-XII) andthe (here andfurther for January-December forfactors riverrunoff, we usedprecipitation above sealevel. to 4.20km As climate km their meanweighted from altitudevaries 1.80 Murzaev, 1958],wasusedto address theresearch 1995; et al, 1960;Muminovand Inagamova, differences [Balashova, andlocalpeculiarities complicatedclimate bylatitudinal characteristics environment, zonation oflandscapesand i.e. vertical feature A well-known oftheCentral Asian natural 41.80 hydrological stat varies fromvaries 362km water management. The area ofthewatersheds by provide thedataonrunoffnotdistorted andhigh-mountainareas in sub-mountain (a.s.l.). ofthehydrological Most stationslocated from 327mto 3,576mabove sealevel vary TEMPERATURE AND PRECIPITATION SPATIAL OF AIR HOMOGENEITY Fig. 1. Points of observation on precipitation and air temperature (blue triangles), red lines – state –state lines red triangles), (blue temperature air and precipitation on observation of 1.Fig. Points boundaries. Pink color – the Syr Darya River basin, light green – the Amu Darya River basin River Darya Amu –the green light basin, River Darya Syr –the color Pink boundaries. о N and 66.00–74.00°E, and their elevations N and66.00–74.00°E,theirelevations
The sources ofthedatawere [Former 2 ions are 37.20– between to 113thousandskm 2 , and , and by formula (1)from [Alexeev, 1971]. β where Alt) and ofthefunctions variances forindependent variable describing equations. ofeachThe contribution parametersdetermination ofregression stations for precipitation were for selected for airtemperature and215meteorological The samplesof179meteorological stations December andthetotal precipitation.December yearly mean monthlyairtemperature January- during ofthe ofnorms spatialvariability determine Furthermore, theseequationswere appliedto ofspatialhomogeneity. adopted asthecriterion T equationsoflinearregression the multifactor points andAlt–istheiraltitudea.s.l. are geographical coordinates ofthemeasurement period. Here: Long (longitude) andLat(latitude)– 1961–1990wasusedasareference time interval samples ofairtemperature objectives. Let usconsiderashomogeneoussuch above. ( The coefficient ofdetermination that present thefeatures objectively mentioned = 1 +β T β (Long, Lat,Alt)and j 2 = +β Pr rr rr 10 20 303 03 02 02 01 01 = ααα 3 =1 (2) =1. Pr ++ (Long, Lat,Alt)wascalculated r 00 jj α Pr = T Pr Pr andprecipitation (Long, Lat,Alt)was T = , (1) T (Long, Lat, R 003.08.2011 14:38:26 2 3
) for ) for . The The 0 8 Pr . 2 0
1 1
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the function witheachargument andα the function Here, contributions oflongitude,contributions latitude, andaltitudein show thatlinearequation in The coefficientsofdetermination Table 2 sampleofdata. selected forof homogeneity airtemperature inthe linear regression. Table 2containsestimations the coefficientsofnormalized multifactor Note: equation April-August. obtainedfor The characteristics Moreover, thevalueof air temperature intheCentral Asia region. ofthemeanmonthly 80% ofspatialvariability describes, in9casesoutof12,more than of precipitation, i.e. The analogousanalysisfor thegeneralformula Central Asia region. considered asratherhomogeneousinsidethe in May-September atallaltitudesshouldbe Thus, thefieldofmeanmonthlyairtemperature theseprocesses. Lat, Alt)adequately describes of theairtemperature field. Equation influence specifiesthelatitudinaldifferentiation an essentialrole October-March; their during play cyclones intrusions together withsouthern absenceoflatitudinalgradients.practical Arctic from solarradiationatthelocalscaleand localwarming heresummer period ispowerful et al, 1960]. inthespring- The mainfactor temperature fieldwithinCentral Asia [Balashova the seasonalconditionsofformation oftheair and the contributions oflongitude, and thecontributions latitude, and wasonly0.23 that itscoefficientofdetermination equations 3 7 R β β β 2 2 1 3 Lt, 634. 738120192143741. 3130.9 7.4 23.1 5.0 16.6 0.6 7.4 2.4 4.3 3.1 2.1 2.4 1.9 0.3 2.0 0.8 8,1 2.7 27.3 41.1 1.0 36.3 3.2 (Lat),% 6.5 (Long),% At, 725. 178. 729. 569. 028. 1961.8 71.9 82.8 90.2 92.6 95.6 97.7 97.2 89.3 71.7 55.7 57.2 (Alt),% Index R r 2 0 –thecoeffi j are thecoefficientsofcorrelation of T T = = T (Long, Lat,Alt); T –meanmonthlyairtemperature, β T .007 .409 .709 .509 .108 .20.73 0.82 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.95 0.97 0.97 0.93 0.84 0.75 0.70 (Long, Lat,Alt)fullycorrespond to IIII IVIVI XXX XII XI X IX VIII VII VI V IV III II I cient of determination (the explained part of variance of dependent variable for ofdependentvariable ofvariance theregional (theexplainedpart cient ofdetermination Pr Table 2. Statistical characteristics of equation equation of characteristics Statistical Table 2. = Pr Pr (Long, Lat,Alt)showed R 2 T is = T l (Long, Lat,Alt) 0.93 during 0.93during T = T (Long, 0 j R are 2 of multifactor equations of multifactor of the runoff for onthe selected April-September All temporal rangesof descending order. where [Alexeev, 1971]: procedure by arathersimplyandknown probabilities ofexceeding hydrologicalIn computations, the empirical 1971]. basins couldbefound in[Resources…, 1969, river andSyrDarya forquality theAmuDarya examples ofsimilardependencessatisfactory equaled 0.70,0.87and0.94,respectively. Many andZeravshan riverbasins Naryn, the Chirchik, Pr Coefficients for ofdetermination theequation and representativeness for initialinformation. revealed better estimationsofhomogeneity of altitudeandgeographical coordinates dependences for precipitation asafunction coordinates andaltitude. The search for local ofgeographical the form ofalinearfunction oftheregional formulainefficiency empirical in ofeven meanannualprecipitationvariability and This confirms, oncemore, significant spatial altitude were 27.8%,3.6%,and68%,respectively. AND ITS CLIMATE FACTORS SPATIAL VARIABILITY OF RIVER RUNOFF Months = px Pr Pr ii )100, () 1 (Long), β (Long, Lat,Alt)calculated separately for x m(x i values after theirdispositioninthe valuesafter =⋅ T = i ) mx =1,2,..., T 2 ()0,25 (Lat), β (Long, Lat, Alt) Lat, (Long, N T = i i + T − 0,5 (Long, Lat,Alt) 3 (Alt) –are monthly N i
are ordinal numbers X >x R IV–IX (3) i is determined isdetermined –seasonal 003.08.2011 14:38:27 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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3 8 we determined processed according to theformula (3). Then, 33 hydrological stationsin1961–1990were when 15% probability for the33valuesineachyear. Years the Amu Darya and Syr Darya watersheds in 1969 – high-water ( 1969 in –high-water watersheds Darya Syr and Darya Amu the Fig. 2. The spatial distribution of seasonal (April-September) river runoff probability within within probability runoff river (April-September) seasonal of distribution spatial The 2. Fig. D1.594 17.51 52.31 9.49 12.30–84.43 88.19 61.48–97.54 13.95 2.46–48.36 11.33 SD Limits (%) (%) Mean Table 3. Parameters of seasonal river runoff ne Probability of Index l
P ( R IV–IX P(R ) IV–IX l 85%were subsumed ) whichisthemean 99–mx(ihwtr 1974– 1969 –max(high-water) Blue triangles are the hydrological stations R IV–IX in characteristic years incharacteristic andtheirstandard deviation SD within the Amu Darya and Syr Darya watersheds Darya Syr and Darya Amu the within
to statistical parameters. Fig. 2, of average years andextreme andtheir Table 3presents theresults ofidentification they were considered oraverage asnormal
extreme; andwhen extreme; i lwwtr 1985–normal min (low-water) a ) and in 1974 – low-water ( 1974 in ) and –low-water
45% m
a P , ( R b IV–IX illustrates b ) ) years. ) years. m 003.08.2011 14:38:28 55% 3 . 0 8 . 2 . 0
1 1
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probability ofairtemperature – but thesamephenomenonisnottruefor for bothrunoff– Only in1969themeanvaluesofprobabilities situationsforin critical water users. improving methodsofhydrological forecasts valuesofriverrunoffwouldextreme help Identification oftheirrole information of monthly runofffrom theupperwatersheds. predictors inorder to forecast seasonaland precipitation andairtemperature are usedas For therivers oftheAralSeabasin,both low-water years. watersheds inhigh-water and and SyrDarya seasonal riverrunoffwithintheAmuDarya ofprobability the spatialdistribution P and airtemperatures inthe Table 4–5as assessing theprobabilities ofprecipitationIn Tajikistan), andalongaltitudeZa.s.l. (here, KYR–Kyrgyzstan, UZB –Uzbekistan, TAD – byCentral Asianall together states (ALL), sorted (see Table 3).Datain Tables 4–5are presented as average, andhigh water based on that have beenpreviously identifiedaslow, their standard deviation(SD)related to theyears precipitation andseasonalairtemperatures and Tables 4–5containtheprobabilities ofannual precipitationextreme (Fig. 3). is theexampleofregional of distribution 3 9 ( Fig. 3. The spatial distribution of of distribution spatial The 3. Fig. Pr I–IX water year (1969). year Average water ) couldbetreated high, asextremely P ( R IV–IX ) andprecipitation – P P ( Pr ( P T ( VI–IX I–IX Pr R IV–IX I–IX ) equals 6.14%. Blue triangles are the measurement sites measurement the are 6.14%. triangles Blue ) equals ). Below values values ) within the Amu Darya and Syr Darya watersheds in high- in watersheds Darya Syr and Darya Amu the ) within the regional mean P(Pr low-water year, valueof theextreme of precipitation andrunoff, butfor the good synchronism probabilities between Thus, inthehigh-water year, we seerather – may note thefollowing: climate flowformation, ofriver factors we but notin1974.Asynchronism between –
years. compared to thelow-water andnormal significantly lessinthehigh-water year correspond completely to Probabilities precipitation ofyearly 1969. Standard deviation of summer seasoninthehigh-water year of years. We may onlynote arathercold with seasonalrunoffincharacteristic absence ofratherevidentrelationship P zones. Standard deviationof also for itsdifferent andaltitudinal parts basins, river but andSyrDarya Amu Darya ofthe not onlyfor theentire territory years.normal This conclusioniscorrect runoff inhigh-water, low-water, and Probabilities ofseasonalairtemperature and computations. improvement ofhydrological forecasts of theregional water resources andfor for obtainingageneralized estimation This feature ofprecipitation isimportant compared to low-water years. andnormal is significantly lessinhigh-water year ( T VI–IX ) in Table 5demonstrate the I–IX ) wasin1971 P ( T P VI–IX ( R IV–IX ) isalso P ( Pr ) of I–IX 003.08.2011 14:38:29 3 ) . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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4 0 aaIndex Data Index Data UZB UZB TAD TAD KYR KYR ALL ALL Table 5. Probabilities (%) of air temperatures for VI-IX in the characteristic years of runoff of years characteristic the in VI-IX for (%) temperatures air of Table 5.Probabilities Table 4. Probabilities (%) of yearly precipitation in the characteristic years of runoff of years characteristic the in precipitation (%) yearly of Table Probabilities 4. en9.38.84.19.68.54.2––– – – 42.62 85.25 90.16 47.81 85.88 93.53 mean en8.07.23.27.78.72.07.77.931.97 78.69 73.77 29.30 81.97 77.87 32.32 78.22 82.30 mean en8.07.42.38.57.83.88.68.234.84 84.02 81.56 31.48 33.40 73.28 81.35 82.95 77.66 29.13 31.72 70.34 77.95 85.40 81.64 mean 34.07 76.55 85.74 mean en32 55 28 .68.35.4––– – – 51.64 80.33 2.46 62.82 75.56 3.20 Mean en63 50 44 .16.25.286 76 47.13 67.62 8.61 54.22 63.82 8.31 44.40 75.04 6.30 Mean en90 50 33 .05.68.790 95 77.46 49.59 9.02 80.37 62.30 50.86 58.61 8.70 8.81 63.35 68.03 55.00 58.53 9.09 7.92 Mean 58.37 67.92 6.14 Mean a 75 09 47 42 77 50 – – – 45.08 87.70 94.26 64.75 90.98 97.54 Max a 75 42 80 42 42 50 09 09 45.08 90.98 90.98 45.08 94.26 94.26 68.03 94.26 97.54 Max a 75 42 80 75 42 80 09 42 68.03 94.26 90.98 68.03 68.03 94.26 94.26 97.54 90.98 68.03 68.03 94.26 94.26 97.54 97.54 Max 68.03 94.26 97.54 Max a 88 75 42 .68.07.1––– – – 71.31 87.70 2.46 94.26 97.54 18.85 Max a 19 75 09 19 42 75 19 42 90.98 94.26 31.97 97.54 94.26 31.97 90.98 97.54 31.97 Max a 52 75 75 86 09 75 54 77 94.26 87.70 25.41 97.54 94.26 90.98 94.26 28.69 31.97 97.54 97.54 97.54 94.26 35.25 31.97 Max 97.54 97.54 35.25 Max i 44 11 21 44 11 85 – – – 38.52 81.15 84.43 22.13 81.15 84.43 Min i 83 23 .46.81.01.56.81.018.85 12.30 61.48 18.85 12.30 61.48 5.74 12.30 48.36 Min i 83 .21.04.690 23 45 78 18.85 77.87 74.59 12.30 18.85 9.02 12.30 61.48 48.36 12.30 12.30 9.02 9.02 48.36 48.36 5.74 Min 9.02 48.36 Min i .61.52.324 13 19 – – – 31.97 71.31 2.46 22.13 18.85 2.46 Min i .61.01.024 23 21 .61.018.85 12.30 2.46 22.13 12.30 2.46 12.30 12.30 2.46 Min i .624 .224 .64.624 .461.48 5.74 2.46 48.36 18.85 2.46 5.74 2.46 2.46 9.02 22.13 2.46 2.46 2.46 2.46 9.02 Min 2.46 2.46 Min D36 .11.349 .431 – – – 3.14 3.14 4.92 11.43 2.31 SD 3.65 D1.41.51.995 17 .11.52.17.84 26.91 11.05 7.21 21.76 9.50 12.09 15.95 SD 11.04 D95 97 05 14 10 23 .353 16.39 5.38 5.93 12.33 21.02 12.50 11.48 18.95 10.52 9.46 19.70 10.46 9.55 20.53 SD 10.72 13.21 17.01 SD 10.18 D28 86 95 .072 69 – – – 16.93 7.27 0.00 19.50 18.60 2.82 SD D63 48 21 .52.12.898 21 24.47 32.19 9.83 26.08 29.11 8.35 22.12 24.87 6.38 SD D91 92 05 .52.01.787 91 13.17 29.16 8.76 16.97 28.90 24.61 8.35 31.10 20.51 9.00 29.24 24.28 9.15 28.75 SD 8.01 21.94 26.21 SD 7.04 9917 9516 9418 9917 1985 1974 1969 1985 1974 1969 1985 1974 1969 1985 1974 1969 1985 1974 1969 1985 1974 1969 380 m 380 m
m m
Z Z
m m 4169 4169m mZ Z
l l 2000m 2000 mZ Z
l l 3000m 3000m
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4 with maximal mean value of air temperature. Average Average temperature. air of value mean maximal with 1 with minimal mean values of precipitation. Average P(PrI–IX) equals 83.29%. This year was defined defined was year This 83.29%. equals P(PrI–IX) Average precipitation. of values mean minimal with with minimal air temperature. The average average The temperature. air minimal with Fig. 6. Spatial distribution of Fig. 4. Spatial distribution of Fig. 5. Spatial distribution of as extreme in the sample of of sample the in extreme as extreme in the sample of of sample the in extreme in the sample of P ( T P P VI–IX ( ( Pr T VI–IX I–IX ) in the Amu Darya and Syr Darya watersheds in the 1972 the year in watersheds Darya Syr and Darya Amu the ) in ) within the Amu Darya and Syr Darya watersheds in 1971 in watersheds Darya Syr and Darya Amu the ) within ) inside the Amu Darya and Syr Darya watersheds in 1990 1990 in watersheds Darya Syr and Darya Amu the ) inside P P ( ( T T VI–IX VI–IX P ( P T ) irrespective of runoff of ) irrespective ) equals 94.8%. This year was defined as extreme extreme as defined was year This 94.8%. ) equals ( VI–IX Pr I-IX P ) irrespective of runoff of ) irrespective ( ) irrespective of runoff of ) irrespective T VI–IX ) equals 15.0%. This year was defined as as defined was year This 15.0%. ) equals 003.08.2011 14:38:31 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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4 2
melting for oftotal determination volume ofglacier regime themodel, theformula ofglaciation.In to ofhydrological calculate series long-term 1985,2006]wasused [Konovalov variables computer programs anddataonclimate A model, REGMOD, developed asasetof glacier surface. andslopeazimuthof the endofglacier; depthofsolidmoraineat solid morainecover; upperlimit of boundary; andfirn terminus ofarea; distribution altitudesofglacierhead, areas ofglaciersandsolidmoraine;altitudinal geographical coordinates; by: is characterized parameters. andempirical variables Eachgroup calculating and airtemperature wasidentifiedafter years andnormal forthe extreme runoff snow, Here, where decrease undermorainecover ofdepth i + M( computing thetotal volume into 138 quasi-homogeneous groups for 1971–1978]. These glacierswere regionalized contains several thousandsglaciers[Inventory..., basin river The headwaters oftheAmuDarya is shownonFigs. 5,6. P V orderarea. to In obtainthetotal meltvolumes is meanweighted altitudefor thecertain summer snow, under cover ofsolidmoraine( distribution of distribution OF THE AMU DARYA RIVER BASIN TOTAL MELTING OF GLACIERS UPSTREAM is bare ice, M ( R from theequation(4)we used: IV–IX Vvt Mm M M ) ofrunoffinthe Table 3.Spatial = v V is intensity of meltingfor isintensity openice or z v m c M ∑ d = d f m , t)S (t) =M bp ep is the function ofmeteorological is thefunction inthemoment f Mf is old firn, is oldfirn, f +M( P () f ( ( ( P T h c h ( ( vi-ix (5) c c z T ) is intensity of ice melting oficemelting ) isintensity ) is a function of ice melting oficemelting ) isafunction im z VI–IX ws ) independentlyfrom , t)S , t)S ) in the extreme years) intheextreme ws im ws +M( iswinter snow, +M( t V , hastheform: M im of their melting, of theirmelting, z i z , t)S ) ofdepth ss , t)S i + ss . (4) h ss c h , is is
S c z ,
equals to 7.108km basin, thetotal volume ofglaciermelting river theheadwaters oftheAmuDarya In where by [Kotlyakov etal., 1993]. by [Kotlyakov mountain region has beenpreviously shown (longitude andlatitude): ofgeographical coordinates 2009] asfunctions and lowwater years wasobtainedin[Konovalov, ofvolumesthe spatialdistribution equations(seebelow)describing of empirical 138 groups 1935-1994. ofglaciersduring The set REGMOD modelwasappliedfor theselected close coincidencewithmeasured data. The the water balanceequationshowed avery The total runoffcomputed river bymeansof have beensuccessfullytested [Konovalov, 2007]. The REGMOD indetail[Konovalov,described 1985,2006]. are basedonseveral methods numerical Computations of and theendofcalculationperiod. Z [Schetinnikov, 1998]thatthedecrease of 1985,2006]that [Konovalov isknown It low andhighwater years, respectively. of a.s.l.4.0 and5.0km The longitudinal increase oftheglaciers(62%)are located between part a.s.l; butinitssouth,thelargest 3.7 –4.4km oftheregion atthealtitudes of part northern (more 76%)concentrationofglaciersinthe studying ofchanges to usethisparameter for additional Z depends from boundary thealtitudeoffirn – 0.0801long – 0,1825long fg fg V V alonglatituderelates to theprevailing onglaciers. Therefore, itisnecessary M Z M (high) =–1 V fg (low) =–1E–06long + 0.037lat M + 0.4261lat in the same part ofthePamiro-Alai inthesamepart d (high) =7E–06lat bp
and V M (low) =–0,0001lat
d model and its main subroutines model anditsmainsubroutines 3 3 ep +5.1975long +13.899long E 3 –3.8553lat are the dates of the beginning are thedates ofthebeginning –06long 3 V –28.796lat M using the equations (4–5) usingtheequations(4–5) 3 and26.888km V 5 5 M 5 –0.0028lat +0.0005long +0.0009long . Analysisshowed 2 +186.9lat, 2 2 2 –32.441long. –115.36long, +976lat, 4 + V M in high inhigh 3 4 inthe + 003.08.2011 14:38:33 4 3 4 – . – 0 V 8 . M 2 0
1 1
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Note: a values ofprobabilities. Note: indexes were above after explained inthetext Tables 4-5.Pmax andPmin are maximalandminimalmean determination), high-water year, form oftheformulae isthefollowing: average boundary. altitudeoffirn The general ofgeographical coordinatesa function and the glaciersinlowandhighwater years as probability for thetotal meltingvolume of were obtainedto calculate thestatistical Finally, piecewiselinearequations multi-factor the fi bythesecond version, similarly for rst version of(6),otherwise =aLong Principally, enhancing given in Table 6. parameters ofthisformulaEmpirical are Amu Darya basins, subareas there areAmu Darya certain and air temperature withintheSyrDarya for riverrunoff,variability precipitation, and On thepresented graphs ofthespatial independent variables. is possiblebymeansofusingadditional respectively; respectively; CONCLUSIONS 4 3 Index P P Z .718 66 9232 999.21971 93.22 1969 3.20 1972 96.63 1988 6.47 UZB A .618 46 9263 997.31971 73.23 1969 6.30 1972 94.62 1984 9.46 TAD Y 12 949.117 .916 92 1961 79.20 1969 9.09 1972 92.31 1984 11.23 KYR L 50 909.017 .416 32 1971 83.29 1969 6.14 1972 94.80 1990 15.00 ALL 2 1 1 , b 1 20141711.0 7.5 1.1 .9 0930759.5 0.88 91.950 0.725 –0.933 0.191 115.416 –70.652 11.804 1.781 –220.164 ,
Const c 388–.9 0341043.2 .9 0840275050.76 5.085 0.277 –0.814 0.090 33.326 1.084 –0.304 –0.196 23.838 1 Table 6. Parameters of piecewise linear multi-factor equation for calculation Table 7. The spatial mean of probabilities for for probabilities Table of 7. mean spatial The Z , Const fg mx%Ya mn%Ya mx%Ya mn%Year Pmin % Year Pmax % Year Pmin % Year Pmax % –fikm a.s.l., in rn boundary + Br P 1 bLat 1 2 is the criteria for selection of the empirical equation. for oftheempirical isthecriteria selection When –low-water year, -th 1 vrino oml 6 2 version offormula (6) , a 2 P , b + ( a V 1 2 cZ m , c ) 2
i eprtr Precipitation Air temperature , andConst = fg R
2 + inthe Table 6
Const% (6) b Long, Lat 1 2 are parameters for thefi rstandsecond versions ofthe (6); formula R 2 – are longitude and latitude in integer and decimal part ofdegree, –are longitude andlatitudeininteger anddecimalpart is explained part of the variance of the function (coeffi ofthefunction ofthevariance is explainedpart c 1 Const and differential dist Statistics ofclimaticfactors, includingintegral first timeever. regional climate hasbeenidentifiedfor the for January-December. This feature ofthe andmaximalprecipitation June-September synchronism for minimalairtemperature for presented in Table 7showhighlevels ofspatial population, andproduction. The results that strongly influencebiota,environment, oftheirfields characteristics the important temperature andprecipitation are extremes Spatial synchronism andasynchronism ofair hydrological forecasting, andcomputations. inconsiderationatwater management, taken high-water years. Botheffects have to be ofrunoffistheireven in factors distribution feature ofclimatic ofthespatialvariability circulation. Anotherinteresting andimportant of localrelief ofatmosphere andpattern clear sofar. Probably, itisacombinedeffect years. isnot The reason ofsuchinconsistency the meanvalueofprobabilityincharacteristic where thelocaldataare notconsistent with 2 -nd T version offormula (6) (VI–IX) a P and and 2 2 . Pr (I-XII) P b 1 2 m in the extreme years years extreme the in
Br , computation is performed by , computationisperformed ributions c 2
P cient of ( rR Br V and spatial m ) P 2 1 – 003.08.2011 14:38:33 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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4 4 8. Konovalov Konovalov V.G. Basin. River andAverage (2009) Extreme GlaciersRunoffintheAmu Darya 8. oftheUSSRglaciers, 1971-1978: Inventory Vol. 7-12.Leningrad, 14,issue3, parts 7. Climatological Database. GHCN, Network GlobalHistorical Version 2.ftp://www.ncdc. 6. Former Precipitation SovietUnionMonthly Archive, 1891–1993.–NSIDC-0059. Boulder, 5. Chub, V.E. on thenaturalresources (2000)Climate changeanditsimpact potential ofthe 4. Bodo, B. Discharges A.(2000)Monthly for andStreams 2400Rivers oftheformer Soviet 3. O.M., BalashovaE.N.,Zhitomirskaya, SemenovaO.A. (1960)Climate ofCentral Asian 2. of Alexeevmethodsofsmoothingandnormalization numerical G.A.(1971) Objective 1. exhausted outsideofglaciersarea. accumulation ofsnowhasbeenspring concentrated inJuly-August whenwinter- basininmaximalandaverage years is Darya runoff intheheadwaters oftheriverAmu oftheannualwater yields.types The glaciers’ in glacierareas with iscloselyconnected oftotal melting distribution Intra-seasonal water consumption andforecasts ofrunoff. for solvingproblemsare of necessary Regional ofglacierregimes determinations 1961–1990. present. Sofar, we have suchsetonlyfor thatare notavailable attime intervals 1931–1960, 1961–1990,and1991–2020 requires thesamesetofparameters for Efficient applicationofthisconclusion ofaveragedetermination valuesalone. of theAsian riverbasins, compared to the climate change onthehydrological regime informative of assessmentoftheimpact correlation provide functions, amuchmore REFERENCES Media B.V.Media 2009,pp. 371–376. J.A.A.In: Jones etal. (eds.), Threats to Global Water Security, Science+Business Springer Hydrometeoizdat. Russian) (In noaa.gov/ USA. http://www-nsidc.colorado.edu/. Republic ofUzbekistan. Tashkent, SANIGMI.252p. Union [FSU].– Toronto, Canada, version 1.0,540p. Republics. L Russian) nonlinearcorrelation dependences.multi-factors Leningrad. Hydrometeoizdat. 363p. (In eningrad. Hydrometeoiz dat. 243p. Russian) (In shrinking oftheglacierarea by2,324km shrinking basin isbecominglesseffective dueto role ofglacierrunoffintheAmuDarya regional climate. However, thestabilizing utilizingnaturalfeaturesof reservoirs ofthe to stabilizeadditional ability water balance and agriculture becauseitprovides sectors beneficialfor hydropower isvery peculiarity yield compared to theaverage years. intheyears waterless variable withextreme the total amount oftheglaciers’ meltingis appeared of thatthespatialdistribution It # 08-05-00661. Foundation for BasicResearch, Grant bytheRussian wassupported This work seasons. the AralSeabasin,especiallyinlowwater andutilizationofriverrunoffinavailability and undoubtedly influencesthesustainable 1961–2000. during significant This isvery ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 003.08.2011 14:38:33
3 This . 0 8 . 2 2 0
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19. Williams, M.W. andKonovalov, V.G. (2008)Central Asia Temperature andPrecipitation Data, 18. Schetinnikov, andregime A.S.(1998)Morphology ofthePamir-Alai glaciers. Tashkent, 17. Resources oftheUSSRSurface Waters, (1971) Vol., Basin. River 14,issue3.AmuDarya 16. Resources oftheUSSRSurface Waters, (1969) Vol., Basin. River 14,issue1.SyrDarya Murzaev,15. E.M.(ed.), (1958)Central Asia –geographical Moscow, characteristics. Academy 14. Muminov, F.A., S.I.(eds),(1995) Inagamova, Variability ofClimate withinCentral Asia. 13. hydrologicalMain andState characteristics Water Cadastre ofUSSR,1967-1980: Vol 14, Kotlyakov V.M.12. etal, (1993)GlaciersofPamir-Alai. Moscow, “Nauka”, 256p. Russian) (In 11. Konovalov V.G. andglacialrunoffprocesses (1985)Melting intheCentral Asian ba- river 10. Konovalov V.G. (2006)Regional modelofhydrological regime ofglaciers(REGMOD).In: Konovalov V.G. (2007)Long-term changeofthewater balancecomponentsintheriver 9. 4 5 includes also fieldwork inthe Pamirincludes alsofieldwork and Tien-Shan mountain areas. WMO, GroupsWorking onHydrology. Dr. Konovalov’s area ofprofessional experience data/docs/noaa/g02174_central_asia_data/index.html 1879–2003, Boulder, Colorado: USANationalSnowandIceDataCenter. http://nsidc.org/ “SANIGMI” Board, Editorial 219p. Russian) (In Leningrad. Hydrometeoizdat. 458p. Russian) (In Leningrad. Hydrometeoizdat. 439p. Russian) (In of Sciences. 647p. Russian) (In Tashkent, 215p. Russian) (In ofUzbekistan. HydrometService 443 p. Russian) (In riverbasin.–Leningrad,Vol 14,issue3.AmuDarya Hydrometeoizdat. 1976,434p.; 1980, riverbasin.–Leningrad,issue 1.SyrDarya Hydrometeoizdat. 1967,477p.; 1974,529p.; sins. Leningrad, Hydromet. Pub. House, 236p. Russian) (In 488p.Moscow, Russian) (In Nauka, andCentral Eurasiainthecurrent epoch.Ed. Kotlyakov V.M.,Glaciation ofNorthern vol 1, basin ofsnowandicemelted feedings. Meteorology andHydrology, N8,pp. 77–89. Vladimir G.Konovalov Investigator ofanumberScientificProjects and amemberof symposiums, conferences, andworkshops. HeisPrincipal monographs, andmadepresentations atmany international 128scientificpapers,He publishednearly includingfour ofGeographyInstitute RussianAcademy (Moscow), ofSciences. Leading ScientificInvestigator, ofGlaciology, Department the USSRAcademy ofSciences. Currently, Dr. is Konovalov D.Sc. degree in1983from ofGeography theInstitute (Irkutsk), in 1964(hydrology and glaciology).Dr. received Konovalov his PhD from theFaculty ofGeography, Leningrad State University Geography, Tashkent State University, in1959;heobtained his graduated from theFaculty of 003.08.2011 14:38:33 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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4 6 monitoring fluctuations, dynamicsof communities, structure, biodiversity, annualspecies, pasture’s resources ofthecountry. ecosystems are thebasiccomponentof sincesteppe importance, and practical natural ecosystems hasamajorscientific plant communities. thestate of Monitoring abundance ofdifferent plantgroups in options to maintainthenumberand system ofmanagement of science-based for thedevelopmentcover isnecessary manifestation invegetation offluctuations about thetrend ofsuccessionsand the projective cover, andactivity. Knowledge shown through analysisofspeciesconstancy, synusiae inthesteppe communitieswas role ofeightannualplantspeciesthatform in2008. cover fluctuations The coenotic was definedfrom thestudiesofsteppe Temporal dynamicsofsteppe ecosystems Station Tumén-Tsogt district). (inSukhebator vegetation Steppe structureoftheEastern (phytocoenochores) were inthe determined ofcombinationsplantcommunities types to theregional landscapestructure. Different vegetation connection naturally occurring of was identifiedbyanalyzingcharacteristics steppes Mongolia ofEastern ofdry diversity Spatial-temporal structureandcoenotic * 2 N. OgureevaGalina 1 Moscow, Gory Leninskie Luvsandorzh Jargalsaikhan Prospect Zhukova, 77,Mongolia KEY WORDS: ABSTRACT MONGOLIA OF DRY STEPPES OF EASTERN SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL VARIABILITY Institute ofBotany, Institute Academy Mongolian ofSciences, Ulaanbaatar 210351, Faculty ofGeography, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University, Russia119991, Corresponding author steppe ecosystem, vegetation 1 *, InessaM.Miklyaeva e-mail: [email protected] e-mail: 2 . well-being orasanindicator ofexisting asanexplicitmeasure ofits and serves of ecological condition ofthewholeregion indicators cover isone ofthemostimportant restoring theirnaturalstructure. Vegetation or ecosystems isassociated withpreservation Sustainable development ofsteppe dynamic system. componentsrepresent asingle their varying communitiesand factors. Indigenous impact structureandrelative to the stability primary average their thatdetermine characteristics invariants ofsteppe ecosystems have certain dynamic manifestations. However, thenatural of stages ofsteppe communitiesinaseries successional changesare regarded ascertain and anthropogenicFluctuations and impact. environmental parameters causedbynatural constant dynamicsrelated to changesof the territory. Steppe ecosystems existin a present-day ecological potential of environmentalby various changesrepresent temporal dynamicsofcommunitiescaused gradients ofenvironmental and factors), of steppe communitiesinrelation to the (spatialdifferentiation patterns distribution ofnaturalplantcomplexes,A variety their and oneoftheurgent tasksofbiogeography. structure hasalways beeninthespotlight vegetation and, above all, itsspatial-temporal of Studying thefundamentalproperties INTRODUCTION 1 , Maxim V. Bocharnikov 1
003.08.2011 14:38:34 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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and dry bunchgrass steppes onchestnut and dry The vegetation consistsofherb–bunchgrass of thelandscapestructure theterritory. mountain andplainsteppes characteristic steppes isthattheycombinefeatures of The specificfeature Mongolian oftheEastern Khramtsov, Dmitriev, 1995]. 1988; [Volkova, Station have alonghistory biomeatthe Mongolian Tumén-Tsogt steppes oftheEastern Studies ofthearid geographic demarcation [Lavrenko, 1970]. the Eurasiansteppes according to botanic- of sub-province to Mongolian theEastern pertain district. The steppes ofthisterritory area namedSoumofSukhebator ofasimilarly coincideswiththe basinandpractically River islocated intheHerlen district) Sukhebator SteppeThe Eastern Station Tumén-Tsogt (in conservation. recommendationspractical for theiruseand forsteppes developing andare necessary interest to thegeneralscientificstudiesof development aretrends of oftheirfurther in steppe ecosystem andthemodern A comparative analysisofchangesoccurring and previous years. (volume andregime ofrainfall)inthecurrent caused bychangesinclimaticparameters changes andrelate to thefluctuations ecosystem development represent cyclical steppe communities. Suchstagesofsteppe structure, products, andphysiognomy ofthe and changesinthecompositionofdominants, development ofsynusiaeannualspecies changes were manifested bystrong organization have beenstudied. These steppe biome, significant changesintheir Mongolian oftheEastern the dry-steppe allcommunitiesof 2008,inpractically In biodiversity, isnecessary. ecosystems andtheirbaseconstituent,i.e., information onthecurrent state ofnatural development ofsteppe regions, areliable pressing problems ofbalanced(sustainable) environmental problems. To solve the OBJECTS OF STUDYOBJECTS AND METHODS 4 7 about 2000km soil cover oftheterritory. The Stationarea is to thegeomorphologic structureandthe corresponds wellsoils whosedistribution in someyears. According to theUnderhan rainfall is200-240mm,reaching 360-460mm temperature is–20°C). The average annual and almostsnow-free (theaverage January wintersJuly temperature are long is+20°C), (theaverage continental: summersare short is Mongolia ofEastern The climate ofthispart and limestone (Fig. 1). outcroppings ofgranite, jasper quartzite, are peaksandridges tops. formed by Rocky orflattenedthere are smoothdome-shaped weak sandstones, shale, andeffusive rocks, rocks. theareas withthe dominanceof In depending onlithologyofthecomposing inmorphology ofthehillsvary surfaces depressions thehills. between Apical of uneven-aged hillsandofintermontane hummock denudationplainwithasystem consistsofa The relief attheterritory (950–1000 m), m), 4–plains (800–950 5–depressions Fig. 1. The types of terrain at the Tumén-Tsogt the at terrain of 1. types The Fig. sized hummocks (1000–1200sized hummocks m), 3–lowhummocks 1 – high hummocks (1100–13501 –highhummocks masl), 2–medium- 2 . Station. (750–800 m) (750–800 003.08.2011 14:38:34 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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4 8 precipitations intheprevious years also. Thus, in There were of significant fluctuations summer(May-June).in theearly August) withmostprecipitation (208.5mm) mm fell thegrowing during season(May- was awet 316.8 year inthemultiannualcycle; the growing season. year (2008) The survey (Fig. 2).Onaverage, 160–170mmfallsduring orthreetwo outofeachfive years are drought rule, fallsinthesecondhalfofJulyandAugust; –1,035 m),themaximumprecipitation, asa Tumén-Tsogt (47°19’ N,110°38’ E;altitude meteorological station,thenearest to the meteorological station). The horizontal axis: months from January to December; the vertical axis: axis: vertical the December; to January from months axis: horizontal The station). meteorological Fig. 2. Precipitation at the Tumén-Tsogt Station in 1981 to 2010 (from the data of the Underhan Underhan the of 1981 data in 2010 to the Tumén-Tsogt (from Station the at Precipitation 2. Fig. precipitation (mm) precipitation many types ofsteppesmany attheStation. types of annualspeciesthatprevailed cover in inherb of thisprecipitation promoted thedevelopment Climatic conditionsof2008establishedasaresult droughts intheseyears (Fig. 2). of precipitations were thecauseofsummer and 16.0mminMay-June. These fluctuations June; in2007,41.9mmfell theseason during the growing season,including44.6mminMay- 2006,only115mmfell dry.extremely In during wetextremely years may bepreceded by including 245.4mminMay-June. However, 2002, 399mmfell thegrowing during season, 003.08.2011 14:38:34 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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the mountainvegetation. Their definitionis arePhyto-catenae themainstructuresof and theiraccumulationparts. homogeneous communitiesofslopeaprons ofslopes, and catenae oftransitionalparts topes, expositional combinationsofphyto- communitiesofhill complex includesserial or ahummockcomplexofthesteppes. This may berepresented byageomorphologic basin.Amacro-geochore of anelementary andacomposite part an phyto-catenae to river valleys, thatare integratedsurfaces complete ecological range, from watershed combinationsrepresentmacro- asingleand ecotopic differentiation. The elementsof slopes following ofhighlevel apattern of are formed onthehill Macro-combinations expositional combinationsofphyto-catenae. and phyto-catenae, meso-complexes, include: development. Meso-combinations combinations may have itsownway of Eachplantcomponentofmeso- extent. and theyare ofarelatively greater spatial influencedbyorographyare primarily plantcomponents meso-combinations, In or series, andmicro-zonal ecological ranges. may includecomplexes, ecological ranges the samesuccessionalprocess. These stages stages ofthesameecological rangeorof andrepresent,extent as arule, sequential combinations have arelatively large spatial structures have beenidentified. Micro- steppes, Mongolian Eastern several typical phytocoenochores orcombinations)ofthe chorologicaldifferent units(i.e., elementary to itshigheststability.contributing Among the optimumspatialvegetation system hierarchical level thatcompose a certain as regular combinationsofcommunities units there ofterritorial isanotionofthetypes phytocoenology, [Sochava, 1978].In territory and geomorphological compositionofthe communities according to naturalconditions of andspatialdistribution stability process ofitsdevelopment determines Vegetation structure thatevolves inthe of the Eastern Mongoliansteppes Spatial organization andcoenotic diversity DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS 4 9 240.4 km are composedofgranitoids. They occupy valleys slopesandintermountain dissected mountain massifs withsteep erosion- denudationalhummocksandlow- High The steppecomplex ofthehighhummocks 2011]. for ofhummocks[Ogureeva andal., alltypes havethe steppe beenisolated phyto-catanae territory, theexpositionalcombinations of belt ofthevegetation cover. Onthe Station’s catenae thatare located withinaltitudinal form expositionalcombinationofphyto- catenae onslopesofdifferent exposures basin.Phyto- anelementary characterizes an integrated, system that spatially-dynamic communities ofmountainsloperepresent of slopeecotope transformations. Thus, parameters asaresult andfloristic structural and, withtime, undergo modificationof are dynamic communities ofphyto-catenae components andwiththeenvironment. All allthe between of thecloseinteraction Functioning together, theyare theproduct differentiation ofvegetation ontheslopes. place, definingspatial takes series linked (transit), andaccumulative positionsinto ecosystems oftheeluvium,trans-eluvium catanae, theintegration ofelementary 1971; Ogureeva, 1994]. Within phyto- and slopedevelopment [Voskresenskyi, 1988] evolution oflandscapes[Glazovskaya, based ontheconceptofrunoff-geochemical ( species offorest-steppe communities herb of steppes withparticipation Mongolian oftheEastern the mostmesophilictypes steppes representstipa andherb-sedge the vegetation cover ofthecomplex.Herb- baicalensis ofthehills. oftheapicalparts surfaces vegetation)(serial occupiesrankandrocky hummocks. Petrophytic steppe variants the slopesofhighandintermediate communities occupynear-apical sites on Armeniaca sibirica confined to theupperelevations, while communities consistingof 1100-1350 m;relative –200-250m.Shrub The maximumabsolute elevationsreach Clematis hexapetala 2 (11.2%ofthetotal Station’s area). and Carex pediformis - Amygdalus pedunculata , Hemerocalis minor Betula fusca dominate in Stipa are 003.08.2011 14:38:35 3 . ,
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5 0 424.2 km rarely, ofbasaltandgranite, andoccupy tuffaceous sandstones, andesite, and, more composed ofPermian effusions, Jurassic tops. dome-shaped They are predominantly height (1000-1200m)have gentleslopesand hummocks. The steppecomplex oftheintermediate areMeadows located intheerosion valleys. combination atdifferent altitudinallevels. different exposures forming expositional oftheslopes occupy thetransitparts multifida uniflorum Rhaponticum vegetation ( the hillsare steppe occupiedbyserial elevations are 100-150m. The tops of highest peaksreaching 1150m.Relative Their elevationsare 950-1000mwiththe mainly consistofgranites andsyenites. lenensis, Stipakrylovii exposure. ( The herb-grass-stipa S. krylovii often contains often stipa steppe formations of expositional combinationswiththeherb- of theintermediate hummocks, forming slopes ofthesouthern the transitionalparts composition. floristic forThey are typical are themostdiverse intheircommunities’ steppes ( hummocks. The formations ofthree-stipa rank habitatsoftheintermediate andlow stony oftherocky are and characteristic area occupying488.6km The lowhummockspredominate inthe The steppecomplex ofthelow hummocks. intermediate andlowhummocks. oftheslopes accumulative parts form thebasisofvegetation cover inthe with Ephedra sinica S. sibirica ofstipa( series the slopes, there are diverse petrophytic ofhummocks. Onthenear-apical parts vegetation ofthelowandintermediate Bunchgrass steppes dominate the Caragana microphylla ). The shrub ). The , and 2 on the slopes of the northern ontheslopesofnorthern Stipa grandis (22.6%). The hummocksofintermediate . stipa-steppes The herb-three Festuca lenensis Stellera chamaejasme Lespedeza dahurica Stipa grandis Ulmus pumila Ulmus , , Stipa sibirica S. krylovii , and . Stipa grandis 2 (25.8%). They Schizonepeta C. stenophylla , , , formations S. krylovii S. sibirica ) steppes Koeleria Festuca ). They and and ) ,
actual vegetation coveractual [Ogureeva etal, map (1:200000)oftheon alarge-scale Station Tumén-Tsogt hasbeenpresented ofthe SteppeThe coenoticdiversity salicifolia complexes ofhalophytic ( herbs A. bidentatum onion genus( steppes ( of thehillsnearsalinedepressions, stipa the lowerexpositional locations. parts In steppes occupydifferentduriuscula)–stipa in the axial parts, occupycloseto 410.4km in theaxialparts, (800–950 m)withshallowsalinedepressions plains withslightslopesanddelluvialaprons Vegetation oftheplains. ( squarrosa stipa steppes ( and squarrosa C. stenophylla ( krylovii covered withxerophytic formations slopes ofthelowhummocksare often cristata duriuscula Communities ofsedgeformation ( along themargins ofthesalinedepressions. frigida chinensis plains. Communities offormation sedges andgrasses ofthe are characteristic ( (21.2%) ofthesomonarea. Stipaformation sedge steppes ( There are ofmesophiticonion– variants the aprons plains. andtheintermountain 376.4 km occupy sloping alluvialaprons ofwaterways of thedepressions withadjacentgently Vegetation ofthedepressions. valley. River Herlen A. bidentatum splendens Hordeum brevisabulatum communities ofgrass ( Stipa krylovii) Dasiphora fruticosa Artemisia frigida Artemisia Kochia prostrata , and with: , 2 , with Agropyron cristatum , ). (19.2%). The depressions have saline Stipa krylovii) , , Leymus chinensis S. amara Carex korshinskyi C. korshinskyi andcommunitiesofrhizomous )–sedge steppes. ) ontheplainsadjacentto the Allium odorum Leymus chinensis Kochia prostrata , Stipa krylovii Stipa krylovii Carex duriuscula A. odorum Spiraea aquilegifolia )–stipa andsedge(Carex , , . Combinations of arid . Combinations ofarid Suaeda prostrata Caragana microphylla grow together with Puccinellla tenuiflora ) are of typical ) withwormwood , with
Gentlyrugged , , A. tenuissimum A. tenuissimum ) andshrubs Achnatherum C. duriuscula , are spread The bottoms The Cleistogenes Cleistogenes , Saussurea Saussurea Artemisia Artemisia Leymus ). The ) and Carex Carex 003.08.2011 14:38:35 Stipa 3 . 0 8 . 2 2 , , , , , 0
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12.0 km spread. vegetation Serial covers 66.4km petrophytic ofcommunitiesare series most into expositionalcombinationsand hummocks, phyto-catenae thevegetation ofthe structure In (combinations) [Ogureeva etal2011]. andmacro-phytocoenochoresmeso-, of vegetation atthelevels ofmicro-, units ofstructural types and asvarious vegetation asahomogeneouscommunity ofThe mapshowsthedistribution within theterrain. grouped according to theirspatiallocation unitsofvegetationAll typological are with landscapefeatures oftheterritory. ofthesteppesreflects theconnection approach andon theeco-geographical 2011]. The legendofthismapisbased steppe communitiesoccupy414.3km thickets –8.1km thickets 191.1 km (21.3%), communitiesofsalinehabitats– –1361.5km of phyto-catenae of theStation’s area); expositionalcombinations [Ecosystems.., 1995]. scale designed to evaluate ecosystem state ona5-point is assessedassatisfactory of thesteppe ecosystems attheStation Station isrelatively even. The current state anthropogenic pressure throughout the year-round grazing. Therefore, background the Station,were to along-term subject inthehighhummockswest of Reserve oftheKhar territory Yamaat Nature steppe areas, except for theprotected natural andanthropogenic processes. All anddirectionofthemainthe distribution of theecosystems, andalsoto identify changes inthevegetation component to identifyqualitative andquantitative map vegetation, whichmadeitpossible to re- componentoftheeffort important the current ecosystem status. This wasan of ofthemonitoring steppes wasapart Mongolian oftheEastern The 2008survey biome Mongolian steppe The temporal ofthe structure Eastern 5 1 2 (0.6%). 2 (9.5%), and floodplain series – (9.5%),andfloodplainseries 2 (0.4%).Ontheplains, 2 (65.2%); associated 2 (3.3% (3.3% bush 2
whose invariants are preserved. ofsteppe communities,natural specificity coenotic diversity, doesnotdestroy the years,in extreme thoughsmoothes annual speciesindifferent ofsteppes types habitats. Simultaneous development of andimprovescycling soil conditionsof deposition ofsubstancesinto thenutrient perennials. oflitter promotes Mineralization improve theconditionsofover-wintering species increase themassoflitter and and favoring theirdevelopment. Annual cm inheightovershading perennial species the upperphytocoenotic horizon upto 60 communities. Atthesametime, theyform moisture andmineralelementsinsteppe competitors to perennial speciesfor communities. Annualplantscanrepresent structure andcompositionofthesteppe productivity, andotherindicators ofthe in thespeciesrichness, projective cover, They provided increase for atemporary ofthesesteppes.plant speciesinalltypes to themassive development ofannual summerof2008)contributedthe early years (drought of2006–2007;rainfallin grass cover. Climaticconditionsinrecent steppes inthe hasledto thefluctuations years inthemultiyear development ofthe wet between The alternation anddry roles inthecommunity. andmayof theirlife-forms play different alterationsthese speciesmay experience unchanged; however, from year to year, and rhizomatous grass) remains practically of thesteppe communities(bunchgrass composition ofthemaincomponents communitiesofsteppes. primary The composition ofthehabitat andfloristic ofthenaturalreflecting thespecificity constantly present inthecommunities natural conditions. These speciesare to multi-temporal changesunderthe of perennial speciessubstantiallyresistant classification isbasedonthecharacteristics of steppe phytocenoses andtheir Traditionally, analysisofthecomposition ecosystems. The role ofannualspecies inthe steppe 003.08.2011 14:38:35 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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5 2 from 40-45species/100m years, reduced: inthedry was markedly Floristic ofthesteppe communities richness of thehydrothermal regime. remain inthecommunitiesatallvariations that dominants andspecies-determinants changes atthepopulationlevel ofspecies- withsteppes, theircompositionismarked themultiyear ofthe development cycle In the original structureofthecommunities. regulation ofsteppe ecosystems restores oftheirnaturaldynamics. Self- integral part changesinecosystems representcyclic an steppe ecosystems. asThe fluctuations in themultiyear naturaldynamicsof placeof thesteppes occupyacertain that temporal conditions(fluctuations) suggests ofthesematerials Comparison not play any coenoticrole. meaningful were present inthecommunities, butdid manifested. Someoftheannual species synusiae ofannualspecieswere not of speciescompositionintheform of same asin2008,however thefluctuations of the steppesdiversity remained the communities showed thatcoenotic thegrowingduring season)ofthesteppe the average year ofprecipitation interms (also The 2010summersamplingsurvey andLysak, 1996). fallow lands(Miklyaeva ofgrazing,the impact rodents, andonthe However, theirrole increased locallywith infrequently andinsmallnumbers. and aristatum ( noted that inthesteppes, annualspecies of moisture indicators (seeFig. 2),itwas Station in1994,theaverage year interms ofthesteppes atthe thesurvey During their appearance. communities [Rabotnov, 1978]anddefine are dominants inthesteppe thefluctuation annualspecies alternations; of fluctuating for stagesinaseries typical thewell-defined was low, notgreater than10-20%. This is 50-80%, butthetruecoverage (swarding) projective cover ofgrass steppes rose to development ofannualplants, thetotal rarely, to 7-8species. As aresult ofmass Chenopodium viride Artemisia palustris Artemisia , Salsola monopheraSalsola , C. acuminatum )were present 2 to 12-15and, , S. collina, , C.
high classes of constancy (IV–V classes)in high classesofconstancy viride, C.aristatum communities atallelevations. annual specieswere recorded inthesteppe Six 41–60% –III,61–80%IV, and81-100%-V). (0–20% –classIofconstancy, 21–40%–II, at different altitudinallevels oftheterritory percentage, descriptions inthegeo-botanical number ofeachspeciefound, expressed asa ofspeciesisthe the communities. Constancy andabundanceofthespeciesin constancy coenotic role wasassessedbasedonthe 1). species inthecommunities(Table The influencing thecoenoticrole ofannual considerablyinhypsometric profile vary Environmental conditionsofplant habitats their biologyandecological plasticity. are byspecificfeatures determined of in thecommunitiesanddistribution Mongolia. of Eastern Their participation to thenaturalconditionsofsteppes These annualspeciesare well adapted steppes ofMongolia. desertified has anarrower area and andoccursinarid Central Asian specie scoparia Artemisia species are found inthesteppes anddeserts. Trans-Balkhash andChina. to Mongolia Two acuminatum China,and Mongolia, Tibet. DnieperandtheCaucasusto the Middle aristatum species areofsteppes. typical China. from andNorthern Altaito Dauria Two speciesof Mongol Tibet, andthesteppes ofMongolia. The Daur- andcanbefoundAltai to Dauria inChina, amarantoides further, China,and to Mongolia, Tibet. river valley, theUssuri Altai andDauria, and, from the Volg aregion and Western to Siberia steppes. species areto forest-steppe typical and in allforest-steppe andsteppe regions. Three East, where itgrows inforests andiscommon tospecie hasawiderangefrom theFar Karelia in thebroadest range ofconditions. This were found. August of2008,eightannualspeciesplants thesteppes oftheStationinlate July–early In hasawiderangeandgrows from Salsola collinaSalsola occursfrom Western and Siberia Chenopodium viride grows from Western and Siberia has a wide Eurasian range. hasawideEurasianrange. and Artemisia palustris Artemisia grows intheareas Salsola monoptheraSalsola Salsola collinaSalsola Chenopodium Chenopodium Chenopodium Chenopodium can develop candevelop grows grows Axyris Axyris 003.08.2011 14:38:35 had 3 . 0 8 . 2 0
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(21–40%), and 5 – very high(41–70%). (21–40%), and5–very Projective low(lessthan1–5%),2–(6–10%),3intermediate (11–20%),4–high cover ofspecies(F):1–very descriptions, in%). the geo-botanical (D):I–0–20%,II21–40%,III41–60%,IV61–80%, Classes ofconstancy V –81–100%(numberofrecordings in collina Station (see Table 1). Two species, i.e., structure ofthesteppe communitiesatthe as ameasure oftheircoenoticrole inthe assessed according to theirprojective cover The abundanceofplantspecieswas exceed thevaluesfor classII. other altitudinallevels were lowanddidnot inthecommunitiesof their permanence the communitiesofhighhummocks; palustris average values(III). Wormwoods ( amaranthoides Axyris monophera of most communities. Constancy projective cover inshrubsteppes ( were ofSalsola characteristic levels. The highestabundance indices of thecommunitiesdifferent altitudinal the mostto theprojective cover (21–40%) reached 60–70%(Fig. 3). The projective cover the slopesofintermediate hummocks ( microphylla, C.stenophylla 5 Stipa grandis, S.sibirica S.krylovii, 3 Constancy classes(D) Constancy Projective cover (F) Artemisia scoparia Artemisia palustris Artemisia natum Chenopodium acumi- amaranthoidesAxiris monoptheraSalsola aristatum Chenopodium collinaSalsola Chenopodium viride Table 1. Constancy and projective cover of the annual plants in the communities atdiff communities the in plants annual the of cover projective and Table 1. Constancy Types ofterrain and and Chenopodiumviride, , Chenopodium acuminatum, A. scoparia didnotexceed the –– –– I I1I I II 1 2 I IV III V 1 3 2 3 II III III III 1 4 2 3 II V II V 1 3 2 4 III IV IV I 1 3 5 3 IV 1I1I1I4III3I I 2 1 1IV4V4V4V4V FDFDFDF DF D ) were notfound in ihItreit Low Intermediate High ) and three-stipa ) andthree-stipa ) steppes on collina contributed contributed Caragana Artemisia Artemisia Hummocks 1I2I1I2II1I3II1II4II Salsola Salsola Salsola Salsola and ; its of the relief 0 – the specie is0 –thespecie absent, to 1–up 5%, 2 –low(6–10%), (the abundance of species based on the the on based species of abundance (the 3 –intermediate (11–20%), 4–high(21–40%), Fig. 3. Coenotic role of projective cover in %): in cover projective and 5 – very high(41–70%)and 5–very lisDepressions Plains Salsola collina Salsola erent elevations
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5 4 never exceeds 10% – found for thespecieswhoseprojective cover was lowcoenoticimportance Low andvery role ofotherannualspecieswasnegligible. communities ofthefallowland. The coenotic for observed The highprojective cover (40%)wasalso adjacent to thesalinedepressions (Fig. 5). in thedepressions. monoptheraSalsola the communitiesofplainsin(Fig. 4),while coenotic role (projective cover 21–40%)in Chenopodium aristatum level considerably(see varied Table 1). communities ofthesamehigh-altitudinal The coenoticrole oftheannualspecies in A.A. Junatov [1954]. wet years hasbeenpreviously noted by inappearance ofthesteppes ofMongolia along withotherannuals, to form the hummocks. of The ability collinaSalsola communities oftheplainsanddepressions. of thesespeciesdecreased to stipa ( its maximumprojective cover (40%)in the 0 – the specie is0 –thespecie absent, to 1–up 5%, 2–low(6–10%), 3 –intermediate (11–20%), and4–high(21–40%) Stipa krylovii Fig. 4. The coenotic role of Chenopodium aristatum rarely grows inthehigh Salsola monoptheraSalsola ) steppes ontheplains and Salsola monoptheraSalsola Axyris amarantoides Axyris hadthegreatest Artemisia palustris Artemisia Salsola collinaSalsola 11–20% inthe : inthe had – , , calculated asfollows: iscommunities (Yurtsev, 1968).Activity integral indicator oftheirrole inthesteppe Annual plants’ represents activity an scoparia Chenopodium acuminatum,andArtemisia where species ( intermediate hummocks, there were two even occurinthesteppes atthislevel. the In scoparia Artemisia annual specieswere species – two inactive; complexes (Fig. thehighhummocks, all 6).In indifferentvaried ofsteppe mountain types ofannualandbiennialspecies Activity (1–6%). inactive (7–12%),and (13–20%), IV–low-activity V – II –high-level (21–30%),III–intermediate (31–42%), active I–very Classes ofactivity: projective cover (%), 0 – the specie is0 –thespecie absent, to 1–up 5%, 2–low(6-10%), Fig. 5. The coenotic role of 3 –intermediate (11–20%), and4–high(21–40%) A (see Table 1). Chenopodium viride – activity ofaspecie, –activity A and = D – constancy (%). –constancy FD A.palustris Salsola monophera Salsola , , C.aristatum F –average donot 003.08.2011 14:38:36 ) that that ) 3 . 0 : 8 . 2 0 1 1
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which occupies15%ofthe Stationarea. recovering ontheabandoned fallowland The steppe communities have been species andwasmaximalinfour species. of thedepressions wascommonto allannual monopthera. and intermediate –of of was characteristic (II) communities ofplains, highactivity hummocks to thedepressions. thesteppe In of allelevationlevels –from theintermediate Chenopodium aristatum for (III)wasobserved activity Intermediate (I) inthesteppes ofthelowhummocks. of the intermediate andlowhummocks. Activity collina of Activity that were (V). inactive were moderately (III),andfive active species 5 5 palustris, 5 – Chenopodium aristatum, 5–Chenopodium palustris, Species of annual plants: 1 – Chenopodium viride, 2–Sa viride, ofannualplants: 1–Chenopodium Species Chenopodium viride was mostly high (II) in the steppes of wasmostlyhigh(II)inthesteppes of Activity of species: I – very active, II – highly active, III – intermediate, IV – low active, V–inactive. IV–lowactive, –intermediate, III active, –highly II active, I–very ofspecies: Activity Fig. 6. Activity of annual species in the communities of different types of hummocks. of types different of communities the in species annual of Activity 6. Fig. High activity in the communities inthecommunities activity High Types 3–low, 1–high,2intermediate, ofhummocks: 5–depressions. 4–plains, had its maximal values had itsmaximalvalues Salsola collinaSalsola Chenopodium viride, in the communities in thecommunities 6 – Chenopodium acuminatum, 7 – Artemisia scoparia, and8–Salsola scoparia, acuminatum,7–Artemisia 6–Chenopodium and Salsola Salsola S. S. monophera
tillage ( successions, indicator speciesoftheformer 10%. Attheinitialstagesofsecondary (50%), whileswarding doesnotexceed total projective cover ofgrass ishigh age ofthefallowlandis15-20years. The successions. the secondary The average The fallowlandsare atdifferent stagesof scoparia amarantoides Chenopodium viride oftheannualspecieswith increasing activity The fallowlandswere by characterized formoften ahigh-projective cover (21-40%). constantly present inthegrass cover and collina annual species: etc.) were present. ofthegrasses Most were Convolvulus arvensis intermediate (III)activity. lsola collina, 3 – Axyris amaranthoides, 4–Artemisia lsola collina, 3–Axyris , and , Lappula intermedia A. palustris Salsola monoptheraSalsola mostlyactive, while Chenopodium viride , , and C. aristatum , Fallopia convolvulus Salsola collinaSalsola , Setaria viridis Setaria . They were . They , and Artemisia Artemisia , Salsola Salsola Axyris Axyris had 003.08.2011 14:38:37 3 , , . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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5 6 ensuring their sustainable development and theirsustainable developmentensuring and composition andstructureofsteppe ecosystems different measures aimedatimproving floristic thisregard,In publishedliterature explores ofvegetation cover.specific types hummocks, valleys, depressions) andin of theiraltitudinalzones (mountains, ecosystems’ positioninvegetation structure ecological thatconsiderthe principles These measures shouldbealsobasedon steppe ecosystems shouldbedeveloped. ecosystems, measures for improving ofthe communities andto restore steppe order the invariant steppe to In preserve the altitudinalzonal structure. to pastures’ feeding valuesandpositionsin ecological approach withconsiderationgiven regime shouldbebasedonthelandscape information aboutsteppe vegetation. Pasture depends onobtainingthemostcomplete Sustainable useofpasture ecosystem resources monophera with narrower ecological amplitude( the steppe communities, whereas species playedMongolia amore significant role in viride, collina Salsola broader ecological amplitude( in thesteppe communities. The specieswith amplitude andplayed different coenoticrole These specieshaddifferent ecological ecological rangeandthecoenoticoptimum. byaspecific in asynusiaischaracterized annual speciessynusiae. Eachannualspecies expressed states withclearly temporary inthesequenceoftheir fluctuations state ofthesteppe ecosystems showed Analysis ofthe2008studiescurrent thisperiod. [Rabotnov,during 1978]. dominants Annual speciesbecomefluctuating volume andregime ofprecipitation. varying synusiaeappearasaresult of temporary protection andrestoration.years, extreme In ecosystems atthecurrent level oftheir andisthebasisfor studying importance steppes is ofspecialscientificandpractical The research onspatial-temporal of structure CONCLUSION ) hadlessercoenoticsignificance. ) in the steppes of Eastern ) inthesteppes ofEastern Chenopodium Chenopodium Salsola Salsola following willbemostbeneficial. activities the proposed measures, inouropinion,the [Ecosystems…, functioning 1995].Among opportunity to conduct work. work. to conduct opportunity (AcademicianCh. Dugarzhavu MAS) for the ofSciences,Gunin (Doctor Professor), and AcademyMongolian ofSciences(MAS), P.D. Russian Academy ofSciencesandthe Complex Biological Expeditionofthe the leadersofJointRussian-Mongolian The authorsexpress theirsincere gratitude to steppes, andthecenters for biodiversity. system ofprotected areas of theCentral Asian steppes andtheintegrated link Mongolian sites, shouldbedeveloped. would The network andasystem ofstandard natural sanctuaries ofprotected areas,A network including ofsteppe for ecosystems. Mongolia preservation developing theecological framework ofEastern to on continuework is also necessary It ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
rotation); (schedule anddurationofgrazing and ofpastureManagement useregime species-forming steppe communities. and replenishment oftheseedpoolmain altitudinal zones to maintainthegenepool areas ofsteppe ecosystems ofdifferent ofreserve Identification andpreservation andsuccessionstages); fluctuations plant communitiesandidentificationof ofsteppe steppes (multiyear observations Organization system of amonitoring of stocks offeed; Creation ofgrasslands to establishreserve pasture byreseeding forage plants); communities, improving feeding valueof "rest"(incorporating ofthesteppe Restoration ofsteppe ecosystems depending onthepasture type); livestock numbersandherd composition Regulation ofgrazing load(modelingofoptimal 003.08.2011 14:38:38 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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11. Volko 10. Socha 9. Rabotnov, T.A. (1978)Phytosociology. State Press. University Moscow 384p. Moscow: 8. M.V.Ogureeva, G.N.,I.N.Miklyaeva, Bocharnikov, S.V. Dudov, I. Tuvshintogtoh, and 7. inthevegetation anddynamiccategories Ogureeva, cover G.N.(1994)Structural of I.M.andO.A.LysakMiklyaeva, (1996)Pasture6. digression //Bull. steppes ofMongolia ofarid 5. Lavrenko E.M.(1970) The provincial divisionoftheCentral Asian steppe subregion of Khramtsov V.N.4. andP.P. (1993) Dmitriev The transformation ofcompositionandhorizontal 3. Junatov A.A.(1954)Forage plantsofpastures People’s andgrasslands oftheMongolian 2. ofnaturalandanthropogenic landscapesofthe M.A.(1988)Geochemistry Glazovskaya 223p. Nauka. andcurrent conditions(1995)Moscow: Distribution Ecosystems of Mongolia: 1. 13. Yurtsev, B.A. (1968)Flora ofSuntar-Hayata. Problems ofhigh-elevation ofthehistory 12. geomorphology. S.S. (1971)Dynamic Voskresenskyi, Formation oftheslopes. Moscow: REFERENCES 5 7 (In Russian). (In Russian). (In Ecosystems. v.17. №1.pp. 13–25. (2011)SpatialOrganization //Arid Steppes ofEastern L Jargalsaikhan ofMongolia Russian). mountain areas ofNature //Bull. Society Scientists. Moscow v. 99.№.2.pp. 76–85.(In ofNature Society Scientists.Moscow Dep. Biol. №1.pp. Russian). 88-94.(In Eurasia //BotanicalJournal. v. 55.№12.pp. Russian). 1734–1747.(In Petersburg. pp. Russian). 22—41.(In maps/GeobotanicalMapping. anditsmanifestation Saint-impact onthelarge-scale undertheinfluenceofanthropogenicstructure ofsteppe Mongolia communitiesinEastern Press. 352p. Russian). (In Republic //Proceedings Commission. v.56. oftheMongolian Moscow-Leningrad. USSRAS 328p. Russian). Vysshaya Shkola. USSR. Moscow: (In Russian). (In landscapes of the North-East Siberia. Leningrad. Siberia. 235p. Russian). (In landscapes oftheNorth-East Nauka. State Press. University Moscow 229p. Russian). (In Geobotanical mapping. Leningrad.: pp.38-46. Russian). (In Nauka. va, E.A.(1988) Vegetation mapofSoum Tumén- va, V.B. 320p. to theteaching ofgeosciences. (1978)Introduction Nauka. Novosibirsk: Tsogt (MongolianPeople
’s R epublic) // 003.08.2011 14:38:38 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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5 8 Jargalsaichan Luvsandorj, Maxim V. Bocharnikov, Galina N.Ogureeva Galina InessaM.Miklayeva, He hasauthored over 70publications, includingsixmonographs. structure ofanimalpopulations ofpastures Mongolia. inEastern food resources bywildanddomesticanimals to optimize the grassland underconditionsofshared ecosystem functioning plant Currently, inresearch he participates to of identifypatterns of plantcommunitiessteppe ecosystems Mongolia. inEastern andphytomassto thestudyofdynamicsproductivity structure Expedition (Tumén-Tsogt, research His relates district). Sukhebator Permanent Complex Biological StationoftheRussian-Mongolian For many years, hehasbeenDirector Steppe oftheEastern of Ecology, ofBotany, Institute Academy of SciencesofMongolia. thematic maps. monographs, research papers, trainingmanuals, atlases, and ofRussia.Sheistheauthormorediversity than250 biogeographic mapping, ecoregional concepts, andbiome engaged informulating research modern directions, i.e., biodiversity, andecologyofmountainregions. Shehasbeen interests includeproblems ofbotanicalgeography, geography, of Geography, State University. Moscow Her main research Expedition. Complex Biologicalmember oftheRussian-Mongolian ofmountainregions.and biodiversity For three years, hewas a mapping, andstudiesofhigh-altitudinalvegetation structure andCentral ecosystems Asia, inSouthSiberia geo-botanical the geography andecologyofplantcommunitiesmountain of the Western Sayan.” research His interests are associated with “Geography, Coecenotic Diversity, of andMapping Vegetation program atthesameFaculty. onhisthesis Hehasbeenworking State in2007 andthenentered University Moscow thegraduate collective monographs,collective textbooks, andmapsofvegetation. 100scientificworks, published nearly including articles, of steppe for ecosystems ofMongolia over 20years. She vegetation. Shehasbeenstudyingthedynamicsandstructure specific focus isonnatural andanthropogenic successionsof geographical mapping, biodiversity, andbioindication.Her University. Herscientificinterests includebotanicaland of biogeography, Faculty ofGeography, State Moscow , D.Sc., Professor ofbiogeography, Faculty Ph.D. (geography) isassociate professor graduated from Faculty ofGeography, Ph.D., seniorresearcher, Department 003.08.2011 14:38:38 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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1 landscape typical of Mountainous Adjara. ofMountainous landscape typical to transform thearea into afullycultivated 100years usuallytakes used asahayfield. It area. 40-60years, After thelandslidearea is recultivation ofthe landslide people start 30years, ofalandslide. In mound surface soillayercompacted isformed onlowand Georgia. As arule, in15years, athinand the SouthCaucasusmountainousregion, needs wasstudiedinAdjara province, of landslidesandtheiradaptationfor human lands for farming. Achronological sequence habitats for biotaand, insomecases, new ecosystems development, forming new in newcycles population thusstarting the vitalresource for mountainbiotaand and accumulate loosemineral material, for weathering sliding massexposesurfaces goes beyond activity. directdestructive The the role oflandslidesinmountainousregions of populationfrom affected areas. However, of mountainousenvironment andoutflow sediments bylandslidescausesdestruction Catastrophic lossofsoilsand slope particular, are the life-supporting resourceparticular, are the life-supporting sediments andtheirfinecomponents, in mountainous regions,In soilsandloose wasting, soils, theCaucasus. 2 * G.GrachevaRaisa Georgia. Tel. [email protected] 99532290807;e-mail: Tel. [email protected] +74959590028;e-mail: KEY WORDS: ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION 5 GEORGIA) FORMING IMPACTS (SOUTH CAUCASUS, REGION: DAMAGING AND RESOURCE- LANDSLIDES IN A RURAL MOUNTAINOUS Corresponding author 9 Ivane Javakhishvili Ivane Tbilisi State University, Chavchavadze 3Ilia Ave. 0128 Tbilisi, ofGeographyInstitute ofRAS,Staromonetny per. 29Moscow 119017Russia. landslides, mountains, mass 1* , Tengiz F. Urushadze 2 1881, covered 800,000m landslide, Switzerland, on11September environmental change. The famousElm and role oflandslidesinsedimenttransport Even scattered examplesshowanenormous landslide mass. hillslopes andbysealinglandsunderthe from soils andregolith bytheirtransport areas, of causingacomplete destruction of masswastinganderosion inmountainous are amongthemostdisastrous mechanisms &Gracheva,1998].Landslides 1997; Ilychev &Ives, number ofsuchexamples[Messerli manifests a population, andhumanhistory devoid oflooseslopecover soonlosetheir [Targulian, 2008]. The mountainousareas oreven longer within ahumanlife-time material, onceremoved, cannotregenerate economic activities.Slopemantleofloose for biota,aswell asfor thehumanhabitatand 1998]. Hazardous massmovement may also of about20km vast region having anexceptional volume changed landtopography oftheentire occurred about10,000years agoand Iran, in theKubirKuhMountains, insouthwest landslides ofthepast,Saidmarreh landslide 2007]. One ofthelargest [Warburton, debris of the surrounding arealayer with 45–180m estimated volume of2.5–2.8km St Helenseruption,USA,1980,hadanMount about 0.01km debris. The total volume wasestimated at 3 . The landslidecausedby 3 [Shoaei&Ghayoumian, 2 with3–6mthick 3 andcovered 003.08.2011 14:38:38 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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6 0 total 1.35mlnm [Page etal., 1999]showed that,outofthe inNewZealandevent, 1998,performed catchment area to theintense BolaCyclone response ofa3000ha assess ashort-term andto events to loosesedimenttransport fromcontributions individuallandslide and agricultural land. Studiesto estimate from onforest hillslopesandinfringe can move large volumes ofsediments significant environmental damage. Lanslides Landslides ofdifferent magnitudes cancause 1992; Shuster 2007]. &Highland, dammed bylandslidesediments[Hewitt, catastrophes, suchasoutburstfloodsoflakes affect theenvironment dueto postponed bench-like or fan-like steps onslopes, orfan-like at the bench-like of themountainoustopography. These are and stabilized anditmay form newelements flows. Part ofslidingmasscanbestopped completely eroded andremoved bywater spread outmore orlessevenly andare not somecases, landslidedepositsareIn humans. than theapparent hazard for landscapesand mountainous regions asmuchmore complex have to considertherole oflandslidesin and otherreasons for suchbehavior, we Leavingterritory. asideeconomic, ethnic, landslide soonreturn to thedamaged their settlementsdestroyed byadisastrous many mountainousregions, peoplethatleft events. destructive extremely However, in from landslides,suffer including particularly Heavily populated mountainousregions (e.g.,activity [Schuster 2007]). &Highland, of lossessoilresources dueto landslide can befound inquantitative assessments stored dataonsoilloss sediments. Other continued erosion oflandslidescarsand were 100%greater thanbefore dueto the sediment concentrationsinwaterways a few years following theevent, suspended the exitfrom thecatchment area. Even in for approximately 64% ofthesedimentsat slopes; shallowlandslideswere responsible 89% wasfrom thelandslideerosion onthe approximately thestorm, moved during 3 volume offinesediment caused disastrous landslides androckfalls in simultaneouswithhighrainfalls earthquakes of 1991-1992,series was 10,808in1990.In from 384in1981to 5,044in1988and buildings damagedbylandslidesincreased the mountainousregions. The numberof ofthelandslidesoccurred in 2006. Most than 53,000landslideevents took placein morewere 10,000and30,000,respectively; registered; in1981and1987-1989,there dramatically. 1960,3,000landslideswere By years, thenumberoflandslideshasincreased inthelast20 the last50years, particularly landslides occurindeveloped areas. During prone areas, andabout70%ofidentified population of200,000are located inlandslide- More than2,000settlementswiththe Landslide hazard highinGeorgia. isextremely South Caucasus. oftheRepublicGeorgia, the western part reference Adjara, to Mountainous inthe usable for economicneeds, withaspecial local accumulationofloosemineralmaterial and, ontheotherhand, asamechanismof society, asahazard to soil andsloperegolith landslides inthemountainenvironment and thispaper,In we considerthedualrole of lands. ofusable mountain regions withashortage indenselypopulated importance particular forfarmland thelocalpopulation. This isof sedimentprovidesat present, fertile thelake drainedaway formingrivers lakes now, and, two [1998]: theSaidmarreh landslideblocked are byShoaeiandGhayoumian described feedback to landslides(positive for humans) ofpostponedenvironmentalSome types production [Schuster&Highland, 2007]. or farming, eitherfor pastures orfor crop may bereclaimed andusedfor settlements 1993]. [Easterbrook, Withparticular time, they mountain regions andinthecoastalregions in of mineralmassmovement are found inmany from sliding, slumping, andotherprocesses coarse andfine. These landforms resulting volumeenormous ofloosematerial, both orinriver valleys;theystorebase ofscarps LANDSLIDES IN GEORGIA 003.08.2011 14:38:38 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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total area ( area to the ratio ofthelandslide-damaged To oflandslidehazard, assesstheextent the statistics ofGeorgia). settlements ([Tzereteli, 2000];dataofofficial the mountains, whichaffected about1,500 natural processes. anddangerous populationactivity between tightrelations demonstrates particularly AdjaraMountainous wasselected. Adjara populated mountainousregions ofGeorgia, For thestudyoflandslides’ role in 7. The Colchis Lowland, no Kartly, Inner 6. The Greater Caucasianzone composed 5. macroslopeThe southern oftheGreater 4. macroslopeThe southern oftheGreater macroslope ofthe 3. Northern Trialet Adjara2. Mountainous andthefoothill beltof oftheBlackSeacoastalarea1. Mountains 7 zones [Tzereteli, 2000]. assessment,Georgiaand risk isdivided into oflandslidehazard oftheextent terms ( In [Sheko, 1982]. 6 1 landslides. significant ofrockfalls. risk of Khrami, Loki, and Kelasuri, andKelasuri, Loki, of Khrami, volcanic upland,Javakheti massifs formations, the of rocks ofcrystalline K rocks,carbonate upland, hillsoftheGori Caucasus composedofvolcanic and K flysch, alpinezone ofthe Trialet Ridge, Caucasus composedofshalerocks and K andAragviRivers), theGori (between the piedmontofSouthCaucasus depression and theAkhaltsikhe Ridge, oflandslides. K=0.5-0.7,highrisk Guria, landslides. of highrisk with K=0.7-0.9,extremely =0.01–0.1,significant ofrockfalls. risk oflandslides. =0,1–0,3,mediumrisk =0.3–0.5,significant oflandslides risk K
= S landslide / S total ) isusuallyused K =0.01, K ) sediments [Emelyanova,1964; Tzeretely & cemented deeplyweatheredand poorly cover consolidationdueto rocks fractured melting, frequent rainfalls, andweak slope snow during saturation ofslopematerial the region; theseare steep slopes, water sliding processes in are characteristic controlling factor The presence of every small-size and rock debris fragments. loamy, with incomposition,often andsilty clayey,weathering crusts3–10mthick, rocks underwet mildclimate resulted in (up to 3–4m).Prolonged alteration ofthe altitude, andathicksnowcover inwinter their intensity, anddurationgrowing with for theentire area, are summerstorms, precipitation is1,000–1,600mm. Typical, temperate withaltitude. The meanannual area iswet andchangesfrom subtropical to mass-wasting processes. The climate ofthe intensifying erosionneotectonic uplifts and andesite porphyrites). These are theareas of intermediate composition(andesites and as lava, tuffolava, tuffs, androcks ofmostly volcanicwidely distributed formations, such iscomposedofPaleogenepart, rocks with high elevations. The region is, for thegreater at intheregion,distributed particularly are steep, androckfall slopes are widely are about400–600m. The mountainslopes the relative heightsabove thevalleyfloor and crests) are more than2,000mhigh; (asl), thehighestpoints(mountaintops from 1,000to 2,000mabove sealevelvary rivervalley.Adjaristskali altitudesThe ridge descending westwards andto the an amphitheater ofstepped configuration intheeast;itresemblesthe ArsianRidge inthesouth,andbythe Shavsheti Ridge by inthenorth, Ridge by theMeskheti Putkaradze, 2005]. The area isbounded ofdevelopment [Dzhaoshvili, 1968;history a denselypopulated region withalong Trialet mountainsystem. Atpresent, itis oftheAdjara- belongs to thewestern part oftheAutonomous RepublicofAdjara,part Adjara,Mountainous orUpperAdjara, a NEEDS AND THEIR RECLAMATION FOR HUMAN LANDSLIDES IN MOUNTAINOUS ADJARA 003.08.2011 14:38:39 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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6 2 the material isestimatedthe material at100–1200m forest slumpinginto theriver(Fig. 1),lossof block ofsoilandregolith, together with casesofundisturbed typical their base. In slopes ofgorges withstream channelsat placeonthesteep takes of loosematerial landslide complex. removal The mostactive creep, andslumps, forming often anatural landslides, flow, debris earthflow, mudflow, in theregion, includingtectonic andshallow There oflandslidesrecorded are types various increase eastwards. Tzeretely, areas 1985]. Landslide-prone soil profile. They are mostlyresponsible for seeninthe shallow landslidesare distinctly “drunken forest” are found occasionally. The facing slopeswhere thesites ofso-called pronouncedit ismostclearly onthesouth- slopes display amicrorelief ofshallowslumps; Allforestedthe Adjarian Geologic Survey). (personal communicationwithspecialistsof sediments. The Adjaritskhali River, Mountainous Mountainous River, Adjaritskhali The sediments. Fig. 1. A slump block breaking away from the the from away breaking block 1.Fig. A slump riverbank and irreversible loss of loose slope slope loose of loss irreversible and riverbank Adjaria, Georgia Adjaria, 3
including to thoseresponsible for property residents’ appealsto thestate agencies, may beinferred from the statisticsofthe water sources. Landslideaggravation asphalt roads blocked andmicro-mudflows damaged farmyards, vegetable gardens, and of theirhouses;smallslumpsandslides until fissures beganto appearinstone walls People didnotpay attention to thehazard well assmallmudflows[Berdzenishvili, 2000]. which triggered sliding and slumping, as by increase andduration, inrainfrequency Adjara, rapidsnowmeltand byextremely The 1980swere inMountainous marked, unimpeded. water flowed constantly onto theslopes water use, however, wasnotcontrolled and the householdsandvegetable gardens; the Water pipeswere laidto supplywater to all stone thatrequired larger sites to becleared. replaced or withheavier structuresofbrick population incomewooden houseswere monoculture andwithincrease ofthe Adjara wasaregion ofprofitable tobacco usingrockbuilt, often explosions. Upper grew ofmotor roads andanetwork was municipalities andKhulo Shuakhevi, of Keda, inthesettledandcultivated areasdensity 1998; Gracheva,2004]. The population until the1990s[Gigineishvili &Nahutsrishvili, environment wasincreasing dramatically the20 In and relatively safe. such away ofbuildingwasthemosthandy laying the foundation. Underlandshortage, not require alarge clearing buildingsite and housesdo Light wooden pile-supported have beenadaptingto thelandslidehazard. thecourseofcenturies, theinhabitants In bodies ofregolith slowlymovingdownslope. region. Many settlementsare located onlarge is oneofthemostcrucialproblems ofthis farming. ofcultivablelands The shortage area issuitablefor settlementandagricultural Adjaraonly 10–11%ofthetotal Mountainous ofthe landsurface, Due to dissection heavy finesoil. overlying with coarsermaterial humushorizons,buried orfor “inverted” layers, th century, the human impact onthe century, thehumanimpact 003.08.2011 14:38:39 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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3. The landslide thatoccurred abouta 2. The landslide thatoccurred about60yrs 1. 15,1988. The landslide ofApril time-period. The sequenceisasfollow: and indirect evidencerelated to a40-60yr landslide events wasestimated usingdirect the between was studied;thetimeinterval riverbank landslide bodiesalongtheleft deposits. Achronological sequenceofthree the valleyslopesare located onlandslide of agricultural plotsinthelower portions showedRidge, thatmany settlementsand macroslope oftheShavsheti northern canyon, River the intheSkhalta survey available parcel ofland. Geomorphological forces Land shortage peopleto useevery 2010]. areas [Jorbenadze, ofhighrisk about 20,000householdsare located inthe At present, more than250settlementswith is astrong oflandslideaggravation. factor to intensivesubject illegalcutting, andthat forests haveand water-conservation been landslide prevention andmitigation.Soil- disregard for thenature protection rulesand unemployment andlowincomeleadto fell and theUSSRbreakdown after of landslides. Singlecrop tobacco farming as acatalystofnaturalhazards, primarily, changes, thesocioeconomicprocesses act thelast20years,In undercurrent climate in othereconomicactivities. used inbuildingandroad construction could befarlessifbetter-adapted ways were unavoidable, thedamageto infrastructure though landslidesthemselves are practically isclearenoughthat and smallmudflows. It daily to record damagedueto landslides district several householdsintheKhulo 1988, officersofthestate agenciesvisited damage insurance. Thus, of inthespring 6 3 evidence, includingageof theforest on ago(dated bycircumstantial century depletion). the landslide, mainscarp, andzone of accounts andtheageofforest on ago (theagebasedontheeye witnesses’ estimated at20x10 rock fragments, rubble, and clay was roughly of thelandslidecomposedmostlymixed happened downstream. The total volume at aslowrate, sonocatastrophic flood high. Luckily, thedamerosion proceeded river wasimpoundedwithadam10-15m and thetravel distanceexceeded 3km. The height offallwasapproximately 400m, slope atanaltitudeofabout1800m,the The slumpwasdetachedfrom themountain and debris. undermasses ofloam village wasburied of Apart Tsablanathe opposite riverbank. slope, impoundedtheriver, andcovered sediments slumpedfrom thenorth-facing 15,1988,alargeOn April massofloose surface ofthelandslidebody.surface washeddownslope ontofine material the vegetated; atthetimeofrain,theyyield andthezone of depletionissparsely surface loam orclay. hasopen The landslidescarp be easilycrumbledinhandsinto sandy initially deeplyweathered, can thedebris of solidrocks. As theslopemantlewas ofrubble,mixture withoccasionalfragments andeven cementedpacked into non-sorted there are sand, loams, andclay more densely stage ofsoilformation. Belowthedeposits, organic matter may beregarded astheinitial mixed and loam withcoarse smalldebris 5cmofdepositsconsisting uppermost and are beingeroded flow. byoverland The deposits ofthelandslidetoe are unstable under theslidingmass;itmay beseenthat buried there lineofinitialsurface isadistinct and tree (Fig. debris 2).Ontheriverbank, well aswithindividuallarge rock fragments ridges, hollowsinfilledwithsandandclay, as forested, lowtransverse bearing itssurface body, the slopebecameacone-shaped partly the landslidemassdeposited atthebaseof Fifteen years later, in2003,theremnants of later, intheprocess oferosion followed. wasmoveddown; somematerial to theriver volume gotinto theriverandwaswashed depletion]. the landslide, mainscarp, andzone of 4 m 3 . Aboutahalfofthe 003.08.2011 14:38:39 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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6 4 the latter contains debris in small proportion insmallproportion the latter containsdebris thick anda30–40cm loamhorizon; a structuredhumushorizon upto 10cm exists arelatively well developed soil, with As hasbeenshownbyfieldstudies, there be removed from thearea continuously. took approximately 10years. Stones have to began about20years theevent after and recultivationresidents, thelandslidesurface with perennial grasses. According to thelocal wasrepeatedly ploughedandsown surface and topsoil were piledupinheapsandthe hayfield. Stones removed from thesurface andthearea into wasconverted clear-cut a ofthelandslide, theforestflat portion was covered withconiferous forest. thelower In ismore flattened and though itssurface landslideinsizedescribed andconfiguration, valley (Fig. issimilarto theabove- 3).It side andtopographic positionintheSkhalta landslide islocated downstream onthesame The second, more recent, investigated in 2003). The Skhalta River valley, Mountainous Mountainous valley, River Skhalta The 2003). in Fig. 2. The 15-yr old landslide (the photo taken taken photo (the landslide old 15-yr The 2. Fig. Adjaria, Georgia Insertion in the left corner: corner: left the in Insertion Georgia Adjaria, initial soil profile, stony-loamy non-graded mineral matter the same riverbank (Fig.the sameriverbank tongue has 4).Its in topographic positionandislocated on aboveidentical to thelandslidedescribed downstream; itis age islocated stillfarther The landslideofabout100-yr estimated surface. probably fromstones transported thescar forest canopy, there are accumulationsof on theslopeabove thehayfield, underthe are allforested butfor several steep scarps; andthezonelandslide scarp ofdepletion landslide-hazardous. ofthe The surfaces the river, sothearea may beconsidered The tipofthelandslidebodyisoverhanging development. course ofgeneralagricultural landscape soil conditionsfor thehayfield andinthe inorderby farming to create favorable granulometric compositionhasbeenaltered and ispenetrated bygrass roots. The soil reclaimed for a hayfield. Insertion in the right right the in Insertion ahayfield. for reclaimed humic (mull-moder) A horizon, sandy gravel – gravel sandy A horizon, (mull-moder) humic corner: newly reclaimed soil profile (50 cm); profile soil reclaimed newly corner: Fig. 3. The landslide of about 60 years age; age; years 60 about of landslide The 3. Fig. loamy subsoil loamy 003.08.2011 14:38:39 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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settling andcultivating. Before theevent, suitable for plotsare the described very Local residents explainthat andauthorities andfertilization. weathering by debris mineralssupplied abundance ofnutritional becauseof fertile The soilsare very signs ofalteration bypedogenicprocesses. reaching 60cmormore allthe andbearing bya loamyhorizon underlain horizon, consist ofathick(upto 20–30cm)humus ofthelandslide, soils At thecultivated part buildings, vegetable gardens, orchards, etc.). Adjara ofMountainous (residentialtypical presents acultivated landscape lower part completely withthickconiferous forest. The iscoveredexcept for part, itslowermost is completely forested. The landslidesurface, thezone ofdepletion some opensurfaces; background. isforestedThe mainscarp with almost undistinguishedagainsttheslope reached theriverandlandslideitselfis 6 5 Insertion in the left corner: reclaimed soil profile (50 cm); humic (mull) aggregated A horizon, Ahorizon, aggregated (mull) (50 humic cm); profile soil reclaimed corner: left the in Insertion Fig. 4. The landslide of 100-yr estimated age (or older); developed area and farmland. and area developed (or older); age estimated 100-yr of landslide The 4. Fig. fine gravel – loamy subsoil –loamy gravel fine agriculture. Thus, landslidebodies were usedfor where landslideshave beenlongusedfor There are many otherregions oftheCaucasus concern ofcultivablelands, itsorigin isnota shortage and, underthe land isregarded astop-quality residential development andagriculture. The isusedfor forgotten andthelandslidesurface 40 years theevent, after thecatastrophe is a problem for theiractivities. Approximately for many centuries, sothis doesnotrepresent accustomed to stone removal from thefields of mountainousregions have become quite spread laterally andbecamegentler. Residents solidified;itssides event, thelandslidesurface in mountains. yearsTwenty the after to thirty –avaluableagriculturalloose material resource theyaccumulated great massesof important; gentle slopesand, whichiseven more The landslidescreated landforms withrelatively quite unsuitablefor anddevelopment. farming there were steep forested mountainslopes . 003.08.2011 14:38:40 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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6 6 earth washedaway suchcalculations byrivers; earth possible to calculate thevolume ofthelostfine many is landslide events intheworld. It is information lossesfor onloosematerial into badlands.territory, anditsturning There ecosystem productivity, depopulation ofthe results inadramaticreductionofbiodiversity, Eventually,constituent –fineearth. thisloss material, soils, andtheirmostimportant consequence isirrecoverable lossofloose forefforts damagecompensation. Another lands, houses, andinfrastructurerequire great ofcultivated consequences asdestruction environments, andthepopulation. Such mountainousareas,for their particular bylandslidesisofvitalimportance material ofloose denudation,transport surface earth oftheglobalprocess ofthe Being apart [Gracheva &Golyeva, 2010]. andcouldbediscoveredpreserved later on is such amagnitude surface thattheburied environments events, andhistorical ifithas information onthepast it sealsandpreserves atthe sametime, people leave theirterritory; and slidingcovers settlementsandmakes brought The material downslopebyslumping oftheregion settlement. past andthehistory they provide insightinto environments ofthe landslides allowtheevent to bedated; besides, under Studies ofsoilsanddepositsburied soilisusuallydisturbed. original surface up terrace, notresulting from slumping, the body.under theterrace case ofabuild- In locally soilpreserved of theirorigin isburied upslope. scarps Anotherevidence preserved Terrace steps are identifiableaslandslidesby sliding andslumpingcannotbeexcluded. washanderosion, thoughrepeated surface transformed inthisway are usuallyresistant to base, anduseitfor growing crops. The slopes steps. People reinforce level slumpsurface, its blocks ofregolith move andform bench-like use smallslumpswhenalmostundisturbed slopes are composedofschist.As arule, people depression,Jurassic intermountain where the Caucasus, inNorth oftheNorth the centralpart slope development into agricultural in terraces CONCLUSION Skhalta municipality.Skhalta administration andnumerous ofthe farmers ofthelocal without goodwillandhospitality The research inGeorgia would notbepossible for theirassistanceandfor providing information. LandDepartment district and staffoftheKhulo oftheAutonomousMining RepublicofAdjara, for Geologyand geologists of the Department Subtropical Cultures and Tea Anaseuli; Industry, General Director oftheResearch for Institute Tea, colleagues from Georgia: Acad., Prof. V.P. Tsanava, theirsincereThe authorsextend gratitude to the damage.rapidly inflicted implies potential for from recovery long-term in cultivablelands. Thus, thelandslideprocess intheregionis ofgreat deficient importance resulting soilsare suitablefor agriculture. This altered byremediation measures andthe the event, sedimentsappearto beessentially within afew decades. years after Fifty to sixty colonize andcultivate landslideaccumulations system presented herein showsthatpeoplecan landslides intheAdjara-Trialet mountainous The casestudyofachronological sequenceof to theneedsofpeople. newly formed landforms are beingadapted resource andthe ofloosemineralmaterial landslide depositsprovide apotential inecosystem development.cycles Stabilized habitats for new biotaand, thus, starting and newlandforms emerge forming new becomeexposedto weathering surfaces creation ofnewsites for settlement.New and development ofnewsoils, aswell as rejuvenation ofmountainous ecosystems of loosematerial, landslidespromote anddeposition regolith. transportation By andremoval ofsoiland activity destructive role inmountainousregions beyond extends shouldbenoted, however,It thatthelandslide regolith from vastareas. regions undercatastrophic lossofsoiland and socialdevelopment inmountainous possible to forecast environmental evolution whetheritis few cases. Butitisstilluncertain have thoughfor beenalready performed, only ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 003.08.2011 14:38:41 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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15. Sheko 15. Sheko oftheEffects ofMass Wasting L.M.(2007).Overview Schuster R.L.,Highland ontheNatural 14. Putkaradze T. problems 13. ofpopulationAdjara (2005).Migration andethno-demographic 12. P 11. B., J.D. Ives Messerli (Eds.) ofthe (1997).Mountains World. AGlobalPriority. Parthenon B.A.,Ilychev GrachevaR.G.(1998).Conditions10. ofloosemantlemountainousregions as 9. Jorbenadze T. andState Policy. (2010).Adjara Eco-Migrants http://en.iod. hazards. (1992).Mountain GeoJournal, 27,47-60. Hewitt K.K. 8. 7. Regions:Gracheva R.G.,Golyeva A.A.(2010).LandslidesinMountain Hazard, Resource, 6. GrachevaR.G.(2004).Landusetransformation Adzharia anditspossible inMountainous Gigineishvili G.N.,Nahutsrishvili G.Sh.(1998).Problems5. ofsustainable development ofthe Emelyanova E.P.4. (1964). oflandslideprocesses.The mainpatterns Nedra,Moscow. 333pp. Easterbrook D.J. Processes (1993).Surface andLandforms. Publishing Macmillan Company,3. 2. Dzhaoshvili V. Sh.(1968).Population ofGeorgia. Metsnieroba, Tbilisi. 397pp. 1. Berdzenishvili D. (Ed.) bulletinofecological (2000).Information state ofgroundwater, REFERENCES 6 7 (in Russian). Projects, theState Committee for Scienceand Technology, Moscow, 361–378. A.I.(Ed.)processes. LandslidesandMudflows. Sheko Center In: for international Environment. Environmental andEngineering Geoscience, 13(1),25–44. in multiethnicregion. BatumiUniversity, Batumi.205pp. Georgian). (In 289–308. Bola landslides Waipaowa ofHydrology catchment. (NewZealand), Journal 38(2), Publishing, New York 495pp. andCarnforth. Geography Series, 6,48-59(inRussian). oftheirsustainabledevelopment.a factor BulletinoftheRussianAcademy ofSciences. ge/?mod=articles&rubric=2&id=11 Springer, 249–260. Beer In: Information. T. (Ed.) Geophysical Hazards. International Year ofPlanet Earth. consequences (thelast15years). AnnalsofAgrarian Science, 4,7–15(inRussian). Series, 6,95–101(inRussian). mountainous regions ofGeorgia). BulletinoftheRussianAcademy ofSciences. Geography Russian). (In New York, NY. 520p. Russian). (In of Geology, Tbilisi. 412pp. Georgian). (In studies ofhazardous geological processes andtheirforecast. Georgian State Department age M.J., ReidL.M.,andLinnI.H.(1999).Sedimentproduction from Cyclone A.I. (1982). andmethodsofforecasting exogenousTheory geological 003.08.2011 14:38:41 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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6 8 21. J.Warburton environments. C., (2007).Mountain Perry In: Taylor (Eds.) Environmental K. Tzeretely E.D., 20. Tzeretely D.D. (1985).Geological settingofmudflowsinGeorgia. Metsniereba, 19. Tzereteli E.D. (2000).ElementalNature Geography Phenomena. In: ofGeorgia. Part I, 18. Page M.J., ReidL.M.,andLinnI.H.(1999).Sedimentproduction from Cyclone Bola 17. Targulian andsoilresponses. DazziC., V. humanimpact In: (2008).Soilsandsociety: 16. Shoaei, Z.,Ghayoumian, J. (1998).Seimareh landslide, thelargest complexslideinthe erosion. (2011),doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.02.008. Geomorphology R. Formation inthemountainoustropics ofsoildiversity andsubtropics: Rocks, time, and of some types ofsoilinGeorgia,of sometypes Pochvovedenie, 2010,4(inRussian). Metzniereba, 1999(editor); AndosolsofGeorgia. Tbilisi, 2009 (inGeorgian); regimeThermal sedimentology. Publishing, Blackwell 32–74. Tbilisi. 188pp. Russian). (In Physical Geography, “Metsniereba”, Tbilisi, 69–83(inGeorgian). landslides, Waipaowa ofHydrology catchment. (NewZealand), Journal 38(2),289–308. GeoEcology, 39,13–26. Costantini E.(Eds.) The soilsoftomorrow. Soilschanging inachanging world. Advances in Engineering GeologyandtheEnvironment, 1–5,pp. 1337–1342. Proceedingsworld. In Congress Association EightInternational for oftheInternational Raisa G.Gracheva, Raisa Tengiz F. Urushadze of theGeologists’ Association 121(2010)229–237.Gracheva, Agropromizdat, 1989(inRussian); SoilmapofGeorgia. Neolithic occupationintheRussianforest zone. Proceedings PostglacialA. Sorokin. Mesolithic– floodplaindevelopment and 2009.125p.MediaGroupInform, Vandenberghe, J., R.Gracheva, Agenda for SettlementsoftheCaucasus. Mountainous M., publications:Gracheva,R.G.,M.L.Kozeltsev.Selected mountainpopulationand theenvironment.between interests are mountainsoils, hydromorphic soils, andinteractions of Geographyscientist oftheInstitute ofRAS.Herfields Geography, State University. Moscow Currently, sheisleading andSoil Geography, ofLandscapeGeochemistry Department Selected publications: Mountainous SoilsoftheUSSR.Moscow, publications:Mountainous Selected about 30monographs andtextbooks. protection. Author ofmore than350publications, including fields ofscientificinterests are soilgenesisand primary His present, President oftheGeorgian (GSSS). SoilScienceSociety Javakhishvili of theIvane Tbilisi State University. From 1985to Georgian State Agrarian University. Currently, heisfullprofessor of theChairSoilScience, Provost, andPresident ofthe pedology from State (1979).HewasHead University Moscow Agrarian University, received ofSciencedegree hisDoctor in , Prof., graduated from theGeorgian State
PhD, graduated from theFaculty of 003.08.2011 14:38:41 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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*Corresponding author Komzina str., 10, Togliatti, [email protected] 445003,Russia;e-mail: of the Oka riverbasinare presented.of theOka content anditschangesintheforestscarbon issuggested.warming The mapsonthe offuture scenarios greenhouseknown under biotic regulation cycle ofthecarbon changing climate are described. Possible stabilizing thecontinentalbiosphere under offoresttypes formations capableof of forest associationsandzonal/regional modelsforempirical-statistical identification analyticalandcartographic constructing inforestcycle ecosystems. for Methods evaluation ofbioticregulation ofthecarbon methodsfor of landscape-ecological This paperpresents theresults ofapplication of carbon poolsindifferentof carbon componentsof is placedonaprocedure for determination 2006; etc.]. However, whileastrong emphasis Climate..., 1996;Aberetal, 2001;Celniker, both inRussiaandabroad [Gorshkov, 1994; highlighted inquite anumberofpapers system. These problems have already been inthesoil–vegetation–atmospherecycle studying thebioticregulation ofthecarbon climate isconnected, inmany respects, with of thecontinentalbiosphere underchanging Understanding mechanismsofsustainability prediction. modeling, approach, ecological cartographic climatic changes, statistical empirical Erland G.Kolomyts 1 KEY WORDS: ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION 6 PREDICTIVE MODELING PREDICTIVE WARMING: LANDSCAPE-ECOLOGICAL ECOSYSTEMS UNDER GLOBAL CARBON BALANCE OF FOREST 9 Institute ofEcologyInstitute ofthe Volga Basin,RussianAcademy River ofSciences, ecosystem, biogeocoenoses, 1 *,Gennady S.Rozenberg*,Gennady of factors effecting bioticregulationof factors ofCO predictions oftheclimatogenic dynamics lesser extent. Thus, there no are actually climatic changesare illustrated to amuch to global cycle components ofthecarbon assessment ofresponses ofdifferent biotic other ecosystems, problems ofquantitative content inforests,carbon wetlands, and andthecurrent cycle ofthecarbon functioning phytobiota andinsoil, aswell asonthe providing for ofthecontinental thestability The forest cover isoneoftheleadingfactors developed insuchstatement oftheproblem. inthebiosphere hasnotbeenyet cycle concept ofbioticregulation ofthecarbon heterogeneity ofbiogeocoenoses. The iscreated bystructural cycles primarily de Haes, ofbiological 1994].Spatialdiversity andUdo Canada, andUSA,respectively [Klijn phase” inclassificationsofAustralia-Britain, “site”,categories “ecoelement”, and “landtype accepted inRussiacorresponds to the unit ofgeographical ecology elementary functional “core” [Sochava, 1974]. This ofnaturalenvironment, i.e., part active its topological level, isthemostcomplexand (landscape facieses),i.e. ecosystems ofthe the Le Chatelier’s principle. Biogeocoenoses of naturalenvironment inaccordance with thatprovidesthe biological stability cycle studies oflocal-regional mechanismsof biotic regulation may beachieved through Further development oftheconcept content intheatmosphere. 1 , LarisaS.Sharaya 1 003.08.2011 14:38:41 2 3
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7 0 developments [Climate..., 1995;Aberetal, developed. prognosticpoorly International dynamics underchanging climate have been The problems offorecasting forest ecosystem severalhumus may decades. take litter, coarsewoody debris, andmobilesoil presenceduration ofcarbon intheforest are ofthesameorder, however thetotal forests [8].Changesin decompositionrates within ayear ofbroadleaf inthesub-zone years inthetaigazone andare completed thefirstseveralproduction appearduring intheratesClimatogenic ofphytomass shifts changesisrelativelyof thesefunctional small. production anddegradation). Atemporal lag (phytomass insmallbiological cycles shifts changing climate bythe is determined under Biotic regulation cycle ofthecarbon thevegetationchange during period. ecological reconstructionsistemperature significant. offuture The leadingclimaticfactor temperaturewith theaverage isnon- January average Julytemperature, whileitsassociation itselfdependsmainlyonthe thisfactor turn, In parameters. andmainfunctional distribution predeterminingfactor ecosystem territorial ecological moisture whichisthemostpowerful system passesthrough thesummersoil ecosystems withthebackground climatic ofregionalchannel ofconnections andlocal established thatthemain been empirically the Volga has basin[Kolomyts, River 2008].It forest ecosystems intheheadwater area of regional environmental forecast studiesof This problem wasaddressed intheprevious increasing greenhouse effect. is considered oneofthemaincauses [Gorshkov, 1994].Global-scaledeforestation temperature regime oftheatmosphere andthe cycle 1972], includingthecarbon [Sukachev,natural biogeochemicalcycles most potent regulators andstabilizers of biosphere. Forest ecosystems are the APPROACH TOPROBLEM THE THE LANDSCAPE-ECOLOGICAL BACKGROUND experimental test sites of the Middle and test sitesexperimental oftheMiddle outbytheauthorsatsix carried surveys landscape-ecological oflarge-scale Materials resolution. 2001], buttheyhave ahigherlevel ofspatial instance, atsimulationmodeling[Aber etal, obtained are probably notasaccurate as, for most informative characteristics. The results possible to withasmallnumberofthe work concept [Sukachev, 1972]. italso They make biogeocoenoses oftheSukachev’s in theaspect systems astheindivisiblecomplexformations behavior ofgeo-(eco-) models describe [Rozenberg, 1984;Kolomyts, 2008]. These systems much more complicated geo-(eco-) of discrete modelsof empirical-statistical presented herein isbasedonconstruction prediction The locallandscape-ecological ecosystems to climaticchanges. that ensure theresistance ofterrestrial the atmosphere andto identifymechanisms and surface exchange theearth between the phytobiota effect onthecarbon to findtheorigins ofthemechanisms regional conditions. itpossible This makes biogeocoenoses underdifferent zonal/ of bythespatialdistribution determined ofthisregulationdiverse types mechanism allowsoneto identify landscape position.It regulation phenomenafrom abroader We offer theapproach to analysisofbiotic topological oftheecosystems. diversity biomes,sites intypical ratherthantheentire onlytypical limited becausetheydescribe areas. However, thesemodelsare spatially homogeneous ofstructurally characteristics cover onthebasisoffunctional selected with comparatively smallareas oftheforest of landscapemosaic[Forman, 1995]deal studied.been poorly models The so-called ecosystems underclimaticchangeshas addition,behavior oflocal climatic factors. In forest communitiesto thesamebackground ofresponsesfor of thespatialvariability cannot reveal basicmechanismsaccounting 2001; etc] are mainlysmall-scaleand, hence, FIELD DATA FOR MODELING 003.08.2011 14:38:41 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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7 1 under different zonal/regional conditions of the Middle and Upper Volga Regions, according to the the to according Regions, Volga Upper and Middle the of conditions zonal/regional different under Fig. 1. Landscape couplings of the predicted carbon balance dynamics in forest biogeocoenoses biogeocoenoses forest in dynamics balance carbon predicted the of couplings 1. Landscape Fig. ΔС(Fa) balance (t/ha); –carbon T,... E, sun –sunny, TE, slopes: sites –local (see exposed solar inthetext); scenarios of HadCM3 model. shad andneutral –shady 003.08.2011 14:38:41 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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7 2 (Hadley Centre ofClimate Research, UK) [Climate..., 1996]–HadCM3,version A2 ocean generalcirculation models (AOGCMs) global coupledatmospheremost extreme to 2100wereperiod from taken oneofthe The regional for climate scenarios the forest litter mass, humus insoilorganic-mineral layers, mass (brushwood anddead-wood), (2) root mass, phytomass, tree-shrub balance: (1)skeletal ha a particular (Fig. 1).Eachofthesetest sites characterizes forest-steppethe southern to mixed forests wide rangeofzonal plantformations, from forecast analysis. These test sites containa in amethodspecificallydeveloped for the Upper Volga Region (1987–1998)were used The following phytomass parameters ( regions, considerablydistant. often backgroundreflecting conditionofother other geotopes were considered extrazonal, a given ecoregion). The biogeocenosesof ofzonal for bioclimaticnorm a localtype occupies eluviallocationsandrepresents within thebiogeocenoses(thisgroup (placor)groupflat interfluve wasisolated regional level couplings[Polynov, 1956]. The ofthemesoreliefat types characteristic A similarsystem oflandscapecouplingsis 1964]. [Glazovskaya, (Saq), according to theclassification (TA) to theaccumulative (A) andsuperaqual andthetransaccumulative slope transit(T) oflocalsites (geotopes)types through the from theeluvial(E)andtranseluvial(TE) direction ofedaphicmoistening increase: landscape couplings(microcatenae) inthe were located alongthevector ofthelocal in eachofthetest sites. The faciesgroups been isolated basedon45–50sampleareas offorestdiversity andtest sites types have Six faciesgroups thatrepresent general Town, etc. Farmstead,Shchelokovsky Green By-Sura, corresponding conventional name(Zhyguli, ) were usedfor calculationofthecarbon regional ecosystems BR ; ML (3)total green mass, ; (5) debris – dead skeletal –deadskeletal ; (5)debris , with the HU WD BV . ; (6) ; (6) ; (4) ; (4) BS t / ;
the 21 in theMiddle Volga Region bytheendof 7.0 [Climate ...,1996]. The modelforecasts a5.5– beganattheend ofthisperiod warming represented thebaseline. Recentglobal formeteorological 1881–1985 observation 2050–2075, and2075–2100. of The period 1985–2010, 2010–2030,2030–2050, (20–25yrsduration): included five intervals The entire forecast inouranalysis period areas. both nemoralandboreal forests withinlarge endurance andcausethedisintegration of changes thatmay exceed thelevel oftree ecosystems feedback to globalclimatic oneto evaluatethis modelpermits theforest [Pope etal, 2000].Ecological by prediction C unchanged; therefore, thehumidifyfactor the annualprecipitation willremain virtually when biotareleases CO source,sink into thecarbon i.e., thesituation the transformation ofbiotafrom thecarbon violation oftheLe Chatelier’s is principle terrestrial andoceanbiota.Anapparent utilizationbythe enhancement ofcarbon atmosphere isaccompaniedbyanequal spontaneous increase ofCO state ofenvironment willbestableifany following postulate [Gorshkov, 1994]:the natural environment isexpressed bythe The Le Chatelier’s for of principle stability parameters offorestfunctional ecosystems. analysis ofclimatogenic dynamicsofthe asthebasisforassumed thisscenario our in theentire Middle Volga Region. We have climatictrend willbedeveloping thermo-arid Volga region. Thus, untiltheyear of2100,the and from ofthe 1.37to 0.65insub-taiga forest-steppesouthern oftheZhyguli region topoecosystems underdifferent zonal/ offorestof metaboliccharacteristics assessed usinghydro-thermal ordination The potential ofbioticregulation hasbeen influence. under external METHODS OFMETHODS FORECAST ANALYSIS hum ° increase ofthemeanJulytemperature willdecrease from 0.95to 0.36inthe st century. According to thisscenario, 2 into theatmosphere 2 content inthe 003.08.2011 14:38:42 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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bold font. **) *) ( is notalways high,thoughquite significant As canbeseenfrom Table 1,thecorrelation ofthe0–50smsoillayer.moisture reserves depth of50cmandbysummerproductive bysoiltemperature atthe was performed changes ofbiological cycle). The ordination simulation ofanticipated climatogenic regional andlocalconditions(anempirical S so-called forestry method based onthe forestry so-called different bioticcomponents, we usedthe To content in assesschanges ofthecarbon under theinfluenceofgeophysical trend. ofchangesgiven tendency parameters general can beinterpreted onlyasacertain 7 P y 3 parameters of diff x y =b
y =b y =b
— coeffi (calculation R Model type Model type 1 y = formula) *) n – —coeffi Table 1. Examples of calculation models that describe changes of biogeocoenotic biological cycle cycle biological biogeocoenotic of changes describe that models calculation of Table 1. Examples + b soiltemperature at50cmdepth( + b + b + b exp 0.05). 0 0 0 +b +b +b 1 2 2 2 /
cients ofstandard deviation.Signifi cantarguments inequationsofmultiple regression are showninthe x x x x (b 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 cient ofcorrelation; P–signifi cancelevel (the Pearson criterion); ) x 0 x x + 1 2 1 +
+ + At a weak connection, the latter thelatter At aweak connection, Prioksko-Terrasny Shchelokovsky Shchelokovsky Shchelokovsky Shchelokovsky Shchelokovsky Shchelokovsky Regional eco- erent regional ecosystems in the Middle Volga Region under trends of changes in soil soil in changes of trends under Region Volga Middle the in ecosystems regional erent temperature and soil moisture content during the vegetation period vegetation the during content moisture soil and temperature (see Fig. 1) Kerzhenets systems By-Sura Zhyguli Zhyguli reserve Zeleny Zeleny Gorod Gorod Hutor Hutor Hutor Parame ters (see inthe t 50 ); text)
WD WD WD HU HU HU HU HU ML ML ML x BV BR BR BS BS BS 2
– stored soilmoisture in0–50сmlayer (W-50). 3.3097 .00 .6 90.49 0 0.769 0.00403 0.9472 –34.93 4396.306207.0 0 0.642 64.63 –4.389 .853.8056016.0 0 0.506 35.08 0.0845 53 .1900020570.4•10 0.577 0.00042 0.0159 25.31 4. 14751209602.21 0 0.936 5.142 –114.7 642.1 40 031 .09 .9 17.75 0 0.699 0.00091 –0.3611 44.08 28 028 .04 .2012.78 0 0.72 0.00149 –0.2588 22.85 71 –2.333 27.18 –0.2402 16.34 .6 62 .1 12.25 39.3 0 0 0.614 0.611 26.26 15.42 1.768 3.706 19 –0.7415 21.93 4. .96–.01 .5 0.7•10 0.557 –0.00312 0.3956 244.6 5.838 8.712 25011 .4 9.31 0 0.649 0 0.1712 12.5 0 5.99 .4009 .0608108.03 0 0.851 0.0006 0.0091 8.84 b 0 different of theforecast periods for each the soil-plantcover andtheatmosphere for flowsbetween possible changesofthecarbon This balanceequationwasusedto calculate +ΔC( follows: plant-atmosphere system wascalculated as change ΔC( for oftime[Celniker, longperiods 2006]. The components cycle assessments ofthecarbon method gives thebest results atbalance dynamics oflive anddeadphytomass. This Coeffi b cients 1 ΔС( HU Fa 0.04896 0.07426 –0.7135 –0.0678 ) –ΔC( Fa 55.75 ) =ΔC( ) of the carbon flowinthesoil- ) ofthecarbon b 2 BS WD ) –ΔC( .9 20.29 0 0.696 .1 6.51 0 0.717 .1 0 0.713 .6 3.09 0 0.664 .8 0.1•10 0.582 RPS ) +ΔC( characteristics **) BV Statistical ) –ΔC( ML ) + –3 –3 –3 BR 17.92 16.32 ). (1) 71.4 y 003.08.2011 14:38:42 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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7 4 becomes asource ofadditionalCO or,by globalwarming onthecontrary, induced inthebiological cycle shifts of CO of theequationprovide for anincrease At positive values, thefirstthree members may have bothpositive andnegative values. oftheequation(1) part member oftheright ecosystems (mentionedabove). Each group offaciesinallexaminedsixregional Topography atresolution 3 Mission from theNASA Morphometric oftherelief. ecosystems withmorphometry oflocal characteristics and functional of thestructural statistically significant linkages (1 : 50–100,000) wasbasedonpredetermined, thelocallevel, mapping large-scale At et al, 2002]. parameters introduced byP. [Shary A.Shary values. Herein, we used asystem of18 are confinedto sixbasicmorphometric methods ofaquantitative relief description the analyzed territory. The currently known ofsignificantly theboundaries extending calculated) onrepresentative test sites, thus the analysis)ofdatameasured (or (substantiated duringand extrapolation ofrelief allowinterpolationproperties Multidimensional environment-forming etal, 2002]. analysis [Shary, 2001;Shary oftheforecast part used inthecartographic were New methodsofgeomorphometry emissions. of CO ecosystems consumesadditionalamount which showswhetherthisgroup offorest the atmosphere byΔС( isdescribed exchange biogeocoenosesand between the overall balanceofchangescarbon the results are quite theopposite. Thus, At negative valuesoftheabove parameters, deposit). live phytomass plays therole ofitssink(i.e., source,as anadditionalcarbon whilethe thiscase, thedeadphytomassIn poolacts members provide for adecrease ofthisflow. to theatmosphere, whiletheotherthree 2 2 emissionfrom thesoil-plantcover from theatmosphere dueto the parameters were derived data (SRTM3, Shuttle Radar ShuttleRadar data (SRTM3, '' arc seconds arc seconds Fa ), 2
the total C sources – ofthebaselineperiod ecoregion: 12.6 significance at resolution 30 ShuttleRadar (SRTM30, Topography Mission, project result ofimplementationSRTM elevationsobtainedasa surface of earth thematrices NASA satellite dataontherelief: Regional mapswere usingthe constructed Table 3. other predictors are given inthenote to Here, 25.3 • the changeintotal Cstocks by2050– extrapolation. extrapolation. The methodutilizes the using ourmethodofinduction-hierarchic out maps at1:2,500,000scalewas carried level offorecast of withconstruction Transition from thelocalto theregional 2001]. using program “Analytical GISEco” [Shary, plant formations andtheircombinations for predictive for periods performed the of changesinthetotal Ccontent hadbeen statistical analysisofspatialdifferentiation advance,Russia witha900mgrid. the In Kavraysky forVII INTprojection theEuropean for thisbasinwastransformed into the attheregional level.territory The matrix asthemodel basinwastaken river The Oka version2_1/SRTM30/). on equator, http://dds.cr.usgs.gov/srtm/ or 90equator,on m correlation coefficient equations (withthecorresponding Spearman instance, thefollowing multipleregression projectionforKruger the9th6 spacing) of50mrecalculated into theGauss- withacellsizeelevations asmatrices (grid on srtm/version2_1/SRTM3/) C Q base H Δ +18.0• – mean curvature; designations of –meancurvature; • C =222.6–55.6 H 2050 =–99.8.+47.1• ; ( P r s ) were obtainedfor theZhyguli =0.87, H '' ; ( arc secondsor900m r s =0.88, P <10 http://dds.cr.usgs.gov/ r • S
andthelevel of GA the earth surface surface the earth –6
P – 25.6 ); (2) <1–) (3) <10–6). GA ° zone. For • +
Q – 003.08.2011 14:38:43 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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couplings (E the linksofchainregional landscape mesocatenae wasbrokeninto mesosites, i.e., formation represented asapoly-vector setof (microcatena). Then, eachrangeofagiven spatially ordered system oflocalz theregional characterizes This series inagiven series and extrazonal ecoregion. biogeocoenoses from theirflatinterfluve groupmap wascorrelated of withacertain distinguished onthesmall-scalegeobotanic ofplantformations Each type/subtype The procedure wasasfollows. ofextrapolation ecosystem changes. asamodelofthemaintrends of may serve the predicted climate changes. These rows (see above) thatcorrespond to thevector of biogeocoenoses andextrazonal interfluve are composedofthevector rows offlat environment. These regional systems on thebackground regional-bioclimatic local geomorphological andedaphyc factors oftheinfluence on theidentifiedpatterns systems were of localzonality isolated based changes [Kolomyts, 2008]. The regional a form oftheirresponse to globalclimatic systems as oflocalgeo-(eco-) poly-zonality establishedphenomenon ofempirically mosaic was, then,supplemented with the Thus obtainedtheregional phytocatenae of acorresponding geobotanicalrange. groups ateachtest sites into mesogeotopes aggregated thebiogeocoenosesofallisolated imageofmicrocatenae,a homomorphic we couplings [Polynov, 1956]amesocatena is B.B. Polynov’s conceptionoflandscape Assuming thatinaccordance withthe Prioksko-Terrasny reserve. Green Town, andtheVyksa, Kerzhenets, Farmstead,of thetest sites Shelokovsky regression equationsappliedto thedata such mapwascompiledusingmultiple area oftheregion. For riverbasin, theOka of mesoscalesites for theentire forested possible to create anintermediate map statistics were applied. Then, itwas shady). Newmethodsofgeomorphometric g solar-exposure two with divisionofthe TE and T locationsinto 7 5 → TE → T radations (sunny and → TA, A;seeabove), onality onality the comingcentury, thecontent ofcarbon and 180–243t/ha,respectively. Therefore, in the third regions were 140–190,134–2,112, baseline valuesfor thefirst,second, and and inthebiogeocenosesgeneral. The phytomass flowsinthelive skeletal the carbon potential rangeofclimatogenic changesof +(115÷120) t/ha. These valuesrepresent the Δ Volga region. valuesof changes The extreme broadleaf forest Novgorod oftheNizhnyi to +(95-100)t/hain TE andEofconiferous- Farmsteadthe ZhiguliandShchelokovsky 62) valueswillrangefromin itsextreme –(37– contentchanges ofthetotal [ΔC( carbon 2100, 2).By (Table ofproductivity the shifts biomass, represents of thegreatest part phytomass (BS),mainlyincrement ofwoody biogenesis part. tree-shrub The skeletal butinitsautotrophic ofthecycle, part changes occurnotinthedecomposition of time, themaximal(byabsolute values) same time, sufficientlylongperiods during toshould react climaticchangesfirst.Atthe 2009]; therefore, thedecompositionpart [Kolomyts, part changes thantheproductivity asarule,cycle, ismore sensitive to climatic 1. ofthebiological The decompositionpart and Rozenberg, 2009]. publications [e.g., Kolomyts, 2008;Kolomyts inmoredescribed detailinourprevious areprediction given below(theyare The mainresults oftheempirical-statistical Predictions by Models Analytical surveys. offieldlandscape-ecological materials predictive mappingbaseddirectlyonthe fundamentally novel methodofregional isa of induction-hierarchicextrapolation environment. algorithmThe described ofthegeographicregional types/subtypes representative membersofdifferent zonal- aslocal of thebiogeocoenosesserving baseline orpredictive metabolicparameters DISCUSSION MODELING RESULTS AND THEIR C ( Fa t / ha ) will comprise from) willcomprise –(78÷100) t/hato inEand TA ofoak-linden forests of BS 003.08.2011 14:38:43 )] 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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7 6 baseline period in fl in period baseline Table 2. The forecasted component and balance changes in the carbon content ( content carbon the in changes balance and component forecasted The Table 2. (see inthetext) Parameters aac 3.8–71 2.9–32 3.8–31.32 –31.38 –33.24 –29.09 –27.61 –27.19 –26.17 137.88 –29.0 Balance –29.25 70.9 –31.24 58.15 239.43 43.91 Balance 30.0 14.77 –23.33 201.36 –28.39 –34.42 Balance –37.34 –40.56 –83.11 211.41 –77.29 –69.91 Balance –61.09 –50.51 198.61 Balance WD WD WD WD WD HU HU HU HU HU ML ML ML ML ML BV BV BV BV BV BR BR BR BR BR BS BS BS BS BS at interfl Base values 5.9–71 2.5–77 2.9–27.91 –27.99 –27.76 –27.85 60.19 –27.14 49.82 155.09 38.16 26.61 2.90 13.73 –3.31 134.14 –10.84 –14.77 –18.99 123.42 36 24 34 35 36 –4.09 –3.45 –3.66 –4.73 –12.59 –3.50 –4.71 –11.60 –3.41 2.51 –11.68 –4.16 –2.45 2.48 –9.81 –3.91 –7.17 –4.32 13.69 2.55 –9.44 –7.15 10.15 –4.34 17.08 2.52 –7.21 –4.28 –3.43 –7.19 2.84 –4.30 –3.11 17.06 –7.44 12.79 –4.11 –2.65 14.28 15.66 42.41 –2.28 11.09 –1.71 –14.76 7.99 –13.53 –5.64 11.16 4.44 –11.45 –6.46 39.48 –11.09 –7.82 –9.76 –21.66 –8.04 –8.80 –20.68 31.64 –8.88 –8.45 –19.72 –18.62 –18.06 40.40 –39.66 –8.02 –15.29 –16.13 –35.78 –7.53 –10.54 –14.08 –31.55 –6.98 61.47 –11.90 –27.32 10,24 –23.05 30.25 82.78 .504 02 03 04 –0.64 0.60 –0.40 0.86 –0.31 –11.15 0.82 11.14 –11.85 –0.26 –11.86 1.19 12.69 0.40 –1.88 –12.64 9.58 1.21 7.85 –13.00 –1.87 9.44 4.41 84.7 –1.89 –2.38 6.58 –3.84 –1.88 3.30 –2.05 –3.80 7.48 –1.98 3.01 –1.60 –3.73 6.00 –1.00 2.65 –3.63 –2.79 –0.13 –1.91 2.32 –3.46 –2.45 –1.13 –1.71 5.48 1.90 4.06 –2.03 –0.93 –1.46 6.59 –1.60 8.99 –0.84 –1.23 –1.28 7.78 –0.61 –1.06 –2.26 5.88 6.34 –0.60 4.90 –2.10 4.90 5.17 –1.93 3.56 –1.77 5.24 –1.60 4.39 uve forest biogeocoenoses under diff under biogeocoenoses forest uve Middle and Upper Volga Regions Volga Upper and Middle d 0023 0027 2100 2075 2050 2030 2010 ) Prioksko-Terrasny reserve e ) Kerzhensky reserve ) Kerzhensky c ) Green Town b a ) By-Sura ) Zhyguli Changes in predicted periods Changes inpredicted erent zonal-regional conditions of the the of conditions zonal-regional erent t / ha ) relative to the tothe ) relative 003.08.2011 14:38:43 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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change by ecosystems oftheMiddle Volga region may stored phytomass intheskeletal oftheforest and debris and debris results intheincrease of forest litter mass above ground deadorganic matter. This will decomposition andmineralizationofthe increase andimpede underglobalwarming the zonal forest-steppe ecotones will At thesametime, soilmoisture deficitof be insignificant. balancewillto thechangesincarbon change little;therefore, theircontribution forests watersheds, ofwell-drained will sunny slopesandthatofpinesteppified meadow-steppe communitiesonsteep offorest-biogeocoenoses, particularly sequestrationofxeromorphicrate ofcarbon reduced.markedly Atthesametime, the forestsEA–Saq birch-spruce-pine willbe zone, themosthydromorphic Aand glacial plainsofthenemoral-forest sub- phytomassskeletal within theaqueous- sequestrationintheThe rates ofcarbon willdiminish. carbon sink ofatmospheric uplands (seeFig. 1,A–C). Their role asa lime andoakforests oferoded-loamy mesophilicelm- inflatinterfluve quickly phytomassskeletal willdecrease most communities. depositioninthe Carbon potential offorestof theproductivity an unambiguousandquite cleardecline the middleforest-steppe, there willbe and ofthesouthern Within theterritory ecosystems (see Table. 2). the valueΔ( may beevaluated cycle by of thecarbon Zonal-regional contrastsofbioticregulation balance.which willdirectlyaffect thecarbon of similarmagnitude offorest productivity, an abruptdrop or, inothercases, anincrease willinduce,2. Globalwarming insomecases, the atmosphere. exchange intheircarbon with productivity of theregional mixed andnemoralforests’ points to quite asignificant regulating role compared to thebaselinevalues. This fact greater mineralizationofthe humusmass 7 7 ± BW Fa (25–50)% andmore onaverage ) for the eluvial (flat interfluve) ) for theeluvial(flatinterfluve) . However, there willbeeven ML
result inadditionalrelease ofCO humus massaswell. These processes will its mass(includingtheforest litter) andthe and, correspondingly,further willreduce decomposition ofdeadorganic matter even trendarid willintensify theprocesses of Fig. 1,D).Ontheotherhand, thethermo- will increase aswell (see Table 2, this phytocoenotic sink poolasacarbon and, asaconsequence, thesignificance of of thesetopoecosystems willalsoincrease intheperennialphytomasscarbon skeletal Accordingly, ofatmospheric conservation zone willincrease (andquite significantly). ofthesub-taiga strip and ofthesouthern forest-steppe boundary) zone (atthenorthern coniferous forest biogeocoenosesofthe living organic matter ofthemixed anddark of andreserves productivity The primary the atmosphere (see Table 2, steppe. conifer andmixed The flatinterfluve forests forest- andtypical inthesouthern degradation anddisappearance ofmarginal willinevitablyaccelerate theprocess of It the continentalbiosphere willbedisturbed. one oftheleadingstabilizingmechanisms as cycle the naturalbalanceofcarbon to the atmosphere.of carbon Accordingly, the source ofsignificant additionalemissions southoftheforestThe extreme zone willbe system willbedeveloping ontheRussianPlain. regulation inthesoil-vegetation-atmosphere biotic cycle antithetical phenomenaofcarbon Under global warming, mutually two 3. (see Table2, additional release ofCO with higherdegree ofitsutilizationand abruptly degradation ofdeadorganic matter willincrease temperature andsoildrying rise willbemore explicitandintensive.cycle Soil ofthebiological part Changes inthedetritus amount ofCO whichmustresultproduction, inalower induce adecrease ofthetotal annualforest trend zone, will sub-taiga thethermo-arid forestedOn theoutwash lowlandsofthe soil-plant cover to theatmosphere. HU resulting inadditionalCO e , andFig. 1,F, G). 2 boundbyphotosynthesis. 2 to theatmosphere a 2 ). emissions to 2 from the c , and 003.08.2011 14:38:43 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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7 8 pine forests lowlands outwash ofsub-taiga Excessively moistforests dry andextremely zone. ofthesub-taiga strip in thesouthern plains inthenemoral-forest and sub-zone by mixed and coniferous forests ofhigh Le Chatellier’s willbeperformed principle) the greenhouse effect (according to the ecosystems andtheatmosphere reducing exchange theterrestrialcarbon between The mainpositive bioticregulation ofthe balance.carbon play similar negative role inthechangeof forests lowlandswill outwash ofthesub-taiga Fig. 2. The total carbon content in forest ecosystems in the territory of the Zhyguli ecoregion ( ecoregion Zhyguli the of territory the in ecosystems forest in content carbon total The 2. Fig. changes in the total carbon content for the predicted period of 2050 ( 2050 of period predicted the for content carbon total the in changes to HadCM3 model period upto 2050. period The fragments of C balanceofforestsmodels ofthecarbon for the As examples, letusconsiderthecartographic in Cartographic Expression Predictive Scenarios global warming. ofcontinentalbiospherethe stability under boreal forests thatwillessentiallysupport this istheonlygroup offormations of Probably, importance. will beofsecondary at the local level (Fig. 2). In at thelocallevel (Fig.In 2). ΔC( Fa ) mapsoftheZhyguli forests are presented b ), in according t/ha, the baselineperiod, base a ) 003.08.2011 14:38:43
3 and and and . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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7 b. The changes in the total carbon stocks for theforecast for inthetotal changes b. stocks The carbon 9 fragmentary large tracts of forest among agricultural 10 among large offorest land; areas. tracts –forest ofsteppes area fragmentary 3–9 –thenorthern 2 –0 1 –10.2–15.0; 2–15.0–19.3; 3–43–130; 4–130–160; ofsteppes area 7–thenorthern 5–160–200; 6–200–423; a. The distribution of the carbon content ofthecarbon distribution (1985). The a. attheendofbaseline period (t/ha): stocks carbon The ò Fig. 3. The fragments of the maps on the total carbon content and its forecasted changes changes forecasted its and content carbon total the on maps the of fragments The 3. Fig. 5.5; 3 –(–115) ò (–89); 4–(–89) within the territory of the Oka river basin. river Oka the of territory the within ò (–38); 5–(–38) ò (–12); 6–(–12) period of2050period relative to (t/ha): thebaseline 1–(–1.3) ò 0; 7–0 ò 38; 8–38 ò 63; 9–63 ò 003.08.2011 14:38:46 115. 1; 2– 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 ò 1
0;
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8 0 characterized bythemaximalCOcharacterized well asthebottoms ofsmallvalleys, willbe theforecastIn period, theselocations, as the Zhyguli withtheleastcatchment area. the gentlenear-watershed shadyslopesof stocksthe highesttotal areof carbon typical Note: Predictors inregression equationsare: regions cycle ofthepositive bioticcarbon pine andsmall-leaved forests. The other Volga Uplandthatisoccupied bycomplex oftheBy- part ofthenorth-western typical from +(65–100)to –(80–136)t/ha),is varying patchy of(ΔС( distribution A particularly balance.and negative valuesofthecarbon contrast andfrequent patchiness ofpositive The forecast mapshows alsothepronounced (see Fig. 1,E the pools,phytomass includingtheskeletal content inmostof changes inthecarbon be ofany significance dueto relatively low However, thescaleofthisregulation willnot regulation. cycle positive (asawhole)carbon will perform forest cover ofthisterritory Table 3.Underglobalwarming, themodern for ofthemapsare construction presented in (Fig. 3).Multipleregression equations used basin river mentioned above, bytheOka The regional level isrepresented, as willbeinsignificantcarbon too. are minimalandtheforecasted release of On steep slopes, stocks theinitialсarbon southern azimuth(180º),sundeclination35º; southern thatdefimaximal curvature nesthe “ridge” landscape forms; ruso ln omtosRegression equations Groups ofplantformations Table 3. The equations of connection between carbon content changes and the most important important most the and changes content carbon between connection of equations Table The 3. а broadleaf forests forests ofbasin) (allsecondary e forests areas) ontheircontemporary f pine forests d c b ) Primary and secondary forests ofbasin(all andsecondary ) Primary rala oet ΔС( ) Broadleaf forests ) Secondary substitutingfor spruce, pine,) Secondary and environment factors in forest formations of the Oka river basin to the year of 2050 (ΔС( 2050 of year tothe basin river Oka the of formations forest in factors environment pueadbodefsrc oet ΔС( ) Spruceandbroadleaf-spruce forests ieadbodefpn oet ΔС( ) Pine andbroadleaf-pine forests ) Secondary substitutingfor pineandbroadleaf/ ) Secondary , F). 2 emissions. Z T –elevation; –average temperature ofJuly. Fa ) MCA ΔС( ΔС( ΔС( Q maximum carbon depositionmay beuptomaximum carbon intense growth ofstands (Fig. 4, where thetemperature willinducean rise atrelativelydeposit carbon dry TE mesosites, and broadleaf-spruce forests willactively regulation (Fig.cycle 4, Table 4).Spruce riverbasinto thetotal bioticcarbon Oka separate groups offorest formations ofthe of to assessthe contribution isnecessary It of Cartographic Forecast Territorial Generalizations cycle. carbon positive bioticregulation ofthe most part, for marked, the land willexhibitaweakly forests ofagricultural onthevastterritories bankofthe right Volga river. Fragmentary downstreamriver area andtheneighboring bankofthe Klyazma left lowland-outwash forestsspruce andspruce-birch ofthe Central RussianUpland, andto broadleaf- ofthe forests boundary ofthenorth-west to oak-limecharacteristic andbirch-aspen (0 to –12;occasionally, up to –38 t/ha) willbe negative Weakly marked are mainlyprevalent. broadleaf, spruce, andbirch-aspen forests there,slopes oftheSmolensk-Moscow ridge; andtheeastern Meshchera of Ryazanskaya regulation are theswampyforested lowland –insolationofslopeswiththeSunpositionat Fa Fa Fa Fa Fa Fa –catchment areas; –catchment ) ) ) ) ) ) 2050 2050 2050 2050 2050 2050 = 28.8 = 37.5 = 83.1 = –76.2 = –24.0 = 76.7 MCA MCA k Z max T Z +46.7 +21.0 + 42.9 +76.6 +23.9 –18.4 GA T MCA +24.0 MCA –degree ofslope; MCA GA k max +12.1 –7.1 –10.9 +9.7 –7.2 Q –63.8 Q T GA T T +12.1 –61.6 –7.8 +12.7 Δ +5.1 C( Fa Fa k ) ) values 2050 max a – ). The ) 003.08.2011 14:38:48 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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8 b) small-leaved formations Secondary inthe place offore 1 a) formations: Aboriginal 1– spruce andbroadleaf-spruce leaf-pine; 3 – broadleaf. E, TE, T, of mesosites (see TE, (see E, 3–broadleaf. Fig. sun exposure inthetext); andshad – solar 1)leaf-pine; types Fig. 4. The changes in the total C stocks in the groups of plant formations of the Oka river river Oka the of formations plant of groups the in Cstocks total the in changes The 4. Fig. basin predicted for 2050 under different conditions of plain mesorelief plain of conditions different under 2050 for predicted basin forest; 5–flood-plain forest; sts: 1–sts: spruce andbroadleaf-spruce; andbroad- 2–pine ; 2 – pine and broadleaf-pine; 3 – broadleaf; 4 – paludal 4–paludal 3–broadleaf; andbroadleaf-pine; ; 2–pine 003.08.2011 14:38:48 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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8 2 4.6–7.5 tht/km and T slopes, especiallythosefacingnorth. The E oak-lime forests ofriver valleysandadjacent deposition sinks.minor carbon The main role incarbon even slopes. Broadleaf forests as willserve forests sites andofgentle offlatinterfluve inthelight-coniferousshould beexpected balanceNegative valuesofthecarbon the TE and TA–A elementsofthemesorelief. will accumulate mainlyinpineforests on the regulation Carbon cycle. ofthecarbon aconsiderablepositiveto contribution make riverbasin,pineforestsareas intheOka will Table 4andFig. 4, than thatofdark-coniferous forests (see willbe1.5 timesstronger,their contribution have positive i.e., cycle, effect onthecarbon Pine andbroadleaf-pine formations willalso balancewillbeminor.carbon to changesintheregionaltheir contribution an insignificant area oftheseformations, (see alsoFig. 4, 70% will exceed emissionsbynearly carbon depositionindark-coniferouscarbon forests decay andhumusmineralization.Overall, intensification oftheprocesses offorest litter emissionsasaresultthe carbon ofdrastic phytomass byskeletal willbesurpassed E and depositioninthe T territories, carbon therefore, 3.6–3.8tht/km exceed itsemissionsfrom peatlitter decay; phytomassin theskeletal willsignificantly significant intensification ofproductivity. groundwater level decrease willinduce neutral slopes, soiltemperature and rise contrasts ofΔС( tois expected have thehighestterritorial The group offloodplainforest formations by 2050. additionally fixed withinswampwatersheds their productivity. The CO a on theLe Chatelier’s (seeFig. principle) 4, regulation (based cycle main positive carbon Paludal forest formations willprovide for the emitters. ). Global warming willdrasticallyincrease). Globalwarming mesorelief asCO componentswillact will beplayed by mesohygrophytic 2 . Atthemore hydromorphic a Fa a); ). ). Ontheshadyand Occupying thegreatestOccupying however, becauseof 2 of carbon willbe ofcarbon 2 sequestration 2
content different insign (seeFig. 4, associated withchangesinthecarbon small-leaved forestsSecondary willbe positive. balanceoftheregiontotal carbon willbe ofthefloodplain forestscontribution to the th. t/km phytomassin theskeletal willbe5.7–6.6 mesocatenae, storage anadditionalcarbon theupper linksof in thesecommunities. In will induceaccelerated growth ofstands on sabulousloamy soils. trend Thermo-arid grow inhigherhydromorphic conditions taiga dark-coniferous forest associations and aspenforests substitutingfor sub- emission of4.4–4.8tht/km and sunny TE sites resulting inadditionalCO decomposition inthecommunitiesofeluvial the sametime, there willbeintensification of may have bothpositive andnegative broadleaf forests underglobalwarming by temperate coniferous, mixed, and Thus, regulation cycle thebioticalcarbon precursors. Δ of pattern ontheabove described impact lime forests arelatively willmake little aspen forests growing placeofoakand In balance (see Table 4andFig. 4, there willbeasignificant negative carbon place ofpineandbroadleaf-pine forests, small-leaved associationsexistinthe On lesshydromorphic sandysoils, where to theLe Chatelier’s principle. regulation according cycle positive carbon in types dark-coniferous taigaandsub-taiga role oftheboreal forest cover consistingof growing timber. This seemsto betheleading inthe to additionaldepositionofcarbon of restorative successions, mustcontribute presencethe permanent ofinitialstages spruce andbroadleaf-spruce forests i.e., of birch andaspenforestsof secondary for basin, i.e., upto 7.5th.t/km maximal inrelation river to theentire Oka depositionvaluesthereThe carbon willbe CONCLUSION C(Fa) oftheiraboriginal dynamicstypical 2 by2050. ofsubstitution The fact 2 (seeFig. 4, 2 . The resultant . The b b ). Birch- ). Birch a 003.08.2011 14:38:49 3 ). At . 0 8 . 2 2 0
1 1
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of HadCM3), doubling of atmospheric COof HadCM3),doublingatmospheric climate model(theprecursorUKMO-1987 shown that,according of to thescenario (CENTERE) and wasTER [Aber etal, 2001]. It by predictive biogeochemical modelsCEN content wereand thecarbon calculated productivity changes inthenetprimary coniferous, mixed, andotherUSAforests, other predictive regional estimations. For figures are quite comparableto thedataof content. of thebaselinecarbon These may befrom –(21 basin,averageriver weighted by area, main water catchment area ofthe Volga balanceoftheforeststhe carbon ofthe and thebiosphere asawhole.2050, By effects onthestate ofterrestrial ecosystems the rangeof–(1.5 results inrelative balancevaluesin carbon 8 3 .Fodpan91 4.866 44 .71.45 2.39 2.17 0.84 -4.45 -0.17 6.62 1.01 2.13 149.28 35.18 9219 2343 1.8 formations All groups offorest 8. Flood-plain –4.96 7. Paludal broadleaf substituting for 6.76 6. Secondary mixed light-coniferous and substituting for 84.68 5. Secondary 4770 mixed dark-coniferous and substituting for 4. Secondary 3. Broadleaf mixed broadleaf-pine 2. Pine and mixed broadleaf-spruce 1. Spruceand Forests (groups of plant formations) Table 4. Changes of the total carbon stocks (mln t) in plant formations of the Oka river basin by2050 basin river Oka the of formations (mln t) plant in stocks carbon total the of Table Changes 4. ò 34 468 4.4-0.24.22.97 43.82 -101.52 -3.15 145.34 -10.03 1476.83 8.86 83947 -51 25.98 4.69 40.97 –14.79 22.6 318.7 40.77 16670 -23.17 293.26 45.77 17770 481.76 26230 Area, 1.8) to +(7.8 ò 917.304 11 07 -0.99 -0.76 -1.18 0.42 76.83 3.28 4911 1.22 -1.8 3.02 37.14 2034 km 27)% to +(11 2 Total carbon (baseline) ò 12.5)%. ò 17)% cuuainemission accumulation 2
in theforest vegetation cover. lower content estimates changes ofcarbon to beextreme, itscalculationsgive much realistic and, thoughHadCM3isconsidered balancearemodeling ofthecarbon quite one cansee, theresults ofourpredictive model (see Table As 4,column "Deposit"). by2050according to HadCM3 the territory i.e. five timesgreater thanforecasted for this parameter willbeequalto 231mlnt, approximate river basin), area oftheOka 23.1 Gt.For onepercent ofthisarea (i.e., an a65-yearduring (1985-2050)isabout period that thetotal Cdepositionintheforests [Zalihanov etal, 2006],itmay beassumed sinkintheRussianforestsof thecarbon as awhole. rates Basedonthemodern ontheforestsome materials cover ofRussia Let uscompare theobtainedresults with Change ofthecarboncontent of thons millions Total % 003.08.2011 14:38:49 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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8 4 2. Celniker, 2. Yu.L. (2006). CO Aber J., NelsonR.P., St.,etal(2001).Forest1. Mcnulty Processes andGlobalEnvironmental Change: 17. Zalihanov,17. M.Ch.,Losev, Shelekhov, A.M.(2006). Naturalecosystems astheimportant K.S., 16. Sukachev, V.N. Studies. Selected V.1. (1972).Fundamentals ofForest Typology andBio- 15. Sochava, V.B. (1974). Geotopology asaDivisionofGeosystem Science// Topological as- 14. Shary, P.A. Sharaya L.S.,Mitusov, A.V. (2002).Fundamental quantitative methodsofland P.A.Shary 13. (2001).Analytical GISEco. Website: http//www.esti-map.ru. Rozenberg,12. inPhytocenology. G.S.(1984).Models Moscow. Nauka, 265p. (inRussian). 11. Pope, V.D., G Polynov, B.B.10. Studies. (1956).Selected USSRAcademy ofSciencesPress, Moscow. 751p. (in Kolomyts, E.G.,Rozenberg,9. G.S.(2009).Forecasted andcarbon changesofbiological cycle Kolomyts, E.G.(2008).Local mechanismsofglobal changesinnaturalecosystems. 8. Nauka, F.Klijn, 7. andUdodeHaes, H.(1994).Ahierarchical approach to ecosystems anditsimplica- Gorshkov, V.G.6. (1994).Physical andbiological basisoflife stability. Biota,Environment. Man, 5. M.A.(1964).GeochemicalFundamentalsGlazovskaya, of Typology of andMethodology Forman, 4. R.T.T. (1995).LandMosaics: The EcologyLandscapeandRegion. Uni- Cambridge 3. Climate Change1995(1996). The Science ofClimaticChange/J.T. Houghton, L.G.Meira REFERENCES Predicting andMultipleStressors theEffects //BioScience. ofIndividual V. 51.№9.P. 735–751. 634. (inRussian). resource //BulletinoftheRussian Academy ofmankind. ofSciences. V.76, №7.pp. 612– cenology. Leningrad. Nauka, 418p. (inRussian). pp. Novosibirsk. 3–86(inRussian). ofGeosystem Science.Nauka, pects analysis//Geoderma. V.107.surface №1–2.pp. 1–32. inHadleyCentreetrizations climate model–HadCM3//Climate Dynamics. V.16. pp. 123–146. Russian). cal Economic&Statistics. V. 15,NoF09,Pp. 1–19. balance intemperate forest ofEcologi- Journ. //Intern. ecosystems underglobalwarming Moscow. 427p. inEnglish,pp. (inRussian,Abstract 374–380). tion for ecological landclassification//LandscapeEcology. V.9. №2.pp. 89–104. Springer-Verlag, 340p. Berlin. Landscape Research. State Press, University Moscow Moscow. 230p. (inRussian). vers. Press, 315р. Cambridge, UK. Filho., andB.A. Callanderetal. (Eds). Univ.The Cambridge Press, 572p. Cambridge, UK. ForestIn Moscow. Science. Nauka, pp. Russian). 213–229(In allani M.L.,Rowntree P.R., andStratton, R.A.(2000). ofnewphysical param- The impact 2 exchange inforest biogeocoenoses//Concepts ofBiocenology 003.08.2011 14:38:50 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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8 5 present andfuture. Sheistheauthorof36scientificpublications. ErlandG. Gennady S.Rosenberg Gennady LarisaS.Sharaya national and international technicalnational andinternational magazines. He publishedsixmonographs andalarge numberofpapersin formal analysisusingcomputerfield datafor technology. further andprocessingprediction. Hedeveloped methodsofcollecting systems, modeling ofgeo(eco-) andeco-geographical area ofinterest isproblems oflandscapeecology, empirical (Tolyatti), RussianAcademy ofSciences. Dr. Kolomyts’s main Landscape Ecology, ofEcologythe Institute Volga Basin ofSciencedegree.Doctor Dr. of isHeadofLaboratory Kolomyts 1976,hereceived State in1960.In his University Moscow scientific publications. and regional ecology. Heistheauthorofmore than700 (Togliatti). Dr. Rosenberg’s mainfieldofresearch istheoretical ofEcologythe Director oftheInstitute Volga Basin River oftheRussianAcademyMember ofSciences(2000)and ofSciencedegree.Doctor Dr. Rosenberg isCorresponding 1984,hereceived in1971.In his State (Ufa) University Bashkir technology and functional parameterstechnology ofecosystems andfunctional inthe mapping oflocalandregional ecosystems usingGIS environmental factors. Dr. Sharaya isdeveloping methodsfor oflandscapeformsquantitative as characteristics interestmethods. istheapplicationof Herparticular offorestvariability ecosystems using geomorphometric associated withinvestigations ofspatialandtemporal Russian Academy ofSciences. Herresearch interests are Ecology, ofEcologythe Institute Volga Basin(Tolyatti), ofLandscape 1985. SheisSeniorResearcher attheLaboratory State University,Moscow in1976andobtainedherPhD in
Kolomyts graduated from theFaculty ofBiology, graduated from theFaculty ofGeography, graduated from theFaculty ofBiology, 003.08.2011 14:38:50 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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8 6 for cooperationhave beenoutlines. interests ofRussiaandSweden andnewgoals have been analyzed ofmutual inthecontext countries thetwo between joint projects implementation. its practical The results of aimed atimproving and theESDframework cooperation are jointeducationalprojects geographical factors. Examplesofsuccessful cooperation isbasedonhistorical, cultural, and ESD may successful. prove Such to bevery Russia andSwedenbetween inthefieldof has beendemonstrated thatcooperation in definingandachievingSDobjectives. It foundation for SD. Russia,difficultiesexist In a nationalmodelfor thecreation ofthe for sustainabledevelopment isconsidered inecologicalexperience education,education Sweden, whichhasextensive new century. In growinginnovation thatisactively inthe development, i.e. aglobaleducational problems ofeducationfor sustainable The goalofthispaperisto discusscurrent 6 5 4 3 2 Alla A.Pakina Nina N.Alexeeva Tel: +460462220226.E-mail:[email protected] Lund University. Box 196, Tegnersplatsen 4,S-221 00Lund, Sweden fax: +74959328836;E-mail:[email protected] University. Russia,119991,Moscow, Leninskiye Gori,1. Tel: +74959393992; Tel/fax: (+46)-920491842,E-mail:[email protected] E-mail: [email protected] 119991, Moscow, Leninskiye Gori,1. Tel: +74959393992;fax:9328836; E-mail: [email protected] 119991, Moscow, Leninskiye Gori,1. Tel: +74959392238;fax:9328836; fax: +74959328836;E-mail:[email protected] University. Russia,119991,Moscow, Leninskiye Gori,1. Tel: +7495)9393842; 1 ABSTRACT REALITIES AND RUSSIAN POTENTIAL CONTEXT OF EDUCATION: SWEDISH SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE Assistant Professor, for Environmental Institute International Industrial Economics, ResearchSenior Associate, Faculty ofGeography, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State Project Manager, Centek, Luleå University of Technology. SE-97775Luleå, Sweden, Professor, Faculty ofGeography, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University. Russia, Dean, Faculty ofGeography, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University. Russia, Associate Professor, Faculty ofGeography, M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State 5 , andAndrius Plepys 1 , Nikolay Kasimov (Corresponding author) 6 2 , Yuri L.Mazurov (ESD) phenomenon.As acivilizational of the«Educationfor SustainableDevelopment” development (SD)haspromoted theemergence for changes»inthetransition to sustainable factor ofeducationasa«key Recognition of culturalheritage, educationalpractices. of education,ecological culture, preservation development, environmental policy, greening immediately itsemergence after inthe drawn increasing attention ofresearchers theESDphenomenon has this context, In in theworld’s development. novelty, role itwillplay virtue, andtheimportant an adequate scientificfoundation becauseofits other hand, ESDisaglobalinnovationthatneeds studied nationaleducationalsystem. Onthe andsufficiently is basedonthewell-known ESD hasadualnature. Ontheonehand, ESD INTRODUCTION KEY WORDS: 3 , Sven-Erik Österlund education for sustainable
project, project, 003.08.2011 14:38:51 4 3 , . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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promote education asakey factor forchange» into education inorder systemsatalllevels to with thenations tasked Sustainable Development The Johannesburg on Declaration in theESDfield. identification ofindividualfeatures ofresearch ismanifested applicability in its practical of theoretical relevance. Amongotherthings, cooperation are notonlyofappliedbutalso this fieldfor several years. The results ofthis in universities hasbeensuccessfullyworking research, agroup ofRussianandSwedish ofthis this callandrealizing theimportance progress intheworld’s SD. Respondingto phenomenon asameansofachievingreal of individualnationsinthestudyESD cooperation andfor integration oftheefforts alsocallsfor The BonnDeclaration international research.” ofmodern practice actual which have proved to bepositive inthe ofuniversities, functions use the«principal solve thisproblem, itwasrecommended to to calls oncountries ofeducation. context The BonnDeclaration inthe was thedevelopment ofSDaspects is quite logical thatamongtheseobjectives, forset theobjectives thesecondperiod. It Bonn summedthefirsthalfofDESDand The World Conference onESDheldin2009 to come. willremainaspect relevant for many years and depth.Undoubtedly, thisresearch date are impressive intheirscope, breadth, related to different achieved to ESDaspects in theESDresearch. The results ofstudies momentum becameanimportant (DESD). It of Educationfor SustainableDevelopment 2005-2014 hasbeendeclared theUNDecade global discourseinthe1990s. The period (Section X, «Means ofImplementation,” X,«Means (Section in ESD” education institutionsandresearch networks forESDbyknowledge engaginghigher academic research, achievement, andnew IN RUSSIA AND SWEDEN THE SD’S EDUCATIONAL CONTEXT 8 7 «integrating sustainabledevelopment
[The Bonn Declaration, 2009]. BonnDeclaration, To[The «encourage andenhance
of best practices between countries, between of bestpractices for cooperationand exchangeopportunities cooperation,resultedinternational innew ESD. Continued DESD, suggestingbroad in theSwedish achievements inSDand specialists, whichexplainstheirinterest to Russian This information iswell known educationaltechnologies.most modern levelsand international andinusingthe promoting theideasofSDatnational Sweden isoneoftheobviousleadersin isalsonocoincidencethat recognition. It 1972) wasalogical consequenceofthis UN Conference onEnvironment (Stockholm, of thenationaldevelopment. The firstglobal high standards ofenvironmental performance hasbeentheinsuranceof global community toits specialvalueandattractiveness the Accepting today’s realities, for many decades, education hasbeengainedinSweden. to fosterNo lessvaluableexperience ofitsneighbors.concerns thenationalinterests the contradicts andrises ofdevelopment, whichclearly de-greening lost, giving to numerous rise risks, including of theRussianeducationsystem have been the post-Soviet period, many achievements the USSR(Georgia, in 1977).Unfortunately field ofenvironment protection washeld in UNESCO conference oneducationinthe thatthefirstinhumanhistory not surprising including theneedofitsowngreening. is It respond to allmajorchallengesofthetime, wascapableto of thebestinworld. It of educationwasjustlyrecognized asone validation ofthisstatement. The Sovietsystem 12,1961,isthestriking into space onApril in space, whichclimaxed withthefirstflight been accumulated. breakthrough Ahistoric has system for ofthecountry modernization development ofthenationaleducation priority inthe theUSSR,avaluableexperience In so far. gained national goals, butalsoknowledge the above the quotationnotonlyreflects containedin in thedestiny ofmankind assessment oftheuniquerole ofeducation iscrucialthattheparagraph 121).It 003.08.2011 14:38:51 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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8 8 the future. Sweden asoneofthemaingoals for modern Society’s movement towards SDisseenin today’s ever more globalized world. ofchange»in factor formation ofa«key significance asapossiblemodelfor the form, andmeaningisofgeneraltheoretical time, examinationofitscontent, acritical involved inthecooperation.Atsame and prosperous future ofthecountries may to truly contribute amore predictable discussed above. The successofthisinitiative is thelogical development oftheprocesses environmental componentsofESDinRussia specialists to cooperate inpromoting The initiative ofRussianandSwedish andMazurov,SD [Kasimov 2010]. whilemeeting thegoalsof both countries such cooperationisfullyintheinterests of including Sweden andRussia.Objectively, education. Supporting the efforts of national ofnational theefforts education. Supporting a commoninterest inpromoting SD inhigher has beenorganized. The group wasunited by and studentsfrom different fieldsofknowledge groupCouncil, ofteachers aspecialworking andundertheumbrellathese purposes ofthe Environmental EducationStudiesProgram). For Integrated asMINT(The program, known Education withthetaskofdeveloping aspecial Swedish Council for theRenewalofHigher in March charged 1992,thegovernment the to green ofefforts theeducation, furtherance In environmental laws. for SDthatmerges rulesfrom previous sixteen broader, environmental andstricter legislation 1999anditisacoordinated, force on1January The present Environmental Code cameinto Protection andtheRadiation Building Act Act. available elsewhere, suchasthePlanning and that arose. Someenvironmental laws were also by thenewrulescreated according to theneed legislation inSweden becamedifficultto grasp was amendedmany timesandenvironmental Environmental Protection. theyears, Over thelaw in theworld, Sweden introduced itsfirstLaw on IN SWEDEN ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY AND ESD
In 1969, as one of the first countries 1969,asoneofthefirstcountries In Minister G.PerssonMinister attheGlobalSummiton by thespeechofformer its government. This statement issupported among otherfactors, positionof bytheactive development ofESDmay bealsoexplained, The undoubted successofSweden in the leadership intheESDdevelopment. environmentally,» «regional SD andgloballeaderinachieving that thesigning callSweden the countries issignificant inthisfield.good practice It to enhancecooperationandexchange of in thefieldofSDregion agreement onthedevelopment ofeducation of theBalticSearegion have adopted an countries. As aresult, 2002,the countries inMay promotion inneighboring ofsimilaractivities in Europe. ledtoThis work theinitiationand education inSweden ishighlyappreciated Active onthegreening work ofhigher andstudents. opinions ofbothexperts training coursesrelated to SDandbasedon Swedish teachers for thedevelopment of ( National StudentEnvironmental Network ofSwedish studentsinthe participation of support universities inNetherlands); development ofESD(inparticular, with that have achieved significant progress in and studentswithuniversities incountries professional exchanges ofgroups ofteachers employment fieldfor future graduates; inshapingthe thatparticipate sector with representatives from theproduction inspiration) for staff studentsanduniversity conference «Greenspiration» (ecological ofMINTincluded:theannual actions Other inthesepublications. became mandatory results bybothteachers andstudents aboutusingthe with specificinstructions in relevant publishedsources. Asection research SDareas obtainedinvarious on presenting theresults ofscientific The MINT’s have efforts beenmostlyfocused been implemented towards meetingthisgoal. than 35majorprojectsat20universities have taskfor thisgroup.the mostimportant More universities for educationgreening hasbecome Svenska Ecodemiker and acknowledge its and acknowledge ); specialgrants to
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Environmental Policy foraSustainableSweden.” bill “ government’sof the1998social-democratic inSweden wastheimplementation policy form ofenvironmentalmost important treated asabasicconditionfor itsSD. The of itscitizens ingreening ofthecountry, focused anddirectinvolvement ontheactive inSweden isdefinitely Educational policy inthemajoreducationalsurvival programs...». Universities shouldincludecourses onglobal ontheenvironment. the impactofourlifestyles see more teachersinvolved inthediscussionof iseducation.social activity We would like to ofthebasicconditions ofprogress and «One SD inJohannesburg on3September 2002, 8 9 Swedish Environmental An Objectives: Fig. 1. A long-term strategy on the greening of the country is presented presented is country the of greening the on strategy 1. Along-term Fig. as 16 areas of environmental policy
projects willbeabout50%relative to thebase growth ofthecostenvironmentally oriented the goalsofenvironmental policy. The precisely estimated fairly thecostofachieving to note thatpolicymakers isimportant It secured by2020. identified, whoseachievement shouldbe set. Underthispolicy, specifictargets were the environmental (Fig. policy 1)have of goals(directions) the country, 16priority accordance withthisnationalprogramIn in [Sweden’s Environmental Objectives, 2008]. major environmental problems have beensolved” next generation inwhichSweden’s asociety environmental is policy As stated inthisdocument,thegoalof “to handover“to tothe been 003.08.2011 14:38:51 3
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9 0 1990, or20billion level offundingfor attheendof thissector solved thebasicenvironmental problems decades. These investments have already investing predominantly the postwar during infrastructure, created previously by the mostadvancedenvironmental First, Sweden hasgenerallyachieved the following information mustbeconsidered. their GDPwithJapanspending11%.However, stage oftheecological crisis, i.e., upto 6–8%of paid muchmore for away outoftheacute developed inthe1960sand1970s countries thatthemosteconomically SD. isknown It for creating alastingecological foundation for The level of2%GDPisarelatively smallfee charges inthecountry. collected the gross valueofenvironmental taxes and pays.» acceptedinternationally principle municipal budgetsinfullaccordance withthe of spendingisassociated withbusinessand for allocationandthefinancingsources. Bulk ofboththeareasalso beendefinedinterms 2208: 338]. oftheexpenseshas The structure GDP [Sweden’s Environmental Objectives, which amountsto about2%ofthemodern set atthelevel of60billionSEKannually, government’s budget. The finalcost hasbeen including nolessthan8billionSEKfrom the Fig. 2. A metallurgical plant in Luleå, in December 2008. Conditions of snow cover represent one of of one represent cover snow of Conditions 2008. December in Luleå, in plant Ametallurgical 2. Fig. The total expenditures correspond to the most obvious indicators of industrial ecological conditions
SEK ayear inreal terms, «polluter active civil position of the overwhelming civilpositionoftheoverwhelming active of the6thtechnological wave andthe technologies («newnaturalresource use») environmentally-oriented scientific with more clearsynthesisofadvanced environmental inSweden isassociated policy Third, thespecificsofmodern socialization ofenvironmental policy. positive environmental inthe externalities with confidencesucheffect asexistence of expenditures. However, we canconsider ofsuch value ofthetotal economicimpact expenditures inabsolute terms, aswell asthe development, itisdifficultto definethetotal above. Atthepresent level ofeconomic the environmental investments mentioned achieving thesegoalsishigherthan2%of in thedocument. total costof The actual through therealization ofthegoalsstated in Sweden hasbeenachieved notonly creating alastingecological basisfor SD Second, oneshouldbearinmindthat environmental parameters. already manifested positive trend ofkey about financingirreversible state ofthe a whole(Fig. essence, we 2).In are talking high environmental standardsas ofsociety natural resources) andallowed achieving natural heritage, andsustainableuseof (environmental safety, of preservation 003.08.2011 14:38:53 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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and possibly even decadesand possiblyeven tobecome a fruit” do islike plantingseedsthatwilltake years «We mustrealize thatmostofthework we Sammalisto, MINT’s representative, wrote, understanding oftheirsocialaspects.K. evaluation ofongoingprojects, anddeep readiness for systematicself-criticism, ofeducationinSD,incorporation their specialiststowardsattitude ofthecountry’s progress inthisarea istheresponsible prerequisite Sweden, animportant forIn stated environmental policy. conditionfor realizationimportant ofthe education, atalllevels, wasconsidered an for SD. thisperiod, iscrucialthatduring It model for theformation ofecological basis greening ofsociety, theoriginal national becomeaform ofsystematichas actually to thepublicinSweden. known This work achieve the16environmental goalswell late 1990s, there to work hasbeenactive it ismanifested thatsincethe inthefact onSD.adopted public policy Specifically, ofthecitizens inrelationmajority to the priority ofbilateral cooperation. priority integrating alloftheseareas, isthelogical php?id=38). This impliesthatESD, really and research» collective security, aswell aseducation reforms, socialprotection, environment, to bedeepeningofdemocracy, economic cooperation shouldcontinue indevelopment preferential direction oftheSwedish-Russian of cooperationwithRussiastates, on asustainedbasis. Thus, thestrategy suchassistancemay be providedOften, inneedofthispolicy.other countries andof countries of theneighboring isto to contribute thegreeningpolicy ofSweden’sfactors nationalenvironmental «background»One oftheimportant interestedmost objectively nations. isclearthatRussiaoneofthe replication. It neighbors andare to attractive themfor ofdevelopmentprinciples respected bythe adopted standardscountry’s andto the without any compromise inrelation to the ofSwedish realism,so characteristic but [Sammalisto, 2002:31]. These words are 9 1 (http://www.rurik.se/index. «The «The
of theworld’s ecological conditions. represents oneofthereasons ofworsening and informal) andthe challenges ofthetime theeducationalsystembetween (formal (development factor gap) The discrepancy of thesystem ofwaste management,etc. the problem offood quality, thecollapse increasing problem water, ofaccessto quality change, increasing threat ofnatural disasters, These challengesinclude:globalclimate national componentrelevant to Russia. global challengesthathave significant is aggravated bytheemergence ofnew country. Amongotherthings, thissituation dynamics oftheecological situationinthe for adecisivepoint intrends turning of aforementioned results didnotprovide However, onemustadmitthatthe Russia: consequences ofEEatthenationallevel in socio-economic as themostimportant The following achievements canbenamed EducationofRussia...,2008]. in Higher 2008; Educationfor SustainableDevelopment for of..., Experience SustainableDevelopment: one way oranotherinpromoting ESD[Education environmental educationbecameinvolved in associated withgeographical, biological, and 160. Practically allhighereducationalinstitutions specialties were launched, increased from 2to of Russianuniversities, where environmental From 1995to thepresent time, thenumber been amongtheworld’s leadersinthisfield. became alaunchingpadofESD. Russiahas (EE) andthegreening ofeducationingeneral achievements ofenvironmental education As itiswidelyrecognized intheworld, ESD IN RUSSIA
of civilsociety. organizations aspart non-governmental ofenvironmentalEstablishing anetwork the population; environmentalIncreasing awareness of information; accessto environmentalEnsuring environmentalDeveloping infrastructure; inthecountry; crisis manifestations ofecologicalMitigating 003.08.2011 14:38:53 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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9 2 educational authorities shouldbenoted.educational authorities The officials,academia, governmental and and thelackofmotivation ofteachers, andhighereducation, secondary between general courses, theweak interaction andthe integration ofSDintheindustry Among otherproblems ofESD, theslow substitute for ESD. force,being thedriving EE becomessimplya foundation ofEEinRussia.However, often develop andsustainable will actively onafirm organizational, andpoliticalconditionsexist, system ofESD, for which methodological, thatacomprehensiveOne would expect linkwithacademicscience. to itsintrinsic the Sovieteducationsystem are largely due that thewidelyrecognized achievements of andMazurov, isalsoknown [Kasimov 2007].It andtheSovietperiods in thepre-Soviet the traditionalRussianeducationestablished that thebasicideasofESDare inherent in education andtraininghave repeatedly noted recent years,In researchers inthesphere of fromsectors theenvironmental policy. exclusion oftheeducationalandcultural currently possiblebecauseoftheactual Russia,thisisnot of ESDinthecountry. In forcea driving for theeffective development synergistic pressure andbecame, inessence, culture ingeneral, whichcreated apowerful forout withtargeted educationand support Sweden, ecological iscarried modernization of theexistingenvironmental situation. In not even sufficientfor themaintenance greening,the country’s inRussia,theyare costs provide for aconsistent system of noted above. If, however, inSweden these program ofecological as modernization, same costlevel asinSweden for themodern Russia about1-2%ofitsGDP. itisthe fact, In environmental coststhe modern policy [Dumnov,experts 2011,p. 62]suggestthat exampleofitsmanifestation:typical some related areas ofnationalpolicy. Here isa coordination intheenvironmental and One ofthechallengesislackproper the background globalecological problems. period”“transition are onto superimposed Russia,continuingchallengesofthe In known and are not doubted by the majority andare notdoubted bythemajority known whose achievementscountries are well ofthose must beacompellingexperience of theworld’s community. Obviously, this could betheappealto thepositive experience ofRussiancitizenspsychology andmentality better thatutilizes theconceptsofsocial means ofchanging thesituationfor the thissituation,oneofthemost effective In thefollowing often, Most problems are named: problems itsdevelopment hindering inRussia. the successofESDare more interested inthe with isquite natural thatallthoseconcerned It Among them: examples ofachievements intheESDfield. However, Russiathere inmodern are many ofSDissuesinsociety. low priority this occursatthebackground ofthegeneral deficit offinanceandpersonnelfor ESD. All thesuccess.undermines There remains a and implementationofESDinschools lack ofestablishedmanagementpractices
of other countries inthefield.of othercountries oftheadvanced achievements community low awareness entire ofnearly educational period; education andculture inthepost-Soviet overall degradation ofthesystem of imputationbysociety; to acertain relatively lowsocialstatusofSDideasdue at theregional andlocallevels; paradigm from theauthorities, especially for ESDasaneweducational weak support nature ofeducation. challenges ofthetimeandto specific adapting theESDpotential to the courses, teaching development, etc.; the form oftrainingprograms, educational developing innovative modelsofESDin from preschool to postgraduate; of education,bothformal andinformal, greening, humanization,andsocialization researching pathsto the theprinciple paradigms; formation ofESDandsimilareducational understanding foreign inthe experience 003.08.2011 14:38:53 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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minimize costsinforeign tradeand awide itpossibletoSpatial proximity makes global technological wave asawhole. use» asanessentialcomponentofthe6th and«newnaturalresourcesof theterritories to formatefforts environmental frameworks technologies, andincoordination ofthe in ecological adaptationofindustrial thestatein monitoring oftheenvironment, implementation ofenvironmental policies, cooperation ofneighborsinformulation and ofRussia. possible part make These similarities climatic conditionsinSweden andalarge The proximity provides for in thesimilarities by RussiaandSweden. predetermined bytheresponsible treatment areas for theirwelfare ourcountries; islargely the Barents Searegion are themostimportant or separatingthecountries. The Baltic Seaand respect to different naturalobjects,connecting manifested inthecommoninterests with ofgeographicalThe factor proximity is parameters ofcooperation. to cooperate andto formatof theparties real these assumptionspredetermine theinterest ofmanifestationsand specificcharacter of other are themajorfactors. The magnitude roots, andmutualinterest ofthepeopleto each Geographical proximity, commonhistorical premisses. non-so-obvious, though often with relevance, bythepresence ofsignificant, cooperation inthefieldofESDisgranted, along Potentially oftheRussian-Swedish highefficiency Swedish cooperationinthefieldofESD. asthebasicpremise oftheRussian- serves to theSwedishsociety modelofSD, which thenaturalinterestdetermine intheRussian and civicresponsibility. These circumstances ofsocialjustice ways embodies theprinciples consistently refer to Sweden thatinmany mentioned,meet thecriteria Russianpeople Sweden. Amongnotsomany that countries of in thiscaseisthehighmoralauthority fact of theRussianpopulation.Animportant AND INTERESTS OF THE PARTIES BACKGROUND FOR COOPERATION 9 3 concern to thepublicandgovernment concern environmental of factor isapermanent risks Sweden to subject unacceptabletwice thathasalready The proximity to thecountry accident. other oneisdueto theChernobyl tests attheclimaxofCold War andthe with theconsequencesofnuclearweapons borders (Fig. 4). The firstpeakisassociated to theeffects oftheevents intheeastofits are relatedin milkproduced initsterritory isotopemajor peaksofradioactive Cs-137 thatthetwo fact Sweden, itisawell known of theenvironment andfood products. In contamination risks, includingradioactive allows oneto adequately assesspotential For environmental education themost part, awareness andculture ofSwedish people. data provided for ahighlevel ofenvironmental ofenvironmentalthe availability monitoring and environmental educationinthecountry concept.Effectiveis notjustanabstract For mostSwedish people, radiationpollution grown intheSwedish society. the needto prevent suchincidentshasclearly has decreased substantially, butawareness of pollutant the concentrationofthisradioactive rainfall immediately theaccident. after To date, affecting about40%ofSweden asaresult of impressive magnitude oftheisotope Cs-137 accidentin1986.Fig.Chernobyl 3showsthe associated withtheconsequencesof example inthisrespecthasbeenthesituation eventsabnormal inRussia. The moststriking in caseofaccidentsorothersignificant does notguarantee thesafety ofSweden Obviously, of«western thefactor transfer» production ofits Western neighbors. greeninterest the ofRussiaisto further from Western Europe. Hence, theobvious region isdueto emissionsofairpollutants background airpollutioninthewestern this meansthatupto 60%ofthemodern «western transfer» ofairmasses. For Russia, areRussian territories undertheinfluenceof that isknown ofitsneighbors. It the territory ofproblemsrisks to transfer from onecountry proximity isassociated factor withinevitable relations.range ofinternational However, the 003.08.2011 14:38:53 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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9 4 an important factor of the contemporary ofthecontemporary factor an important Existence roots ofcommonhistorical is this sphere. condition to thecountries’ cooperationin of ESD. plays theroleThis fact ofadecisive which ispossiblebyasuccessfulpromotion is Russia’s transitionto areal modelof SD, that thebestway to minimize suchrisks Sweden, itisunderstood of thisnation.In the Chernobyl accident (Source: [Bernes and and [Bernes (Source: accident Chernobyl the Fig. 3. Distribution of Cs-137 as a result of Lundgren, 2009: 148]) 2009: Lundgren, naval fortressofSt.Petersburg for protection at thattime, ofa aswell astheconstruction XII,thestrongestarmy ofCharles inEurope event for thesedisputes. over the The victory The battleofPoltava becametheprinciple reaching itsapogeeintheNorthern War. neighborsonlygrew, thetwo between ofthedisputesSince then,theseverity nameof«Nevsky.» honorary courage, Prince Alexanderwasgiven the troops. andfor For hispersonal thevictory Alexander Yaroslavich, andthe Swedish of Novgorod, underthecommand ofPrince thepeople’s between the NevaRiver militia 15,1240),i.e., theBattleon of theNeva(July them, isthefamous, inRussianhistory, Battle withthenegativei.e., sign. contacts Among relates often rivalries, to territorial is known scarce.at thattimeisextremely Butwhat information aboutethniccontacts Historical of cities,” inthe Vikings’ interpretation). – Slavsof theeastern (Gardariki kingdom “the through andextending thelands capital Birka to theGreeks” from thefirstSwedish starting path«fromand thehistorical the Varangian Russia, the Balticcoast,North-Western The arena oftherelationship wasoriginally –.Sweden andRussia. countries neighboring thepeopleoftwo established between people. relations Suchlong-term have been andthe relations thecountries between Fig. 4. Dynamics of the concentration of Cs-137 in milk produced in Sweden. According to the Swedish Radiation Safety Authority (Source: (Source: Authority Safety Radiation Swedish [Bernes and Lundgren, 2009: 149]) 2009: Lundgren, and [Bernes 003.08.2011 14:38:53 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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married married Yaroslav the Wise, GrandPrince ofKiev, asPrincess and Indigherd she wasknown Sketktung, the “All-Christian King.” Sweden, In Olaf was thedaughter oftheSwedish King revered figures intheRussianOrthodoxy. She Anne ofNovgorod (Fig. 6),oneofthemost exception to thisgeneralpictureistheSt. colorsonly. indark written The moststriking However, canbe notallinourshared history hand pointingtowards Russia(Fig. 5). withhis XIIinthecentralStockholm Charles andbythemonumental on theislandofUtö Forces Expeditionary in1719,themuseum oftheiron minesbytheRussian destruction exposition Swedish isdemonstrated mentality. bythe It probably andfor typical,to someextent, the of theRussianpeople. Somethingsimilaris leave anegative memory traceinthehistorical thatcouldnotbut war intheSwedish history) most problematic neighboruntil1809(thelast expense. For Russia,Sweden remained the “Bronze Horseman”] cameto Russiaatgreat against the 9 Fig. 5. Monument to Charles XII in the center of of center the in XII Charles to 5.Monument Fig. 5 «The RussianOutrages» «haughty neighbor» «haughty Stockholm [A.S. Pushkin, [A.S. Pushkin, showing the showingthe with what later became known as Ingria (or asIngria with whatlater becameknown region’s appearto coincide boundaries of Staraya Ladoga)withitsdomain. This Aldeygaborg (later Ladoga,nowthevillage wasgiven alarge –.thecity Irina parish According Princess contract, to themarriage and byhisthree sons. mother (Slavic) line, Rognvald Earl Ulfson, Olaf, King byherrelativeNorwegian onthe Russia, bythehusbandofhersister, i.e., the brother for Jacob, alongtimein whoserved are alsooccupiedbyherrelatives, e.g., byher respect, prominent placesintherelations for this oftime. asubstantialperiod In inRussiaanddidnotinterrupt her arrival which were especiallystrengthened after relations RussiaandSweden, between tocontributed thepeacefulandfriendly personal influenceandthefamilytiesthat many ways,her native In kinship. itisher ofScandinavia ratherthanby the countries guided onlybytheminherrelations with adheredthe princess to itsinterests andwas movingintoAfter herhusband’s homeland, circumstances sheencountered byfate. on asignificantwho always impact kept intelligent, courageous, andadventurous, heart, woman ofselflessness, possessingakind of Scandinavia, isremembered Indigherd asa her original Swedish folk name. traditions In thenameIrene, consonantwith in 1016,taking Fig. 6. St. Anna of Novgorod. An orthodox icon from the museum in Sigtuna, Sweden 003.08.2011 14:38:55 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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9 6 place namemeans “ Ingermanland). Translated from Finnish, this to substitute theexistinggeographical relations. This discussionisnotintended oftheRussian-Swedish the culturalcontext still underestimated assignificant in factors thatare, facts historical however,known presentedInformation above states the their dutiesasrulersofthepeople. theexecution after andprincesses of princes that beganthetonsure traditionbytheRussian Irene’s tonsure wasthefirstingrand house the schemawithnameAnna.Ingegerd She diedinNovgorod, having before herdeath Widowed, shebecameanunnamedAnna. grandchildren isPrince Vladimir Monomakh. Norway, Hungary, andFrance. Amongher daughters wholater becamethequeensof She wasamotherofseven sonsandthree of thewife of Yaroslav. has itsorigin, inallprobability, inthename Fig. 7. Cultural Map of the World [Inglehart, Welzel, Press, 2005: p. 64] p. 2005: Press, Welzel, [Inglehart, World the of Map 7.Fig. Cultural Land ofIngegerd” and between thepeople.between communicationvalues andhistorical cultures, specifically, inthesystem ofethnic differences, inthe butalsoofsimilarities reflects thepresence ofnotonlyfundamental However,reservations. thismapcorrectly Russia andSweden are accepted without Not allelementsofthismapthatrelate to of thesystem ofethnicculturalvalues. theauthors’The mapreflects interpretation Welzel,opposing positions[Inglehart, 2005]. culturesplace thesetwo indiametrically ValuesSurvival/Self-Expression Rational Values the coordinate axis of about thesamelevel intheupperpart and C. Welzel putRussiaandSweden at ofthe Cultural Map World (Fig. 7),R.Inglehart culturalstudies. well-known Thus, onthe bythe of culturalvalues, whichissupported inthesystem ofsomesimilarities the pattern cultural, butitreflects proximity byavirtual . However, inthesystem of The Traditional/Secular- , theauthors 003.08.2011 14:38:55 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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the similarities inthesystems ofvalues the similarities reasons forAs oneofthemostimportant nations.the neighboring achievements cannotbutto to beattractive century. and ofsocialexperiments This kind oftheXXth ofsocialpractices experience from bothclassicalRussianliterature andthe Sweden, which canbeseen,inparticular, nolessthanin value ofRussianmentality in thiscountry. Socialjusticeisapriority anddeeplyrootedand popularintheworld of «Swedish socialism,»thewidelyknown ofthemodel isthebasicprinciple fairness the world’s minimaldecilecoefficient.Social that has the core Swedish society ofmodern ideology. specificallythisvalueisat fact, In oftheSD special placeasthemaincategory values, occupiesa theirstanceonfairness Among common,for people, thetwo common valuesare undoubtedly shared. legitimate roots that andsignifies thefact its seeminglyparadoxicality, hasprofoundly oftheirculture. as apart This situation,for all are largely accepted bytheRussianpeople blended inwithitsoorganically thatthey theater, movies, life,TV, etc.) andtheyhave in Russianculture for decades(inbooks, time, have thesecharacters beenliving Sweden. Atthesame ofmodern archetypes Lillebror, Karlsson-on-the-Roof – characters Her fiction of Swedish children’s Astrid Lindgren. writer how theRussianpeopleperceive theworks values.mental andspiritual This isreflected in manifestedalso thesimilarities inthemutual geographicallythe two closecultures, but indicates not onlythedifferences between ofexistence ofthisinterestthat thefact initself insufficiently considered. However, itisclear asasocialphenomenon hasbeen countries The mutualinterest ofthepeopletwo existence ofsuchinterest. the anddynamicsstronglyextent support manifested whose sector inthetourism themostobviousform, thisinterestIn is people ofRussiaandSweden to eachother. cultures explainthemutualinterest ofthe relationsThe historical andfeatures ofthe 9 7 Pippi Longstocking, –.are the but true:structurally, theSwedish andthe the pasture, isparadoxical amanorhouse. It i.e., birch trees, boulders, afence around features,landscape withitscharacteristic or acathedral, oracastle, but therural inSweden isnotaroyalheritage palace, Thus, ofthenationalcultural thearchetype environment. to imageoftherural demonstrate atypical authors oftheatlasusedthisphotograph national atlasofculturalheritage. The of aruralestate onthecover oftheSwedish this statement. Fig. 8showsaphotograph providedcultural heritage belowsupports interpretation oftheimagenational values.spiritual AnexampleoftheSwedish a common,inmany respects, system of 1990], whichledto theircommitmentto landscape» [Gumilev,common «nourishing had a typologicallyof thesecountries close, whichmeansthatthepeople are very RussiaandCentral ScandinaviaNorthwestern groups. essence, thenaturalconditionsof In tocontributes theformation ofethnic oflandscapeenvironmentidentity that Swedish andRussianpeopleistheactual Fig. 8. The iconic rural landscape on the cover of of cover the on landscape rural iconic The 8. Fig. the Swedish national atlas of cultural heritage cultural of atlas national Swedish the 003.08.2011 14:38:57 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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9 8 universities ofSweden intheESDarea: State University,Moscow andthree leading Russian Federation (RAPA), M.V. Lomonosov Administration underthePresident ofthe involved too: theRussianAcademy ofPublic became community scientific-educational Protection (SEPA). Several entitieswithin forwith theSwedish Agency Environmental Russia hasexpressed itsintent to cooperate Natural Resources andEnvironment of to of thejointESDproject. The Ministry asimpetus of positiveserved experiences The interest ofbothnationsinexchange differentbetween inthefieldofESD. countries also to understanding thecooperationpotential oftheprojectbutcontribute to theparticipants the projectobtainedrepresent interest notonly been successfullyimplemented. The results of ofESDandtheirimplementation has principles aimedatimprovingproject theconceptual cooperation, aRussian-Swedish educational ofinternational Since 2008,undertheframework Russian landscape. symbolsofthe is oneofthemosttypical components are similar. For example, birch Russian archetypesare identicalandtheir IN THE FIELD OF ESD THE RUSSIAN-SWEDISH PROJECT Fig. 9. The final part of the training workshop for civil servants in the RAPA: Mr. A. Mikaelson (SEPA) Mikaelson Mr. RAPA: A. the in servants civil for workshop training the of part final 9. The Fig. and President of RAPA Prof. A.M. Margolin hand the certificates to the participants the to certificates the hand Margolin A.M. Prof. RAPA of President and sustainable consumption,renewable ecological footprint, cleanerproduction, economy, biodiversity, sustainablecities, concepts ofSD, i.e., environmentally efficient attention intheprojectisfocused onthekey management inRussia(Fig inthefieldofsustainable of civilservants education educational methodsfor further identification, development, andtesting ofnew inESDand communication ofexperiences project, designed for 2010–2012, includes The scopeofthesecondphase continuation oftheproject. led to theadoptionofjointdecisionsona initiated,development ofactivities which identifiedtheneedforpilot workshop ofthe the organizers andtheparticipants of theresults ofthefirstphasebyboth in Russia (Fig.policy 9). The thenationalenvironmentaldetermine seminar onESDfor publicofficialswho organization ofajointRussian-Swedish dev resulted in 2009.It from September 2008to January Russia wassuccessfullyimplemented thedevelopment ofESDin supporting aimedatThe firstphaseoftheproject and Luleå of University Technology. universities ofthecitiesLund andUppsala elopment andsuccessful . 10).Pa high evaluation rticular rticular 003.08.2011 14:38:57 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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Summarizing theresultsSummarizing oftheireducational ofthetrainingseminars. the participants byincludes assessmentofits activities Systematic oftheproject monitoring assessment andrecommendations. session, 2)information dissemination,and3) 1)training combined into three mainparts: involves implementationofthe12 areas institutions engagedinESD. The project as membersofscientificandeducational federal bodiesofRussia,aswell government intheappropriate and decisionmaking officials responsible for environmental policy Target audienceincludesgovernment educational seminarsintherelevant fields. byorganizing andconductingmakers anddecision retraining ofcivilservants to educationand thesystem ofextended istoproject develop andimprove approaches The mainideaofthesecondphase the Barents SeaandtheBalticregions. field hasbeenalsoconsidered, especially, in Russian cooperationintheenvironmental withintheSwedish-with otherprojects energy, andenergy efficiency. Interaction 9 Fig. 10. An educational session of the ESD project in Vladimir, in November 2010: general discussion 2010: general November in Vladimir, in project ESD the of session 10. educational An Fig. 9 been obtained, including: To date, thefirstresults oftheprojecthave prospects for similareducational projects. and to theareas oftheiroccupation;and gained from thesessionsto themembers benefits level ofongoingsessions;practical the process; highscientificandmethodical in Russiaandto involve ESDpotential in the Sweden’s to promote experience SD demandforforms ofeducationalpractice; of theseminarsinclude:relevance ofsuch emphasizedmost often bytheparticipants the “core” gained. ofexperience The areas canprovide theaudiencewithactivities AND THEIR UNDERSTANDINGAND THEIR THE FIRST RESULTS OF THE PROJECT
plan, logistics, program, andparticipation through cooperation(action international foralgorithm trainingandseminarsonSD audience, andpartnership); policies onSD(goals, program, target seminars for professionals ofenvironmental the original concept ofeducational 003.08.2011 14:38:58 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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1 0 0 to besignificant withtheexisting trends. the problems mentionedabove willcontinue Church. However,by theRussianOrthodox ideas hasbeingincreasingly expressed clearly the better. for particular, theSD In thesupport situation inthisarea hasbeenchanging for recent years, In the state financialsupport. Russian society, including and itsweak support, discrediting in SD ideologyinRussia,itsknown problems include, above all, thelowstatus of into andsubjective. objective The objective implementation oftheprojectcanbedivided Problems thatemerged the during andresponsibility.of SDasfairness both cultures, ofsuchfundamentalcategories basedoncloseunderstanding, in efficiency course oftheprojectdemonstrated itshigh establishedinthe and theSwedish parties countries. theRussian between The partnership replicating theprojectinRussiaandother activities,thereof project isapossibility later bythesubsequent which wasconfirmed According to theresults ofthepilotproject, relevantsuch seminarsasextremely anduseful. educational seminarsmostofwhomregarded ofthepast opinion pollsoftheparticipants basedonthe Such assessmentisprimarily is thebasisfor itsoverall positive evaluation. Comprehension oftheresults oftheproject in educationgeneralandESDspecifically. cooperationexperience unique international RussiaandSweden;between andobtaining strengthening relations goodneighborly –.citizens ofRussiaandSweden; participants ESD; deepeningmutualunderstandingofthe one oftheworld’s leadersinthefieldofSDand about Sweden asaneighborofRussiaand and deepeningtheparticipants’ knowledge findingsinclude:widening important Other
experience in conducting SDseminars inconducting experience educators); RussianandSwedishratio between assessment of the past workshops by the bythe assessment ofthepastworkshops (testing the conceptandthealgorithm); within theRussian-Swedish project of seminars, theirform, andresults). major componentsofassessment(content thatisrepresentative participants ofall to convert the potential of this cooperation into thepotentialto ofthiscooperation into convert cooperation inthefieldofESD. The maintaskis new challengesandprospects ofbilateral Russia andSweden raisesthequestionabout ofthemutualinterestsproject inthecontext of evaluationoftheprogressCritical ofthe (the valuethatcreates anewvalue). circulation), or2)thepotential asacapital as atreasure (the valuethatisremoved from 1)the potential thestakeholders: between for possiblescenarios two therelationship existing potential. thefuture, In there may be associated pooruseofthis withanextremely field ofESD. findingis Anotherimportant of theRussian-Swedish cooperationinthe presence ofreal andsignificant potential of theresults oftheprojectconsists One ofthemainfindingsinterpretation Swedish realities oftheESDscopemake 4. 3. A prerequisite for effective ESDisthe istheintegration ESDsubjects ofa The 2. 1. Ideally, ESDisasynthesisofcultural findings: suggeststhefollowingcontext key A review oftheSDissuesineducational (literature,materials information, etc.). withrelevant educational providing participants team alignment, and ofparticipants, selection problems The subjective are associated with and by similarities ofvalues.and bysimilarities proximitywhich isfacilitated byterritorial adopting theachievements ofSweden, sphere canbegreatly strengthened by Russia’spartnerships. potential inthis ofpotential innovation to allparticipants forthem attractive diffusionas the training); innovations (suchasinteaching andin interest inthediffusionofeducational areas ofsociallife atallhierarchical levels; i.e., andaccountability, fairness inthekey oftheSDideology,pair ofbasiccategories values into society; technologies thatallowintegrating these valuesand educational(spiritual) 003.08.2011 14:38:58 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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8. Kasimov, N.S.and Yu.L. Mazurov (2010).Forum ofglobalintelligence. HeraldofUNESCO. 7. Kasimov, N.S.and Yu.L. Mazurov andits (2007)Russianinterpretation ofsustainability R., WelzelInglehart Cultural6. Change, C.(2005)Modernization, and Democracy. New York, Gumilev, L.N.(1990).Entenogenesis andtheEarth’s5. Biosphere. –Leningrad: Znaniye Press, Education for Europe, inEastern sustainabledevelopment: experience Russia,andCentral 4. 3. Education for sustainabledevelopment inhighereducationRussia:scientificbasis 2. Dumnov, A.D. (2011)Statisticalinvestigation ofexpenditures for environmental protec- 1. Bernes, C.,Lundgren ofNature’s L.J. (2009)UseandMisuse Resources: AnEnvironmental challenges” to respond effectively toexistingandpotential values, principles, andmethodsthatare necessary education andappliestoallpeople. isbasedon It and training promotes quality It foreveryone. that, onESDof2009states The BohnDeclaration context. educational close to its formatting inaparticular demonstrated itsrelevance andcamevery potential. The Russian-Swedish has project ESDstandardsinternational hasagreat latter, undoubtedly, theideaofestablishing ofthe ingeneral.and theworld Speaking interests ofSDthepeopleRussia,Sweden, basis, butsystematically andeffectively inthe notonacase-by-case itwork and to make the real capitalofourcountries’ development REFERENCES CONCLUSION 1 0 1 2010, №11.pp. Russianand English). 34-41(In B. ScottandS.Gouph.–.London: Routledge. pp. 55–63. educationandsustainabledevelopment // Higher reflection inhighereducation.In: Press, University Cambridge 1999 p. pp. 103,107. State University.Moscow 232p. RussianwithEnglishsummary). (In FacultyAsia. (Ed.). Acad. ofGeography, (2008).Moscow: RASN.S.Kasimov M.V. Lomonosov summary) Geography, M.V. Lomonosov State University. Moscow 238p. RussianwithEnglish (In and development strategy. Faculty (Ed.). Acad. of (2008).Moscow: RASN.S.Kasimov ronmental Resources inRussia.2011, №1.pp. 59–65. tion: from theevolvement stageto theexistingsituation.//UseandProtection ofEnvi- SEPA, ofSweden. Stockholm: History 304 p. “ESD is a new direction“ESD isanew ineducation [The Bonn Declaration, 2009]. BonnDeclaration, [The friendly neighborandpartner.friendly a more predictableandenvironmentally the ideaofSDandSweden would obtain successful, Russiawould effectively promote for bothcountries. If field ofESDisimportant Thus, theRussian-Swedish cooperationinthe achievements ofSweden. and,world amongthem,oftheimpressive traditions andinnovationsoftheadvanced path canbedefinedasasynthesisofnational ofSD.principles The formula for successonthis uncontested intoincorporate life virtually thatwould transformed into thenationalpolicy theinterestIn ofthecountry, itcanandmustbe the Russiannationaleducationsystem aswell. interpretation background hasitshistorical in future.sustainable andpredictable The same animpressive to make step towardscountry a its adoptionatthestate level thatallowed this isthisinterpretation ofESDinSweden and It 003.08.2011 14:38:59 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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1 0 2 1 h Bo 11. The Sweden’s10. Environmental No Objectives: Time to Lose (2008).AnEvaluationbytheSwedish Sammalisto, (2002).Green to Swedes Promote –aNationalInitiative K. theGreening ofthe 9. sustainable development for highereducation(2005–2011). on and othercountries. of booksandtextbooks Heis theeditor andauthoroftheseries Science andincooperationwiththeuniversities ofGreat Italy, Britain, Sweden, Switzerland inconceivable, 2008. Asia, 2000;Handbook “All ofAsia”, recognizable 2003(editor andauthor);India and Environmental Council. SEPA, Objectives Stockholm: 383p. inSwedish HE//Planet,Curriculum 4,pp. 30–31. declaration.pdf [Accessed 25.04.2011]. nn Declaration. Available Declaration. nn from: http
Yuri L. Mazurov projects supported by the Russian Ministry ofEducationand bytheRussianMinistry supported projects Academician Nina N.Alekseeva the UNECE Expert Group onESD. onIndicators the UNECEExpert instititions oftheRussianFederation. Hewasthememberof athighereducational development andotheractivities curricula (ESD)whichcoordinatesDevelopment building, capacity of thenationalfocal pointonEducationfor Sustainable Geography, Lomonosov State University, Moscow istheleader Kasimov isincharge oftheimplementationseveral pilot Kasimov oftheRussianFederation.by educationalcommunity ).N.S. Strategy Plan andAction for ESDwere elaborated andadopted oftheNational Academician guidancethedrafts N.S.Kasimov’s works. publications:Present-Day Main LandscapesofForeign sustainable development. Shepublishedover 100scientific environmental problems ofAsian countries, regional issuesof area ofherscientificinterests covers and landscapepattern Educational Programs attheFaculty ofGeography, MSU. The of combining itwiththepostofHeadDepartment ofGlobalPhysical Geographythe Department andGeoecology 1988. Currently sheholdsapositionofassistantprofessor at State University, in1983.Shehasreceived thePhD degree in Physical Geography ofForeign Counties, Lomonosov Moscow sustainable development. oneducationfor sustainable development. UNECEexpert projects onsustainabledevelopment andeducation for Heritage. Participant ofnumerous nationalandinternational Economics, Environmental NaturalandCultural Management, Lecturer Environmental onSustainableDevelopment, Faculty ofGeography, State Lomonosov Moscow University. Nikolay S.Kasimov, , Professor, ofNature Management, Department graduated from the Department ofthe graduated from theDepartment ://www.geogr.msu.ru/hesd/docs/bonn_ the Dean oftheFacruly theDean of
Under 003.08.2011 14:38:59 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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1 0 in theareas ofproductandwaste managementrelated policies. 3 Andrius Plepys Sven-Erik Österlund, Alla A.Pakina modernizing environmental policy making andimplementation environmental making modernizing policy environmental development onregional levels aswell as and environmental facilities, managementatindustrial strategic incleanerproduction consumption. Hehasalsoexperience municipal waste management,sustainableproductionand relate to lifecycle assessmentsfor andservices, product mainresearch andpublicgovernance. His interestsin industry Europe withthefocus onfostering thepreventative approaches projectsincludingthoseinEastern in anumberofinternational at Lund inSweden. University Since1997hehasbeenengaged Environmental for Institute Economics Industrial International manager of the ESD-project between Sweden between andRussia. manager oftheESD-project training programmes inNWRussiaandiscurrently theproject mining andenergy sectors. Since1995managedseveral environmental issueswithintheindustries, inparticular are trainingprogrammes for professionals withinheavy office atLuleå of University Technology. Fields ofspecialization liaison thecontinuouseducationandindustrial at Centek, “natural capital”, 2010. andal.), 2005; (c/a R.Henkens of “To ofthetheory acriticism development“Sustainable tourism atthe Taimyr peninsula” economics andmanagement” (c/a Yu. Mazurov), 2003; published scientificworks. publications: Main “Environmental environmental economicsandmanagement.Shehasover 40 protectedfunctioning naturalareas to generalquestionsof MSU. Herresearch have activities rangedfrom of principles Environmental attheFaculty Management ofGeography, of holds apositionofseniorresearcher attheDepartment in1993andgother PhDUniversity in1997.Currently she Environmental ofLomonosov Management State Moscow , PhD (techn.), isassociate professor atthe graduated from the Department of graduated from theDepartment Director of International ProgrammesDirector of International 003.08.2011 14:38:59 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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1 0 4 research areas: The conference discussedthefollowing bodies for application. practical legislature andtheexecutive governmental the conference resolutions were sentto the Research andPracticeInternational Conference; published intheannualProceedings ofthe and roundtables. were Allannouncedreports andbreakoutsessions made attheplenary were 700reports by over 1000 people;nearly total,students. In theconference wasattended levels, andundergraduate andgraduate legislative andexecutive ofdifferent authorities researchand university fields, industry, tourism Union. They are representatives ofacademic CIS, andtherepublics oftheformer Soviet from differentparticipants regions ofRussia, Each year, theconference involves 150-200 inRussia. rapidly developing industry tourism ofthe scientific andhumanresources support of itsmembersindicate theurgent needfor conference ofsuchahighprofile andtheset Tourism, and the ChamberofCommerce. A Tourism and Youth Affairs, Federal for Agency ofSports Russia, theState Duma,theMinistry bytheFederation also supported Council of applied research.” “ researchinternational conference andpractice have inRussiatheannual beenconducting and theRussianUnionof Travel Industry Academythe RussianInternational of Tourism, of Sciences, NationalAcademy of Tourism, (Faculty ofGeography), theRussianAcademy State University in2006,Moscow Starting RESEARCH IN RUSSIA FUNDAMENTAL AND APPLIED TOURISM AND RECREATION: Tourism andrecreation: fundamentaland
theoretical andmethodological foundations tourism andrecreationaltourism potential andrecreation;of studiestourism actual problemsactual ofrecreation and development; and regional oftourism characteristics tourism; The conference hasbeen territories. A sharply increasedterritories. A sharply interest in investigation ofrecreational features ofthe basic andappliedresearch oncomprehensive development isimpossiblewithoutconducting Successful andsustainabletourism and environmentally innovation.” friendly basedonthesynthesisoftraditions of society Mazurov, i.e., process “the ofmodernization development byN.S.Kasimov, and Yu.L. this case, we usethedefinitionofsustainable to sustainabledevelopment.contribution In revenue for asignificant thestate, making one ofthemoststeadily growing source of associated withthehumanhealthandis anessentialpreventive performs function and standards oflivinginRussia. Tourism needs asthemostimportant and tourism all levels istheorganization ofrecreation and itslegislative and executive bodiesat potential. Oneofthemaintasksstate human physical, spiritual, andintellectual aimedatrestoring anddevelopingactivities ofhuman ofthelife support an essentialpart isbecoming including Russia)thattourism ofmanyhas beentheexperience countries, life ofmostcountries. Onecanargue (andit andcultural leading areas ofsocio-economic XXI oneofthe century, itbecameactually the XX thebeginning ofthe century. In has beendeclared thephenomenonof inRussiaandabroad.are important Tourism point to awiderangeofscientificissuesthat The development listed directions above
and skills development. and skills personnel training, continuouseducation, andrecreation;tourism safety andsustainabledevelopment of andrecreationalof tourism systems (TRSs); problems andprospects ofdevelopment development; state andforecast market: tourism for managementoftourism; crisis 003.08.2011 14:39:00 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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be several TRSs located usuallywithinthe and recreational enterprises. There may located sights, tourism recreation areas, develop basic TRSs, consistingofcompactly municipal boundaries, itis more effective to municipal, regional, andfederal. Within to three levels ofadministrative division: isolate three levels of TRSs corresponding of administrative divisions, itisfeasible to ofterritories is confinedto theboundaries management that thesystem ofterritorial regional andmunicipalboundaries. Given atthefederalconducted level andwithin Tourism andrecreation studiesshouldbe facilities, personnel, andmanagementsystems. and culturalenvironment, andrecreational utility integrationterritorial ofholidaymakers, natural andconsistingofthe complexity of varying region shouldbestudiedbyisolating Every TRSs development industry. ofthetourism regionsperipheral withdifferent levels of and existalongwithsemi-peripheral activity Russia,already establishedcentersIn oftourism with different levels development. oftourism national recreational spaceofthecountries global recreational space. This spacecombines complex anddynamicallyevolving system of from to acoherent coexistingcountries atransition ismaking community tourist world economic tiesandtheflowoftourists, the development. Dueto themultidimensional from oftourism eachotherinterms markedly sphere. andregions Countries differ oftheworld integratingactively into theglobaltourism many otherworld’sRussia, like countries, is system of professional training. mechanism oftheirformation, andofthe and andrecreationaltourist clusters (TRCs) These are thestudiesofterritorial TRSs, of three topics studiedindetailattheconference. ofscientificareas, variety we willconsideronly promote growth industry. oftourism Amonga and development ofrecreational areas and methodological approaches to theinvestigation thesearchdictate for newtheoretical and development ofeconomy, andotherfactors regions, thetransitionto thepathofinnovation andrecreationaltourism development inthe 1 0 5 within theproductionsystem have been thematic literature,In concentration territorial and recreation needsofthepopulation. of aunified of therecreational development isthecreation Russian andforeign citizens. The ultimate goal for development andrecreation oftourism of as well asto promotion offavorable conditions enhancement, andeconomicdevelopment, lead to employmentgrowth, humanwelfare tourists. Creation ofthe TRSs would ultimately effective functioning, andthelargest influxof elements andtheircombinations, its ensuring maximal saturationof TRSs withallnecessary type. bythe The finalstageischaracterized elements, withtheemphasisonlinear-nodal combination oftourism-recreation infrastructure be identified. The firststageisthemostsimple development stages. As arule, three states can TPSs shouldbealsocategorized oftheir interms required financialcosts. For thedesign purposes, and developing of TRSs andtheamountof thedegreedetermine ofdesigning ofdifficulty recreation infrastructureandtheircombination ofspecificelementsthetourism- The types tissue” recreational ofthetourism- territory. anditisthe holidaymakers connective “living consistsoflocalresidents type and ethno-social information, water etc. andsewer (utility), The energy, includestransport, linear-nodal type residential, cultural, elements. andhistorical The geomorphological, landscape, ecological, social. includesgeological,The areal type specifically, areal, linear-nodal, andethno- elements. There are ofinfrastructure, three types interrelated tourism-recreational infrastructure Within boundaries, selected TRSs consistof different andrecreation. oftourism types natureof amono-profile ofdevelopment of factors, can beofeitheracross-sectionalor ofnatural,diversity cultural, andhistorical potentialdepending onthetourism and andrecreationaltourism specializationthat, region forms ofaparticular its boundaries entity. Acombinationof TRSs withinthe its managementasasinglerecreational municipalities, there are problems often of case whena TRS islocated withinadjacent the municipal administrative boundaries. In TRS in the country, ensuring tourism tourism inthecountry, ensuring 003.08.2011 14:39:00 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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1 0 6 program. oftheFederalclusters withthesupport target of forming anumber ofregional andlocal etc.). Atpresent, Russiaisintheprocess adventure,(sports, culture, education,wine, ofdevelopment ofthematicclusters practice levels hasbeenalready established, aswell as of creation of atnationalandlocal TRCs many countries,and functioning. practice In not play themajorrole intheirorganization the initiators of TRCs’ formation, butitdoes other interested entities, asoneof may act laws. on themarket The state, together with economy.the market They are formed based product. tourism of areTRCs anintegral part recreational areas through thecreation ofthe regional development andofnew oftourism Competitive clusters are apillarofsustainable development ofregional economies, etc. synergeticmarketing, effect, promotion of enhancement ofconditionsfor effective the image, growth products, tourism ofquality organizational innovation,strengthening of technological and dominance ofthemarket, ofcompetition, restriction and uncertainty, joint activities. These are inrisk reduction companies receive anumberofbenefitsfrom a accumulating system. In partner TRC, chainandavalue form ofavalue-added of itsmemberfirms, whichappearinthe becomes apparent through therelationships essence ofa centers. oftourism space andfunctioning The role intheformation andoperationoftourism shows, thecluster approach plays acrucial Asexceeds practice thesumofitsparts. asawhole institutions whoseimportance a system of interconnected companiesand Porter states thatacluster can bedefinedas oftheregion. andtheprosperity firms M. enhances competitiveness ofitsmember by aspecialinnovative environment that countries. Aclusterneighboring isformed orto even anumberof a state to acountry fromor onecity ofacluster canvary extent complementing eachother. Geographical area, acommonactivity, sharing and relat adjacent interconnected companiesand a cluster isagroup ofgeographically a termed ed organizations operating in a certain ed organizations operatinginacertain cluster. tourism- recreation cluster According to M.Porter, (TRC) initiative ofbusiness representatives, and fromgo through the several stages:starting of must Development withinaterritory TRCs regional andinterregional levels. on alocal(municipal)level aswell as on representatives, etc. A canbeconfiguredTRC institutions, professional associations, public authorities, research institutes, educational may alsoincludeadministrativeservices, productsandand salesoftourism organizations thatprovide production inadditionto businessesand participants, recreational resources oftheregion. TRCs’ and tourism areTRCs basedonthekey andrecreational tourism quality services. recreation andprovide sector thepublicwith through shared processes and oftourism and infrastructuresubsystems thatinteract technology,as theproduction, resource, components structural infrastructure-forming businesses operatingbasedonsuch andrecreationalincludes asetoftourism common infrastructure. Therefore, a TRC resourcesthat usethisterritory’s andits boundaries concentrated withinterritorial and economicallyinterconnected enterprises are byasetoftechnologically characterized productive forces oftheregion andthey organizationform ofterritorial the in theregion. asaprogressiveThey serve andrelatedrecreational industries industry influence thedevelopment ofthetourism- ownershipsthat ofvarious enterprises asseparate organizations functioning and represent elements asetofinteracting system organization. socio-economic TRCs should beviewed oftheirgeo- interms components ofrecreational activities, TRCs geography. With growing human- the theoretical foundations ofrecreational ofrethinking indicates thenecessity TRCs The evolution ofscientificideasabout recreational potential oftheterritory. flowsandusingthe thetourist and serving and related bodies, government forming companies, organizations, nongovernmental geographically adjacentandinterconnected ourunderstanding, a In isagroupTRC of 003.08.2011 14:39:00 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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and economicproblems, including expanded social addressing awiderangeof important partnership. of public-private This willallow ontheprinciples andfunctioning complexity would consistof ofdifferentTRCs levels and to create aunified and opportunity TRS that Russia,therebudgets. are In uniquesituation with thehelpoffederal andregional through domesticandforeign investors and moreattract than300billionrublesprimarily five years, thenext will country. thissector In inour prospects for industry thetourism cluster ideology. This opensuppromising been developed andadopted basedonthe in theRussianFederation (2011–2016)” has of Domestic Tourism andInbound Tourism The federal target program “Development of domesticandinboundtourism. regional clusters andfor regional development will provide for creation ofmultilevel system of the entire region inthecluster. This approach and recreational potential, butalsobyengaging not onlybyindividualareas withhigh tourism ofacluster thiscase, isensured thefunctioning In and requires ofregional governance. efficiency implementation ofprogram-target methods and forms partnerships ofpublic-private approach involves thedevelopment ofvarious date around showsthatthecluster theworld strategies shouldagree. gainedto Experience individual clusters andtheregional development development, i.e., strategies ofdevelopment of from thegeneralconceptofregional apart TRCs development strategy. isineffective to develop It of coordinated andlegislatively founded projectsisonlypossibleinthepresence TRC general, successfulimplementationof In business sector, andpublicorganizations. representatives from administrative bodies, the managementcompany shouldinclude i.e., partnership, ofpublic-private principles usingorganizationala separate legalentity management company shouldoperate as ofself-organization. using principles The development andfurther and monitoring implementation ofongoingmanagement, strategic development oftheterritory, the management company, identificationofthe local residents through theformation ofthe 1 0 7 should play acoordinating role inthis process. scientificandpedagogical resources skilled regional universities and academiesthathave in Russia. Leading nationaland industry forresources tourism athriving support scientificandhuman aimedatquality actions This isfarfrom beingacomplete listofpriority include: related to market tourism humanresources levels ona “turnkey” basis. The needsofthe comprehensive trainingfor professionals atall complexesand industrial designed to provide enterprises, andscientific industry tourism training andacademicinstitutions, educational implies creation, basedonexistingresources, of in thedevelopment industry. ofthetourism This roleplays inadditionto akey scientificsupport humanresources Availability ofhighly-qualified social andculturaldevelopment. oflifeof quality ofsociety, andinsuranceof employment andprosperity, improvement reproduction oflaborresources, growth of
continuous education,andemployers. all levels ofeducation,the system of creation ofeducationalclusters ecompasing trainingtechnologies;modern andtechniques of experiences in sharing educational institutionsandtrainingcenters ofRussianandforeignclose interaction professional education; secondary and human resources withprimary of programs for advancedtrainingof programs, aswell asincrease thenumber modular system for building training courses, internships, workshops, and training education onthebasisofshort improvement ofcontinuous professional to improve training; instructor innovative technologies ineducation,and to implement immediately attheworkplace, process, learning to develop skills work that would allow, inthecourseof process scienceandpractice, andsectoral complexes,educational industrial linking the needfor educational, scientific, and Viktor I.Kruzhalin 003.08.2011 14:39:00 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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108 GES 01|2011
1 0 8 “GEOGRAPHY, ENVIRONMENT, Circulation 300ex. Digital print 55 p. sh. Format 32 Order Ngi111 17.03.2011 issentinto print It E-mail: [email protected] Fax 7-495-9167673 Phone 7-495-9167574 Nizhnyaya Syromyatnicheskaya, 5/7,2 105120Russia Moscow andPublishingAdvertising Agency “Advanced Solutions” E-mail: [email protected] Fax 7-495-9328836 Phone 7-495-9392923 Faculty ofGeography, 2108a Gory,Leninskie 119991Russia Moscow M.V. Lomonosov State University Moscow EDITORIAL OFFICE registration: ПИМФС77-29285,2007,August 30. in sphere ofmasscommunicationsandprotection ofaculturalheritage. of The certificate ofthelegislation The magazineisregistered ofobservance inFederal onsupervision service magazineThe is published withfinancial oftheRussian support Geographical Society. ofGeography andInstitute University oftheRussianAcademy ofSciences FOUNDERS OF THE MAGAZINE: No. 01(v. 04)2011 ISSN 2071-9388 DESIGN & SUSTAINABILITY” SOCIALLY SCIENTIFIC MAGAZINE ½ PRINTING 46cm/2 Faculty ofGeography, M.V. Lomonosov State Moscow 003.08.2011 14:39:01 3 . 0 8 . 2 0 1 1
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