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Six Grand.Cabinet7.02 Issue 7 Summer 2002 Failure The Six Grandfathers, Paha Sapa, in the Year 502,002 C.E. Matthew Buckingham The image above shows what geologists believe the Six Grandfathers will look like in the year 502,002 C.E. Located just south of the geographic center of the continental United States in the Paha Sapa, or Black Hills, this mountain has also been called Slaughterhouse Peak, Cougar Mountain, and is now referred to as Mount Rushmore. Much older than the Alps, Himalayas, and Pyrenees, the Paha Sapa and Six Grandfathers were formed when subterranean pressure raised the earth's crust into a huge elliptical dome 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period. Today the 6,000-sq mile granite outcropping is visited by two million tourists each year, who go there to gaze up at the massive portraits of four American presidents—Washington, Jefferson, Roosevelt, and Lincoln—carved into the Six Grandfathers between 1926 and 1941 by the sculptor Gutzon Borglum. The first descendants of Europe to enter the Paha Sapa were ponies—progeny of the sixteen horses Hernán Cortéz brought with him from Spain to the "New World." The Taos Indians introduced them to the Kiowa in the 1600s. In the 18th century, European westward expansion displaced the Sioux from their native woodlands, who then, in turn, displaced the Kiowa, acquiring their horses as well as the Paha Sapa. Napoleon Bonaparte never saw the Louisiana Territory that France had claimed under the "doctrine of discovery." In 1803 US President Thomas Jefferson was prepared to pay the French $10 million for New Orleans and the Florida peninsula, but sensed that financially troubled France might be willing to bargain. In the end Jefferson bought all the land from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains and from the Gulf Coast to Canada for $15 million—about three cents an acre—doubling the size of the US. One year later, while exploring and mapping the vast territory, Lewis and Clark began bestowing symbolic citizenship on Native Americans by wrapping newborn Indians in the American flag. Deemed "unfit for civilization," new maps labeled the Paha Sapa the "Great American Desert," and the US Government designated it as a "Permanent Indian Country." Americans like the Astor family in New York quickly replaced French and English fur trading companies doing business with indigenous people across the Louisiana Territory, earning up to half a million dollars annually. In the summer of 1845, US Army Colonel S. W. Kearny arrived at the Laramie fork of the Platte River and gave the Sioux a flag made up of a series of diagonal lines, nine stars and two hands clasped in friendship on a blue background. This was, he told the Indians, the flag of the Sioux Nation. To protect trespassing whites and ease tensions between warring Native nations, the United States negotiated the first Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1851. Native signatories agreed to live on designated lands, including the Paha Sapa, which the treaty promised to them forever. When the South seceded from the Union, two pieces of legislation previously blocked by southern Congressmen were passed: the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railroad Act. The first granted 160 acres of land to any European-American who claimed it. The second transferred 170 million acres of public land to the transcontinental railroad companies, who resold it to finance construction of their rail lines and insure development of towns along their routes. They also used their influence over eastern newspapers to gain public support for westward expansion and the "inevitable" Indian wars to follow. General Phil Sheridan, who commanded the US Army in the west, enthusiastically observed that the new railroads would "bring the Indian problem to a final solution." When gold was discovered in the Colorado and Montana territories in 1864, white prospectors invading indigenous hunting grounds triggered a series of bloody conflicts. Quelling native revolts was financially prohibitive. The monthly expense for maintaining the US Army on the Plains was two million dollars—$150,000 for each Native American killed. Humanitarians back east, who had not faced conflict with Native Americans for nearly 100 years, were outraged by the bloodshed in the west. The Interior Department, charged with managing Indian affairs, reasoned that it would be easier, less expensive, and more palatable to exterminate a culture than a people. The department strategized the reservation system and offered the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, which again guaranteed Sioux land rights to the Black Hills forever. The treaty yielded to all Sioux demands, marking the only time in its history that the United States negotiated peace on enemy terms. But the economic depression following the Civil War revived American fantasies of finding gold in the west. Under the pretense of surveying the Black Hills for the US Army, George Armstrong Custer violated the Treaty of 1868 when he led an expedition into the Paha Sapa in search of gold. Custer, who graduated last in his class at West Point but made general at age 23, brought newspaper reporters, a photographer, a botanist, a geologist, and several professional miners with him. Halfway through the trip Custer dispatched a scout with a telegram declaring he had "found gold in the roots of the grass." Later, Custer's geologist denied any knowledge of gold in the Paha Sapa. President Ulysses Grant ordered the Sioux borders closed to prospecting and sent a second expedition to the Black Hills to assess its real estate value. Many soldiers guarding the Hills deserted to become prospectors themselves. Some officers urged miners to stake claims on their land before throwing them out. After receiving cautious confirmation of gold in the Black Hills from the second expedition, Grant secretly ordered the army not to stop prospectors from entering the Black Hills. Bounty hunters began collecting as much as $300 per Native American killed. Nervous for the safety of whites settling in the Black Hills, Grant and the Interior Department invented a provocation to justify declaring war on the Indians. In December 1875, the Government ordered the Sioux tribes that had camped for the winter in the Yellowstone and Powder River Valleys to abandon their hunting grounds and return to the reservation—an impossible order to carry out in the dead of winter. In the spring the US Army assembled to attack the violators, but the Sioux and Cheyenne were preparing as well. During the annual Sun Dance, Sitting Bull had a vision of US soldiers riding their horses upside down into his camp and falling to the ground, dead. In the vision the corpses had no ears "because white men never listen." Nine days before the nation's 100th birthday, Crazy Horse and others defeated Custer and the 7th Cavalry in the battle of Little Big Horn. The only survivors were a few army horses. One, named Comanche, who was too injured to be of use to tribal warriors, was nursed back to health by the US military and later exhibited and mythologized as the "sole survivor of Little Big Horn." The resounding defeat and its timing fueled US anti- Indian sentiment even more. Grant offered the Sioux the option of selling the Black Hills or starving to death. One tenth of the Sioux population signed the 1877 agreement to sell. Congress approved the act even though signatures from three-fourths of the tribe were required for legal ratification. The Sioux were moved out of the Black Hills and off of their hunting grounds onto permanent reservations. Over the next twelve years these Sioux lands were divided and radically reduced. The long period of armed conflict ended in 1890 with the massacre of more than 146 Sioux at Wounded Knee on the Pine Ridge Reservation. Around 1900, a mining interest in New York City hired a young lawyer named Charles Rushmore to travel to the Black Hills to check land titles on its mines. One day, noticing a mountain peak in the distance, the lawyer asked if it had a name. His guide jokingly replied that it was called Mount Rushmore. The name stuck. In 1923, the poet and South Dakota state historian, Doane Robinson, came up with an idea to preserve what he perceived to be the waning spirit of the American West. His idea, which he hoped would also increase tourist revenues, was to commission a sculptor to transform a few of "The Needles"—tall, narrow, granite rock formations in the Black Hills—into memorials of major figures from the grand narrative of the American West. Enormous head-to-toe portraits of Custer, Lewis and Clark, Red Cloud, and others would stand along a new highway designed to lure automobile tourists away from Yellowstone National Park. To do the work, Robinson invited one of America's most famous sculptors at the time, Gutzon Borglum, the son of Danish Mormon immigrants who, a generation before, had made the ten-week trek along the Mormon trail through indigenous lands to Brigham Young's "New Jerusalem," Salt Lake City. When Doane Robinson contacted Borglum, he was embroiled in a struggle for control over a similar carving in Stone Mountain, Georgia, a massive bas-relief monument to the Confederacy depicting its heroes Lee and Jackson marching across the mountain followed by their troops. Shortly after Stone Mountain was initiated, it was used as the site of a ceremony to revive the Ku Klux Klan in the 20th century. Many of the people funding and supervising the Stone Mountain carving were members of the re-born Klan. Borglum himself joined the Klan in order to exert more influence over the monument, ultimately becoming involved at the highest levels of the organization, working behind the scenes in an attempt to elect a KKK member to the White House.
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