Forest Terminology in Use

Elżbieta Kloc

FOREST TERMINOLOGY IN USE

Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 1 26.11.2020 18:08:25 Wydano na zlecenie Dyrekcji Generalnej Lasów Państwowych Warszawa 2020

Konsultacja i recenzja merytoryczna prof. dr hab. Piotr Gruba

Recenzja metodyczna Ramon Shindler

Redaktor prowadzący Anna Wikło

Korekta językowa Ramon Shindler

Ilustracje Karolina Lenda

Zdjęcia na okładce Elżbieta Kloc

ISBN 978-83-65659-18-7

Projekt graficzny i skład Studio EDO

Druk i oprawa Ośrodek Rozwojowo-Wdrożeniowy Lasów Państwowych w Bedoniu

Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 2 26.11.2020 18:08:25 TABLE OF CONTENTS SPIS TREŚCI

OD AUTORKI...... 5

TABLE OF TOPICS – TABELA ZAGADNIEŃ TEMATYCZNYCH . . . . . 7

PLANTS – ROŚLINY ...... 13 1. Taxa – jednostki taksonomiczne ...... 14 2. Plant classification – klasyfikacja roślin ...... 15 3. Forest plants – rośliny leśne...... 16 4. Forest trees and shrubs – drzewa i krzewy leśne...... 21 5. Plant morphology – morfologia roślin ...... 26 6. Plant cells, tissues and their compounds – komórki roślinne, tkanki i ich części składowe...... 29 7. Plant habitat preferences – preferencje siedliskowe roślin ...... 30 8. Plant types – typy roślin ...... 32 9. Types of trees – typy drzew ...... 34 10. Plant propagation – rozmnażanie roślin ...... 36 Revision ...... 38

FORESTS – LASY ...... 57 1. Nursery – szkółka ...... 58 2. Seed terminology – terminologia dotycząca nasion ...... 60 3. Forest establishment – powstawanie lasu ...... 62 4. Forest stands – drzewostany ...... 63 5. Stand tending and forest types – pielęgnowanie drzewostanu i typy lasu ...... 66 6. Tree felling and harvesting – ścinka drzew i pozyskiwanie drewna . . . . 68 7. Forest products – surowce leśne ...... 70 8. Wood defects – wady drewna ...... 72 9. Forest accessories, tools, equipment and clothing – akcesoria, narzędzia, sprzęt leśny i odzież ...... 74 10. Forest measurements – pomiary leśne ...... 76 11. Ecology – ekologia ...... 78 Revision ...... 82

Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 3 26.11.2020 18:08:25 FOREST THREATS AND PROTECTION – ZAGROŻENIA I OCHRONA LASU ...... 95 1. Tree damage – uszkodzenia drzew ...... 96 2. Fungi – grzyby ...... 98 3. Insect pests – szkodniki owadzie ...... 100 4. Forest fires – pożary lasów...... 102 5. Forest protection – ochrona lasu ...... 104 Revision ...... 106

ANIMALS – ZWIERZĘTA ...... 111 1. Insect classification – klasyfikacja owadów ...... 112 2. Animal classification and types – klasyfikacja zwierząt i ich rodzaje . . . 114 3. Animal species: annelids, flat worms, arachnids, reptiles and amphibians – gatunki zwierząt: pierścienice, robaki płaskie, pajęczaki, gady i płazy ...... 116 4. Bird species – gatunki ptaków ...... 117 5. Mammal species – gatunki ssaków ...... 120 6. Insect anatomy – anatomia owadów ...... 122 7. Anatomy of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, arachnids, and molluscs – anatomia ssaków, ptaków, gadów, płazów, pajęczaków i mięczaków ...... 123 8. Animal habitats and dwellings – siedliska zwierząt i ich schronienia . . . 124 9. Animal behaviour and communication – zachowania zwierząt i porozumiewanie się ...... 125 10. Animal feeding behaviour – sposoby odżywiania zwierząt ...... 126 11. Animal sexual behaviour, breeding habits and reproduction – zachowania seksualne zwierząt, zwyczaje godowe i rozmnażanie . . . . 127 12. Males, females, the young and their groups – samce, samice, młode i ich grupy ...... 128 13. Hunting – polowanie ...... 129 Revision ...... 130

KEY – KLUCZ ...... 139

SOURCES – ŹRÓDŁA ...... 185

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OD AUTORKI

Forest Terminology in Use to kolejna publikacja z serii poświęconej angielskiej ter- minologii leśnej, przeznaczona dla studentów leśnictwa, doktorantów oraz leśników praktyków, którzy chcą pogłębiać swoją wiedzę z tego zakresu. Książka łączy w spój- ną całość wszystkie wydane do tej pory publikacje: Basic Forest Vocabulary, English in Forestry oraz Thematic Forest Dictionary. Ujęty w nich zakres materiału jest niezwykle obszerny i różnorodny, zatem aby ułatwić czytelnikowi sprawne korzystanie z tego zasobu, wszelkie korelacje pomiędzy poszczególnymi publikacjami przedsta- wione są w funkcjonalnej tabeli, szczegółowo informującej o możliwości zastosowa- nia dodatkowych ćwiczeń wprowadzających lub uzupełniających. Basic Forest Vocabulary oraz English in Forestry poświęcone są wprowadzaniu fachowego słownictwa za pomocą krótkich tekstów, natomiast niniejsza publikacja ma na celu nie tylko ugruntowanie, ale także pogłębianie nabytej już wiedzy, poprzez praktyczne ćwiczenia o różnorodnej formie i bogatej treści. W odróżnieniu od wcześniej wspomnianych książek, Forest Terminology in Use nie posiada słownicz- ka, dlatego też w razie problemów ze zrozumieniem poszczególnych słów i terminów polecam dwujęzyczny Thematic Forest Dictionary, zaopatrzony w polski i angielski indeks haseł, który dostępny jest na stronie internetowej Lasów Państwowych. Książka ta, jak i poprzednie, nie powstałaby bez pomocy wielu osób, na które mogłam liczyć podczas wszystkich etapów jej tworzenia. Dziękuję Zespołowi Wy- dawnictw w Centrum Informacyjnym Lasów Państwowych za poparcie idei jej wy- dania oraz późniejszą współpracę redakcyjną i edytorską. Chciałabym szczególnie serdecznie podziękować Panu prof. dr. hab. Piotrowi Grubie z Wydziału Leśnego Uniwersytetu Rolniczego w Krakowie za fachową, rzetelną i owocną konsultację merytoryczną z dziedziny leśnictwa oraz Panu Ramonowi Shindlerowi z Instytutu Filologii Angielskiej Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego za konstruktywną recenzję meto- dyczną oraz korektę językową.

Elżbieta Kloc

Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 5 26.11.2020 18:08:25 TABLE OF TOPICS TABELA ZAGADNIEŃ TEMATYCZNYCH

FOREST THEMATIC BASIC FOREST ENGLISH IN TERMINOLOGY FOREST VOCABULARY FORESTRY IN USE DICTIONARY 1. Taxa, p. 14 Taxa, p. 14 2. Plant Plant Forest flora, Forest trees, p. 30 classification, classification, p. 46 (as additional material) p. 15 p. 14 Temperate forest stratification, p. 38 3. Forest plants, List of forest Forest flora, Temperate forest p. 16 plant species, p. 46 stratification, p. 38 p. 17 The forest biological clock, p. 72 4. Forest trees List of tree and Coniferous Polish forests in and shrubs, shrub species, trees, p. 28 numbers – follow-up, p. 21 p. 19 Deciduous p. 22–23 trees, p. 30 Revision, p. 24–25 Revision, p. 32 Forest trees, p. 30 Temperate forest stratification, p. 38 5. Plant Plant Parts of a tree, ‘Tree’ follow-up, p. 19 morphology, morphology, p. 22 Follow-up, p. 36 p. 26 p. 22 6. Plant cells, Plant cells, Follow-up, p. 79 Follow-up: trunk cross- tissues and their tissues and their -section, p. 121 compounds, compounds, p. 29 p. 30 7. Plant habitat Plant habitat Forest flora, Follow-up, p. 40 preferences, preferences, p. 46 p. 30 p. 34 8. Plant types, Plant types, Forest flora, Temperate forest p. 32 p. 35 p. 46 stratification, p. 38

Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 7 26.11.2020 18:08:26 FOREST THEMATIC BASIC FOREST ENGLISH IN TERMINOLOGY FOREST VOCABULARY FORESTRY IN USE DICTIONARY 9. Types of trees, Types of trees, Follow-up, p. 40 Forest trees, p. 30 p. 34 p. 36 Follow-up: types of trees in a stand, p. 45–47 10. Plant Plant Where trees Tree propagation, p. 34 propagation, propagation, come from, p. 36 p. 38 p. 20 11. Nursery, Nursery, p. 42 Planting Forest nurseries: p. 58 seedlings, p. 96 site selection and Seedling preparation, p. 98 production, Sowing seeds and taking p. 100 care of seedlings, p. 100 Seedling lifting Seedling lifting, storing and outplanting, and outplanting, p. 104 p. 102 12. Seed Seed Where trees Basic seed terminology, terminology, terminology, come from, p. 88 p. 60 p. 44 p. 20 Seed production, p. 90 Seed collection and processing, p. 92 Seed storage, p. 94 13. Forest Forest Natural and Forest establishment, establishment, establishment, artificial p. 80 p. 62 p. 49 regeneration, Artificial regeneration, p. 84 p. 82 Reforestation and afforestation, p. 86 Afforestation of farmland, p. 88 14. Forest Forest stands, Forest stands, Basic characteristics of stands, p. 63 p. 57 p. 44 forest stands, p. 44

15. Stand Stand tending, From seedlings Forest stand tending and p. 65 to mature trees, improvement, p. 108 forest types, Forest types, p. 106 State forests in Poland, p. 66 p. 64 Tree groups, p. 10 p. 42 Polish forests in numbers, p. 18

Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 8 26.11.2020 18:08:26 FOREST THEMATIC BASIC FOREST ENGLISH IN TERMINOLOGY FOREST VOCABULARY FORESTRY IN USE DICTIONARY 16. Tree felling Tree felling and Timber Forest harvesting and harvesting, harvesting, p. 70 harvesting systems, p. 110 p. 68 systems, p. 108 Shelterwood cutting, p. 114 17. Forest Forest products, Forest products, Forest products, p. 118 products, p. 70 p. 75 p. 116 Non-timber forest Forests feed, products (NTFP), p. 126 forests cure, p. 118 18. Wood Wood defects, Forest products, Wood defects. Part I and defects, p. 72 p. 77 p. 116 II, p. 120 and 124

19. Forest Forest Timber Forest harvesting accessories, accessories, harvesting systems, p. 110 tools, equipment tools, equipment systems, p. 108 Shelterwood cutting, and clothing, and clothing, p. 114 p. 74 p. 81 20. Forest Forest measurements, measurements, p. 76 p. 87

21. Ecology, Ecology, p. 89 The State State forests in Poland, p. 78 Forests, p. 8 p. 10 The roles forests Forest management play, p. 14 today, p. 14 22. Tree Tree damage: Tree diseases, Forests in danger. Part I damage, p. 96 symptoms p. 76 and II, p. 64 and 66 and damaging Tree pests, p. 78 agents, p. 98 What destroys Polish forests. Part I and II, p. 64 and 66 23. Fungi, p. 98 Fungi, p. 104 Tree diseases, Forests in danger. Part II, p. 76 p. 66

24. Insect pests, Insect pests, Tree pests, p. 78 Forests in danger. Part II, p. 100 p. 106 p. 66 The European spruce bark beetle, p. 68

Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 9 26.11.2020 18:08:26 FOREST THEMATIC BASIC FOREST ENGLISH IN TERMINOLOGY FOREST VOCABULARY FORESTRY IN USE DICTIONARY 25. Forest fires, Forest fires, What destroys Forests in danger. Part II, p. 102 p. 112 Polish forests. p. 66 Part I, p. 64 26. Forest Forest How to control How to control forest protection, protection, forest pests and pests and diseases. Part I p. 104 p. 116 diseases, p. 80 and II, p. 76 and 78 27. Insect Insect Forest animal The European spruce classification, classification, kingdom. Part I, bark beetle, p. 68 p. 112 p. 120 p. 52 Forests in danger. Part II, Tree pests, p. 78 p. 66 28. Animal Animal Forest animal Woodland birds, p. 52 classification classification kingdom. Part I Forest mammals, and types, and types, and II, reptiles and amphibians, p. 114 p. 121 p. 52 and 54 p. 54

29. Animal List of animal Forest animal ‘Forest’ follow-up, species: species: kingdom. Part II, p. 16–17 annelids, annelids, p. 54 Forest mammals, flat worms, flat worms, reptiles and amphibians, arachnids, arachnids, p. 54 reptiles and reptiles and Danger in the forest, amphibians, amphibians, p. 70 p. 116 p. 122 30. Bird species, List of bird Forest animal Woodland birds, p. 52 p. 117 species, p. 123 kingdom. Part II, p. 54 31. Mammal List of mammal Forest animal Forest mammals, species, p. 120 species, p. 125 kingdom. Part II, reptiles and amphibians, p. 54 p. 54 32. Insect Insect anatomy, Forest animal The European spruce anatomy, p. 122 p. 128 kingdom. Part I, bark beetle, p. 68 p. 52 Forests in danger. Part II, Tree pests, p. 78 p. 66 33. Anatomy Animal anatomy, Hunting, p. 58 Wildlife management, of mammals, p. 132 p. 58 birds, reptiles, amphibians, arachnids and molluscs, p. 123

Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 10 26.11.2020 18:08:26 FOREST THEMATIC BASIC FOREST ENGLISH IN TERMINOLOGY FOREST VOCABULARY FORESTRY IN USE DICTIONARY 34. Animal Animal habitats Forest animal Woodland birds, p. 52 habitats and and dwellings, kingdom. Part I Forest mammals, dwellings, p. 138 and II, p. 52 reptiles and amphibians, p. 124 and 54 p. 54 ‘Forest’ follow-up, p. 16–17 35. Animal Animal Forest animal Woodland birds, p.52 behaviour and behaviour and kingdom. Part I Forest mammals, communication, communication, and II, p. 52 reptiles and amphibians, p. 125 p. 139 and 54 p. 54 Hunting, p. 58 Wildlife management, p. 58 36. Animal Animal feeding A food chain, Woodland birds, p. 52 feeding behaviour, p. 60 Forest mammals, behaviour, p. 140 reptiles and amphibians, p. 126 p. 54 Wildlife management, p. 58 37. Animal Animal sexual Hunting, p. 58 Woodland birds, p. 52 sexual behaviour, Forest animal Forest mammals, behaviour, breeding habits kingdom. Part II, reptiles and amphibians, breeding and p. 54 p. 54 habits and reproduction, Wildlife management, reproduction, p. 142 p. 58 p. 127 38. Males, Males, females, Hunting, p. 58 Woodland birds, p. 52 females, the the young and Forest animal Forest mammals, young and their their groups, kingdom. Part II, reptiles and amphibians, groups, p. 128 p. 144 p. 54 p. 54 Wildlife management, p. 58 39. Hunting, Hunting, p. 146 Hunting, p. 58 Wildlife management, p. 129 p. 58

Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 11 26.11.2020 18:08:26 PLANTS ROŚLINY

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TAXA I. Match the beginnings (1–8) with the endings (A–H) of taxa's names. Next, match them with Polish equivalents (a–g). One of the Polish equivalents is used twice.

1. DIVI A. DER a. gatunek 2. SPE B. NUS b. rząd 3. OR C. DOM c. królestwo 4. PHY D. SION d. rodzaj 5. KING E. LY e. rodzina 6. CLA F. LUM f . typ 7. FAMI G. CIES g. klasa 8. GE H. SS

II. Fill in the blanks (1–9) with the words from the box. The table pres- ents the taxonomy of the white willow (Salix alba).

genus division class species subkingdom family order kingdom subdivision

Taxonomical term Example

1. Plantae (plants) 2. Tracheobionta (vascular plants) 3. Spermatophyta (seed plants) 4. Magnoliophyta (angiosperms) 5. Magnoliopsida (dicotyledons) 6. Salicales 7. Salicaceae 8. Salix (willow) 9. Salix alba (white willow)

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PLANT CLASSIFICATION I. Put parts of the words below in order. Then, translate them into Polish.

Example: WORT VER LI liverwort – wątrobowiec

1. OPHY TES BRY 2. PHY LLO THA TE 3. PHY PTE DO TE RI 4. SE TAIL HOR 5. SS MO 6. WER NTS FLO PLA ING 7. NOSP ERMS GYM 8. CU PL VAS ANTS LAR 9. MS AN SPER GIO 10. MO CLUB SS

II. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F). If they are false, correct them. 1. Firs and pines are typical examples of angiosperms. 2. Vascular plants are represented by such plants as, for example, trees, bushes, grasses and ferns. 3. Grasses belong to dicotyledons. 4. ‘Liverwort’ means the same as ‘hepatic’. 5. Pteridophytes include ferns. 6. The term ‘seed-bearing plants’ is the opposite of ‘non-flowering plants’. 7. Mosses, liverworts and algae are the most common bryophytes. 8. Bryophytes and ferns are vascular plants. 9. Clubmosses are non-seed bearing plants. 10. Gymnosperms in Poland are represented by such trees as, for example, oak, birch and poplar. 11. Angiosperms are divided into monocots and dicots. 12. Thallophytes include mosses and clubmosses. 13. Horsetails are members of the genus Equisetum.

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FOREST PLANTS I. In the word search puzzle find horizontally, vertically and diagonally 22 names of forest plants. M A I B U R D O C K A S T D A T R P A A S V O R A R K A S N I U N I A O E M R A Y O B F I R E W E E D N N R T P O C R A N B E R R Y W T L E N D R O P R H A L T A R O N C Y T L E W I E T E A I B A R N N T X T O L A O K R A W R M N A R B I U S Z L T E N G R A T A M E G C L U B M O S S I S A P V I D L I Z R C O P C I L U T Y P B R A C K E N E U A O C E L A N D I N E L L Y A D T R B E A M R O N B O O T L A E F S U H E B E L L F L O W E R P G J R N L M P O Y E L L O R A M S O N S R I U B F U N A Y E M A R E C H O J F R A N G R A T D E W B E R R Y K T O S U N D O W N Y

II. Put the words from the box into the following categories: ferns, plants with edible fruit, plants with colourful flowers, plants from the Ericaceae family. Some of the plant names can be used more than once. fireweed bellflower bilberry alpine lady fern common heather royal fern blackberry wood forget-me-not wild strawberry common foxglove bracken common violet cowberry male fern cranberry

ferns edible fruit

colourful flowers the Ericaceae family

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III. Choose the correct answer a, b or c. 1. Which plant is biennial? a. burdock b. common heather c. dyer’s greenweed 2. Which one of the following has the hardest leaves? a. alpine lady fern b. bracken c. deer fern 3. Which plant has an unpleasant smell? a. wild chamomile b. herb Robert c. lily of the valley 4. Which one of the following has yellow flowers? a. fireweed b. dyer’s greenweed c. snowdrop 5. Which plant blooms in late summer and autumn? a. snowdrop anemone b. oxlip c. common heather 6. The leaves of which one of the following taste like garlic? a. stinging nettle b. ramsons c. hop 7. Which plant is a representative of the Euphorbiaceae family? a. dog’s mercury b angular Solomon’s seal c. marsh marigold 8. The fruit of which one of the following is red? a. mistletoe b. bilberry c. mezereon 9. Which plant are cats crazy about? a. white dead nettle b. valerian c. sylvan goatsbeard 10. Whose fruit is whiteish at first and later turns red? a. cowberry’s b. bilberry’s c. dewberry’s 11. Which plant is poisonous? a. wild chamomile b. stinging nettle c. mezereon 12. The fruit of which one of the following is surrounded by stiff hairs or bristles that adhere to animal fur or human clothes? a. burdock b. mezereon c. dewberry

IV. Match the plants from the box with the families they belong to.

purple small reed pasque flower alpine coltsfoot mountain arnica nodding avens common hepatica wild strawberry snowdrop anemone wood small reed rough small reed tormentil dewberry

the Asteraceae family the Ranunculaceae family

the Rosaceae family the Poaceae family

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V. Name the following plants. Use the words from the box.

white butterbur great plantain wood anemone burdock common bog-cotton sweet woodruff sylvan goatsbeard oxlip ivy common foxglove

3 1

4 5

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6 7

8 10

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VI. Match the beginnings of forest plant names (1–10) with their endings (A–J). Then, answer the questions. 1. alpine A. bugleweed 2. wood B. gentian 3. sticky C. mercury 4. deer D. flower 5. willow E . avens 6. nodding F . lady fern 7. creeping G. marigold 8. marsh H. sorrel 9. pasque I . willy 10. dog’s J . fern 1. Which plants are the representatives of pteridophytes? 2. What is another English name for deer fern? 3. What is the English equivalent of the Latin name of the forest plant Ajuga reptans? 4. Which plant is a representative of the Euphorbiaceae family? 5. What is the English equivalent of the Latin name of the forest plant Caltha palustris? 6. Which plant belongs to the Ranunculaceae family, is herbaceous perennial, has hairy stems, leaves and violet, also hairy, flowers? 7. Which plant is annual? 8. Which plant has dark blue trumpet-shaped flowers? 9. What is another English name for the nodding avens? 10. What is the English equivalent of the Latin name of the forest plant Oxalis acetosella?

VII. Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F). If they are false correct them. 1. Bearberry has red fruit. 2. Celandine has violet flowers. 3. Ground elder belongs to the Apiaceae family and produces white umbels. 4. Lesser periwinkle is annual. 5. Mistletoe is evergreen. 6. Mezereon has pink flowers that appear before the plant bursts into leaf. 7. Mountain arnica is a common grass. 8. Oxlip contains lupuline. 9. Hop is used in beer production. 10. Sweet flag prefers sandy soils.

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FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS I. In the word search puzzle find horizontally, vertically and diagonally 22 names of forest trees. Which words are synonyms? S P R U T O R A N P I N N Y A D V E N I A K L I N D E N P O P L A R E K O N T I C K O U O R G O A N B E E C H O N G R H O W I L L O W H O M I L S O R A K A O N A T L A B A E O K N O B B K N E I I L S S P A O M R A I O S M D A F I P E L Y A S T R O E E C I L B E A T D S A E C F N K R L A L N O N W A S C H H L O A H A K M E O N N A T A O K N O B A R L O D A T E I C I A R K I A L D E R C O R U G I N K G O Y A L U A R T S T A B I L O L A R C H T R T O C E M O L A P R Z Y A E K R M A P L E S F G A J L E A C O M L Y N D A R J A I K

II. Some of the shrub or tree names include names of the continents, countries or nationalities. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box. Next, translate them into Polish.

larch 2× pine 2× spruce spindle tree maple hawthorn filbert elm

...... 1. EUROPEAN ...... 4. NORWAY ...... 2. ENGLISH ...... 5. SCOTS ......

3. POLISH ...... 6. SWISS ......

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III. Whose fruit are they? Match fruit with the plant species from the box.

ginkgo/ maidenhair tree hazel/ European filbert northern red oak sycamore maple hedge maple small-leaved linden maple sessile oak rowan beech

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IV. Match the tree species with their descriptions.

1. A deciduous tree that has hard wood. Leaves are simple A. rowan with toothed margins and parallel veins usually remain on branches during winter. Species used in gardening as a hedging plant. 2. A slow-growing coniferous tree which has five needles B . ginkgo/ in a fascicle and is well adapted to harsh mountainous maidenhair tree climate. Young cones are violet and need two years to mature. 3. A melliferous tree with compound leaves which produc- C. silver fir es white fragrant flowers. Fruit – dark brown pods. 4. A tree with fan-shaped leaves shed in autumn. Fruit D. Scots pine roundish, fleshy and yellow when immature, brownish when ripe. 5. A coniferous fast-growing tree introduced in Poland in E. black alder the 19th century. It is called the Oregon pine in America but in Europe it is known under a different name. Cones hang from the branches and has three-pointed bracts clearly visible between scales. 6. A short-living tree or shrub from the Salicaceae family F. common birch with long, slender, silvery green leaves. The tree grows best on wetlands, along streams. Its wood is very soft. 7. A coniferous tree that prefers fertile soils. When young G. Arolla pine / shade-bearing with smooth grey bark. Needles dark Swiss pine green with two white stripes beneath. 8. A wetland species from the Betulaceae family that has H. white willow the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen making it available to plants. Leaves simple, stalked. Fruit cone-like, dark brown when ripe. 9. A tree from the Rosaceae family with compound leaves, I. hornbeam white flowers and orange-red fruit grouped in clusters. 10. A sun-demanding, fast-growing coniferous tree with or- J. Douglas fir ange-brown bark. The species occupies almost seventy per cent of forest land in Poland. 11. A young tree which has brown bark that turns white with K. black locust age. Flowers in catkins. Leaves golden-yellow in autumn.

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V. Complete the names of forest trees and shrubs with the words from the box.

maidenhair Scots mountain pedunculate alder sycamore sessile crab rum wayfaring hedge sea Douglas Cornelian wild

1...... FIR ...... 5...... BUCKTHORN ...... 2...... CHERRY ...... 6...... MAPLE

...... 3...... TREE 7...... OAK

...... 4...... PINE 8...... APPLE

VI. Complete the names of forest trees and shrubs with the words from the box.

willow fir locust elder 2× alder 2× poplar beam cherry

...... 3. RED ...... 1. BLACK ...... 4. SILVER ...... 5. WHITE ...... 2. GREY ......

VII. True or false? 1. Hedge maple means the same as sycamore maple. 2. Black cherry is an alien species in Poland. 3. Basswood means the same as lime. 4. Sea buckthorn belongs to the Rosaceae family. 5. Ginkgo fruit has horrible smell when rots. 6. The Latin equivalent of the bird cherry is Padus serotina.

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PLANT MORPHOLOGY I. Do the crossword puzzle and read the term marked with bold lines vertically.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

1. a part of a tree crown that consists of twigs and leaves 2. at a top of a filament 3. a small branch 4. an adjective describing a bud that is situated at the top of a plant 5. a group of flowers arranged on the stalk 6. a bole 7. plant male reproductive cells carried by wind or insects 8. the biggest part of a leaf 9. the female part of a flower 10. a part of a compound leaf 11. located in an ovary 12. a bud, branch or root that originates from the side of the plant axis 13. a reproductive part of a pine, larch, spruce, etc. 14. the way leaves are arranged on the stem 15. petals and sepals together 16. an adjective opposite to the one described in 4 17. plant leaves, leafage 18. between two nodes

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II. Put the words from the box into the following categories: shoot, tree crown, compound leaf, venation, perianth, inflorescence.

parallel umbel node head twig leaf 2× petal leaflet spike petiole bough reticulate internode branch sepal stem bud 2× foliage pinna raceme

shoot tree crown compound leaf

venation perianth inflorescence

III. Put parts of the words below in order. Then, translate them into Polish.

Example: FL ER OW flower – kwiat

1. LE SU CAP 2. HER ANT 3. LA ROL CO 4. PHY ORO LL SP 5. LIA FO GE 6. TY DON CO LE 7. LAM FI ENT 8. LLO XY TA PHY 9. ORN TH 10. ORL WH 11. AL TH LUS 12. GI RAN UM SPO 13. IL TE NDR 14. NE CO 15. RE SPO

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IV. Circle the part which is smaller. 1. stamen – pollen 2. lateral vein – midrib 3. stem – shoot 4. bough – branch 5. leaf – leaflet 6. ovary – ovule 7. twig – branch 8. leaf – bud 9. stigma – pistil 10. taproot – lateral root

V. Match the first half of the collocation (1–10) with the second (A–J) and its Polish translation (a–j). 1. pollen A. leaf a. liść nerkowaty 2. root B. stalk b. czapeczka 3. bud C. leaf c. ogonek liściowy 4. leaf D. umbel d. liścień 5. root E. grain e. łuska pąka 6. stalked F . leaf f . brzeg liścia 7. seed G. margin g. szyjka korzeniowa 8. compound H. collar h. liść z ogonkiem 9. leaf I. cap i. ziarno pyłku 10. reniform J. scale j. baldach złożony

VI. Fill in the blanks to give words of opposite meaning.

1. axillary bud ≠ a ______a __ bud 2. simple leaf ≠ __ o __ __ o ______leaf 3. glabrous leaf ≠ ______u __ __ u __ leaf 4. parallel venation ≠ __ e ______e venation 5. taproot ≠ l ______l root 6. petiolated leaf ≠ s __ s s ______leaf 7. stamen ≠ __ i __ __ i __

VII. True or false? 1. ‘Bole’ means the same as ‘trunk’. 2. A panicle is a type of a leaf shape. 3. A perianth consists of petals and sepals. 4. ‘Cotyledon’ means the same as ‘seta’. 5. A filament is located between a stigma and an anther. 6. The plural of ‘thallus’ is ‘thalli’. 7. ‘Petiole’ means the same as ‘leaf stalk’. 28

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PLANT CELLS, TISSUES AND THEIR COMPOUNDS I. In the word search puzzle find horizontally and vertically 22 names that refer to plant cells, tissues and their compounds. X A S C E L L O P A C U T I C L E Y V P P R O T O H C A M B I U M P L E O H E M I C E L L U L O S E I E S N L I E S S L A L I G N I N D M S G O T R S T L S U B E R I N E T E Y E S I U O E N S A R C H E R S L I M U S E M M A K R C O R K M M A R K E T R A N S S K O K V O I T R A C H E I D O R F I B R E A S I S O T A M A M E S O P H Y L L I S P A R E N C H Y M A R S K S A P

II. Match the first half of the collocation (1–10) with the second (A–J). 1. companion A. tissue 2. palisade B. root 3. vascular C. plate 4. resin D. epidermis 5. sieve E. wall 6. root F. bark 7. lateral G. cell 8. cell H. canal 9. inner I. cap 10. upper J. mesophyll

III. Put the words and phrases from the box into the following categories: leaf anatomy, vascular tissues, trunk cross-section. sieve plate spongy mesophyll sieve tube outer bark cuticule stomatal opening xylem palisade parenchyma companion cell heartwood epidermis spiral lignin tracheid phloem pith cambium vascular bundle sapwood guard cell phloem

leaf anatomy:

vascular tissues:

trunk cross-section:

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PLANT HABITAT PREFERENCES I. Read the definitions. Then, fill in the missing letters in terms that refer to plant habitat preferences. 1. an adjective describing a plant whose habitat is boggy: __ __ l __ __ t __ __ n __ 2. a plant that prefers sandy soils: __ s __ m ______t __ 3. an adjective that describes a plant that prefers mountainous areas: __ l __ __ n __ 4. a plant that is sun-demanding is also called: __ __ l __ __ p __ __ t __ 5. a plant that prefers soils with pH below 7: __ c __ __ o ______l __ 6. a plant that does not need much water to grow, often found on sandy soils: __ e __ o ______t __ 8. a plant that grows on rocks: __ i __ o ______e 9. a plant that prefers soils with pH above 7: __ l __ __ l __ __ o ______l __ 10. an adjective describing a plant that prefers higher temperatures: __ h __ r __ __ p __ __ l __ u __ 11. a plant that grows in water: __ y __ r __ __ h __ __ e

II. Fill in the table with the missing nouns and adjectives.

noun adjective

1. acidophile 1...... 2...... 2. calciphilous 3. drought-tolerance 3...... 4. halophile 4...... 5...... 5. hygrophilous 6. mesophyte 6...... 7...... 7. sciophilous 8...... 8. shade-tolerant 9. xerophile 9......

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III. Match the words with the ones of the opposite meaning.

1. alkalinophile A. drought intolerant 2. shade-tolerant B. calciphobous 3. marsh plant C. shade-intolerant 4. calciphilous D. sciophile 5. drought tolerant E. acidophile 6. heliophyte F . xerophile

IV. Put the words from the box into three categories according to pH preferences, water and sun requirements.

marsh plants sciophile bog plant heliophyte sun-demanding calciphobous xerophyte alkalinophile palustrine plant helophyte shade-intolerant calciphile acidophile hygrophyte shade-tolerant

pH preferences water requirements sun requirements

V. Choose the correct answer a, b or c. 1. A bog plant is also called a: a. corticolous plant b. marsh plant c. tropophilous plant 2. A plant that grows well in moderate temperature and humidity is known as: a. mesophyte b. sciophile c. helophyte 3. A plant that grows on bark is called: a. saxicolous b. tropophilous c. corticolous 4. A plant that grows well in saline environment is known as: a. mesophyte b. sciophile c. halophile

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PLANT TYPES I. True or false? 1. Biennial plants produce seeds in the second year and die afterwards. 2. Actinorhizal plants live in a symbiotic relationship with mycorrhizal fungi. 3. Larch is gymnospermous. 4. Melliferous plants are often visited by bees. 5. ‘Indigenous’ means the same as ‘herbaceous’. 6. Dormant plants have a lot of leaves and flowers. 7. Perennial plants live longer than annuals. 8. Dwarf plants are very tall. 9. Fragrant plants have a nasty smell. 10. The English ivy is a climber. 11. Noxious plants are difficult to control. 12. ‘Vascular’ means the same as ‘herbaceous’.

II. Put the parts of the words below in order. Then, match them with their Polish translation from the box.

karłowy okrytozalążkowy dwuletni owadożerny leczniczy dwuliścienny naczyniowy w stanie spoczynku zielny samożywny niejadalny miejscowy, krajowy

1. DIG OUS IN EN 2. RM ANT DO 3. ARF DW 4. ROP TOT HIC AU 5. US HE CEO RBA 6. LAR VA SCU 7. ECT ORO INS IV US 8. LED US OTY ONO DIC 9. ICI NAL MED 10. IOS US ANG MO PER 11. NI EN AL BI 12. ED LE IN IB

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III. There are several criteria on which plant description can be based. For instance, plants can be classified according to biological taxonomy, origin, life cycle, use, the way the stem grows, whether they shed leaves or are evergreen in winter. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box according to the criteria mentioned above.

melliferous perennial monocotyledonous edible native flowering plants deciduous trailer evergreen angiospermous annual dicotyledonous biennial endemic climber indicator plants gymnospermous medicinal vascular indigenous

taxonomy origin life cycle

use the way the stem grows leaf shedding

IV. What are the antonyms (words of the opposite meaning) of the terms listed below? The first and last letter of the antonym are given. 1. angiospermous ≠ g……………………. s 2. autotrophic ≠ h ………………....……..c 3. monocotyledonous ≠ d ………………………….s 4. herbaceous ≠ w ………….……….. y 5. late-blooming ≠ e……..y-b……………….g 6. edible ≠ i………………....e 7. short-day plant ≠ l……..g-d…....y plant 8. native ≠ a……………….n

V. Circle the words that have positive connotations.

noxious medicinal fragrant poisonous melliferous inedible parasitic edible

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TYPES OF TREES I. Match the definitions (1–10) with types of trees (A–J).

1. a tree with hollows where animals live A. cull tree 2. a tree that has been cut down B. coniferous tree 3. a tree that is planted in order to slow down C. down tree the speed of wind 4. a standing dead tree D. den tree / wildlife tree 5. a tree that does not grow straight E. leafless tree 6. a tree that has needles and cones F . snag 7. a tree attacked by pests G. windbreak 8. a tree lying on the ground as a result of H. bent tree felling, uprooting or breaking 9. a tree with many defects, of low quality I. felled tree 10. a tree without leaves J. infested tree

II. What are the antonyms (words of the opposite meaning) of the terms listed below? The first letter of the antonym is given. 1. sapling ≠ m…………………...... ….. tree 2. coniferous ≠ b………………...... ……………….. 3. hardwoods ≠ s…………………...... ……………….. 4. long-living ≠ s………………...... …………………. 5. old ≠ y……………………...... ………...... 6. fast-growing ≠ s……………………….....………….. 7. shadebearing ≠ s……………………...……….…….. 8. deep-rooting ≠ s……………………....…….………..

III. True or false? 1. The Norway spruce is deep-rooting. 2. Pines are sun-demanding. 3. Broadleaf trees are also called hardwoods. 4. Birch is shadebearing. 5. The Scots pine has a shallow root system. 6. Firs are long-living. 7. Broad-leaved trees are also known as softwoods. 8. Willows are short-living. 9. All coniferous trees have a deep root system. 10. Softwoods is another name for coniferous trees. 11. ‘Pole’ means the same as a mature tree. 12. A sapling is a young tree. 13. ‘Schoolmarm’ means the same as ‘seedling’.

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IV. Put the parts of the words in order. Then, match them with their Pol- ish equivalents from the box.

rozpieracz drzewo zawieszone drzewo doborowe sadzonka drzewo wyrwane z korzeniami drzewo dojrzałe drzewo opanowane drzewo sękate, powykręcane drzewo osłabione nasiennik

1. TR AR GN EE LED 2. NG EE UP HU TR – 3. TU TR MA RE EE 4. EE US PL TR 5. ED NG SE LI 6. TER TE ME EE IN DIA TR 7. TR ED SE EE 8. AK WE ED EN EE TR 9. EE ED RO TR UP OT 10. LF TR WO EE

V. Match the terms in the first column (1–7) with their synonyms (A–H). 1. emergent A. broadleaf trees 2. coniferous trees B. blowdown 3. down tree C. softwoods 4. hardwoods D. trainer 5. nurse tree E. down timber 6. windfall F. conifers 7. suppressed tree G. overtopping tree H. overtopped tree

VI. Circle the words that have negative connotations.

coniferous tree weakened tree residual tree weed tree cull tree hardwoods suppressed tree nurse tree dominant tree infested tree trainer softwoods stunted tree crop tree sapling wolf tree

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PLANT PROPAGATION I. True or false? If a statement is false, correct it. 1. Budding is a type of grafting. 2. To bloom means the same as to propagate. 3. Anemophilous means wind-pollinated. 4. A ramet is a general term describing a pollinating insect. 5. Propagation is also called vegetative cutting. 6. Dioecy means that male and female flowers are on different plants. 7. To blossom means to produce seeds. 8. A bee is a pollinator. 9. Micropropagation is the way of sexual reproduction. 10. Grafting means joining a plantlet and a propagule.

II. Match the first half of the collocation (1–7) with the second (A–G) and their Polish translation from the box.

odrośl korzeniowa ziarnko pyłku rozmnażanie wegetatywne kultury tkankowe wiatropylność zrzez odrośl pniakowa

1. wind A. sprout 2. asexual B. sucker 3. tissue C. propagation 4. pollen D. cutting 5. root E. pollination 6. stem F . grain 7. stump G. culture

III. Put the words from the box into two categories: asexual and sexual propagation.

entomophily root sucker anemophily pistil tissue culture pollination rootstock scion fertilisation stump sprout stamen stem cutting

asexual propagation sexual propagation

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IV. Give synonyms of the following words. 1. wind pollination = ...... 2. asexual propagation = ...... 3. insect pollination = ...... 4. propagation = ...... 5. tissue culture = ...... 6. rootstock = ......

V. What are the adjectives of the following words? 1. anemophily – ………………………………...... ….. 2. enthomophily – ………………………………...... 3. dioecy – ………………………………………...... 4. monoecy – ……………………………………...... 5. insect pollination – …………………………...... 6. self-pollination – ………………………………......

VI. Fill in the missing parts of speech (1–17).

verb noun adjective pollinate 1...... 2...... 4...... 3...... 5. propagation 6. 7. grafting 8. fertilise 9. fertilised 10. reproduction 11. clone 12. 13. 14. cutting 15. 16. micropropagation 17.

VII. Fill in the blanks with the words that refer to plant propagation. 1. Insect-……………………. plants need insects to transfer ……...... …… from male parts of the flower to female ones. 2. There are two basic types of plant reproduction: ...……………...…………… and ………………………………. . 3. In grafting two parts of different plants are joined: ..…………………...... … and ……………...... …... . 4. …………………….…… , ……………….…………… and ……..…………… are the names of micropropagated plants. 5. …………………………….. is a type of …………………………… where a scion consists of a bud. 6. ……………………….. is the process during which two gametes are united.

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REVISION I. Put the words from the box into the following categories: taxa, plant classification, morphology, plant types.

bryophytes filament vascular plants rhizoid bough wild annual phylum genus pteridophyte class whorl inedible spore herbaceous non-flowering plants corolla order calyx kingdom thorn monocotyledons dwarf melliferous

taxa plant classification

morphology plant types

II. What are the adjectives of the following nouns? 1. apex – ...... 2. root – ...... 3. parenchyma – ...... 4. angiosperms – ...... 5. dicotyledon – ...... 6. shade-tolerance – ...... 7. herb – ...... 8. wood – ...... 9. gymnosperms – ...... 10. dormancy – ...... 11. cone – ...... 12. leaf – …...... 13. dioecy – ...... 14. cell – ...... 15. autotrophy – ......

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III. Choose the correct answer a, b or c. 1. The moss sporophyte consists of a: a. seta and a capsule b. rhizome and a rhizoid c. seta and a strobilus 2. Asarabacca has ………………………. leaves. a. lanceolate b. deltoid c. reniform 3. The ………………………… feeds on insects. a. sticky willy b. sundew c. monk’s rhubarb 4. All parts of yew are poisonous except for: a. an aril b. bark c. leaves 5. A bole means the same as a: a. whorl b. trunk c. tendril 6. A blade and a petiole are the parts of a: a. leaf b. vessel c. vascular bundle 7. Plants that grow in the mountains are called: a. mountie b. alpine c. tropophilous 8. A pole is the developmental stage of a tree between a: a. seedling and a sapling b. seedling and a mature tree c. sapling and a mature tree 9. Sieve plates and companion cells are the parts of: a. xylem b. collenchyma c. phloem 10. An emergent is a tree that is: a. higher than bushes and saplings b. higher than the forest canopy c. a sapling that grows slower than the others

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IV. What are the plurals of the following words? 1. phylum – ...... 2. genus – ...... 3. species – ...... 4. taxon – ...... 5. seta – ...... 6. sporangium – ...... 7. thallus – ...... 8. nucleus – ...... 9. stoma – ......

V. Match the Latin names of the botanical families with their English ones. 1. Aceraceae A. pine family 2. Asteraceae B. figwort family 3. Betulaceae C. olive family 4. Caprifoliaceae D. buttercup family 5. Cupressaceae E. elm family 6. Fabaceae F . willow family 7. Fagaceae G. maple family 8. Lamiaceae H. linden family, lime family 9. Oleaceae I. yew family 10. Pinaceae J. rose family 11. Poaceae K. beech family 12. Ranunculaceae L. cypress family 13. Rosaceae M. grass family 14. Salicaceae N. pea family, legume family 15. Scrophulariaceae O. birch family 16. Taxaceae P. mint family 17. Tiliaceae R. daisy family, sunflower family, aster family 18. Ulmaceae S. honeysuckle family

VI. True or false? If a statement is false, correct it. 1. Lily of the valley has red fruit. 2. A frond is a fern leaf. 3. An axillary bud is located at the top of the stem. 4. Parallel venation is typical for grasses. 5. A pinna is a part of a pine leaf. 6. A sessile leaf has a long leaf stalk. 7. A sepal is a part of a perianth. 8. A corymb is a type of inflorescence. 9. Bracken is a type of moss. 10. The wood sorrel has leaves that look like clover leaves.

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VII. Circle three terms that are associated with the category in capital letters. 1. FERN MORPHOLOGY seta, frond, leaflet, strobilus, capsule, rhizome 2. TREES barberry, basswood, hornbeam, tormentil, aspen, juniper 3. TAXON epidermis, phylum, bud, genus, fibre, kingdom 4. EVERGREEN ivy, lesser periwinkle, fir, larch, ginkgo, black locust 5. WHITE FLOWERS lily of the valley, fireweed, marsh marigold, wood sorrel, snowdrop, St John’s wort 6. LEAF ANATOMY scion, xerophile, vascular bundle, palisade mesophyll, pith, spongy parenchyma 7. SHRUBS hawthorn, maidenhair tree, black cherry, rowan, dog rose, alder 8. GYMNOSPERMS rhizoid, spruce, cone, needle, compound leaf, reticulate venation, 9. PLANT CLASSIFICATION bloom, stoma, bryophytes, angiosperms, margin, monocotyledons 10. MEDICINAL PROPERTIES peppermint, tussock cottongrass, St John’s wort, purple small-reed, white butterbur, stinging nettle 11. HORSETAIL MORPHOLOGY frond, cone, node, capsule, rhizome, strobilus 12. PLANT WATER PREFERENCES palustrine, alpine, xerophyte, sciophyte, bog, heliophyte 13. MODIFIED LEAF tendril, bud scale, bract, node, style, vein, 14. PHYLLOTAXY alternate, palustrine, opposite, whorled, reticulate, codominant 15. PLANT TISSUES cell, phloem, nucleus, xylem, sclereid, mesophyll 16. PLANT SOIL PREFERENCES alkalinophile, sciophile, thermophilus, acidophile, psammophyte, endemic 17. TRUNK CROSS-SECTION stomata, sapwood, heartwood, petiole, pith, blade 18. PLANT LIFE CYCLE perennial, noxious, dwarf, biennial, annual, indigenous 19. PLANT’S WAY OF OBTAINING FOOD parasitic, insectivorous, fragrant, dicotyledonous, angiospermous, autotrophic 20. TREE DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES pole, stunted tree, sapling, whip tree, seedling, nurse tree

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VIII. Whose fruit are they? Name the species to which the following fruit belong. 1

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IX. Put the words from the box into the botanical families given.

rowan Scotch broom hornbeam hazel common foxglove creeping bugleweed white butterbur white dead nettle black cherry blackthorn burdock wild thyme black locust dog rose common speedwell germander speedwell raspberry dyer’s greenweed

the Asteraceae family the Fabaceae family

the Corylaceae family the Rosaceae family

the Scrophulariaceae family the Lamiaceae family

X. Choose the correct answer a, b or c. 1. Shoot cuttings can be used in the propagation of: a. oaks b. willows c. beech 2. A tree that is used to attract pests in order to catch them and kill afterwards is called a: a. snag b. schoolmarm c. trap tree 3. A gnarled tree is the one that is: a. twisted and old b. straight and tall c. a nature monument 4. The lesser periwinkle is a: a. climber b. trailer c. noxious plant

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5. The English ivy is: a. dwarf b. sun-demanding c. evergreen 6. A leaflet is a part of a: a. compound leaf b. undulate leaf c. corymb 7. Heartwood is located between: a. a pith and a stoma b. a pith and sapwood c. inner bark and sapwood 8. A sapling is older than a: a. seedling b. pole c. mature tree 9. Sieve plates and companion cells are the parts of: a. xylem b. collenchyma c. phloem 10. Vessels are the part of: a. vascular tissues b. apical meristem c. piliferous layer 11. Which of the plants has edible leaves? a. ramsons b. lily of the valley c. devil’s berries 12. The black locust is: a. coniferous b. melliferous c. insectivorous 13. Which plant is an alien species in Poland? a. bird cherry b. black cherry c. blackthorn 14. Which plant feeds on insects? a. white butterbur b. sundew c. tormentil

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XI. Do the crossword puzzle and read vertically the term in the bold squares. Then, match the English names with their Polish equivalents from the box.

kozłek lekarski macierzanka piaskowa pierwiosnek wyniosły śnieżyczka przebiśnieg dąb bezszypułkowy dzwonek skrzyp dzika jabłoń bobrek trójlistkowy róża dzika /szypszyna głóg niezapominajka leśna jemioła kruszyna pospolita czosnek niedźwiedzi mięta pieprzowa płonnik pospolity żarnowiec miotlasty żywokost kuklik zwisły widłak

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 1. Frangula alnus 2. Campanula spp. 3. Equisetum spp. 4. Lycopodium spp. 5. Malus sylvestris 6. Valeriana officinalis 7. Myosotis sylvatica

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8. Geum rivale 9. Symphytum officinale 10. Thymus serpyllum 11. Crataegus spp. 12. Primula elatior 13. Rosa canina 14. Sarothamnus scoparius 15. Mentha piperata 16. Galanthus nivalis 17. Allium ursinum 18. Viscum album 19. Polytrichum commune 20. Quercus petraea 21. Menyanthes trifoliata XII. Match the bigger part of a plant (1–11) with the smaller one (A–K).

1. oak A. internode 2. tree B. root hair 3. flower C. petiole 4. fern D. strobilus 5. horsetail E. trunk 6. moss F. bark 7. leaf G. frond 8. root H. branch 9. trunk I. acorn 10. stem J. capsule 11. tree crown K. petal

XIII. Find the names of trees and shrubs in the following words. Example: ashamed – ash (ashamed) 1. happiness 2. helmet 3. confirm 4. seashell 5. welder 6. millimeter 7. cloakroom 8. bonfire 9. overwhelmed 10. compliment 11. cashier

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XIV. Name the following plants.

1 2

5 4

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6 7

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XV. Circle three terms that are associated with the category in capital letters. 1. LEAF TYPE vascular, compound, tendril, petiolated, fibrous, sessile 2. XYLEM tracheid, companion cell, pith, vessel, mesophyll, spiral lignin 3. PISTIL filament, ovary, perianth, stigma, stamen, style 4. PLANT LIGHT PREFERENCES shadebearing, sun-demanding, palustrine, shade intolerant, xerophyte, saxicole 5. GRAFTING bloom, bud, propagule, scion, rootstock, monoecy 6. LEAF MARGINS compound, alternate, serrate, intercellular, lobed, entire 7. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION fertilisation, stump sprout, dioecy, root sucker, pollen, shoot cutting 8. PHLOEM sieve tube, vessel, sieve plate, tracheid, root hair, companion cell 9. ENTOMOPHILY insect pollination, clone, pollinator, budding, flower, ramet 10. DAMAGED TREES uprooted, blowdown, crop tree, nurse tree, overtopping tree, wind-broken 11. SHOOT margin, order, apex, internode, softwoods, stem 12. CONIFEROUS TREES fir, sycamore maple, larch, European spindle tree, spruce, linden 13. SEXUAL PROPAGATION root sucker, stock, gamete, fertilisation, tissue culture, dioecy 14. TREE LYING ON THE GROUND felled tree, cull tree, whip tree, windbreak tree, uprooted tree, down tree 15. EDIBLE FRUIT hazel, cranberry, asarabacca, bracken, raspberry, fern 16. ALIEN SPECIES beech, birch, black locust, black cherry, lime, Douglas fir 17. WAYS OF POLLEN TRANSFER anemophily, budding, entomophily, windthrow, wind-pollination, sciophily 18. DECIDUOUS TREES Douglas fir, black locust, Norway spruce, black poplar, fir, black alder 19. LEAF MORPHOLOGY midrib, panicle, blade, cyme, filament, petiole 20. ANGIOSPERMS bryophytes, oak, ferns, birch, mosses, hazel

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XVI. Match the larger part of a plant (1–10) with the smaller (A–J).

1. branch A. petal 2. root system B. flower 3. stamen C. guard cell 4. pistil D. nucleus 5. inflorescence E. anther 6. phloem F. vessel 7. xylem G. twig 8. cell H. ovary 9. stoma I. taproot 10. perianth J. sieve tube

XVII. Match the beginnings of the plant names with their endings. There are 5 names of shrubs, 5 names of trees, 5 names of plants with usually violet or purple flowers, and 5 names of ferns. The beginnings are marked in bold italics.

DOG BELL HORN ELM SWISS COMMON MAPLE DEER FERN GUELDER FLOWER PINE OAK BRA ELDER LADY FERN ROSE FLOWER CKEN DOG PASQUE WYCH ROSE VIOLET SESSILE MARSH WOOD HAW FERN NORWAY WEED FREY FIRE RED MALE BEAM COM FERN THORN

shrubs trees

usually violet or purple flowers ferns

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XVIII. Name the following plants.

1 2

4 5

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6 7

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XIX. Translate into English.

1. Taksonomia jest sposobem klasyfikowania roślin ze względu na ich podobieństwa. Rośliny, które mają te same cechy należą do jednej grupy taksonomicznej zwanej jednostką. Taksonomia jest hierarchiczna w swojej naturze. Główne kategorie taksonomiczne to: gatunek, rodzaj, rodzina, rząd, klasa, typ i królestwo.

2. Drzewa mogą być sklasyfikowane na wiele sposobów biorąc pod uwagę ich taksonomię lub ich cechy biologiczne, które dostarczają praktycznych informacji takich jak twardość drewna, długość życia drzewa, tempo wzrostu, rodzaj systemu korzeniowego, tolerancja lub jej brak w stosunku do zacie- nienia, wymieniając tylko kilka.

3. Klasyfikacja botaniczna dzieli rośliny na dwie grupy: nagonasienne, które mają nasiona nie otoczone żadnymi tkankami ochronnymi i okrytonasienne których nasiona są zamknięte w dojrzałej zalążni.

4. Nagonasienne w Polsce są reprezentowane przez rośliny iglaste takie jak sosna, świerk, jodła, modrzew i daglezja/jedlica. Jednakże są jeszcze inne rośliny, które należą do nagonasiennych, ale które nie wytwarzają typowych szyszek i liści np. cis z charakterystycznymi intensywnie czerwonymi osnówkami lub miłorząb, który nie wytwarza igieł, ale wachlarzowate liście podzielone na dwie klapki.

5. Rozmieszczenie kwiatów to następne kryterium botanicznej klasyfikacji roślin. Jeżeli jedna roślina posiada zarówno męskie, jak i żeńskie kwiaty to wtedy nazywana jest ona jednopienną. W przypadku roślin dwupiennych istnieją osobne rośliny męskie i żeńskie. Sosna, brzoza i buk to przykłady roślin jednopiennych, topola i wierzba – dwupiennych.

6. Okrytonasienne dzielą się na jednoliścienne – rośliny, których nasiona mają jeden liścień, oraz dwuliścienne, których nasiona mają dwa liścienie.

7. Jednoliścienne mają liście o równoległym użyłkowaniu. Obejmują one zarówno rośliny zdrewniałe, takie jak palmy, jak również małe rośliny zielne, takie jak trawy.

8. Mszaki i paprotniki są roślinami zarodnikowymi, co oznacza, że rozmnażają się przez zarodniki i nie wytwarzają nasion.

9. Paprocie, widłaki i skrzypy są przedstawicielami paprotników, podczas gdy mchy i wątrobowce są przykładami mszaków.

10. Rośliny wytwarzają różne typy kwiatów. Istnieje bezpośredni związek pomiędzy wielkością, kształtem i kolorem kwiatu, a sposobem w jaki pyłek

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jest przenoszony z pręcika na słupek a dokładniej na znamię. Rośliny zapylane przez owady wytwarzają pachnące kwiaty z kolorowymi płatkami w celu przyciągnięcia owadów zapylających, podczas gdy gatunki zapylane przez wiatr mają niepozorne kwiaty.

11. Kolor kwiatów może być pożyteczny w rozpoznawaniu roślin. Na przykład czosnek niedźwiedzi, szczawik zajęczy, gwiazdnica pospolita i konwalia mają białe kwiaty; wierzbówka kiprzyca, naparstnica purpurowa – fioletoworóżowe/ purpurowe; barwinek pospolity i niezapominajka – niebieskie; żarnowiec miotlasty, kaczeniec, dziurawiec, glistnik jaskółcze ziele i pięciornik leśny – żółte.

12. Wiele roślin leśnych ma właściwości lecznicze. Rumianek ma właściwości przeciwzapalne, mięta pomaga w niestrawności, jemioła obniża ciśnienie krwi, chmiel jest skuteczny w bezsenności i niepokoju, arcydzięgiel litwor zwiększa apetyt.

13. Dąb szypułkowy jest często mylony z dębem bezszypułkowym ponieważ oba mają klapowane liście. Jednakże ten pierwszy ma liście z bardzo krótkimi ogonkami i żołędzie na szypułkach dłuższych niż 5 cm, podczas gdy ten drugi ma prawie siedzące żołędzie i liście z dłuższymi ogonkami.

14. Olsza czarna i szara są typowymi składnikami lasów łęgowych. Korzenie obu gatunków dobrze stabilizują drzewa w wilgotnej glebie ponieważ są one silne i pionowe. Co więcej potrafią one wiązać azot z powietrza i w ten sposób wzbogacają glebę w ten pierwiastek.

15. Robinia akacjowa i lipa są gatunkami miododajnymi. Lipa jest naszym gatunkiem rodzimym, podczas gdy robinia jest obcym, podobnie jak dąb czer- wony, daglezja, czeremcha amerykańska i sosna wejmutka.

16. Igły jodły pospolitej są spłaszczone, błyszczące i ciemnozielone z dwoma białymi paskami po spodniej stronie. Kora młodych drzew jest gładka i szara, starszych spękana, szyszki siedzące pionowo na gałęziach, dojrzałe szyszki rozpadają się, pozostawiając na gałęzi trzpień.

17. Limba ma igły zebrane w pęczki po pięć, podczas gdy sosna zwyczajna i ko- sodrzewina mają po dwie igły w pęczku.

18. Owoce leśne mogą być jadalne, niejadalne lub trujące dla ludzi. Jest wiele smacznych, jadalnych owoców leśnych, które mogą być jedzone na surowo, takich jak poziomka, borówka czarna, borówka brusznica, malina, żurawina i orzech laskowy. Owoce innych roślin, np. wilczej jagody czy konwalii są trujące. Jednakże są one używane w ziołolecznictwie w stężeniu, które jest bezpieczne dla ludzi.

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19. Liście i kora cisa są trujące dla ludzi. Jedynymi nietrującymi częściami rośliny są osnówki.

20. Cechy, które brane są pod uwagę przy identyfikacji roślin na podstawie liści to: – brzeg liścia, np. całobrzegi, klapowany, piłkowany; – kształt liścia, np. sercowaty, owalny, lancetowaty; – czy liść jest pojedynczy, złożony, z ogonkiem czy bez.

21. Aparaty szparkowe to małe otwory w skórce, przez które dwutlenek węgla jest absorbowany z powietrza i woda transpiruje z liścia. Aparaty szparkowe składają się z dwóch komórek szparkowych, które mogą się otwierać i zamykać. W ten sposób roślina odpowiada/reaguje na zmiany w warunkach środowiskowych.

22. Typowy liść składa się z kilku warstw. Zewnętrzna warstwa jest nazywana skórką. Jest ona pokryta kutykulą, która zapobiega parowaniu. Pod skórką znajdują się dwa typy miękiszu – palisadowy i gąbczasty.

23. Floem i ksylem to tkanki przewodzące roślin. Floem jest tkanką żywą zbudowaną z rurek sitowych, sit, i komórek towarzyszących. Jego główną funkcją jest rozprowadzanie produktów fotosyntezy z liści do innych części rośliny. Ksylem jest tkanką martwą, która transportuje wodę i składniki odżywcze z korzeni do wyższych części roślin. Ksylem składa się z cewek i naczyń.

24. Są dwie główne różnice pomiędzy bielą i twardzielą – ich położenie i funk- cja. Biel leży na zewnątrz twardzieli, zawiera żywe komórki i przewodzi sok roślinny. Twardziel jest wewnętrzną, martwą częścią pnia, która zapewnia mechaniczne wzmocnienie.

25. Są dwa typy rozmnażania roślin – generatywny poprzez nasiona i wege- tatywny przez np. zrzezy, odkłady i szczepienie. Niektóre drzewa posiadają również zdolność wytwarzania odrostów korzeniowych i pniakowych.

Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 56 26.11.2020 18:08:49 FORESTS LASY

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NURSERY I. Match the first half of the collocation (1–10) with the second (A– J) and its Polish equivalent (a–j).

1. green A. season a. nawóz organiczny 2. frost B. lifting b. karczowanie 3. hardening C. fertiliser c. materiał sadzeniowy 4. fertilizer D. manure d. gołomróz 5. mycorrhizal E. extraction e. wyjmowanie sadzonek 6. growing F. application f . hartowanie 7. planting G. fungi g. sezon wegetacyjny 8. organic H. heaving h. nawóz zielony 9. seedling I. stock i. nawożenie 10. stump J. off j. grzyby mikoryzowe

II. Read the definitions. Then, fill in the missing letters in terms that refer to forest nurseries. 1. a seedling whose roots are not covered with soil b ______- __ __ o __ seedling 2. N, P, K, etc. __ u ______n __ s 3. a building covered with glass, in which the atmosphere can be controlled and where seedlings can be produced __ __ e __ __ h ______4. one of the major plant nutrients n ______o ______5. plants that compete for water, lights, nutrients, etc. with seedlings __ e ______6. the method of storing lifted seedlings before outplanting; seedlings are placed in the shade, roots are covered with soil. __ e ______– __ n 7. a place where seedling are produced and sold __ u __ __ e __ __ 8. substances added to the soil in order to improve its structure and physical properties are called soil ……………… __ m ______e __ t __ 9. planting seedlings in the forest in their final location o __ __ p ______10. shortening the length of seedling roots in a nursery __ o __ __ p __ u ______

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III. Circle the activity which is done earlier. 1. stump extraction – ploughing 2. lifting – outplanting 3. harrowing – ploughing 4. outplanting – heeling-in 5. site preparation – sowing 6. weeding – lifting 7. planting – hardening-off 8. sowing – tillage 9. outplanting – root pruning 10. thinning – sowing 11. prick out – outplanting 12. lifting – thinning

IV. Put the words from the box into following categories: types of seedlings, fertilisers, tillage equipment, sowing methods.

foliar application plough green manure drilling plug inorganic roller bare-root cultivator broadcasting target top dressing organic containerised manure harrow

types of seedlings fertilisers

tillage equipment sowing methods

V. Put the parts of the words in order. Then, translate them into Polish. 1. RO TION CROP TA 2. AT RIG ION IR 3. AT PE 4. ANT CK TRAN SHO SPL 5. VAL SEED SUR LING VI

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SEED TERMINOLOGY I. True or false? If the statement is false, correct it. 1. Viability is seed’s ability to germinate and develop into a plant. 2. During germination seeds are extracted and dried. 3. Dormancy means that seeds do not germinate because they are not viable. 4. The process during which the seed coat is softened by water which pen- etrates inside the seed is called imbibition. 5. Morphological dormancy is caused by an immature embryo. 6. Stratification is a long-term seed storage. 7. A shoot develops from a plumule inside a seed. 8. The maple fruit is called a nutlet. 9. Scarification means softening or damaging the seed coat. 10. Cryopreservation is a method of long-term storage of seeds whose water content was reduced to circa 4%. Seeds are stored in low temperature (0°C). 11. The removal of fleshy parts of fruit in order to extract seeds is called winnowing. 12. Seed abortion is the prediction of seed crop. 13. Physiological dormancy is caused by a too hard or thick seed coat. 14. Seed food storage for a seedling is called a radicle. 15. Seed yield is the same as seed crop.

II. Give synonyms of the following words. 1. seed leaf = ...... 2. desiccation = ...... 3. hypobiosis = ...... 4. recalcitrant seed = ...... 5. seed coat = ...... 6. seed collection = ......

III. What are the nouns of the following adjectives and verbs? 1. scarify – ...... 2. pure – ...... 3. viable – ...... 4. dormant – ...... 5. mature – ...... 6. germinate – ......

IV. Give the word of the opposite meaning. 1. hypogeal germination ≠ ...... 2. recalcitrant seed ≠ ...... 3. purity ≠ ...... 4. small-seeded species ≠ ......

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V. Match the first half of the collocation (1–15) with the second (A–O) and its Polish equivalent (a–o). In some cases there is more than one possibility to match both columns.

1. seed A. content a. suszenie na słońcu 2. break B. drying b. siać nasiona 3. seed C. leaf c. zawartość wilgoci /wilgotność 4. embryo D. dispersal d. przerwać spoczynek 5. epigeal E. inhibitors e. kiełkowanie nadziemne 6. fleshy F. energy f . dojrzałość zarodka 7. gene G. storage g. rozsiewanie nasion 8. growth H. setting h. liścień 9. seed I. seeds i. energia kiełkowania 10. moisture J. germination j. pochodzenie nasion 11. sow K. dormancy k. bank genów 12. seed L. bank l. przechowywanie nasion 13. germinative M. maturity m. zawiązywanie nasion 14. seed N. fruit n. inhibitory wzrostu 15. sun O. provenance o. owoc mięsisty

VI. Put the words from the box into the following categories: seed processing, seed morphology, type of seeds.

endosperm embryo pod winnowing fleshy fruit plumule drying kiln radicle depulping acorn samara tumbling nutlet dewinging cotyledon aggregate fruit testa nut threshing beechmast

seed processing seed morphology type of seeds

VII. What is the difference between: 1. the weight of 1000 seeds and seed count? 2. seed maturity and seed maturation? 3. germinative capacity and germinative energy?

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FOREST ESTABLISHMENT I. In the word search puzzle find horizontally and vertically 19 terms that refer to forest establishment. S C O H W I S U C K E R O T U C H Y L A T R U M P E T C S E E D L I N G R A S S G O K R I R O U T P L A N T E P I Z O O C H O R Y E T O R P S P A C I N G R O U P O M I P A S H A I B I R O R L I C R E F O R E S T A T I O N E O W O R E T T O F F E R A W U S T Y B O A L F O S N T A T E L O U L L R O M T A E S Y E S U S E K O R E K I T A Z D O R S U C C E S S I O N U R W I S R O K S T O P A O P S I K P L A N T I N G O M A G N I E K R T A N I T K A R E G E N E R A T I O N L S E R E M E D R A I D K T O T K A N E M O C H O R Y I P A O L A L E T T O N O R A T K

II. Match the terms (1–5) with their definitions (A–E). 1. afforestation A. the distances between planted trees 2. anemochory B. the regeneration of forest from stump sprouts or root suckers 3. coppicing C. the establishment of forest on a former forest land 4. spacing D. the establishment of forest on a non-forest land 5. reforestation E. seed dispersal by wind

III. Match the first half of the collocation with the second. Then, translate it into Polish. 1. natural A. regeneration 2. pioneer B. succession 3. primary C. seeding 4. artificial D. regeneration 5. natural E. species

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FOREST STANDS I. Choose the correct answer a, b or c. 1. The word ‘canopy’ refers to: a. tree crowns that form the upper layer in the forest b. trees that constitute the majority of tree species in the forest c. the ground layer in the forest 2. Litter covers: a. tree trunks b. the forest soil c. banks of forest streams 3. Trees that grow in a sapling stand are: a. older than in a pole stand b. taller than in a mature stand c. younger than in a pole stand 4. A forest layer is: a. different from a forest stratum b. the same as a forest stratum c. the same as a forest canopy 5. Vegetation that grows between the forest floor and the canopy is called: a. understorey b. underlayer c. ground cover 6. When a stand is described as even-aged it means that: a. all trees are at the same age b. the difference in ages between the oldest and youngest tree in a stand does not exceed 20 years c. all trees were planted at the same time and are of the same height 7. An admixture consists of tree species that: a. cover more than 50% of the forest area b. represent dominant tree species c. usually constitute no more than 30% of species composition 8. Canopy closure means the same as: a. canopy envelope b. crown shelter c. crown cover 9. An intermediate tree is: a. lower than a snag b. the most vigorous tree in the stand c. lower than dominant and codominant trees

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II. Match the first half of the collocation (1–15) with the second (A– O). Then, translate the terms into Polish. In some cases there is more than one possibility to match both columns. 1. age A. layer 2. intermediate B. cover 3. suppressed C. floor 4. canopy D. age 5. species E. layer 6. stand F. species 7. crown G. class 8. stand H. stand 9. dominant I. density 10. stand J. tree 11. forest K. composition 12. codominant L. tree 13. forest M. origin 14. mature N. tree 15. shrub O. closure

III. Give the terms of the opposite meaning. 1. even-aged stand ≠ ...... 2. mixed species stand ≠ ...... 3. single-storey stand ≠ ......

IV. Put the words from the box into the following categories: stand origin, species composition, age, stratification.

dominant species uneven-aged stratum mature tree multi-storey age class even-aged mixed artificially regenerated admixture sapling pole single storey naturally regenerated single-species

stand origin species composition

age stratification

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V. Describe the following stands in respect to their age and species.

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STAND TENDING AND FOREST TYPES I. Match the first half of the collocation (1–6) with the second (A–F). 1. intermediate A. tending 2. sanitation B. conversion 3. forest stand C. treatment 4. stand D. cutting 5. release E. treatment 6. stand F . improvement

II. Match the definitions (1–6) with the terms from the box. release treatment stand conversion girdling sanitation cutting stand tending thinning

1. any treatment between forest establishment and harvesting whose aim is to create favourable conditions for tree growth and improve stand composition and structure. 2. the removal of a band/ring of bark and cambium in order to weaken or kill a tree 3. the removal of competing vegetation around selected young trees (up to sapling stage) 4. the reduction of the tree number in stands older than sapling ones 5. the transformation of stand structure and species composition from the existing one to the best suited to the given habitat. 6. the removal of infected trees in order to counteract the spread of pests and diseases III. Put the terms from the box into the following categories: species, ownership, habitat, forest function. All terms refer to forest types. plantation upland windbreak deciduous broad-leaved private coniferous urban mountain mixed temperate protection forest non-productive riparian national park softwood lowland managed montane carr multiple-use forest hardwood state-owned productive

species ownership

habitat function

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IV . Put the parts of the following terms in order and translate them into Polish. The terms refer to forest types.

1. FOR ME EST VAL PRI 2. DUC NON ST PRO TIVE - FORE 3. EST US FOR IFE RO CON 4. TA ST MON FORE NE 5. FORE CI US ST DE DUO 6. PI ST CE COP RE FO 7. RE OD DWO FO HAR ST 8. ED EST MIX FOR 9. GIN RE FO ST VIR 10. CTI DU VE ST PRO FORE 11. ST RE ADL FO EAF BRO 12. PRI FOR TE EST VA 13. ST TEM RA FORE PE TE 14. PA AN EST RI FOR RI 15. NED - FORE STA OW TE ST 16. VED AD EST FOR BRO LEA - 17. TWO SOF OD ES FORE 18. GED NA FOR MA EST 19. ED GR ST DE FORE AD 20. ANT ION PL AT

Which terms have the same meaning? Which are of the opposite meaning?

V . Give the words of the opposite meaning. 1. productive ≠ ………………………………………………. 2. plantation ≠ ……………………………………………….. 3. private forest ≠ ……………………………..…………….. 4. broad-leaved ≠ …………………………………………….

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TREE FELLING AND HARVESTING I. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and circle the answer in the table below. Finally, read the term marked with circled letters. 1. The fall path and the escape route means the same. 2. Bark removing is called debarking. 3. During bucking the tree branches are removed. 4. A stump is what is left in the forest after logging – the lower part of a trunk and its roots. 5. Felling means the same as cutting down trees. 6. During selective cutting all trees in a given area are cut down at the same time. 7. Logging residue is also known as logging debris. 8. A landing is a place next to a sawmill, paper factory, etc. where logs are processed. Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 True L H G P P E N S False C O I G G I R G

II. What happens or is done first? Circle the correct answer. 1. bucking – delimbing 2. logging – chipping 3. bucking – face notch 4. felling – skidding 5. topping – bucking 6. escape route – cutting down a tree 7. bunching – forwarding 8. timber marking – logging 9. chipping – topping 10. back cut – extraction

III. Match the first half of the collocation (1–10) with the second (A–J) and its Polish equivalent (a–j). 1. selection A. notch a. stos drewna 2. back B. cutting b. ścinka 3. pile C. debris c. rębnia częściowa 4. cut D. track d. rębnia przerębowa 5. intermediate E. felling e. rzaz podcinający 6. shelterwood F . system f . zrzaz ścinający 7. skid G. down trees g. pozostałości pozrębowe 8. logging H. of wood h. szlak zrywkowy 9. face I. system i. ścinać drzewa 10. tree J. cut j. cięcia przedrębne

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IV. Look at the terms and fill in the missing letters from the box. Next, put the terms into the following categories: harvesting methods, log or tree transport from a harvesting area to a landing, tree parts or its fragments, individual tree felling. IP KID CUT WARD EXTRACT BACK WOOD DUE ALL AR OUT ELECT YARD CLEAR ASH DIRECT

1. ESCAPE R...... E 2. S...... DING 3. LOGGING RESI...... S 4...... CUTTING 5. FOR...... ING 6. F...... PATH 7. SHELTER...... CUTTING 8. B...... K 9. UNDER...... 10...... ION 11. FELLING ...... ION 12...... CUT 13. SL...... 14...... ING 15. CH...... 16. S...... ION CUTTING

harvesting methods transport to a landing

tree parts or fragments tree felling

V. Give the synonyms of the following words: 1. logging debris = ...... 2. stack of wood = ...... 3. skid track = ...... 4. face notch = ...... 5. logger = ......

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FOREST PRODUCTS I. In the word search puzzle find horizontally and vertically 19 terms that refer to forest products. Then, answer the questions.

M O R C O P A R Q U E T I V U P A L L E T A B L E N A E S U C H G R E Y E P P L A N H F U E L W O O D L A R T E R I B R U R A N O S R D I E O B A B L O G R A N T R A R O R T S A U W V E N I S O N M E O A M N O C H O C H R I O B R S O D R H A P L A N K L O S K A W I A S R E R U S C A R D B O A R D O B L T O T R O P I O D C E S O T I C A D R E N D R O S T A R M H K P A P E R I A T A R U B I N U M B E K S L E N D B E P O P L Y W O O D X S T I R S

1. Which products are edible? 2. Which product is necessary for grilling? 3. Which one is used for heating houses? 4. Which one is the material books and newspapers are made of? 5. Which one is indispensable in the transport of heavy goods by fork-lifts? 6. Which one is used to make clothes? 7. Which one is floor covering? 8. Which ones are small wooden fragments? 9. What are shoe boxes made of? 10. Which product is a thin wood layer glued on the surface of a less attractive material?

II. Delete the odd man out. 1. bay bolete, lumber, honey fungus, fibre, chanterelle, sawdust 2. resin, stake, shavings, chips, rosehip, sawdust 3. bilberry, plywood, fibreboard, particleboard, venison, rayon 4. roundwood, cranberry, essential oils, timber, finishes, log 5. seasoning, peeling, air drying, birch sap, kiln drying, charcoal

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III. Match the first half of the collocation (1–8) with the second (A–H) and its Polish equivalent (a–h).

1. essential A. tree a. grzyb jadalny 2. bay B. sleepers b. wełna drzewna 3. birch C. wool c. oskoła, sok brzozowy 4. medicinal D. oils d. podgrzybek 5. railway E. mushroom e. choinka 6. wood F. plants f . podkłady kolejowe 7. Christmas G. bolete g. olejki eteryczne 8. edible H. sap h. rośliny lecznicze

IV. Choose the correct answer a, b or c. 1. Wood fragments that are slightly bigger than sawdust are called: a. pit props b. shavings c. pallets 2. Wood wool is often used: a. as a primer b. to pack fragile goods, e.g. glass c. to produce stakes 3. Fir branches, etc. used as an element of Christmas decorations are called: a. green arrangement b. plant decoration c. seasonal greenery 4. Non-timber forests products include: a. edible mushrooms, fruit, medicinal plants b. medicinal plants, edible mushrooms, veneer c. edible mushrooms, veneer, venison 5. A parasitic edible mushroom that attacks pines and spruces is called: a. bay bolete b. chanterelle c. honey fungus 6. Drying wood in the open air is called: a. seasoning b. kiln drying c. natural dessication 7. Particleboard is produced from: a. glulam b. shavings c. rosin

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WOOD DEFECTS I. Fill in the blanks with the adjectives from the box. Then, translate the terms into Polish.

multiple loose ring compression encased heart radial eccentric cup open reaction closed longitudinal intergrown tension

...... 1...... BARK POCKET 4...... WOOD ...... 2...... KNOT 5...... PITH

...... 3...... SHRINKAGE 6...... SHAKE ......

II. Which wood defects from exercise I are shown in the pictures?

2 1 3

5 4

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III. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and circle the answer in the table below. Finally, read the term marked with circled letters. 1. Crookedness means the same as curvature. 2. A cat’s paw is the cluster of pin knots. 3. Blue stain is a deformation of trunk shape. 4. Checks are types of fissure. 5. Damage caused by birds is called bird face. 6. Honeycombing are cracks visible on a tree trunk. 7. A pin knot has a small diameter. 8. Worm scars are caused by adult insects.

Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 True N E T R E E I T False W O C H O S A S

IV. Match the beginning of the collocation with its ending and its Polish translation. 1. bark A. pitch a. przebarwienie drewna 2. bird B. body b. zdrowy sęk 3. butt C. stem c. drewno kompresyjne 4. compression D. slope d. pęknięcie boczne 5. edge E. pocket e. uszkodzenia powodowane przez ptaki 6. foreign F. discolouration f. zbieżystość 7. grain G. grain g. ciało obce 8. sound H. wood h. zgrubienie odziomkowe 9. wavy I. knot i. pęcherz żywiczny 10. resin J. peck j. zakorek 11. wood K. crack k. skręt włókien 12. tapered L. swell l. falistość włókien

V. What wood defects do these puzzles show?

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FOREST ACCESSORIES, TOOLS, EQUIPMENT AND CLOTHING I. Match the terms with the definitions. Then, translate them into Polish. 1. a hand tool used for cutting down trees A. planting bar or cutting off branches 2. a garment that makes workers easy to notice B. hard hat in the forest 3. an instrument that measures a tree diameter C. steel spurs 4. a tool for rolling logs D. bark gauge 5. pieces of metal attached to boots that help E. ladder to climb a tree 6. a tool used for planting seedlings F. axe 7. a tool that is used for measuring bark G. skidder thickness 8. protects a logger head H. caliper 9. consists of rails and rungs I. high visibility safety vest 10. a transport machine that drags logs and trees J. cant hook

II. Choose the correct answer a, b or c to correspond with the pictures. 1. a. kiln; b. hookeroon; c. harrow 4. a. sprinkler; b. axe; c. saw

2. a. hoedad; b. drill; c. wedge 5. a. cant hook; b. caliper; c. mattock

3. a. shovel; b. chopper; c. rig 6. a. hoe; b. plough; c. visor

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III. Circle the correct answer. 1. A barking iron is also known as a spur/spud. 2. An increment borer / A tree guard measures tree growth and age. 3. Both a debarker and a rosser/ bark rig are used for removing bark. 4. A dibble is the same as a drill/ planting bar. 5. A visor/spud is attached to a hard hat and protects the worker’s eyes. 6. A soil probe (soil auger) / soil borer is used for taking soil samples for the further analysis. 7. A Pulaski/McLeod combines two tools in one – an axe and a hoe. 8. A fire blank / fire swatter is used for fighting forest fires. 9. Ear muffs / noise deafeners protect human ears from the noise. 10. Wood stains / lumber crayons are used for making water-resistant marks that do not fade on timber, wood and other surfaces.

IV. Match the first half of the collocation (1–7) with the second (A–G) and its Polish translation (a–g).

1. hand A. axe a. rękawice ochronne 2. slash B. boots b. rębak 3. tool C. knife c. siekieromotyka 4. Wellington D. tool d. pas narzędziowy 5. protective E. chopper e. okulizak 6. Pulaski F. gloves f . narzędzie ręczne 7. grafting G. belt g. gumowce

V. Choose the correct answer a, b or c. 1. A soil probe is the same as: a. soil sampler b. soil indicator c. soil pipe 2. A skidder that has ‘jaws’ that can open and grip a log is called a: a. muzzle skidder b. haul skidder c. grapple skidder 3. ATV means: a. adjust-tinted visor b. all-terrain vehicle c. airlift transport vessel 4. A tool that combines a hoe and a rake is called a: a. mattock b. hoedad c. McLeod

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FOREST MEASUREMENTS I. Match the terms with the definitions. 1. the outer edge of a circle A. diameter 2. a straight line that joins a point on the circumference and the centre of a circle B. circumference 3. a straight line that joins two points on the circumfer- C. radius ence and goes through the centre of a circle

II. What do the following acronyms mean? Decipher them using the words from the box. There are four extra words you do not need to use. Some words can be used more than once. basal mean breast bark diameter accurate annual augmentation cubic current periodic increment outside at inside height

1. CAI = ...... 2. DIB = ...... 3. DOB = ...... 4. MAI = ...... 5. DBH = ...... 6. PAI = ......

III. What do the following pictures show?

1 2

3 4

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IV. Match the first half of the collocation (1–10) with the second (A–J) and its Polish equivalent (a–j).

1. tree A. significant a. powierzchnia próbna 2. annual B. metre b. średnica przeciętna 3. bark C. tables c. wysokość drzewa 4. cubic D. diameter d. metr sześcienny 5. data E. plot e. tablice miąższości/zasobności 6. Huber’s F . height f. słój przyrostu rocznego 7. mean G. processing g. statystycznie istotny 8. statistically H. thickness h. wzór Hubera 9. volume I. formula i. grubość kory 10. sample J. ring j. przetwarzanie danych

V. Fill in the gaps with the words and expressions from the box. cross-sectional area at one end Huber’s Newton’s middle cross-sectional area cubic volume Smalian’s cross-sectional area at the other end

1. …………………………. formula: vs = ls (g1 + g2)/2

vs – 2. ……………………...... ls – length

g1 – cross-sectional area at one end

g2 – 3. …………………………………………….. B. . 1. …………………………..formula: vs = ls gm

vs – cubic volume

ls – length

gm – 2. ……………………………………………. C.

1. ……………………….. formula: vs = ls (g1 + 4gm + g2)/6

vs – cubic volume

ls – length

g1 – 2. ……………………………………..

gm – middle cross-sectional area

g2 – cross-sectional area at the other end

VI. Translate these Polish terms into English. 1. miąższość – ...... 2. przekrój poprzeczny w połowie długości strzały – ...... 3. wzór Smaliana – ......

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ECOLOGY I. Do the crossword puzzle. All terms refer to the interactions between organisms and populations.

1 2

6 7

Down 1. kills another organisms in order to feed on it 2. an organism that exploits the other constantly or temporarily 3. an organism that feeds on plants 4. an organism that is killed by a predator 6. an organism that cannot produce its own food 7. feeds on the producer 11. the relationship that is beneficial for both partners

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Across 4. an autotroph, occupies the lowest level in a food chain 5. an organism that feeds on meat 8. breaks down dead matter 9. the growth of one population is limited whereas the second’s is unaffected 10. the interaction is beneficial for one population. The other is unaffected. 12. organisms compete for the same resources, e.g. water, sunlight, nutrients; as a result, they repress one another

II. Match the first half of the collocation (1–15) with the second (A–O) and its Polish equivalent (a–o).

1. carbon A. fluctuations a. poziom glebowy 2. renewable B. species b. wahania temperatur 3. die C. contamination c. roczna suma opadów 4. nitrogen D. chain d. dwutlenek węgla 5. air E. gases e. skażenie wody 6. solar F. horizon f. odnawialne źródła energii 7. endangered G. precipitation g. areał osobniczy 8. food H. weathering h. zagrożone gatunki 9. annual I. pollution i. łańcuch pokarmowy 10. greenhouse J. out j. wiązanie azotu 11. temperature K. sources of energy k. erozja biologiczna 12. biological L. range l. gazy cieplarniane 13. soil M. energy m. wymierać 14. water N. dioxide n. energia słoneczna 15. home O. fixation o. zanieczyszczenie powietrza

III. Circle the terms that have negative connotations.

aquifier algae bloom desertification effluent subsoil lifespan protein extinction windbreak

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IV. Fill in the missing part of speech in the table below, e.g. aerobic – aerobe.

adjective noun alkaline 1...... 2...... diversity acidic 3...... 4...... environment polluted 5...... 6...... migration heterotrophic 7...... 8...... invasion biodegradable 9...... 10...... extinction toxic 11...... 12...... symbiosis fertile 13...... 14...... edaphon ecological 15......

V. Translate into English the following Polish terms: 1. gatunki inwazyjne – i...... s...... 2. ptaki migrujące – m...... b...... 3. rozkład biologiczny – b...... 4. organizm cudzożywny – h...... 5. zwierzęta wymarłe – e...... a...... 6. żyzność gleby – s...... f...... 7. organizmy glebowe – e...... 8. toksyczność pestycydów – p...... t...... 9. kwasowość gleby – s...... a...... 10. różnorodność biologiczna – b......

VI. Circle the terms that have positive connotations and answer the questions below. leaching respiration renewable sources of energy bioremediation lacustrine parasitism conservation reclamation

1. Which term in the box refers to the process during which a solid substance becomes liquid and moves through the soil or other material? 2. Which term means making an area suitable for agricultural or silvicultural purposes?

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VII. Give the words of the opposite meaning. 1. aquatic ≠ t __ r ______t ______2. aerobe ≠ a ______b __ 3. freshwater ≠ __ __ r __ n __ 4. lentic ≠ l ______c 5. autotrophic ≠ __ __ t ______t ______6. renewable ≠ __ o __ – __ __ n ______l __ 7. producer ≠ __ o ______m __ __ 8. acidity ≠ a ______l ______t __ 9. alien ≠ __ __ d __ g ______s 10. afforestation ≠ __ __ f ______s __ __ t ______

VIII. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.

noise layer fertility thermal dynamics fluctuations water alien porosity indicator hole salinity air pioneer range density invasive inversion distribution erosion

...... SOIL ...... POLLUTION ......

...... TEMPERATURE ...... OZONE ...... SPECIES POPULATION ......

IX. True or false? If the sentence is false correct it. 1. Carbon sequestration is the same as CCS (Carbon Capture and Storage). 2. ‘Lacustrine’ is an adjective that refers to lakes. 3. Ecotone is a wetland ecosystem. 4. Nitrification is a natural process during which nitrates are converted into ammonia by bacteria called nitrifiers. 5. Oligotrophic lakes have low content of water-soluble nutrients. 6. ‘Palustrine’ means the same as sandy. 7. Stenotopic organisms can live only in certain habitats, e.g. bogs, deserts.

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REVISION I. Circle three terms that are associated with the category in capital letters. 1. FERTILISERS manure, diameter, green manure, nutrients, volume, topping 2. SEED PARTS root sucker, plumule, parenchyma, testa, saw, embryo 3. STAND TENDING forecasting, winnowing, thinning, tumbling, brashing, interplanting 4. FOREST ESTABLISHMENT succession, plank, afforestation, deforestation, coppicing 5. FOOD CHAIN stump, windbreak, producer, snag, decomposer, consumer 6. TYPES OF SEEDLING bare-root, containerised, stump sprout, drill, kiln, plug 7. POLLUTION trench, browse, effluent, sewage, contamination, vernalisation 8. FOREST STRATIFICATION horizon, canopy, medium, fence, understory, litter 9. SOILS lacustrine, pedology, parent rock, testa, water-holding capacity, purity 10. FROM THE NURSERY TO THE FOREST lifting, hardening-off, winnowing, dessication, outplanting, samara 11. SEED PROCESSING frost heaving, tumbling, lifting, threshing, transplanting, depulping 12. SITE PREPARATION germination, ploughing, harrowing, mast seeding, rotation, stump extraction 13. SEED DISPERSAL banchory, anemochory, zoochory, pechory, hydrochory, mounding 14. FOREST TYPES carr, hard mast, tillage, riparian, kiln, managed 15. SEEDLING PARTS dressing, cotyledon, radicle, stem, drill, fence 16. SEED STORAGE cryopreservation, long-term, heeling-in, hardening-off, short-term, transplant 17. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ORGANISMS fertility, predation, parasitism, evaporation, transpiration, symbiosis 18. TYPES OF FRUIT plug, samara, pod, seedling, nutlet, testa 19. SEED TYPES harrowed, recalcitrant, radicle, fleshy, sapling, orthodox

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II. Choose the correct answer a, b or c which corresponds to the wood defects in the pictures. 1. a. grain slope; b. curvature; 2. a. twisting; b. bowing; c. butt swell c. crookedness

3. a. simple heart shake; b.fork shake; 4. a. butt swell; b. bowing; c. flutes c. closed bark pocket

5. a. twisting; b. bowing; c. flutes 6. a. intergrown knot; b. cupping; c. honeycombing

7. a. resin pith; b. loose knots; 8. a. cup shake; b. simple heart shake; c. honeycombing c. star heart shake

III. Choose the correct answer a, b or c. 1. Damping-off is a: a. seedling disease b. method of seed drying c. kind of foliar application 2. Spacing tells us a. whether the stand is single-species or not b. how many strata a forest possesses c. what the distance between the planted trees is 3. Bucking a. means cutting a log into shorter pieces b. is a seed treatment before sowing c. is one of the harvesting methods

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4. A hinge is: a. the distance between two branches on the trunk b. a part of an axe c. a part of a trunk between a back cut and a face notch 5. Heeling-in a. means the same as root wrenching b. is a method of seedling storage c. is another name for machine planting 6. Mulch is: a. any material that is placed near plants in order to hamper the development of weeds and protect soil from drying b. the same as litter c. often used in crop rotation 7. Crown cover is the same as: a. foliage b. branches and leaves c. canopy closure 8. A carr is: a. an all-terrain vehicle adapted to driving on bogs b. a forest that grows on organic, wet soil and occupies a boggy area c. an urban forest that serves as a noise barrier around a residential area 9. A harvesting area is also called a: a. bucking area b. topping area c. stump area 10. Wellington boots a. protect feet from getting wet b. protect feet from injury caused by sharp objects c. make climbing a tree easier

IV. Name the following forest products. Use the words from the box.

bay bolete herb rosehip charcoal chanterelle wood wool honey fungus railway sleepers wild strawberry plank Christmas tree seasonal greenery

1 2

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3 4

6 5

7 8

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V. Circle the bigger element. 1. log – plank 2. radicle – taproot 3. seed – seedling 4. branch – twig 5. stand – forest 6. embryo – seed 7. acorn – nutlet 8. sapling – pole 9. forest – wood 10. logging debris – chips 11. sawdust – sawnwood 12. hard hat – ear muffs 13. wood wool – log 14. hookeroon – grafting knife 15. chainsaw – saw guide 16. hoedad – ladder 17. lumber crayon – planting bar 18. plank – knot 19. nut – nutlet 20. rake – harrow

VI. Match the terms with their definitions.

1. the period of time when plants are not dormant A. target seedling 2. a fertiliser in the form of plants that grow in the given field and are later ploughed in order to provide nutri- B. delimbing ents for the successive plants 3. removal of seedlings from the place where they have C. hardening off grown 4. the process during which seedlings produced indoors D. drilling are getting used to outdoor harsher conditions 5. plants that are produced in a nursery E. growing season 6. an ideal seedling that is characterised by high survival F . fence rate and a proper shoot-root ratio 7. sowing seeds in rows G. green manure 8. a structure erected around a nursery that protects H. nursery/ planting seedlings from animals, e.g. the deer family stock 9. branch removal during harvesting I. lifting

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VII. Fill in the blanks with the expressions from the box. size immigration deaths/mortality biotic scattered all species carrying capacity natality limited number of individuals individuals the same species haphazard births/natality emigration mortality grow or live in groups evenly-spaced abiotic

1. A population is defined as a group of individuals of ...... living in a given area. 2. A community consists of ...... occupying a given habitat. 3. There are two components of an ecosystem ...... and ...... , e.g. precipitation, soils and the like. 4. Population density is the number of ...... per square metre, hectare, etc. 5. Population distribution tells us how individuals are ...... in a given area. 6. There are three basic patterns of population distribution: a. uniform – individuals are ...... over the area, b. clumped – individuals ...... , c. random – the distribution is ...... 7. Population dynamics refers to the change of population ...... It includes studies on: a. births (...... ), b. deaths (...... ), c. migration (emigration and immigration). 8...... and ...... increase the size of population whereas ...... and ...... diminish its size. 9. The growth of the population is affected by ...... because the amount of resources in a given area is not infinite. As a result, it can accom- modate a ...... that can grow and live there.

VIII. Put the words from the box into the following categories: water, pollution, weather, soil. precipitation salinity subsoil groundwater contamination shower surface runoff toxicity gale hydrological cycle pollutant aggregates

water pollution weather soil

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IX. What terms are hidden in these rebus puzzles?

+ L + rella=er et

+ t

+ e a

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3 +

+ +ling +ing

+ af+ st

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X. Translate into English.

1. Szkółki są często zakładane na niedawno powstałych zrębach, ponieważ gleby leśne zawierają grzyby mykoryzowe, a otaczające drzewa tworzą korzyst- ne warunki dla wzrostu młodych roślin, chroniąc je przed silnymi wiatrami oraz znacznymi wahaniami temperatury.

2. Miejsce pod szkółkę powinno być odpowiednio przygotowane – pniaki powinny być wykarczowane, resztki pozrębowe, chwasty i pozostałe rośliny usunięte, gle- ba uprawiona. Typowa uprawa gleby obejmuje orkę, bronowanie i nawożenie.

3. Materiał szkółkarski obejmuje sadzonki z odkrytym systemem korzeniowym i w pojemnikach /kontenerowe. Te pierwsze rosną pod gołym niebem, podczas gdy te drugie są uprawiane w szklarniach lub tunelach. Takie sadzonki muszą być hartowane, aby zaadaptowały się do surowych warunków na zewnątrz.

4. W szkółkach korzenie sadzonki są podcinane w celu pobudzenia rozwoju rozkrzewionego i zwartego systemu korzeniowego.

5. Mikoryzowanie sadzonek zwiększa współczynnik ich przeżycia.

6. Sadzonki są wyjmowane, kiedy są w stanie spoczynku. W czasie wyjmowania, transportu i przechowywania należy chronić korzenie przed wysychaniem.

7. Nasiono jest zbudowane z łupiny nasiennej, bielma i zarodka, który składa się z zawiązka pędu i zawiązka korzenia.

8. Nasiona, które są wytrzymałe na mróz i suszenie bez utraty żywotności nazywane są nasionami typu orthodox. Te, które są trudne do przechowywania, ponieważ kiełkują zaraz po dojrzeniu, znane są jako nasiona typu recalcitrant. W rezultacie mrożenia i suszenia nasiona typu recalcitrant tracą żywotność.

9. Stratyfikacja oznacza poddanie nasion będących w stanie spoczynku niskim temperaturom w wilgotnym środowisku w celu zmiękczenia łupiny nasiennej i usunięcia inhibitorów wzrostu.

10. Gatunki ciężkonasienne, takie jak dąb i buk, wytwarzają nasiona w dłuż- szych odstępach czasu w porównaniu z gatunkami lekkonasiennymi, takimi jak topola czy klon.

11. W praktyce zbiór nasion w leśnictwie oznacza zbieranie szyszek i różnych rodzajów owoców, takich jak orzechy laskowe, strąki, skrzydlaki, żołędzie czy mięsiste owoce jarzębiny. Następnie nasiona są wydobywane z owoców poprzez młócenie, suszenie, usuwanie mięsistej części owocu lub łuszczenie.

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12. Są cztery podstawowe terminy, które odnoszą się do powstawania lasu: a. odnowienie – kiedy drzewa zaczynają rosnąć na miejscu, gdzie las ist- niał wcześniej; b. zalesienie – powstawanie lasu na nieużytkach, terenach rolniczych; c. odnowienie naturalne – las odnawia się naturalnie przez rozsiew nasion; d. odnowienie sztuczne – oparte głównie na produkcji materiału szkółkar- skiego, który jest później wysadzany na miejsce docelowe.

13. Drzewostany różnią się wiekiem, pochodzeniem, składem gatunkowym i budową piętrową. Jeżeli chodzi o / Biorąc pod uwagę wiek, mamy drzewostany jednowiekowe i różnowiekowe. Pochodzenie odnosi się do pro- cesu powstawania: czy drzewostan jest odnowiony sztucznie czy naturalnie. Skład gatunkowy dostarcza informacji o dominujących gatunkach i domieszce, czy drzewostan jest jednogatunkowy lub wielogatunkowy. Piętrowość odnosi się do liczby warstw/pięter drzew pomiędzy dnem lasu a wierzchołkami drzew.

14. Lasy składają się z wielu warstw. Najniższa to ściółka, która pokrywa glebę. Następnie są rośliny dna lasu, krzewy i młode drzewka. Korony najwyższych drzew tworzą okap.

15. W lesie można zaobserwować różne rodzaje drzew. Niektóre z nich są mar- twe i nadal stoją, inne są złamane lub wyrwane z korzeniami. Niektóre drzewa są przygłuszone, podczas gdy jeszcze inne zdecydowanie wybijają się ponad okap drzewostanu.

16. Głównym celem pielęgnowania drzewostanu jest modyfikacja roślinności w taki sposób, że stworzone są dogodne warunki dla pożądanych drzew, co z kolei zwiększa produkcję drewna i podnosi jego jakość. Podstawowe zabiegi pielęgnacyjne obejmują usuwanie roślin krzewiastych bezpośrednio prze- szkadzających wybranym drzewkom, oraz trzebieże i cięcia sanitarne.

17. Lasy łęgowe rosną w mokrych miejscach wzdłuż rzek i strumieni.

18. Polskie lasy są lasami strefy umiarkowanej. Dominującym gatunkiem jest sosna, często tworząca monokultury. Oprócz borów występują w Polsce lasy liściaste i mieszane. Większość polskich lasów jest państwowa.

19. Przygotowanie do ścinki koncentruje się na wyborze odpowiedniego sprzętu i bezpieczeństwie. Pilarze/drwale powinni być ubrani w odzież ochronną (buty robocze, rękawice, okulary, słuchawki/ ochronę słuchu, kaski i kami- zelki dblaskowe lub kombinezony).

20. Pojedyncze drzewa mogą być ścinane za pomocą pilarki. Inne narzędzia, które mogą być użyteczne to klin, siekiera, capina i obracak.

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21. Pilarz wybiera najpierw kierunek obalania, usuwa roślinność wokół drzewa i na ścieżce oddalania. Następnie wykonuje rzaz podcinający i ścinający, po- zostawiając zawiasę. Gdy drzewo zaczyna spadać, używa ścieżki oddalania, by się wycofać.

22. Jest wiele metod pozyskiwania drewna. Jednakże wszystkie z nich obejmują ścinkę, okrzesywanie, usuwanie wierzchołków i przerzynkę.

23. Zrywka to termin ogólny, który oznacza przemieszczenie drewna z po- wierzchni cięć do drogi leśnej a potem na składnicę. Typy zrywki obejmują: zrywkę półpodwieszaną, zrywkę nasiębierną i linową.

24. Gałęzie, wierzchołki drzew i inne odpady zrębowe są zazwyczaj pozostawia- ne w lesie, aby się rozłożyły.

25. Rębnie różnią się nawrotami cięć i ilością drzew, które są wycinane w tym samym czasie. W rębni całkowitej wszystkie drzewa są ścinane na danym terenie. Rębnia częściowa jest oparta na selekcji drzew nasiennych, które są pozostawione na zrębie. Młode drzewka rosną pod okapem starych. Rębnia przerębowa oznacza ścinanie pojedynczych drzew, dlatego jest czasochłon- na i wymaga dużego nakładu pracy ręcznej oraz użycia małego sprzętu.

26. Użytki leśne można podzielić na użytki drzewne i użytki uboczne. Te ostatnie mogą być pochodzenia roślinnego lub zwierzęcego, np. dziczyzna.

27. Użytki uboczne obejmują zioła, korę, żywicę, choinki, jadalne rośliny i grzyby, takie jak borowik szlachetny, podgrzybek, maślak i kurka.

28. Drewno okrągłe, tarcica i fornir to typowe użytki drzewne.

29. Jest wiele produktów, które mogą być wytworzone z drewna, takich jak sztuczny jedwab /wiskoza (materiał zrobiony z celulozy), płyty drewno- pochodne (sklejka, płyta pilśniowa, płyta wiórowa), papier, karton, węgiel drzewny – wymieniając tylko kilka.

30. Wady drewna obniżają jego wartość handlową. Liczba wad i ich rozmieszczenie decyduje o jakości drewna.

31. Wady drewna mogą powstawać podczas wzrostu drzewa, np. sęki, drewno reakcyjne, pęcherze żywiczne, nieregularny kształt pnia, lub w wyniku suszenia/przesychania, np. spękania wewnętrzne, paczenie się w formie wy- gięcia poprzecznego, skręcania/wichrowatości lub wygięcia podłużnego.

32. Zbieżystość, zgrubienie odziomkowe, napływy korzeniowe, spłaszczenie, krzywizna to typowe wady kształtu pnia.

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33. Wady drewna można podzielić na kilka kategorii: nieregularność kształtu pnia, sęki, pęknięcia, wady spowodowane uszkodzeniami mechanicznymi, ciała obce, wady budowy drewna, np. zakorki, wielordzenność, skręt włó- kien, zabitka/martwica.

34. Najczęstszymi wadami drewna są sęki. Można je podzielić na kilka kategorii w zależności od: a. zdrowotności, np. zdrowe, spróchniałe, zepsute; b. rozmieszczenia, np. pojedyncze, skupienia sęków / sęki grupowe; c. wielkości, np. sęki o małej średnicy; d. jak mocno jest zrośnięty z otaczającym drewnem, np. sęk zrośnięty, wypadający.

35. Wady drewna mogą też być spowodowane przez: grzyby, np. plamy, rozkład drewna; owady, np. chodniki owadzie; ptaki i ssaki, np. jelenie niszczące korę.

36. Pęknięcia drewna mają różne kształty i obejmują różne części drewna. Są pęknięcia, które idą od rdzenia na zewnątrz, np. pęknięcie rdzeniowe za- łamane, pęknięcie rdzeniowe proste, pęknięcie gwiaździste, i inne, które powodują oddzielanie się włókien drzewnych wzdłuż słoi, np. pęknięcie okrężne łukowe, pęknięcie łukowe pełne.

37. Tłumnica i grabie pożarnicze to pożyteczne narzędzia w zwalczaniu poża- rów lasu.

38. Drzewa można sadzić za pomocą motyki do sadzenia drzew lub kostura.

39. Klupa jest używana do mierzenia średnicy drzewa, koromierz do ustalenia grubo- ści kory, a świder Presslera dostarcza informacji o wieku drzewa i jego przyroście.

40. Podstawowe dane, które dotyczą wielkości drzewa to wysokość, obwód i pier- śnica.

41. Miąższość jest obliczana w metrach sześciennych.

42. Ekologia bada wzajemne relacje pomiędzy żyjącymi organizmami i ich śro- dowiskiem ożywionym i nieożywionym. Ekologiczne zależności wpływają na strukturę, wielkość i rozmieszczenie populacji.

43. Wzrost i zmniejszenie wielkości populacji są uwarunkowane przyrostem na- turalnym, śmiertelnością, imigracją i emigracją, pojemnością środowiska, jak również drapieżnictwem, pasożytnictwem, współzawodnictwem o zaso- by, żeby wymienić tylko kilka / wymieniając tylko kilka.

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44. Łańcuch pokarmowy, a dokładniej/ściślej – sieć zależności pokarmowych, opisuje zależności pokarmowe w obrębie ekosystemów. Organizmy samo- żywne to producenci, cudzożywne to konsumenci. Roślinożercy to konsumenci pierwszego rzędu, podczas gdy mięsożercy to konsumenci drugiego rzędu. Detrytofagi żywią się martwą materią organiczną i rozkładają tkanki zwierzęce i roślinne.

45. Obieg wody w przyrodzie jest uzależniony od opadów, parowania, retencji gruntowej, oceanów, jezior, transportu/przepływu wody w rzekach i stru- mieniach, jak również odpływu powierzchniowego.

46. Są dwa typy ekosystemów wodnych – słodkowodne i morskie. Ekosystem słodkowodny można podzielić na ekosystem wody stojącej (jeziora, stawy, bagna) i ekosystem wody płynącej (strumienie, rzeki, źródła).

Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 94 26.11.2020 18:09:25 FOREST THREATS AND PROTECTION ZAGROŻENIA I OCHRONA LASU

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TREE DAMAGE I. Do the crossword puzzle and read the term vertically in the squares marked in bold.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

1. animals that are hunted

2. NH3 3. a flowering parasitic plant with white fruit 4. plants do not produce enough chlorophyll and turn yellow because there are not enough nutrients available or they are attacked by viruses, etc. 5. a butterfly larva 6. a large area is covered with water as a result of heavy, prolonged rain

7. SO2

8. F2

9. NO2 10. an animal that is harmful to plants 11. causes contamination 12. an incident when something is burning 13. a large amount of snow sliding down a mountain slope 14. cause the majority of tree diseases 15. a very strong wind

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16. the main tree pests 17. a bacterium, virus or fungus that causes plant diseases 18. a natural disaster caused by the lack of rain for a long time 19. one of the plant pathogens 20. the act of setting fire on purpose

II. What is the adjective of the following nouns? 1. pathogen – ...... 2. bacterium – ...... 3. virus – ...... 4. larva – ...... 5. fungus – ...... 6. necrosis – …...... 7. toxicity – ...... 8. flame – ...... 9. hazard – ...... 10. parasite – ......

III. Match the first half of the collocation (1–15) with the second (A–O) and its Polish equivalent (a–o). 1. abiotic A. pest a. zwójki 2. bacterial B. disease b. choroba naczyniowa 3. flammable C. ribs c. owady minujące 4. defoliating D. broom d. listwy mrozowe 5. forest E. factors e. uszkodzenie mechaniczne 6. frost F . injury f. czynniki abiotyczne 7. hydrogen G. disease g. choroba bakteryjna 8. leaf H. disease h. pęknięcie mrozowe 9. viral I. rollers i. czarcia miotła 10. witches’ J. waste j. foliofagi 11. vascular K. fire k. choroba wirusowa 12. primary L. fluoride l. odpady łatwopalne 13. mechanical M. insects m. fluorowodór 14. leaf N. miners n. pożar lasu 15. frost O. crack o. szkodnik pierwotny

IV. What are the synonyms of the following words? 1. defoliators = f ______v ______2. fasciculation = w __ t ______’ b ______m 3. sap exudation = sap b ______d ______4. leaf feeders = f ______g __ feeders 5. sapsuckers = sap f ______e __ __ 97

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FUNGI I. In the word search puzzle find horizontally and vertically 25 terms that refer to fungi.

A B A T A M Y C E L I U M A N E B C A P I S Y L V I U R D I A M N U O S T A P C O P U F F B A L L D D G I L L I O G R E A T R A N I E D R D I U N R O R U S T A L K M R I O I T H N R R U R P R O F I O N N D O E Y E H E S T O B R A T N G G S C R P R I K T O R I N G O A L A P A C H O Z R I T E K A N M R Y T R R H A S A O N T B R O I A M C A A P A R T A S P O R U L A T I O N S U F L A T M U A B D U S A L G N S M U T S A I S D O R K A S A E U A R N O C R M U S H R O O M R N L P O G N U K I S T U B E L B T R U R W U I S O K I O R I N O K T O S O I S C O N I D O P H O R E I S U B O R D I O T O L O K O T R E P S E T S E P T U M A M A M O U L D Y

II. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.

conjugation shelf endotrophic water vesicular-arbuscular fungal ectotrophic plant grey sac

...... MYCORRHIZA ...... FUNGI ......

...... MOULD ...... PATHOGEN

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III. Choose the correct answer a, b or c.

1. A bracket fungus is also called a: a. shelf fungus b. mould c. rust fungus 2. A mycelium consists of: a. moulds b. hyphae c. lichens 3. A poroid mushroom has: a. gills b. puffballs c. tubes 4. Club fungi are called in Latin: a. Ascomycota b. Basidiomycetes c. Oomycetes 5. A death cup is a: a. poroid mushroom b. shelf fungus c. gill mushroom 6. A stalk is a: a. part of a mushroom to which a cap is attached b. a mushroom fruiting body c. a ring below a cap 7. An organism that feeds on dead organic matter is called a/an: a. epiphyte b. saprophyte c. autotroph 8. A puffball: a. has a very long stalk and a small brown cap b. is yellow or orange c. is usually round and white 9. Glycogen is a: a. protein b. fatty acid c. polysaccharide 10. A part of a mushroom known as a ring is also called a/an: a. frill b. annulus c. collar

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INSECT PESTS

I. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box. Some of the words can be used more than once. Then, translate the terms into Polish.

white silver black brown green grey

1...... spruce longhorn beetle 2...... satin moth 3...... spruce beetle 4...... oak tortrix 5...... -tail moth 6...... pine weevil 7...... fir bark beetle

II. Underline the correct answer. 1. The pine groundling destroys buds and needles /roots. 2. The turnip moth / pine tip moth feeds on roots. 3. The green oak tortrix / European mole cricket has forelegs that are well adapted to digging tunnels in the soil. 4. The archer’s dart / large pine weevil is a beetle. 5. The sand weevil / gypsy moth is a pest that attacks young pines and feeds on their needles and seedling bark. 6. The pine groundling is a weevil/butterfly. 7. Males and females of the brown-tail moth look the same /different. 8. The European pine sawfly / pine chafer is a pine pest that feeds on needles. 9. The pine looper is from the Curculonidae/Geometridae family. 10. The pine tree lappet is a butterfly that destroys roots/ needles.

III. Match the first half of the collocation (1–10) with the second (A–J) and its Polish equivalent (a–j). 1. acorn A. shoot beetle a. chrabąszcz majowy 2. gypsy B. leaf beetle b. hurmak olchowiec 3. winter C. cockchafer c. guniak czerwczyk 4. spruce D. moth d. brudnica nieparka 5. common E. weevil e. zasnuja świerkowa 6. summer F. case-bearer f . cetyniec większy 7. poplar G. moth g. piędzik przedzimek 8. alder leaf H. webworm h. słonik żołędziowiec 9. common pine I. beetle i. rynnica topolówka 10. larch J. chafer j. pochwik/ krobik modrzewiowiec

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IV. What pests’ names are hidden in these rebus puzzles? Having guessed them, match their English names with the Latin ones provided in the box.

Otiorhynchus ovatus Panolis flammea Lymantria monacha Dioryctria abietella Scolytus scolytus

1 + + h et + tle 2 + on=th

3 + + Monday–Sunday k=vil

s + d=auty

5 Picea+ +

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FOREST FIRES I. Match the terms with their definitions.

1. a professional who extinguishes fires A. aerial fuel 2. the time of a year when fires often break up B. flash fuels 3. a fire that spreads slowly C. total fuel 4. a burning material, e.g. embers, sparks that can D. surface fuels start a fire 5. materials that catch fire and burn quickly E. burning period 6. the factor such as lightning, campfire that is F. creeping fire a cause of a fire 7. flammable materials such as needles, branches G. fire season on the ground, low plants and the like 8. the time of the day, usually between 10 a.m. and H. fire fighter sunset, when the spread of fire is the quickest 9. all flammable materials in the forest I. ignition trigger 10. fuels like crown’s leaves and branches that do J. firebrand not touch the ground

II. What are the nouns of the following words? 1. flammable – ...... 2. ignite – ...... 3. humid – ...... 4. prevent – ...... 5. suppress – ......

III. What are the synonyms of the following words? 1. firesetter = ...... 2. arson fire = ...... 3. candling = ...... 4. heavy fuels = ...... 5. kindling point = ...... 6. flame-resistant = ......

IV. If the previous exercise was too difficult, match its words with the terms from the box.

torching fireproof incendiary fire ignition temperature coarse fuels arsonist

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V. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and circle the answer in the table below. Finally, read the term marked with circled letters. 1. Helitack is the usage of choppers in fighting forest fires. 2. A blind area is the same as an escape route. 3. Candling is the foliage burning of a single tree or a small group of trees. 4. Flames of a smoldering fire are very high. 5. Fuel loading is the amount of fuels expressed by its weight per an area unit. 6. Embers are glowing pieces of wood. 7. Long, narrow fragments of fire that originate from its centre are called branches of fire. 8. Putting out a fire from a helicopter is called torching. 9. A fire bug means the same as an arsonist. 10. Fireproof materials burn easily.

Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 True C R M E U S U E O A False A O I B L F T I L N

VI. Match the first part of the collocation with the second.

1. fire A. risk 2. back B. of spread 3. fire C. intensity 4. rate D. fuels 5. fire E. behaviour 6. fine F . fire

VII. Put the parts of the terms in order. Each term consists of two words.

1. WN RE CRO FI 2. ELS AD FU DE 3. TE RE ON CTI FI DE 4. PRE NT FI SUP RE SSA 5. RE VEN PRE TION FI 6. ND FU GR EL OU 7. OKE SI RE AL SM DU 8. SS RE FI MA 9. DI WI ON RE ND CTI

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FOREST PROTECTION I. Do the crossword puzzle and read the word marked vertically in the bold squares.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

1. an organism that is harmful to others, living in or on other organism 2. a pesticide that kills mites 3. a pesticide that kills fungi 4. an adjective describing an insect that kills other organisms and feeds on them 5. a virus that attacks bacteria 6. a container that includes pheromones, used for catching insects 7. an adjective describing insects that help in pollination and pest control 8. a substance that kills microorganisms, used for cleaning surfaces, tools etc. 9. insecticide ……….…….... is the ability of the next generations of insects to survive higher concentration of insecticide 10. a tree which is used to attract pests in order to catch and kill them 11. a virus, bacterium or fungus that causes diseases 12. a substance that makes insects fly or go in its direction 13. covering seeds with fungicides, nutrients, etc. before sowing 14. the attack of pests or pathogens in large numbers 15. the same as phytosanitation 16. an organism that feeds on insects 17. opposite of attractant 18. a pesticide that kills eggs 104

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II. Translate into English. 1. chemiczne zwalczanie szkodników c ______l __ __ s __ c ______l 2. zasiedlanie żywiciela przez szkodniki h ______c __ l ______s ______3. zwalczanie szkodników za pomocą bakterii, grzybów, itd. m ______b __ __ l c ______l 4. zintegrowana metoda walki ze szkodnikami i ______t __ __ p ______m ______g ______t 5. stosowanie pestycydów p ______a __ __ l ______t ______6. zaprawianie nasion s ______t ______t 7. okres inkubacji choroby (dwa terminy) l ______t p ______d __ n ______t ______p ______d 8. wróg naturalny ______l __ n __ __ y 9. stężenie pestycydu p ______c ______t __ __ t ______10. zwalczanie biologiczne __ __ o ______c ______l

III. What are the antonyms of the following terms? 1. resistant ≠ ...... 2. repellent ≠ ...... 3. endoparasite ≠ ...... 4. biological control ≠ ......

IV. What are the nouns of the following words? 1. attract – ...... 2. repel – ...... 3. disinfect – ...... 4. infest – ...... 5. incubate – ...... 6. resist – ...... 7. susceptible – ......

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REVISION I. Circle the terms that are associated with the category in capital letters. 1. SEED PESTS large pine weevil, acorn weevil, spruce cone worm, forest cockchafer, pine beauty 2. PARASITIC FLOWERING PLANTS water mould, mistletoe, gall, nematode, great dodder, vascular wilt 3. YOUNG INSECTS spore, caterpillar, beetle, grub, gill, larva 4. PLANT DAMAGE skeletonising, saw, charcoal, lumber, galls, wormholes 5. TYPES OF FUNGI poroid, archer’s dart, gill, inedible, quarantine, club 6. ROOT PESTS acorn weevil, forest cockchafer, turnip moth, white satin moth, European mole cricket 7. FIRE FIGHTING biocontrol, helitack, fire suppression, infestation, control line, firefly 8. PARTS OF A MUSHROOM stalk, precipitation, cap, annulus, ringspot, volva 9. TYPES OF FIRES brush, tube, crown, creeping, toadstool, forest 10. INSECT TYPES budding, beneficial, fission, haustorium, predatory, pest 11. TYPES OF FUELS ladder, yeast, aerial, dead, arson, coarse 12. PESTS OF BROAD-LEAVED TREES sand weevil, gypsy moth, winter moth, nun moth, pine beauty 13. PARTS OF A FIRE flanks, legs, fingers, arms, neck, head 14. FOREST PROTECTION trap tree, dwarfing, fungicide, natural enemy, gale, biological control 15. ABIOTIC DAMAGING FACTORS avalanche, fire, pest, fraying, game, drought 16. FUNGI death cup, gill, mould, hypha, mycellium, aphid 17. FIRE fuels, smoke, landslide, flame, fasciculation, combustion 18. FOREST THREATS pest outbreak, berm, fuelbreak, pathogens, fungal diseases, insect pests 19. PESTICIDE coarse, foliar application, selective, translocated, fine, broad-spectrum

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II. What is the plural of the following words? 1. bacterium – ...... 2. larva – ...... 3. fungus – ...... 4. necrosis – ...... 5. conidium – ...... 6. gametangium – ...... 7. hypha – ...... 8. sporangium – ...... 9. basidium – ...... 10. mycorrhiza – ......

III. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.

alder leaf gypsy timberman large pine pine sand winter brown-tail summer great capricorn acorn

...... WEEVIL ...... MOTH ......

...... BEETLE ...... CHAFER

IV. Match the first part of the collocation with the second and its Polish translation. 1. rear A. contamination a. wektor owadzi 2. anthropogenic B. beauty b. pasożytnicze rośliny nasienne 3. frost C. mushrooms c. czynniki antropogeniczne 4. great D. of the fire d. kanianka pospolita 5. insect E. leaching e. środek gaśniczy 6. edaphic F. moth f. strzygonia choinówka 7. leaf G. factors g. czynnik glebowy 8. nitrogen H. suppressant h. grzyby blaszkowe 9. pine I. flowering plants i. tył pożaru 10. soil J. heaving j. skażenie gleby 11. parasitic K. miners k. wymywanie azotu z gleby 12. gill L. dodder l. owady minujące 13. winter M. factor m. piędzik przedzimek 14. fire N. vector n. gołomróz

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V. Translate into English. 1. Uszkodzenia drzew są powodowane przez czynniki abiotyczne, takie jak susza, wichura, szadź, mróz lub duże wahania temperatur; biotyczne, np. wirusy, grzyby bakterie, owady i inne zwierzęta; antropogeniczne, np. zanieczyszczenie powietrza, podpalenia.

2. Uszkodzenia powodowane przez warunki pogodowe obejmują te powodowane przez: a. mróz, np. pęknięcia mrozowe, listwy mrozowe, jak również gołomróz, który uszkadza siewki/sadzonki; b. wiatr, np. wiatrował; c. wysoką temperaturę, np. zgorzel słoneczna.

3. Owady stanowią najliczniejszą grupę szkodników leśnych. Uszkadzają one różne części roślin: – ryzofagi, takie jak chrabąszcz kasztanowiec, żerują na na korzeniach; – szkodniki nasion, np. szyszeń pospolity, słonik żołędziowiec, na nasionach; – ksylofagi na drewnie, np. rytel pospolity; – kambiofagi na miazdze i łyku, np. korniki; – foliofagi żerują na liściach, np.brudnica mniszka. Inne szkodniki owadzie, które uszkadzają liście, to owady szkieletujące, minujące i zwójki.

4. Skażenie gleby, zanieczyszczenie wody i powietrza oddziaływuje na cały ekosystem poprzez osłabianie, a czasem zabijanie, zwierząt i roślin. Najbardziej powszechne związki zanieczyszczające to dwutlenek siarki, dwutlenek azotu, amoniak, fluor i fluorowodór. Toksyczne odpady, wymywanie nawozów z gleby, metale ciężkie, takie jak ołów i rtęć, stwarzają poważne zagrożenie dla ekosystemów glebowych i wodnych.

5. Najpowszechniejszymi czynnikami sprawczymi uszkodzeń roślin są larwy, np. gąsienice i pędraki, gdyż to stadium rozwojowe owada jest niezwykle żarłoczne. Objawy uszkodzeń przez owady obejmują np. galasy, szkieleto- wanie i chodniki owadzie. Drzewa i siewki są także uszkadzane przez inne zwierzęta, takie jak nicienie, ptaki, gryzonie i jeleniowate.

6. Grzyby odgrywają różną rolę w ekosystemie leśnym. Z jednej strony grzyby wywołują choroby lub powodują rozkład/zgniliznę, z drugiej – tworzą sym- biotyczny związek z korzeniami drzew znany jako mykoryza.

7. Są cztery główne typy grzybów: lęgniowce, sprzężniaki, podstawczaki i grzyby niedoskonałe/konidialne.

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8. Grzyby rozmnażają się za pomocą zarodników, fragmentacji strzępek, po- dział i pączkowanie.

9. Wiele gatunków podstawczaków jest jadalnych, np. borowik szlachetny, podgrzybek; inne są trujące, np. muchomor sromotnikowy. Niektóre podstawczaki, takie jak rdze i głownie, powodują choroby roślin.

10. Porost to organizm, który składa się z workowców lub podstawczaków będą- cych w związku symbiotycznym z glonami.

11. Grzybnia składa się ze strzępek, owocnik grzyba kapeluszowego z kapelusza, trzonka, pierścienia i pochwy. Spodnia część kapelusza może mieć różny kształt i tworzyć np.blaszki – grzyby blaszkowe, rurki – grzyby rurkowe.

12. Szeliniak sosnowy jest chrząszczem, który częściej porusza się pieszo niż lata. Osobniki dorosłe niszczą korę siewek/sadzonek, larwy korzenie sosny i świerka. Samice składają jaja w ziemi na korzeniach.

13. Piędzik przedzimek łączy się w pary późną jesienią. Samice składają jaja, które zimują. Gąsienice, które są jasnozielone z białymi paskami po bokach, pojawiają się w kwietniu i żerują na liściach.

14. Strzygonia choinówka, barczatka sosnówka, brudnica mniszka, poproch ce- tyniak, osnuja czerwonogłowa i borecznik sosnowiec to szkodniki pierwotne drzewostanów sosnowych.

15. Materiały palne w lesie można podzielić ze względu na: a. ich wielkość (materiały palne o większej średnicy, drobny materiał palny); b. szybkość z jaką się zapalają, np. materiały szybko się zapalające i szybko płonące; c. ich lokalizację (materiały palne podziemne, naziemne, tworzące ciągłą pionową warstwę umożliwiającą rozprzestrzenianie się pożaru w górę); d. zawartość żywych lub martwych tkanek.

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INSECT CLASSIFICATION I. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and circle the answer in the table below. Finally, read the term created with circled letters. 1. Orthopterans include moths and butterflies. 2. Longhorn beetles are called Cerambycidae in Latin. 3. Hoverflies are tree pests. 4. Ship timber beetles are folivores. 5. True flies have two wings. 6. Aphids are dark brown beetles that are active at night. 7. The great capricorn beetle is an example of longhorn beetles. 8. Tortricid moths are beneficial insects. 9. Moths are the representatives of lepidopterans.

Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 True C A P R W T N E S False L R C E N I V G T

II. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box.

click clear-wing membrane-winged lappet true ground tussock lady snout net-winged sphinx dobson

...... FLIES ...... MOTHS ...... BEETLES ...... INSECTS ......

III. What are the synonyms of the following words? 1. lappet moths = __ g __ __ r __ 2. dobsonflies = f ______f ______3. weevils = s ______t b __ __ t ______4. hoverflies = f ______r f ______5. sphinx moths = h __ __ k m ______6. moths and butterflies = l ______d ______r ______

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IV. Match the representatives of insect taxa with the words in the box.

hoverflies geometrid moths butterflies lady beetles lacewings weevils/ snout beetles aphids longhorn beetles

1 2

4 3

5 6

8 7

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ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES I. Choose the correct answer a, b or c. 1. Arthropods include: a. arachnids and insects b. annelids and insects c. arachnids and ungulates 2. Cold-blooded animals: a. have the body temperature always lower than warm-blooded animals b. can keep their body temperature rather stable c. their body temperature depends on the temperature of their surround- ings 3. Amphibians have: a. endoskeletons, six legs and lay eggs on dry land b. an endoskeleton, usually four legs, skin susceptible to dessication c. dry, scaly skin, an exoskeleton and four legs 4. Insects are: a. nematodes b. chordates c. arthropods 5. Invertebrates include: a. arthropods, annelids and ruminants b. annelids, molluscs and arthropods c. ruminants, insects and annelids 6. Reptiles are: a. air-breathing vertebrates with dry scaly skin b. ungulates with dry scaly skin which lay eggs on land c. air-breathing vertebrates which lay eggs in water 7. Gastropods are one of the classes of: a. mammals b. amphibians c. molluscs 8. Ungulates are also called: a. nidicolous animals b. hoofed animals c. nidifugous animals 9. Odd-toed animals are: a. hoofed animals b. even-toed animals c. hexapods

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II. What group do the following animals belong to? Match the pictures with the words from the box.

ruminant rodent gastropod annelid even-toed animal amphibian arachnid odd-toed animal

1 2

3 4

5 6

7 8

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ANIMAL SPECIES: ANNELIDS, FLAT WORMS, ARACHNIDS, REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS I. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box. grass viviparous natterjack great crested sand slow grass marsh fire-bellied Carpathian earth smooth

...... SNAKE ...... NEWT

...... FROG ...... TOAD

...... LIZARD ...... WORM

II. Match the English terms in exercise I with their Polish equivalents from the box. jaszczurka zwinka kumak nizinny żaba trawna zaskroniec traszka karpacka dżdżownica żaba śmieszka padalec zwyczajny jaszczurka żyworodna traszka grzebieniasta ropucha paskówka gniewosz plamisty

III. Match the animal names with the definitions. 1. a legless lizard A. ticks 2. a venomous snake that lives in Poland B. dog tapeworm 3. a grey or olive-brown amphibian that lives in the moun- C. Aesculapian snake tains. Its belly is blackish with irregular yellow spots 4. small arachnids that feed on blood, vectors of dan- D. fire salamander gerous diseases for humans, e.g. Lime disease 5. a rare, endangered and relatively big snake that lives E. Carpathian newt in Poland. It can sometimes be seen on tree branches. 6. a parasite that lives in the gut of dogs, foxes and other F . adder animals. It can be found in forested areas, in tall grass, on forest berries, etc. It can be transmitted to people. 7. an endemic newt that can be spotted in Polish mountains. G. yellow-bellied toad 8. a black and yellow animal, the symbol of the Gorce H. slow worm National Park. 116

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BIRD SPECIES I. Match the first part of the collocation with the second and its Polish translation. 1. grey A. owl a. sikora modra 2. mistle B. kingfisher b. sowa uszata 3. winter C. partridge c. paszkot 4. common D. heron d. strzyżyk zwyczajny 5. Eurasian E. warbler e. jarząbek zwyczajny 6. blue F . thrush f. kowalik 7. grey G. tit g. piecuszek 8. long-eared H. grouse h. czapla siwa 9. willow I. wren i. kuropatwa 10. hazel J. nuthatch j. zimorodek

II. Which bird from the previous exercise: 1. has long tufts of feathers at the top of its head and hunts at night? 2. has long legs, a yellow bill, black, white and grey feathers, lives in colonies and builds nests in the tree crowns? 3. is from the Phasianidae family? 4. is a brightly coloured bird with a long beak, whose breast and belly are orange-brown and the rest of the body is bluish-green and bright blue? 5. is a song bird, about 27 centimeters long, whose wings are brown, throat, breast and belly light brown with characteristic triangular darker spots? 6. can walk on trunks with their head first, uses other birds hollows and is able to decrease its entrance diameter with mud? 7. is one of the smallest birds that live in Poland, with a very short tail often held upright and a round brownish body? 8. is a small migratory bird that breeds in deciduous forests, builds nests on the ground from grass and leaves? 9. is yellow with white and blue head, blue wings and olive-green back?

III. Put the parts of the terms in order. Each term consists of two words.

1. RK CK STO BLA 2. LAR CAT ED CHER FLY COL 3 TERN ASI BIT EUR AN 4. OPE EUR NIGHT AN JAR 5 LED - TAI LONG TIT 6. CROSS RED BILL

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IV. Which birds are shown in the pictures? Match the pictures with the names from the box.

Eurasian treecreeper grey partridge little owl white stork common crane hoopoe great-spotted woodpecker western capercaillie common goldeneye common snipe northern goshawk red crossbill

1 2

6 5

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7 8

9 10

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MAMMAL SPECIES I. Choose the correct answer a, b or c. 1. A badger: a. has spikes on its back and short legs b. is grey and has a white head with two black stripes c. is dark brown, has short legs and a bushy striped tail 2. Chamois: a. lives in high mountains and has horns b. has antlers and lives in riparian forests c. prefers wet habitats and has a long tail 3. The common shrew: a. is a small bat b. builds dams c. is a tiny animal with a long snout 4. A lynx is a: a. cat b. rodent c. mouse 5. An animal that lives in mountainous areas, hibernates in winter in burrows in the ground is called a: a. brown hare b. chamois c. marmot 6. The raccoon dog is: a. an indigenous species that transmit rabies b. an alien species, native to east Asia that is a member of the Canidae family c. a big herbivore 7. The roe deer is called in Latin: a. Cervus elaphus b. Dama dama c. Capreolus capreolus 8. An animal that digs tunnels underground and makes mounds on the surface is called: a. a marten b. a mole c. a barbastelle 9. A …………..……… is an animal that has spikes on its back. a. moose b. shrew c. hedgehog

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II. Circle the animal that is smaller. 1. elk – roe deer 2. lynx – wisent 3. otter – mole 4. red deer – chamois 5. fox – ermine 6. pine marten – otter 7. roe deer – red deer 8. beaver – alpine marmot 9. hazel dormouse – garden dormouse 10. common noctule – chamois

III. Fill in the gaps with the words from the box. Then, match the terms with the Polish equivalents in exercise IV.

giant sika forest brown long-eared bank pygmy common lesser white-toothed garden lesser Daubenton’s fallow

1...... 2...... SHREW ...... VOLE

3...... 4...... BAT ...... NOCTULE

5...... 6...... DORMOUSE ...... DEER

IV. Match the Polish names of animal species with their English ones in exercise III.

nornica ruda koszatka jeleń wschodni, sika borowiec olbrzymi zębiełek karliczek nocek rudy gacek brunatny daniel borowiaczek żołędnica nornik zwyczajny ryjówka malutka

V. Which animal has a longer tail? 1. alpine marmot – European rabbit 2. west European hedgehog – wood mouse 3. wild boar – chamois 4. roe deer – fallow deer 5. Norway rat – European pine vole 6. least weasel – raccoon dog Based on: Spotkania z przyrodą, Zwierzęta, W. Stichmann, E. Kretzschmar, MULTICO, Oficyna Wydawnicza, Warszawa 2006.

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INSECT ANATOMY I. In the word search puzzle find horizontally and vertically 18 terms that refer to insect anatomy. M K A B D O M E N O P A M E E L A E T N O L I A M O T O C E L L U S S H T R L A B R U M I G T R Y S P O I E T O T E T R O C H A N T E R T N N A S T R A T U M E T A R N O H D N I T R O R A T N A H R O I T O L A B I U M S R H I D O C N A H R E G I N A L U N P C A R O V C O A G R O G I U S O A Z C A S C R R X Y L O W D R E L R E A X T O X A E L O V I P O S I T O R A O X A X F O R E W I N G D S T I S K A L I

II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and circle the answer in the table below. Finally, read the term marked with circled letters. 1. Cursorial legs are adapted for walking. 2. A haustellate mouthpart is used for chewing. 3. A grasshopper has saltatorial legs. 4. A pedicel is a part of a tibia. 5. An abdomen is the middle part of a thorax. 6. If an insect is described as alate it means that it has wings. 7. An appendage is any part of an insect that is located on its head. 8. The outer beetle wings are called elytra.

Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 True M I N R O B I E False N A C D I S L S

III. What is the plural of the following words? 1. antenna – ...... 2. coxa – ...... 3. elytron – ...... 4. maxilla – ...... 5. proboscis – ...... 6. protothorax – ...... 7. rostrum – ...... 8. femur – ......

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ANATOMY OF MAMMALS, BIRDS, REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS, ARACHNIDS AND MOLLUSCS I. Underline the correct answer. 1. Deer are animals that shed their antlers/horns. 2. An incisor is a type of a feather/tooth. 3. Eagles catch their prey with talons/paws. 4. A heart is a part of the circulatory system / alimentary canal. 5. A snake is covered with bristles/scales. 6. Cats have sensitive, long, stiff hairs called snouts/whiskers that play the role of receptors. 7. A hard part of a bird mouth is called a fang/bill. 8. Webbed feet are typical for geese/cats. 9. Intestine is a part of the respiratory/digestive system. 10. Rabbits have pinnae/tusks. II. Put the words from the box into the following categories: bird anatomy, ruminant anatomy, snail anatomy, spider anatomy.

shell reticulum remex rumen beak cephalothorax chelicerae down pedipals feather omasum anterior tentacle abomasum posterior tentacle abdomen plumage

bird anatomy ruminant anatomy

snail anatomy spider anatomy

III. Match the parts of an animal body that are connected with one another. 1. pinneret A. backbone 2. oesophagus B. leg 3. skull C. skin 4. claw D. cephalothorax 5. pelage E. head 6. snout F . vane 7. digit G. abdomen 8. quill H. toe 9. legs I. stomach 123

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ANIMAL HABITATS AND DWELLINGS I. Match the animal (1–5) with its dwelling (A–E). 1. fox A. holt 2. badger B. lodge 3. beaver C. drey 4. otter D. den 5. squirrel E. set

II. What animals live in the following dwellings? 1. anthill A. rabbit 2. burrow B. woodpecker 3. hollow C. bird of prey 4. nest D. fox 5. aerie E. snail 6. warren F . ant 7. shell G. bird

III. Translate into English the adjectives that describe animals living in different habitats. 1. zwierzęta morskie m ______n __ animals 2. zwierzęta ziemnowodne s ______a ______t __ __ animals 3. zwierzęta żyjące pod ziemią s __ __ t __ r ______n animals 4. zwierzęta wodne a ______t __ __ animals 5. zwierzęta lądowe t ______e ______l animals 6. zwierzęta słodkowodne f ______w ______animals 7. zwierzęta nadrzewne a __ __ o ______l animals

IV. Put the parts of the terms in order. 1. ME GE HO RAN 2. TER WA WL FO 3. LL HI LE MO 4. RE GE LI WILD FE FU

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ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR AND COMMUNICATION I. Match the terms with their definitions. 1. animals that are active during the day are A. songbirds called………………. 2. animals that prefer living in groups are known B. winter whitening as……………….. 3. the period during which insect metabolism slows C. autotomy down in order to survive unfavourable environmental conditions 4. the change of fur colour for winter D. thanatosis 5. the adjective describing animals that are active early E. social insects in the morning, at dawn 6. the defense mechanism of some animals, e.g. lizards F. diurnal in which they cast off a part of their body, e.g. tail 7. insects such as bees, ants that live in colonies G. matutinal 8. birds that can sing H. gregarious 9. the ability of some animals, e.g. beetles to pretend that I. diapause they are dead in order to avoid danger such as predator attack

II. Give the words of the opposite meaning. 1. diurnal animals ≠ ……………………………. 2. migratory birds ≠ ……………………………. 3. matutinal animals ≠ ………………………………

III. Match the two halves of the collocation. 1. crepuscular A. language 2. dance B. response 3. resident C. animals 4. gregarious D. birds 5. alarm E. animals

IV. True or false? 1. To antennate means to communicate by touching antennae of other insects. 2. Vespertine animals are active during the day. 3. Slough is snake skin which is cast off. 4. Philopatric birds never come back to the habitat they used to occupy.

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ANIMAL FEEDING BEHAVIOUR I. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and circle the answer in the table below. Finally, read the term marked with circled letters. 1. Heterotrophs can produce their food in the process of photosynthesis. 2. Omnivorous animals eat all kind of food just like monophagous organisms. 3. Predators kill other animals and eat them. 4. A xylophage is an animals that feeds on leaves. 5. Hoarding means gathering and hiding the food for its further use by animals. 6. Scavangers eat carrion. Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 True B I P A O R False R A G T N S

II. What are the adjectives of the following words? 1. herbivory – ...... 2. heterotrophy – ...... 3. predator – ...... 4. parasite – ...... 5. polyphage – ...... III. Translate into English. a. ptak drapieżny __ __ r ______r __ y b. rybożerny, odżywiający się rybami p ______v ______u __ c. destruent, reducent d ______o __ __ r d. pasożyt zewnętrzny __ __ t __ p ______t __ e. padlinożerca __ c __ v ______r f . padlina __ __ r __ __ o __ g. łańcuch pokarmowy __ __ o __ __ h ______h. owady drapieżne __ r ______t ______n __ __ c __ s i . przeżuwacz __ u __ __ n __ __ t 126

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ANIMAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR, BREEDING HABITS AND REPRODUCTION I. Match the first half of the collocation (1–10) with the second (A–J) and its Polish equivalent (a–j). 1. mating A. metamorphosis a. składać jaja 2. brood B. flight b. okres godowy 3. nuptial C. dance c. tereny lęgowe 4. complete D. males d. przeobrażenie zupełne 5. lay E. grounds e. lot godowy 6. courtship F . chamber f. pasożyt lęgowy 7. incomplete G. season g. samce dominujące 8. dominant H. eggs h. taniec godowy 9. nuptial I. metamorphosis i. komora godowa np. u kornika 10. breeding J. parasite j. przeobrażenie niezupełne II. What are the antonyms of the following words? 1. altrical ≠ ...... 2. univoltine ≠ ...... 3. complete metamorphosis ≠ ...... 4. monogamous ≠ ...... 5. oviparous ≠ ......

III. Which word in exercise II describes: 1. young animals that are born blind and naked, e.g. mice and need parents to take care of them in order to survive? 2. animals that lay eggs? 3. young animals that are fairly quickly independent, e.g. hares, deer? 4. the animal development when a young animal does not resemble the adult? 5. the situation when an animal has one sexual partner?

IV. Put the parts of the terms in order. The last term consists of two words. 1. PA TI PU ON 2. LO SI ON EC 3. ON GE TI STA 4. TCH HA 5. TO RA ID PA SI 6. CLE US CY ES TRO Which terms refer to mammals and which ones to insects?

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MALES, FEMALES, THE YOUNG AND THEIR GROUPS I. Put the words from the box into the following groups: males, females, young animals, groups of animals. eyas cub vixen fledgling bitch hind fawn litter drake boar brood jill buck sow tadpole stag herd doe pack cock

males females

young animals groups of animals

II. Which word in exercise I means: 1. female deer? 2. the male of a hare, roe deer or fallow deer? 3. a group of big animals usually herbivores? 4. a very young frog? 5. a chick whose father is a tiercel? 6. a male duck? 7. a group of young chicks that have hatched almost at the same time? 8. a female fox? 9. a male bee? 10. young animals that are brothers and sisters and were born at the same time? 11. a female hare? 12. a group of wolves?

III. Match the adult with its young. 1. hare A. piglet 2. bird B. bunny 3. butterfly C. leveret 4. rabbit D. caterpillar 5. wild boar E. kitten 6. lynx F . chick

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HUNTING I. Choose the correct answer a, b or c. 1. Growing antlers are covered with: a. puss that is shed in winter b. pelt that has bristles c. velvet 2. A wooden or plastic model of an animal used to lure game within shooting range is called a: a. decoy b. bolt c. brace 3. One part of an antler is: a. a brush b. a beam c. a raghorn 4. A beater is: a. a furry animal that is small game b. a type of a hunting rifle c. a person who takes part in battue hunting but doesn’t shoot 5. …………………... means using a trained bird of prey in hunting. a. covert b. falconry c. rabies 6. Stalking is: a. illegal hunting b. shooting at waterfowl that is not flying c. following an animal in order to kill it

II. Match the first half of the collocation (1–10) with the second (A–J) and its Polish equivalent (a–j). 1. small A. dog a. sezon ochronny 2. battue B. season b. świeży trop 3. flushing C. trophy c. zwierzyna drobna 4. raised D. game d. polowanie z zasiadki 5. stand E. season e. zwietrzały trop 6. hunting F. hunting f . trofeum myśliwskie 7. closed G. line g. ambona 8. fresh H. hide h. sezon łowiecki 9. stale I. line i. polowanie z naganką 10. open J. hunting j. płochacz

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REVISION I. Fill in the blanks with the words from the box. oviparous elytra aphids diurnal ruminants caterpillar viviparous odd-toed nocturnal even-toed chrysalis raptor ladybirds talons ungulates insect pests cold-blooded grubs moths scales Hoofed animals are also called 1)...... They can be divided into 2)...... hoofed animals, e.g. horses and 3)...... hoofed animals, such as the European bison, wild boar and animals from the deer family. The European bison and deer are 4)...... which means that they have a four-chambered stomach. Reptiles are 5)...... animals whose skin is covered with 6)...... There are two reptilian reproductive modes: reptiles either lay eggs or bear their young. The former are called 7)...... whereas the latter 8)...... The life cycle of beetles consists of eggs, larvae known as 9)...... , pupae and adults. Beetles have two pairs of wings. The outer wings are harder and are called 10)...... Some beetles are 11)...... and some are beneficial insects such as 12)...... whose outer wings are usually red with black spots. Lady beetles reduce the population of pests because they feed on 13)...... An eagle is a 14)...... which means that it hunts for other animals such as small mammals, other birds and fish. Birds of prey are well adapted to hunting because they have strong, hooked beaks and sharp 15)...... which are used for killing their prey . Lepidopterans encompass 16)...... and butterflies. The former are 17)...... whereas the latter 18)...... In contrast to moths, butterflies are colourful. Lepidopteran larva is called a 19)...... and its pupa a 20)......

II. What are the antonyms of the following words? 1. vertebrates ≠ ...... 2. cold-blooded ≠ ...... 3. forewing ≠ ...... 4. dorsal ≠ ...... 5. alate ≠ ...... 6. posterior ≠ ...... 7. simple eye ≠ ......

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III. Circle the terms that are associated with the category in capital letters. 1. HUNTING DOGS gill, bloodhound, retriever, spleen, scent hound, dorsal 2. ANIMAL DWELLINGS burrow, pancreas, snout, spleen, den, lair 3. INSECT CLASSIFICATION eggars, martens, weevils, proturans, voles, wrens 4. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM oesophagus, liver, pancreas, intestine, kidney, stomach 5. BIRDS OF PREY blackbird, peregrine falcon, northern goshawk, white-tailed eagle, willow warbler, song thrush 6. FOOD WEB roost, producers, warren, consumers, mallard, decomposers 7. AMPHIBIANS lizard, toad, newt, tick, salamander, snail 8. ANTENNA pedicel, coxa, tarsus, galea, flagellum, scape 9. ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR hibernation, incisor, thanatosis, diapause, digit, cavity 10. BIRDS alpine newt, tit, shrew, starling, lesser noctule, robin 11. INSECT BODY PARTS heron, mandible, ocellus, lacewings, trochanter, tibia 12. ANIMAL FEEDING BEHAVIOUR predation, vertebrate, monophagy, parasitism, ectotherm, chiffchaff 13. MAMMALS noctule, mole, hoopoe, dunnock, pipistrelle, mollusc 14. HUNTING WEAPON bullet, muzzle, cartridge, sting, appendage, rifle 15. LYNX BODY PARTS bristle, tufted ears, fin, paws, whiskers, down 16. REPTILES toad, turtle, adder, salamander, lizard, slow worm 17. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM mandible, nostrils, throat, spleen, lungs 18. ANIMALS THAT ARE HUNTED billet, game, pad, quarry, rabies, fledgling 19. DEER BODY PARTS: hoof, talon, bill, velvet, horns, antlers

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IV. Do the crossword puzzle. All terms refer to animal names.

5 6

7 8

9 10

11 12 13

14 15

17 18

Across 2. a soft-footed agile forest individual with whiskers 4. a water engineer 5. a night flyer that uses sound to find the way or its food 7. a bird that is never on maternity leave because it treats other birds’ nests as free nursery and kindergarten 9. a colorful flyer that has wings covered with small scales 12. an insect that puts the policy ‘all for one, one for all’ into practice 14. an alert runner with long ears 15. a bird whose male is black with a yellow beak 17. a red-haired clever guy 18. an indefatigable drummer 19. a small, grey or red rodent that loves nuts and has a bushy tail

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Down 1. a lithe zigzag 3. a voracious musician 4. a big and strong sleeper 6. flower flies are also known as ……………. 8. active mainly at night, a symbol of wisdom 10. a long-distance traveller, supposed to bring babies 11. an excellent climber, does not slip even on steep mountain slopes 13. a type of endoparasite 16. an active digger

V. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and circle the answer in the table below. Finally, read the term marked with circled letters. 1. True flies have two wings. 2. Mammals have compound eyes. 3. Fossorial legs are adapted to digging. 4. The great tit nests are called platforms. 5. Deer is covered with coat. 6. Gregarious animals live in groups. 7. Reptiles slough from eggs. 8. Birds of prey build warrens. 9. Deer browse. 10. A fawn is a young hare. 11. A maggot is a type of larva. 12. The red deer is big game.

Question 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 True Y O L E O W I L M A E R False V E R L P T H A I M N T

VI. Match the first part of the term (in bold italics) with the second. There are 10 terms.

OPEN COURTSHIP MALES BIRDS HUNTING ANIMALS FEET PRIMARY DANCE SYSTEM FALLOW ARBOREAL DOGS DIGESTIVE SEASON WEBBED SUBORDINATE DEER CONSUMER RESIDENT

Which terms refer to hunting?

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VII. Find three names of insects, three names of birds, seven names of mammals, one arachnid and one amphibian in the following words from the box. Next, put the words in the categories in the box. Example: bumblebee – bee (bumblebee)

benevolent Timothy competition molecular lipstick emigration briefly knowledge shareholder beechmast debate lottery Newton beagle wolfram

insects birds mammals arachnid amphibian

VIII. Can you figure out the messages of these rebus puzzles?

1 +

2 + duck

3 + +er

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IX. Translate into English. 1. Owady są bezkręgowcami, które mają trzy pary nóg i głowę z czułkami. Mogą być bezskrzydłe, np. pierwogonki, lub posiadać jedną parę skrzydeł, np. mchówki, lub dwie pary, np. błonkówki, łuskoskrzydłe, chrząszcze, wy- mieniając tylko kilka.

2. Niektóre chrząszcze są szkodnikami roślin, inne są pożyteczne, np. biedron- ki. Te ostatnie ograniczają populację szkodników roślin np. mszyc.

3. Cykl życiowy chrabąszczy składa się z czterech faz rozwojowych: jaja, larwy zwanej pędrakiem, poczwarki i osobnika dorosłego.

4. Chrząszcze mają dwie pary skrzydeł. Skrzydła zewnętrzne są twardsze i są nazywane pokrywami.

5. Łuskoskrzydłe obejmują ćmy i motyle. Te pierwsze są owadami nocnymi /prowadzą nocny tryb życia, podczas gdy te drugie są aktywne za dnia. W przeciwieństwie do ciem motyle są kolorowe. Larwa łuskoskrzydłych jest nazywana gąsienicą.

6. Nazwę rodziny miernikowcowatych (Geometridae) można przetłumaczyć jako owady mierzące ziemię, ponieważ ‘geo’ oznacza w greckim ziemię a ‘metron’ mierzyć. Gąsienice miernikowcowatych poruszają się w szczegól- ny sposób, gdyż nie mają posuwek w środkowej części ciała. W rezultacie, podczas ruchu ciało tworzy charakterystyczny łuk, gdyż gąsienice przyciąga- ją tylnią część ciała do przedniej.

7. Ciało owada składa się z trzech głównych części: głowy, tułowia i odwłoka.

8. Pajęczaki to bezkręgowce, które mają cztery pary nóg. Niektóre z nich np. kleszcze żywią się krwią i mogą przenosić choroby, np. boreliozę.

9. Temperatura ciała zwierząt zmiennocieplnych zależy od temperatury otocze- nia; w przeciwieństwie do zwierząt stałocieplnych, których temperatura jest stała.

10. Gady są zwierzętami zmiennocieplnymi, których skóra jest pokryta łuskami. Jeżeli chodzi o rozmnażanie, gady można podzielić na jajorodne (te, które składają jaja) i żyworodne, które rodzą swoje młode.

11. Płazy żyją w pobliżu wody, ich skóra jest wilgotna i wrażliwa na wysychanie, które, jeżeli się przedłuża, może doprowadzić do śmierci zwierzęcia.

12. Wąż Esculapa jest najdłuższym wężem żyjącym w Polsce. Jest on niejadowi- ty i niezwykle rzadki. Może składać jaja w dziuplach i wierzchołkach drzew.

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13. Żmije mają charakterystyczny zygzak na grzbiecie, zaskrońce – żółte lub białe plamki za głową, a gniewosze plamiste – błyszczące, gładkie łuski na grzbiecie.

14. Traszki, salamandry, ropuchy i żaby są płazami, podczas gdy węże, żółwie i jaszczurki – gadami.

15. Ptaki to zwierzęta stałocieplne, których ciało jest pokryte piórami. Mają one jedną parę skrzydeł. Większość z nich umie latać. Ptaki migrujące takie jak bociany i żurawie podróżują corocznie z terenów lęgowych do miejsca, gdzie spędzają zimę, podczas gdy ptaki osiadłe, np. dzięcioły czy sroki pozostają na jednym terenie cały rok.

16. Orzeł jest ptakiem drapieżnym, co oznacza, że poluje na inne zwierzęta takie jak małe ssaki, inne ptaki i ryby. Ptaki drapieżne są dobrze przystoso- wane do polowania, ponieważ mają silne, zakrzywione dzioby i ostre szpony, których używają do zabijania swoich ofiar.

17. Zwierzęta kopytne dzieli się na nieparzystokopytne, np. koń i parzystoko- pytne, np. zwierzęta z rodziny jeleniowatych, żubr i dzik. Żubr i zwierzęta z rodziny jeleniowatych są przeżuwaczami, co oznacza, że mają czteroko- morowy żołądek, który składa się ze żwacza, czepca, ksiąg i trawieńca.

18. Wiele zwierząt jest symbolami parków narodowych w Polsce. Na przykład: • salamandra plamista jest symbolem Gorczańskiego Parku Narodowego, • kozica – Tatrzańskiego, • batalion – Biebrzańskiego, • bielik – Wolińskiego, • wydra – Drawieńskiego, • żubr – Białowieskiego, • łoś – Kampinowskiego, • nietoperz – Ojcowskiego, • ryś – Bieszczadzkiego, • bóbr – Wigierskiego, • głuszec – Parku Narodowego Bory Tucholskie, • żuraw – Poleskiego.

19. Różne gatunki ptaków preferują różne pożywienie w swojej diecie. Na przykład szpaki przepadają za owocami takimi jak czereśnie, wróble są głównie ziarno- żerne, sroki i kruki są padlinożercami i żywią się padliną, podczas gdy ptaki drapieżne polują na swoje ofiary. Niektóre z nich, np. rybołów, są rybożerne.

20. Jeżeli chodzi o nawyki żywieniowe, zwierzęta można z grubsza podzielić na roślinożerców, wszystkożerców, mięsożerców i padlinożerców. W obrębie ro- ślinożerców można wyróżnić ziarnojady, zwierzęta jedzące owoce itd.; mię- sożercy obejmują owadożerców, rybożerców itd.

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21. Kukułka to pasożyt lęgowy, co oznacza, że składa ona jaja w gniazdach innych ptaków i w ten sposób unika opieki nad swoimi młodymi.

22. Owady społeczne takie jak mrówki żyją w mrowiskach, bobry w żeremiach, lisy w norach, ptaki w gniazdach lub dziuplach.

23. Zwierzęta zajmują różne siedliska: zwierzęta wodne żyją albo w wodach słodkich lub w oceanach i morzach (zwierzęta morskie). Zwierzęta lądowe żyją na lądzie, a podziemne pod ziemią.

24. W przeciwieństwie do rogów, poroże zrzucane jest co roku. Żubry i kozice mają rogi, podczas gdy łosie, jelenie, sarny i daniele – poroże.

25. Najliczniejszą grupą szkodników leśnych są owady. Szkodniki owadzie mogą uszkodzić wszystkie części drzewa, np. foliofagi niszczą liście, ryzofagi – korzenie. Najbardziej żarłoczne są larwy, ponieważ potrzebują one dużo poży- wienia, aby rosnąć i się rozwijać.

26. Larwa motyla nazywana jest gąsienicą a chrabąszcza pędrakiem.

27. Na zwierzęta poluje się tylko w sezonie łowieckim. W sezonie ochronnym polowanie jest zabronione.

28. Nielegalne polowanie to kłusownictwo.

29. Lisy szczepi się przeciw wściekliźnie. Szczepionka jest zrzucana z samolotu.

30. Wiele zwierząt w dużym stopniu przyczynia się do udanego polowania: na przykład ptaki, takie jak sokoły, oraz różne rodzaje psów myśliwskich, obej- mujące płochacze, psy gończe i aportery.

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PLANTS

page 14 TAXA

EX. I 1Df 2Ga 3Ab 4Ff 5Cc 6Hg 7Ee 8Bd

EX. II 1. kingdom 2. subkingdom 3. division 4. subdivision 5. class 6. order 7. family 8. genus 9. species

page 15 PLANT CLASSIFICATION

EX. I 1. bryophytes – mszaki 2. thallophyte – plechowiec 3. pteridophyte – paprotnik 4. horsetail – skrzyp 5. moss – mech 6. flowering plants – rośliny nasienne 7. gymnosperms – nagonasienne 8. vascular plants – rośliny naczyniowe 9. angiosperms – okrytonasienne 10. clubmoss – widłak

EX. II 1F – Firs and pines are typical examples of gymnosperms. 2T 3F – Grasses belong to monocotyledons. 4T 5T 6T 7F – Mosses and liverworts are the most common bryophytes. 8F – Ferns are vascular plants. 9T 10F – Angiosperms in Poland are represented by such trees as, for example, oak, birch and poplar. 11T – monocots = monocotyledons, dicots = dicotyledons 12F 13T

page 16 FOREST PLANTS

EX. I vertically: asarabacca – kopytnik, ivy – bluszcz, fern – paproć, nettle – pokrzywa, valerian – kozłek lekarski, ledum – bagno zwyczajne, peppermint – mięta pieprzowa, mezereon – wawrzynek wilczełyko horizontally: burdock – łopian większy, fireweed – wierzbówka kiprzyca, cranberry – żurawina, clubmoss – widłak, bracken – orlica, celandine – glistnik jaskółcze ziele, bellflower – dzwonek, ramsons – czosnek niedźwiedzi, dewberry – jeżyna popielica across: sundew – rosiczka, snowdrop – śnieżyczka przebiśnieg, oxlip – pierwiosnek wyniosły, hop – chmiel, comfrey – żywokost

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 139 26.11.2020 18:10:01 EX. II ferns: alpine lady fern – wietlica alpejska, bracken – orlica pospolita, royal fern – długosz królewski, male fern – nerecznica samcza edible fruit: blackberry – jeżyna, bilberry – borówka czarna, wild strawberry – poziomka, cranberry – żurawina, cowberry – borówka brusznica colourful flowers: common foxglove – naparstnica purpurowa, bellflower – dzwonek, common heather – wrzos zwyczajny, wood forget-me-not – niezapominajka leśna, common violet – fiołek wonny, fireweed – wierzbówka kiprzyca the Ericaceae family: cowberry – borówka brusznica, common heather – wrzos zwyczajny, bilberry – borówka czarna, cranberry – żurawina

EX. III 1a 2c 3b 4b 5c 6b 7a 8c 9b 10a 11c 12a

EX. IV Asteraceae: mountain arnica – arnika górska, alpine coltsfoot – podbiałek alpejski Rosaceae: wild strawberry – poziomka, nodding avens – kuklik zwisły, tormentil – pięciornik leśny, dewberry – jeżyna popielica Ranunculaceae: pasque flower – sasanka, snowdrop anemone – zawilec wielkokwiatowy, common hepatica – przylaszczka Poaceae: purple small reed – trzcinnik lancetowaty, rough small reed – trzcinnik leśny, wood small reed – trzcinnik piaskowy

EX. V 1. sweet woodruff – marzanka wonna 2. sylvan goatsbeard – parzydło leśne 3. common bog-cotton – wełnianka wąskolistna 4. ivy – bluszcz pospolity 5. great plantain – babka zwyczajna 6. white butterbur – lepiężnik biały 7. oxlip – pierwiosnek wyniosły 8. wood anemone – zawilec wielkokwiatowy 9. burdock – łopian większy 10. common foxglove – naparstnica purpurowa

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 140 26.11.2020 18:10:01 EX. VI 1F 2H 3I 4J 5B 6E 7A 8G 9D 10C 1. alpine lady fern and deer fern – wietlica alpejska i podrzeń żebrowiec; 2. hard fern – podrzeń żebrowiec; 3. creeping bugleweed – dąbrówka rozłogowa; 4. dog’s mercury – szczyr trwały; 5. marsh marigold – knieć błotna, kaczeniec; 6. pasque flower – sasanka; 7. sticky willy – przytulia czepna; 8. willow gentian – goryczka trojeściwa; 9. drooping avens / water avens – kuklik zwisły, 10. wood sorrel – szczawik zajęczy

EX. VII 1T 2F – Celandine has yellow flowers. 3T 4F – Lesser periwinkle is perennial. 5T 6T 7F – Mountain arnica belongs to the Asteraceae family. 8F – Hop contains lupuline. 9T 10F – Sweet flag prefers wetlands, swamps, grows at the edges of lakes etc.

page 21 FOREST TREES AND SHRUBS

EX. I

vertically: black locust – robinia akacjowa, grochodrzew; Douglas fir – daglezja, jedlica; hornbeam – grab; rowan – jarząb; basswood – lipa; pine – sosna; lime – lipa; maidenhair tree – miłorząb dwuklapowy horizontally: linden – lipa; poplar – topola; beech – buk; willow – wierzba, alder – olsza, ginkgo – miłorząb dwuklapowy, larch – modrzew, maple – klon across: oak – dąb, aspen – osika, ash – jesion, elm – wiąz, birch – brzoza, spruce – świerk synonyms: lime/linden/basswood; maidenhair tree /ginkgo

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 141 26.11.2020 18:10:01 EX. II 1. EUROPEAN: ... filbert – leszczyna, ... larch – modrzew europejski, ... spindle tree – trzmielina pospolita 2. ENGLISH hawthorn – głóg dwuszyjkowy 3. POLISH larch – modrzew polski 4. NORWAY: ... spruce – świerk pospolity, ... maple – klon zwyczajny 5. SCOTS: ... pine – sosna pospolita, ... elm – wiąz górski 6. SWISS pine – limba

EX. III 1. beech 2. sessile oak 3. northern red oak 4. rowan 5. small-leaved linden 6. hazel/ European filbert 7. sycamore maple 8. maple 9. hedge maple 10. ginkgo/ maidenhair tree

EX. IV 1I 2G 3K 4B 5J 6H 7C 8E 9A 10D 11F

EX. V 1. Douglas fir – daglezja 2. Cornelian cherry – dereń właściwy, rum cherry – czeremcha amerykańska, wild cherry – czereśnia ptasia 3. maidenhair tree – miłorząb dwuklapowy, wayfaring tree – kalina hordowina 4. mountain pine – kosodrze- wina, Scots pine – sosna pospolita 5. sea buckthorn – rokitnik zwyczajny, alder buckthorn – kruszyna pospolita 6. hedge maple – klon polny, sycamore maple – klon jawor 7. pedunculate oak – dąb szypułkowy, sessile oak – dąb bezszypułkowy 8. crab apple – jabłoń dzika

EX. VI 1. BLACK: … alder – olsza czarna, … elder – bez czarny, … locust – robinia akacjowa, … poplar – topola czarna, … cherry – czeremcha amerykańska 2. GREY alder – olsza szara 3. RED elder – bez koralowy 4. SILVER fir – jodła pospolita 5. WHITE: … beam – jarząb mączny, … willow – wierzba biała

EX. VII 1F – Hedge maple means the same as common maple. 2T 3T 4F – Sea buckthorn belongs to the Elaeagnaceae family. 5T 6F – The Latin equivalent of the bird cherry is Padus racemosa.

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 142 26.11.2020 18:10:01 page 26 PLANT MORPHOLOGY

EX. I 1. B R A N C H 2. A N T H E R 3. T W I G 4. A P I C A L 5. I N F L O R E S C E N C E 6. T R U N K 7. P O L L E N 8. B L A D E 9. P I S T I L 10. L E A F L E T 11. O V U L E 12. L A T E R A L 13. C O N E 14. P H Y L L O T A X Y 15. P E R I A N T H 16. A X I L L A R Y 17. F O L I A G E 18. I N T E R N O D E Term: RETICULATE VENATION – użyłkowanie siatkowe

EX. II shoot: stem, leaf, node, internode, bud tree crown: twig, branch, bough, leaf, foliage, bud compound leaf: leaflet (pinna), petiole venation: parallel, reticulate perianth: petal, sepal inflorescence: umbel, spike, head, raceme

EX. III 1. capsule – zarodnia (mszaki) 2. anther – pylnik 3. corolla – korona 4. sporophyll – liść zarodnionośny 5. foliage – listowie 6. cotyledon – liścień 7. filament – nitka pręcika 8. phyllotaxy – ulistnienie, filotaksja 9. thorn – cierń 10. whorl – okółek 11. thallus – plecha 12. sporangium – sporangium, zarodnia 13. tendril – wąs czep- ny 14. cone – szyszka 15. spore – zarodnik

EX. IV 1. pollen 2. lateral vein 3. stem 4. branch 5. leaflet 6. ovule 7. twig 8. bud 9. stigma 10. lateral root

EX. V 1Ei 2Hg 3Je 4Gf 5Ib 6C/A/Fh 7A/C/Fd 8Dj (8C/F – liść złożony, zestawienie wyrazów możliwe, choć nie ujęte w ćwiczeniu) 9Bc 10F/A/Ca

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 143 26.11.2020 18:10:02 EX. VI 1. apical 2. compound 3. glaucous 4. reticulate 5. lateral 6. sessile 7. pistil

EX. VII 1T 2F – A panicle is a type of inflorescence. 3T 4F – ‘Cotyledon’ means the same as ‘seed leaf’. 5F – A filament is a part of stamen to which anthers are attached. 6T 7T

Page 29 PLANT CELLS, TISSUES AND THEIR COMPOUNDS

EX. I

horizontally: cell – komórka; cuticle – kutykula; cambium – cambium; hemicel- lulose – hemiceluloza; lignin – lignin; suberin – suberyna; cork – korek; tracheid – cewka; fibre – włókno; mesophyll – miękisz; parenchyma – parenchyma, miękisz; sap – sok roślinny vertically: xylem – ksylem; vessel – naczynie; phloem – łyko, floem; meristem – merystem, tkanka twórcza; tissue – tkanka; stoma – aparat szparkowy; phellem – korek; callus – kalus; bark – kora; epidermis – skórka, epiderma

EX. II 1G 2J 3A 4H 5C 6I 7B 8E 9F 10D

EX. III leaf anatomy: cuticule, epidermis, spongy mesophyll, palisade parenchyma, vascular bundle, guard cell, stomatal opening vascular tissues: sieve plate, companion cell, sieve tube, phloem, xylem, tracheid, spiral lignin trunk cross-section: pith, sapwood, heartwood, cambium, phloem, outer bark

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 144 26.11.2020 18:10:02 page 30 PLANT HABITAT PREFERENCES

EX. I 1. palustrine 2. psammophyte 3. alpine 4. heliophyte 5. acidophile 6. xerophyte 7. litophyte 8. alkalinophile 9. thermophilous 10. hydrophyte

EX. II 1. acidophilic 2. calciphile 3. drought-tolerant 4. halophilous 5. hygrophyte 6. mesophilous 7. sciophile 8. shade-tolerance 9. xerophilic

EX. III 1E 2C 3F 4B 5A 6D

EX. IV pH preferences: acidophile, alkalinophile, calciphile, calciphobous water requirements: marsh plants, helophyte, hygrophyte, palustrine plant, xerophyte, bog plant sun requirements: heliophyte, sciophile, sun-demanding, shade-tolerant (shade tolerant also acceptable), shade intolerant

EX. V 1b 2a 3c 4c

page 32 PLANT TYPES

EX. I 1T 2F – Actinorhizal plants live in a symbiotic relationship with nitrogen fixing actino- bacteria. 3T 4T 5F – ‘Indigenous’ means the same as ‘native’. 6F – Dormant plants are alive but not actively growing. 7T 8F – Dwarf plants are very short. 9F – Fragrant plants have a nice smell. 10T 11T 12F – ‘Vascular’ means ‘containing vessels’.

EX. II 1. indigenous – miejscowy, krajowy 2. dormant – w stanie spoczynku 3. dwarf – karłowy 4. autotrophic – samożywny 5. herbaceous – zielny 6. vascular – naczyniowy 7. insectivorous – owadożerny 8. dicotyledonous – dwuliścienny 9. medicinal – leczniczy 10. angiospermous – okrytozalążkowy 11. biennial – dwuletni 12. inedible – niejadalny

EX. III taxonomy: gymnospermous, angiospermous, monocotyledonous, dicotyledonous, vascular, flowering plants origin: native, endemic, indigenous life cycle: annual, biennial, perennial use: edible, melliferous, medicinal , indicator plants the way the stem grows: trailer, climber leaf shedding: evergreen, deciduous

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 145 26.11.2020 18:10:02 EX. IV 1. gymnospermous 2. heterotrophic 3. dicotyledonous 4. woody 5. early-blooming 6. inedible 7. long-day 8. alien

EX. V positive: melliferous, edible, medicinal, fragrant

page 34 TYPES OF TREES

EX. I 1D 2I 3G 4F 5H 6B 7J 8C 9A 10E

EX. II 1. mature tree 2. broad-leaved 3. softwoods 4. short-living 5. young 6. slow-growing 7. sun-demanding 8. shallow-rooting

EX. III 1F – The Norway spruce is shallow-rooting. 2T 3T 4F – Birch is sun-demanding. 5F – The Scots pine has a deep root system. 6T 7F – Broad-leaved trees are also known as hardwoods. 8T 9F – Not all coniferous trees have a deep root system. 10T 11F – ‘Pole’ is a tree developmental stage between a sapling and a mature tree. 12T 13F – ‘Schoolmarm’ means the same as ‘fork tree’.

EX. IV 1. gnarled tree – drzewo sękate, powykręcane 2. hung-up tree – drzewo zawieszone 3. mature tree – drzewo dojrzałe 4. plus tree – drzewo doborowe 5. seedling – sadzonka 6. intermediate tree – drzewo opanowane 7. seed tree – nasiennik 8. weakened tree – drzewo osłabione 9. uprooted tree – drzewo wyrwane z korzeniami 10. wolf tree – rozpieracz

EX. V 1G 2C,F 3E 4A 5D 6B 7H

EX. VI negative: cull tree, stunted tree, weakened tree, infested tree, suppressed tree, weed tree, wolf tree positive: coniferous tree, dominant tree, hardwoods, crop tree, residual tree, trainer, sapling, nurse tree, softwoods

page 36 PLANT PROPAGATION

EX. I 1T 2F – To bloom means to produce flowers. 3T 4F – A ramet is a single clone. 5F – Propagation is the same as reproduction. 6T 7F – To blossom means the same as to bloom (to produce flowers). 8T 9F – Micropropagation is the way of asexual propagation. 10F – Grafting means joining a scion and rootstock.

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 146 26.11.2020 18:10:02 EX. II 1E – wiatropylność 2C – rozmnażanie wegetatywne 3G – kultury tkankowe 4F – ziarnko pyłku 5B – odrośl korzeniowa 6D – zrzez 7A – odrośl pniakowa

EX. III asexual: tissue culture, root sucker, rootstock, scion, stem cutting, stump sprout sexual: anemophily, entomophily, fertilisation, pollination, stamen, pistil

EX. IV 1. anemophily 2. vegetative propagation 3. entomophily 4. reproduction 5. micropropagation 6. stock

EX. V 1. anemophilous 2. entomophilous 3. dioecious 4. monoecious 5. insect-pollinated 6. self-pollinated

EX. VI verb noun adjective pollinate 1. pollination 2. pollen 4. pollinated 3. pollinator 5. propagate propagation 6. propagated 7. graft grafting 8. grafted fertilise 9. fertilisation fertilised 10. reproduce reproduction 11. reproduced clone 12. clone 13. cloned 14. cut cutting 15. cut 16. micropropagate micropropagation 17. micropropagated

EX. VII 1. pollinated, pollen 2. sexual, asexual (vegetative) 3. scion, rootstock 4. plantlet, ramet, clone 5. budding, grafting 6. fertilization

page 38 REVISION

EX. I taxa: genus, order, kingdom, class, phylum plant classification: non-flowering plants, vascular plants, monocotyledons, bryophytes, pteridophytes morphology: bough, calyx, corolla, filament, rhizoid, spore, thorn, whorl plant types: inedible, wild, herbaceous, annual, dwarf, melliferous

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 147 26.11.2020 18:10:02 EX. II 1. apical 2. radical, uprooted, rooted 3. parenchymal 4. angiospermous 5. dicotyledonous 6. shade-tolerant (shade tolerant also acceptable) 7. herbaceous 8. woody 9. gymnospermous 10. dormant 11. coniferous 12. leafy, leafless 13. dioecious 14. cellular 15. autotrophic

EX. III 1a 2c 3b 4a 5b 6a 7b 8c 9c 10b

EX. IV 1. phyla 2. genera 3. species 4. taxa 5. setae 6. sporangia 7. thalli 8. nuclei 9. stomata

EX. V 1G 2R 3O 4S 5L 6N 7K 8P 9C 10A 11M 12D 13J 14F 15B 16I 17H 18E

EX. VI 1T 2T 3F – An axillary bud is the same as lateral. 4T 5F – A pinna is a part of a compound leaf. 6F 7T 8T 9F – Bracken is a fern. 10T

EX. VII 1. frond, leaflet, rhizome 2. aspen, hornbeam, basswood 3. phylum, genus, kingdom 4. ivy, lesser periwinkle, fir 5. lily of the valley, wood sorrel, snowdrop 6. vascular bundle, palisade mesophyll, spongy parenchyma 7. hawthorn, black cherry, dog rose 8. spruce, cone, needle 9. bryophytes, angiosperms, monocotyledons 10. peppermint, St John’s wort, stinging nettle 11. node, rhizome, strobilus 12. palustrine, xerophyte, bog 13. tendril, bud scale, bract 14. alternate, opposite, whorled 15. phloem, xylem, mesophyll 16. alkalinophile, acidophile, psammophyte 17. sapwood, heartwood, pith 18. perennial, biennial, annual 19. parasitic, insectivorous, autotrophic 20. pole, sapling, seedling

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 148 26.11.2020 18:10:02 EX. VIII 1. European spindle tree 2. ginkgo 3. yew 4. hedge maple 5. black locust 6. raspberry 7. wild strawberry 8. dog rose 9. northern red oak 10. bird cherry

EX. IX the Asteraceae family: white butterbur, burdock the Corylaceae family: hornbeam, hazel the Scrophulariaceae family: germander speedwell, common speedwell, common foxglove the Fabaceae family: black locust, Scotch broom, dyer’s greenweed the Rosaceae family: rowan, dog rose, blackthorn, raspberry, black cherry the Lamiaceae family: white-dead nettle, creeping bugleweed, wild thyme

EX. X 1b 2c 3a 4b 5c 6a 7b 8a 9c 10a 11a 12b 13b 14b

EX. XI 1. A L D E R B U C K T H O R N 2. B E L L F L O W E R 3. H O R S E T A I L 4. C L U B M O S S 5. C R A B A P P L E 6. V A L E R I A N 7. W O O D F O R G E T M E N O T 8. N O D D I N G A V E N S 9. C O M F R E Y 10. W I L D T H Y M E 11. H A W T H O R N 12. O X L I P 13. D O G R O S E 14. S C O T C H B R O O M 15. P E P P E R M I N T 16. S N O W D R O P 17. R A M S O N S 18. M I S T L E T O E 19. H A I R M O S S 20. S E S S I L E O A K 21. B U C K B E A N Term: CLASPLEAF TWISTEDSTALK – liczydło górskie

Polish equivalents: 1. kruszyna pospolita 2. dzwonek 3. skrzyp 4. widłak 5. dzika jabłoń 6. kozłek lekarski 7. niezapominajka leśna 8. kuklik zwisły 9. żywokost 10. macierzanka piaskowa 11. głóg 12. pierwiosnek wyniosły 13. róża dzika /szypszyna 14. żarnowiec miotlasty 15. mięta pieprzowa 16. śnieżyczka przebiśnieg 17. czosnek niedźwiedzi 18. jemioła 1 9. płonnik pospolity 20. dąb bezszypułkowy 21. bobrek trójlistkowy

EX. XII 1I 2E 3K 4G 5D 6J 7C 8B 9F 10A 11H

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 149 26.11.2020 18:10:02 EX. XIII 1. pine 2. elm 3. fir 4. ash 5. elder 6. lime 7. oak 8. fir 9. elm 10. lime 11. ash

EX. XIV 1. angular Solomon’s seal – kokoryczka wonna 2. common violet – fiołek wonny 3. wood sorrel – szczawik zajęczy 4.asarabacca – kopytnik pospolity 5. ramsons – czosnek niedźwiedzi 6. common hepatica /liverleaf – przylaszczka pospolita 7. sweet flag – tatarak zwyczajny 8. willow gentian – goryczka trojeściwa 9. snowdrop – śnieżyczka przebiśnieg 10. herb Robert – bodziszek cuchnący

EX. XV 1. compound, petiolated, sessile 2. tracheid, vessel, spiral lignin 3. ovary, stigma, style 4. shadebearing, sun-demanding, shade intolerant 5. bud, scion, rootstock 6. serrate, lobed, entire 7. stump sprout, root sucker, shoot cutting 8. sieve tube, sieve plate, companion cell 9. insect pollination, pollinator, flower 10. uprooted, blowdown, wind-broken 11. apex, internode, stem 12. fir, larch, spruce 13. gamete, fertilisation, dioecy 14. felled tree, uprooted tree, down tree 15. hazel, cranberry, raspberry 16. black locust, black cherry, Douglas fir 17. anemophily, entomophily, wind-pollination 18. black locust, black poplar, black alder 19. midrib, blade, petiole 20. oak, birch, hazel

EX. XVI 1G 2I 3E 4H 5B 6J 7F 8D 9C 10A

EX. XVII shrubs: guelder rose, hawthorn, dog rose, red elder, dogwood trees: hornbeam, Swiss pine, Norway maple, sessile oak, wych elm usually violet or purple flowers: bellflower, comfrey, pasque flower, fireweed, common violet ferns: bracken, deer fern, lady fern, marsh fern, male fern

EX. XVIII 1. common foxglove – naparstnica purpurowa 2. lesser periwinkle – barwinek pospolity 3. great plantain – babka zwyczajna 4. lily of the valley – konwalia majowa

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 150 26.11.2020 18:10:02 5. common bog-cotton – wełnianka wąskolistna 6. nodding avens – kuklik zwisły 7. white butterbur – lepiężnik biały 8. wild camomile – rumianek pospolity 9. wood anemone – zawilec wielkokwiatowy 10. stinging nettle – pokrzywa pospolita

EX. XIX 1. Taxonomy is the way of classifying plants according to their similarities. Plants that share the same characteristics belong to one taxonomic group called a taxon. Taxonomy is hierarchical in its nature. Principal ranks include: species, genus, family, order, class, division and kingdom. 2. Trees can be classified in many different ways taking into account -their tax onomy or their biological characteristics which provide more practical information such as wood hardness, tree longevity, growth rate, the type of root system, shade tolerance or intolerance, to mention but a few. 3. Botanical classification divides plants into two main groups: gymnosperms which have seeds not surrounded by any protective tissues and angiosperms whose seeds are enclosed by a mature ovary. 4. Gymnosperms in Poland are represented by conifers such as pine, spruce, fir, larch and Douglas fir. However, there are also other plants which belong to gymnosperms but do not produce typical cones or leaves, e.g. yew with characteristic bright red arils or ginkgo/ maidenhair tree, which does not have typical needles but fan-shaped leaves divided into two lobes. 5. Flower distribution is yet another criterion of botanical classification of plants. If one plant possesses both male and female flowers, it is called monoecious. In the case of dioecious plants there are separate male and female plants. Pine, birch or beech are the examples of monoecious plants, poplar and willow of dioecious. 6. Angiosperms are divided into monocotyledons (plants whose seeds have one cotyledon) and dicotyledons whose seeds have two cotyledons. 7. Monocotyledons have leaves with parallel venation. They encompass woody plants such as palms, as well as small herbaceous plants such as grasses. 8. Bryophytes and pteridophytes are non-flowering plants which means that they reproduce by spores and do not produce seeds. 9. Ferns, clubmosses and horsetails are the representatives of pteridophytes whereas mosses and liverworts are the examples of bryophytes. 10. Plants produce various types of flowers. There is a direct correlation between the size, shape and colour of the flower and the way pollen is transferred from a stamen to a pistil and precisely to a stigma. Insect-pollinated species produce fragrant flowers with colourful petals in order to attract pollinators whereas wind-pollinated species have inconspicuous flowers.

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 151 26.11.2020 18:10:03 11. The colour of flowers can be useful in plant identification. For instance, ramsons/ bear’s garlic, wood sorrel, common chickenweed and lily of the valley have white flowers; fireweed/ rosebay willowherb (Br.E.), common foxglove – purple; lesser periwinkle and forget me not – blue; Scotch broom, marsh marigold, St. John’s wort, greater celadine and tormentil – yellow. 12. A lot of forest plants possess medicinal properties. Wild chamomile have an- ti-inflammatory properties, peppermint helps in indigestion, mistletoe lowers blood pressure, hop is effective against insomnia and anxiety, garden angelica stimulates appetite. 13. The pedunculate oak is often confused with the sessile oak because both have lobed leaves. However, the former has leaves with very short petioles and acorns on stalks more than 5 cm long whereas the latter has almost sessile acorns and leaves with longer petioles (approximately 1.5 cm). 14. Black alder and grey alder are typical components of riparian forests. The roots of both species stabilize trees well in wet soils because they are strong and verti- cal. What is more, they can fix nitrogen from the air and in this way enrich soil with this element. 15. The black locust and linden/lime/basswood are melliferous plants. Lime is our native species whereas the black locust is alien – just like the northern red oak, Douglas fir, black cherry and eastern white pine. 16. The silver fir needles are flattened, glossy dark green with two white stripes -be neath. The bark of young trees is smooth and grey, older ones’ fissured, cones upright on the branches, disintegrate when mature leaving axis on the branch. 17. The Swiss pine / Arolla pine has needles arranged in fascicles of five whereas the Scots pine and the mountain pine have two needles in a fascicle. 18. Forest fruits can be edible, inedible or poisonous for humans. There are a lot of tasty, edible forest fruit that can be eaten raw such as wild strawberry, bilberry, cowberry, raspberry, cranberry and hazel. Fruits of other plants, e.g. belladon- na’s / the deadly nightshade’s, lily of the valley’s are poisonous. However, they are used in herbal medicine in the concentration that is safe for humans. 19. Yew foliage and bark are poisonous to people. The only non-toxic parts of a plant are arils. 20. The characteristics that are taken into account in the identification of plants by leaves are: – leaf margin, e.g. entire, lobed, serrated; – leaf shape, e.g. cordate, oval, lanceolate; – whether the leaf is simple, compound, petiolated/stalked or sessile/unstalked. 21. Stomata are small openings in the epidermis through which carbon dioxide is absorbed from the air and water transpires from the leaf. Stomata consist of two guard cells that can open and close. In this way the plant can respond to the changes in the environmental conditions.

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 152 26.11.2020 18:10:03 22. A typical leaf consists of several layers. The outer layer is called epidermis. It is covered with cuticle that prevents evaporation. Beneath epidermis there are two types of mesophyll/parenchyma – palisade and spongy. 23. Phloem and xylem are plant vascular tissues. Phloem is a living tissue and is made of sieve tubes, sieve plates and companion cells. Its main function is the distribution of products of photosynthesis from the leaves to other plant parts. Xylem is a dead tissue that transports water and nutrients from roots to the upper part of the plant. It consists of tracheids and vessels. 24. There are two main differences between sapwood and heartwood – their location and function. Sapwood lies outside heartwood, contains living cells and conducts sap. Heartwood is the inner, non-living part of the trunk/stem that provides mechanical support. 25. There are two types of plant reproduction – sexual by seeds and asexual by, for instance, stem cuttings, layering and grafting. Some trees have also the ability to produce root suckers and stump sprouts.

FORESTS

page 58 NURSERY

EX. I 1Dh 2Hd 3Jf 4Fi 5Gj 6Ag 7Ic 8Ca 9Be 10Eb

EX. II 1. bare-root 2. nutrients 3. greenhouse 4. nitrogen 5. weeds 6. heeling-in 7. nursery 8. amendments 9. outplanting 10. root pruning

EX. III 1. stump extraction 2. lifting 3. ploughing 4. heeling-in 5. site preparation 6. weeding 7. hardening-off 8. tillage 9. root pruning 10. sowing 11. prick out 12. thinnning

EX. IV types of seedlings: bare-root, containerised, plug, target fertilisers: organic, inorganic, manure, green manure, top dressing, foliar application tillage equipment: plough, harrow, cultivator, roller sowing methods: broadcasting, drilling

EX. V 1. crop rotation – płodozmian, zmianowanie 2. irrigation – nawadnianie 3. peat – torf 4. transplant shock – szok poprzesadzeniowy 5. seedling survival – przeżywalność sadzonek

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 153 26.11.2020 18:10:03 page 60 SEED TERMINOLOGY

EX. I 1T 2F – During germination the seed embryo starts to grow, the coat is split, the root and shoot appear. 3F – Seeds are viable but they do not germinate. 4T 5T 6F – During stratification seeds are subjected to low temperatures in moist environment. As a result, they germinate. 7T 8F – The maple fruit is called a samara. 9T 10T 11F – The removal of fleshy parts of fruit in order to extract seeds is called depulping. 12F – The prediction of seed crop is called seed crop forecasting. 13T 14F – Seed food storage for a seedling is called endosperm, a radicle is a first root that appears during germination. 15T

EX. II 1. cotyledon 2. drying 3. dormancy 4. unorthodox 5. testa 6. seed harvesting

EX. III 1. scarification 2. purity 3. viability 4. dormancy 5. maturity, maturation 6. germination, germinant

EX. IV 1. epigeal germination 2. orthodox seed 3. impurity 4. large-seeded species

EX. V 1.Hm/Oj/Ch/Gl/Dg 2.Kd 3.Oj/Hm/Ch/Gl/Dg 4.Mf 5.Je 6.No 7.Lk 8.En 9.Ch/Hm/Oj/Gl/Dg 10.Ac 11.Ib 12.Gl/Ch/Hm/Oj/Dg 13.Fi 14.Dg/Hm/OJ/Ch/Gl 15.Ba

EX. VI seed processing: depulping, dewinging, drying kiln, threshing, tumbling, winnowing seed morphology: testa, plumule, radicle, endosperm, embryo, cotyledon type of seeds: nutlet, pod, samara, aggregate fruit, fleshy fruit, nut, acorn, beechmast

EX. VII 1. seed count – the number of seeds per pound 2. seed maturity is the state of being mature – dojrzałość; seed maturation is the process of becoming mature – dojrzewanie 3. germinative capacity – the ability of seeds to germinate, the percentage of germinated seeds in the sample; germinative energy – the percentage of germinated seeds in the sample in given time

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 154 26.11.2020 18:10:03 page 62 FOREST ESTABLISHMENT

EX. I

horizontally: sucker – odrośl; seedling – sadzonka; outplant – wysadzać na miejsce docelowe, np. do lasu; zoochory – zoochoria, przenoszenie nasion przez zwierzęta; spacing – więźba; reforestation – odnowienie lasu; succession – sukcesja; planting – sadzenie; regeneration – odnowienie; anemochory – anemochoria, rozsiewanie nasion przez wiatr vertically: sprout – odrośl, pęd odroślowy; seed – nasiono; sowing – sianie; hydrochory – hydrochoria, rozprzestrzenianie się nasion za pomocą wody; afforestation – zalesianie; stool – żywy stary pniak, wytwarzający odrośla, dzięki którym powstaje las odroślowy, odrośla mogą też być pobierane do rozmnażania wegetatywnego jako zrazy; germinate – kiełkować; coppice – las odroślowy/niskopienny; mast – owoce, które mogą służyć za pokarm dla zwierząt

EX. II 1D 2E 3B 4A 5C

EX. III 1C – samosiew, obsiew naturalny 2E – gatunek pionierski 3B –sukcesja pierwotna 4A/D – odnowienie sztuczne 5D/A – odnowienie naturalne

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 155 26.11.2020 18:10:03 page 63 FOREST STANDS

EX. I 1a 2b 3c 4b 5a 6b 7c 8c 9c

EX. II 1G – klasa wiekowa 2L/N/J – drzewo opanowane 3N/L/J – drzewo przygłuszone 4O – zwarcie koron 5K – skład gatunkowy 6I – zagęszczenie drzewostanu (M/D – również możliwe, ale znaczenie terminu jest inne) 7B – zwarcie koron 8M – pochodzenie drzewostanu (I/D – również możliwe, ale znaczenie tych terminów jest inne) 9F – gatunek dominujący 10D - wiek drzewostanu ( M/I - również możliwe, ale znaczenie terminu jest inne) 11A – warstwa/piętro lasu (C – również możliwe, ale znaczenie terminu jest inne) 12J/L/N – drzewo panujące wg klasyfikacji Krafta 13C – dno lasu (A – również możliwe, ale znaczenie terminu jest inne) 14H – drzewostan dojrzały 15E/A – warstwa krzewów

EX. III 1. uneven-aged stand 2. single-species stand, monoculture 3. multi-storey stand

EX. IV stand origin: naturally regenerated, artificially regenerated species composition: single-species, mixed, dominant species, admixture age: even-aged, uneven-aged, age class, sapling, pole, mature tree stratification: stratum, single-storey, multi-storey

EX. V 1. single-species, even-aged, coniferous 2. single-species, even-aged, broad-leaved 3. uneven-aged, coniferous 4. uneven-aged, broad-leaved 5. mixed, uneven-aged

page 66 STAND TENDING AND FOREST TYPES

EX. I 1E 2D 3F 4B/A 5C 6A/B

EX. II 1. stand tending 2. girdling 3. release treatment 4. thinning 5. stand conversion 6. sanitation cutting

EX. III species: hardwood, softwood, coniferous, mixed, deciduous, broad-leaved ownership: private, state-owned habitat: montane, mountain, urban, riparian, carr, temperate, lowland, upland function: plantation, multiple-use forest, productive, non-productive, managed, windbreak, national park, protection forest 156

Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 156 26.11.2020 18:10:03 EX. IV 1. primeval forest – las pierwotny 2. non-productive forest – las nieprodukcyjny 3. coniferous forest – bór 4. montane forest – las górski 5. deciduous forest – las złożony z drzew zrzucających liście 6. coppice forest – las odroślowy 7. hardwood forest – las liściasty 8. mixed forest – las mieszany 9. virgin forest – las pierwotny 10. productive forest – las gospodarczy 11. broadleaf forest – las liściasty 12. private forest – las pry- watny 13. temperate forest – las strefy umiarkowanej 14. riparian forest – las łęgowy 15. state-owned forest – las państwowy 16. broad-leaved forest – las liściasty 17. softwood forest – bór 18. managed forest – las gospodarczy 19. degraded forest – las zdegradowany 20. plantation – plantacja Terms of the same meaning: primeval = virgin forest coniferous = softwood forest hardwood = broad-leaved forest productive = managed forest

EX. V 1. non-productive 2. virgin forest 3. state-owned forest 4. coniferous

page 68 TREE FELLING AND HARVESTING

EX. I 1F – They are in almost opposite directions. 2T 3F – During delimbing the tree branches are removed. 4T 5T 6F – During clear-cutting all trees in a given area are cut down at the same time. 7T 8F – Landing is a place where felled trees are loaded on a truck. Term: CHIPPING – zrębkowanie

EX. II 1. delimbing 2. logging 3. face notch 4. felling 5. topping 6. escape route 7. bunching 8.timber marking 9. topping 10. back cut

EX. III 1Fd 2Jf 3Ha 4Gi 5Bj 6Ic 7Dh 8Cg 9Ae 10Eb

EX. IV 1. OUT 2. KID 3. DUE 4. CLEAR 5.WARD 6. ALL 7. WOOD 8. AR 9. CUT 10. EXTRACT 11. DIRECT 12. BACK 13. ASH 14. YARD 15. IP 16. ELECT harvesting methods: clearcutting, shelterwood cutting, selection cutting transport to a landing: extraction, forwarding, skidding, yarding tree parts or fragments: slash, chip, bark, logging residues tree felling: undercut, fall path, felling direction, back cut, escape route

EX. V 1. logging slash/residue 2. pile of wood 3. skid trail 4. undercut 5. lumberjack

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 157 26.11.2020 18:10:03 page 70 FOREST PRODUCTS

EX. I

horizontally: parquet – parkiet; pallet – paleta; fuelwood – drewno opałowe; venison – dziczyzna; plank – deska; cardboard – karton; paper – papier; plywood – sklejka vertically: mushroom – grzyb kapeluszowy; fibreboard – płyta pilśniowa; herbs – zioła; glulam – glulam (drewno konstrukcyjne klejone warstwowo); roundwood – drewno okrągłe; rayon – sztuczny jedwab, wiskoza; charcoal – węgiel drzewny; particleboard – płyta wiórowa; timber – surowiec drzewny; veneer – fornir; chips – zrębki, Answers: 1. mushroom, herbs, venison 2. charcoal 3. fuelwood 4. paper 5. pallet 6. rayon 7. parquet, plank 8. chips 9. cardboard 10. veneer

EX. II 1. lumber, fibre, sawdust 2. resin, stake, rosehip 3. bilberry, venison, rayon 4. cranberry, essential oils, finishes 5. peeling, birch sap, charcoal

EX. III 1Dg 2Gd 3Hc 4Fh 5Bf 6Cb 7Ae 8Ea

EX. IV 1b 2b 3c 4a 5c 6a 7b

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 158 26.11.2020 18:10:04 page 72 WOOD DEFECTS

EX. I 1. open bark pocket – zakorek otwarty, closed bark pocket – zakorek zarośnięty, 2. encased knot – sęk z czarną otoczką (korą), intergrown knot – sęk zrośnięty, loose knot – sęk martwy lub wypadający 3. radial shrinkage – kurczenie promieniowe, longitudinal shrinkage – kurczenie wzdłużne 4. reaction wood – drewno reakcyjne, compression wood – drewno kompresyjne, tension wood – drewno napięciowe 5. eccentric pith – rdzeń mimośrodowy, multiple pith – wielordzenność 6. heart shake – pęknięcie rdzeniowe, ring shake – pęknięcie okrężne pełne, cup shake – pęknięcie okrężne łukowe

EX. II 1.multiple pith 2. ring shake 3. loose knot 4. open bark pocket 5. cup shake 6. eccentric pith

EX. III 1T 2T 3F – Butt swell is a deformation of trunk shape. / Blue stain is a defect of sapwood caused by fungi. 4T 5F – Damage caused by birds is called bird peck. 6F – Honeycombing are cracks that cannot be detected by looking at a tree trunk. 7T 8F – Wormholes are caused by adult insects and larvae. Term: NECROSIS

EX. IV 1Ej 2Je 3Lh 4Hc 5Kd 6Bg 7Dk 8Ib 9Gl 10Ai 11Fa 12Cf

EX.V 1. bark pocket 2. wavy grain

page 74 FOREST ACCESSORIES, TOOLS, EQUIPMENT AND CLOTHING

EX. I 1F – siekiera 2I – kamizelka odblaskowa 3H – klupa/średnicomierz 4J – obracak 5C – drzewołazy 6A – kostur 7D – koromierz 8B – kask 9E – drabina 10G – skider

EX. II 1b 2c 3a 4c 5b 6a

EX. III 1. spud 2. increment borer 3. rosser 4. planting bar 5. visor 6. soil probe 7. Pulaski 8. fire swatter 9. ear muffs 10. lumber crayons

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 159 26.11.2020 18:10:04 EX. IV 1Df 2Eb 3Gd 4Bg 5Fa 6Ac 7Ce

EX. V 1a 2c 3b 4c

page 76 FOREST MEASUREMENTS

EX. I 1B 2C 3A

EX. II 1. CAI = current annual increment – przyrost bieżący roczny 2. DIB = diameter inside bark – średnica bez kory 3. DOB = diameter outside bark – średnica z korą 4. MAI = mean annual increment – przeciętny przyrost roczny 5. DBH = diameter at breast height – pierśnica 6. PAI = periodic annual increment – przyrost bieżący okresowy

EX. III 1. circumference 2. diameter 3. radius 4. diameter inside bark

EX. IV 1Fc 2Jf 3Hi 4Bd 5Gj 6Ih 7Db 8Ag 9Ce 10Ea

EX. V Proszę zwrócić uwagę na inny zapis wzorów w krajach anglosaskich! A. 1. Smalian’s 2. cubic volume 3. cross-sectional area at the other end B. 1. Huber’s 2. middle cross-sectional area C. 1. Newton’s 2. cross-sectional area at one end

EX.VI 1. cubic volume /volume 2. middle cross-sectional area 3. Smalian’s formula

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 160 26.11.2020 18:10:04 page 78 ECOLOGY

EX. I 1 2

P P R 3 A E H R 4 P R O D U C E R A R A R S E T B I Y O I T 5 C A R N I V O R E 6 7 O H C R 8 D E C O M P O S E R T N 9 A M E N S A L I S M R U 10 C O M M E N S A L I S M T E 11 R R M O U 12 C O M P E T I T I O N H U A L I S M

EX. II 1Nd 2Kf 3Jm 4Oj 5Io 6Mn 7Bh 8Di 9Gc 10El 11Ab 12Hk 13Fa 14Ce 15Lg

EX. III algae bloom, effluent, extinction, desertification

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 161 26.11.2020 18:10:04 EX. IV 1. alkalinity 2. diverse 3. acidity 4. environmental 5. pollution 6. migratory 7. heterotroph, heterotrophy 8. invasive 9. biodegradation 10. extinct 11. toxicity 12. symbiotic 13. fertility 14. edaphic 15. ecology

EX. V 1. invasive species 2. migratory birds 3. biodegradation 4. heterotroph/ heterotrophic organism 5. extinct animals 6. soil fertility 7. edaphic organisms /edaphone 8. pesticide toxicity 9. soil acidity 10. biodiversity

EX. VI positive: renewable sources of energy, conservation, bioremediation, reclamation, respiration Answers: 1. leaching 2. reclamation

EX. VII 1. terrestrial 2. anaerobe 3. marine 4. lotic 5. heterotrophic 6. non-renewable 7. consumer 8. alkalinity 9. indigenous 10. deforestation

EX. VIII SOIL: salinity, porosity, erosion, fertility TEMPERATURE: fluctuations, inversion, range POPULATION: density, distribution, dynamics noise, water, air, thermal: POLLUTION OZONE: hole, layer invasive, alien, pioneer, indicator: SPECIES

EX. IX 1T 2T 3F – Ecotone is a transitional area between two biocenoses. 4F – Nitrifica- tion is a natural process during which ammonia is converted into nitrates by bacteria called nitrifiers. 5T 6F – ‘Palustrine’ means the same as boggy. 7T

page 82 REVISION

EX. I 1. manure, green manure, nutrients 2. plumule, testa, embryo 3. thinning, brashing, interplanting 4. succession, afforestation, coppicing 5. producer, decomposer, consumer 6. bare-root, containerised, plug 7. effluent, sewage, contamination 8. canopy, understorey, litter 9. pedology, parent rock, water-holding capacity

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 162 26.11.2020 18:10:04 10. lifting, hardening-off, outplanting 11. tumbling, threshing, depulping 12. ploughing, harrowing, stump extraction 13. anemochory, zoochory, hydrochory 14. carr, riparian, managed 15. cotyledon, radicle, stem 16. cryopreservation, long-term, short-term 17. predation, parasitism, symbiosis 18. samara, pod, nutlet 19. recalcitrant, fleshy, orthodox

EX. II 1c 2b 3a 4c 5a 6b 7c 8c

EX. III 1a 2c 3a 4c 5b 6a 7c 8b 9c 10a

EX. IV 1. Christmas tree 2. railway sleepers 3. bay bolete 4. wood wool 5. plank 6. chanterelle 7. rosehip 8. herb 9. seasonal greenery 10. honey fungus 11. wild strawberry 12. charcoal

EX. V 1. log 2. taproot 3. seedling 4. branch 5. forest 6. seed 7. acorn 8. pole 9. forest 10. logging debris 11. sawnwood 12. hard hat 13. log 14. hookeroon 15. chainsaw 16. ladder 17. planting bar 18. plank 19. nut 20. harrow

EX. VI 1E – growing season 2G – green manure 3I – lifting 4C – hardening-off 5H – nursery/planting stock 6A – target seedling 7D – drilling 8F – fence 9B – delimbing

EX. VII 1. the same species 2. all species 3. biotic and abiotic 4. individuals 5. scattered 6. evenly-spaced, grow or live in groups, haphazard 7. size, natality, mortality 8. births/natality, immigration, deaths/mortality, emigration 9. carrying capacity, limited number of individuals

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 163 26.11.2020 18:10:04 EX.VIII water: surface runoff, hydrological cycle, groundwater pollution: contamination, pollutant, toxicity weather: precipitation, gale, shower soil: salinity, subsoil, aggregates

EX. IX 1. lumberjack 2. merchantable timber 3. pin knot 4. seedling lifting 5. afforestation

EX. X 1. Nurseries are often established on recently logged sites because forest soils contain mycorrhizal fungi and surrounding trees create favourable condition for the growth of young plants protecting them from strong winds and considerable temperature fluctuations. 2. The site for a nursery should be adequately prepared – stumps should be extracted, logging debris/residues, weeds and remaining plants removed, soil tilled. Typical tillage encompass ploughing, harrowing and fertiliser application. 3. Nursery stock / planting stock includes bare-root seedlings and containerised ones. The former grow outdoors whereas the latter are grown in greenhouses and tunnels. Such seedlings have to be hardened off in order to adapt to harsher outdoor conditions. 4. In nurseries seedling roots are undercut in order to stimulate the development of a bushy, compact root system. 5. Inoculation with mycorrhizal fungi increases the survival rate of seedlings. 6. Seedlings are lifted when they are dormant. During lifting, transporting and storing roots should be protected from drying out /dessication. 7. The seed is made of testa/seed coat, endosperm and embryo which consists of a plumule and radicle. 8. Seeds that withstand frost and dessication without the viability loss are called orthodox. Those that are difficult to store and germinate straightaway after maturation are known as recalcitrant/unorthodox. As a result of freezing and drying, unorthodox seeds lose their viability. 9. Stratification means subjecting dormant seeds to low temperatures in moist environment in order to soften the seed coat /testa and remove growth inhibitors. 10. Large-seeded species such as oak and beech produce seeds in lengthier intervals in comparison to small-seeded species such as poplar or maple.

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 164 26.11.2020 18:10:04 11. In practice seed collection in forestry means harvesting cones and various types of fruit such as hazelnuts, pods, samaras, acorns or fleshy rowan fruit. Next, seeds are extracted (from fruit) by threshing, drying, depulping or tumbling. 12. There are four basic terms that refer to forest establishment: a. reforestation – when trees start to grow on a site where a forest existed before; b. afforestation – the creation of forest on wastelands, farmlands; c. natural regeneration – a forest regenerates naturally by seed dispersal; d. artificial regeneration which is mainly based on the production of nursery stock which is later outplanted. 13. Forest stands differ in age, origin, species composition and stratification. As far as age is concerned /Taking into account tree age, there are even-aged and uneven- -aged stands. Origin refers to the establishment process whether the stand is regenerated artificially or naturally. Species composition provides information about dominant species and an admixture, whether the stand is single-species or mixed-species. Stratification refers to the number of tree layers/strata from the forest floor to the tree tops. 14. Forests consist of several layers. The lowest one is litter that covers the soil. Next, there are plants of the forest floor, shrubs and saplings. Crowns of the tallest trees form a canopy. 15. In the forest one can observe different types of trees. Some of them are snags, others are broken or uprooted. Some trees are suppressed while others are overtopping. 16. The main goal of stand tending is the modification of vegetation in such a way that favourable conditions for desirable trees are created which, in turn, increases wood production and its quality. The basic stand tending treatments include: brushing, thinning and sanitation cutting. 17. Riparian forests grow on wet sites along rivers and streams. 18. Polish forests are temperate forests. The dominant species is pine that often forms monocultures. In Poland, apart from coniferous forests, there are broad- -leaved and mixed forests. The majority of Polish forests is state-owned. 19. The preparation for tree felling focuses on the choice of proper equipment and safety. Loggers should wear protective clothing (work boots, gloves, glasses, ear muffs / hearing protection, high visibility vests / hi vi vest or overalls). 20. Individual trees can be cut down with a chainsaw. Other useful tools include a wedge, axe, hookaroon and cant hook. 21. The logger first chooses the felling direction, removes vegetation around the tree and on the escape route. Next, he makes the face notch /undercut and back cut leaving a hinge. When the tree starts to fall he uses the escape route to retreat. 22. There are several methods of tree harvesting. However, all of them consist of felling, delimbing, topping and bucking.

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 165 26.11.2020 18:10:04 23. Extraction is a general term that means the transfer of timber from the harvesting area/ stump area to a forest road and later to the roadside landing. Extraction types include: skidding, forwarding and yarding. 24. Branches, tree tops and other logging residues/debris are usually left in the forest to decompose. 25. Harvesting systems differ in the cutting interval and the number of trees that are cut down at the same time. In clearcutting all trees are felled in a given area. The shelterwood cutting is based on the selection of seed trees that are left on a logged site.Young trees grow under the canopy of older ones. The selection method means logging individual trees and therefore is time-consuming, labour- intensive and requires the use of small equipment. 26. Forest products can be divided into timber forest products and non-timber forest products. The latter can be of plant or animal origin, e.g. venison. 27. Non-timber forest products encompass herbs, bark, resin, Christmas trees, edible plants and mushrooms such as the king bolete, the bay bolete, slippery Jack and chanterelle mushrooms. 28. Roundwood, sawnwood and veneer are typical timber forest products. 29. There are a lot of products that can be manufactured from wood such as rayon (a textile made from cellulose), wood-based panels (plywood, fibreboard, particleboard), paper, cardboard, charcoal, to mention but a few. 30. Wood defects lower its commercial value/ the commercial value of wood. The number of defects and their distribution determine the quality of wood. 31. Wood defects can be formed during the growth of the tree, e.g. knots, reaction wood, resin pitches, irregular trunk form, or as a result of seasoning, e.g. honeycombing, warping in the form of cupping, twisting or bowing. 32. Tapered timber/stem, butt swell, flutes, ovality, crookedness/curvature are typical trunk form defects. 33. Wood defects can be divided into several categories: irregularity of trunk form, knots, fissures, defects due to mechanical damage, foreign bodies, wood structure defects, e.g. bark pockets, multiple pith, grain slope, necrosis. 34. The most common wood defects are knots. They can be divided into several categories according to: a. health condition, e.g. sound, decayed, unsound; b. distribution, e.g. single, knot clusters; c. size, e.g. pin knots; d. how much it is fused with the surrounding wood, e.g.: intergrown knot, loose knot. 35. Wood defects can be also caused by: fungi, e.g. stains, wood decay; insects, e.g. wormholes; birds and mammals, e.g. deer that destroy bark.

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 166 26.11.2020 18:10:04 36. Wood shakes have various shapes and encompass different parts of wood. There are shakes that go from the pith onwards, e.g. fork shake, simple heart shake and star heart shake and others that cause separation of wood fibres along annual rings, e.g. cup shake, ring shake. 37. A fire swatter and fire rake are useful tools in fighting forest fires. 38. Trees can be planted with a hoedad or a planting bar. 39. The caliper is used for measuring a tree diameter, the bark gauge for establish- ing the bark thickness and the increment borer provides information about the age of a tree and its increment. 40. Basic data that concern the size of the tree are: height, circumference/girth and diameter at breast height /dbh/DBH. 41. Volume is calculated in cubic meters. 42. Ecology studies the interaction between living organisms and their biotic and abiotic environment. Ecological relationships influence the structure, size and distribution of populations. 43. The increase and decrease in the size of population is determined by natality, mortality, immigration and emigration, carrying capacity as well as predation, parasitism, competition for resources, to name but a few. 44. The food chain, or more precisely a food web, describes feeding relationships within ecosystems. Autotrophic organisms are producers, heterotrophic – consumers. Herbivores are primary consumers whereas carnivores are secondary consumers. Detritivores/Decomposers feed on dead organic matter decompos- ing animal and plant tissues. 45. The hydrological cycle is influenced by precipitation, evaporation, soil, ocean and lake retention, water transportation in rivers and streams as well as surface runoff. 46. There are two types of aquatic ecosystems – freshwater and marine. Freshwater ecosystem can be divided into lentic (lakes, ponds, bogs) and lotic (streams, rivers, springs).

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 167 26.11.2020 18:10:04 FOREST THREATS AND PROTECTION

page 96 TREE DAMAGE

EX. I 1. G A M E 2. A M M O N I A 3. M I S T L E T O E 4. C H L O R O S I S 5. C A T E R P I L L A R 6. F L O O D 7. S U L P H U R D I O X I D E 8. F L U O R I N E 9. N I T R O G E N D I O X I D E 10 P E S T 11 C O N T A M I N A N T 12 F I R E 13. A V A L A N C H E 14 F U N G I 15 G A L E 16 I N S E C T S 17 P A T H O G E N 18 D R O U G H T 19 V I R U S 20 A R S O N Term: ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS – czynniki antropogeniczne

EX. II 1. pathogenic 2. bacterial 3. viral 4. larval 5. fungal 6. necrotic 7. toxic 8. flammable 9. hazardous 10. parasitic

EX. III 1Ef 2Hg 3Jl 4Mj 5Kn 6Oh/Cd 7Lm 8Nc/Ia 9Bk 10Di 11Gb 12Ao 13Fe 14Ia/Nc 15Cd/Oh

EX. IV 1. folivores 2. witches’ broom 3. bleeding 4. foliage 5. feeders

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 168 26.11.2020 18:10:04 page 98 FUNGI

EX. I

horizontally: mycelium – grzybnia; cap – kapelusz; puffball – purchawka; gill – blaszka; stalk – trzon, nóżka; ring – pierścień (u grzybów kapeluszowych); sporula- tion – rozmnażanie się za pomocą zarodników; smuts – głownie; mushroom – grzyb kapeluszowy; tube – rurka; conidophore – konidiofor; septum – septa; mould – pleśń vertically: saprobe – saprofit; basidiocarp – bazydiokarp, owocnik podstawczaka; fungus – grzyb; hypha – strzępka; ascus – worek (u workowców); mycorrhiza – mikoryza; rust – rdza; toadstool – muchomor; spore – zarodnik; glycogen – gliko- gen; budding – pączkowanie; annulus – pierścień (u grzybów kapeluszowych)

EX. II MYCORRHIZA: ectotrophic, endotrophic, vesicular-arbuscular FUNGI: sac, shelf, conjugation MOULD: water, grey PATHOGEN: plant, fungal

EX. III 1a 2b 3c 4b 5c 6a 7b 8c 9c 10b

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 169 26.11.2020 18:10:05 page 100 INSECT PESTS

EX. I 1. brown spruce longhorn beetle – ściga żółta/matowa/ćmawa (Tetropium fuscum) 2. white satin moth – białka wierzbówka (Leucoma salicis) 3. black spruce beetle – ściga lśniąca (Tetropium castaneum) 4. green oak tortrix – zwójka zieloneczka (Tortrix viridana) 5. brown-tail moth – kuprówka rudnica (Euproctis chrysorrhoea) 6. grey pine weevil – choinek szary (Brachyderes incanus) 7. silver fir bark beetle – jodłowiec krzywozębny Pityokteines( curvidens)

EX.II 1. buds and needles 2. turnip moth – rolnica zbożówka 3. European mole cricket – turkuć podjadek 4. large pine weevil – szeliniak sosnowy 5. sand weevil – sieciech niegłębek 6. butterfly 7. different 8. European pine sawfly – borecznik rudy 9. Geometridae – miernikowcowate 10. needles

EX.III 1Eh 2G 3Dg 4He 5Ca 6Jc 7Bi 8Ib 9Af 10Fj

EX.IV 1. elm bark beetle (Scolytus scolytus) – ogłodek wiązowiec 2. nun moth (Lymantria monacha) – brudnica mniszka 3. strawberry root weevil (Otiorhynchus ovatus) – kluk owalny 4. pine beauty (Panolis flammea) – strzygonia choinówka 5. spruce cone worm (Dioryctria abietella) – szyszeń pospolity

page 102 FOREST FIRES

EX.I 1H 2G 3F 4J 5B 6I 7D 8E 9C 10A

EX.II 1. flame, flammability 2. ignition 3. humidity 4. prevention 5. suppression

EX. III and IV 1. arsonist 2. incendiary fire 3. torching 4. coarse fuels 5. ignition temperature 6. fireproof

EX. V 1T 2F – A blind area is a terrain that is not visible due to fire smoke. 3T 4F – Smoldering fire is a fire without flame but a lot of smoke. 5T 6T 7F – Long, narrow fragments of fire that originate from its centre are called fingers of a fire. 8F – It is called a helitack. 9T 10F – Combustible materials burn easily. Term: COMBUSTION – spalanie

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 170 26.11.2020 18:10:05 EX. VI 1C/E/A 2F 3E/C/A 4B 5A/C/E 6D

EX. VII 1. crown fire 2. dead fuels 3. fire detection 4. fire suppressant 5. fire prevention 6. ground fuel 7. residual smoke 8. mass fire 9. wind direction

page 104 FOREST PROTECTION

EX.I 1. P A R A S I T E 2. A C A R I C I D E 3. F U N G I C I D E 4. P R E D A T O R Y 5. B A C T E R I O P H A G E 6. P H E R O M O N E T R A P 7. B E N E F I C I A L 8. D I S I N F E C T A N T 9. R E S I S T A N C E 10. T R A P T R E E 11. P A T H O G E N 12. A T T R A C T A N T 13. S E E D T R E A T M E N T 14. I N F E S T A T I O N 15. C R O P H Y G I E N E 16. E N T O M O P H A G E 17. R E P E L L E N T 18. O V I C I D E Term: TREATMENT THRESHOLD – zagęszczenie populacji szkodnika lub rozmiar uszkodzeń, przy których zaczyna się walkę ze szkodnikiem

EX. II 1. chemical pest control 2. host colonisation 3. microbial control 4. integrated pest management 5. pesticide application 6. seed treatment 7. latent period / incubation period 8. natural enemy 9. pesticide concentration 10. biological control

EX. III 1. susceptible 2. attractant 3. ectoparasite 4. chemical control

EX. IV 1. attractant 2. repellent 3. disinfectant 4. infestation 5. incubation 6. resistance 7. susceptibility

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 171 26.11.2020 18:10:05 page 106 REVISION

EX. I 1. acorn weevil, spruce cone worm 2. mistletoe, great dodder 3. caterpillar, grub, larva 4. skeletonising, galls, wormholes 5. poroid, gill, inedible 6. forest cockchafer, turnip moth, European mole cricket 7. helitack, fire suppression, control line 8. cap, stalk, annulus, volva 9. brush, crown, creeping, forest 10. beneficial, predatory, pest 11. ladder, aerial, dead, coarse 12. gypsy moth, winter moth 13. flanks, fingers, head 14. trap tree, fungicide, natural enemy, biological control 15. avalanche, fire, drought 16. death cup, gill, mould, hypha, mycellium 17. fuels, smoke, flame, combustion 18. pest outbreak, pathogens, fungal diseases, insect pests 19. foliar application, selective, translocated, broad-spectrum

EX. II 1. bacteria 2. larvae 3. fungi 4. necroses 5. conidia 6. gametangia 7. hyphae 8. sporangia 9. basidia 10. mycorrhizae

EX. III acorn, large pine, sand: WEEVIL brown-tail, gypsy, winter: MOTH alder leaf, great capricorn, timberman: BEETLE pine, summer: CHAFER weevil: acorn … – słonik żołędziowiec, large pine … – szeliniak sosnowy, sand … – sieciech niegłębek moth: brown-tail … – kuprówka rudnica, gypsy … – brudnica nieparka, winter … – piędzik przedzimek beetle: alder leaf … – hurmak olchowiec, great capricorn … – kozioróg dębosz, timberman … – tycz cieśla chafer: pine … – wałkacz lipczyk, summer … – guniak czerwczyk

EX. IV 1Di 2Gc 3Jn 4Ld 5Na 6Mg 7Kl 8Ek 9Bf 10Aj 11Ib 12Ch 13Fm 14He

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 172 26.11.2020 18:10:05 EX. V 1. Tree damage is caused by abiotic factors such as drought, gale, rime, frost or considerable temperature fluctuations; biotic ones (viruses, bacteria, fungi, insects and other animals) and anthropogenic, e.g. air pollution, arson. 2. Damage caused by weather conditions include the ones caused by: a. frost, e.g. frost cracks, frost ribs as well as frost heaving that damages seedlings; b. wind, e.g. windthrow; c. high temperature, e.g. sunscald. 3. Insects constitute the most numerous group of forest pests. They damage various plant parts: – root feeders/root-feeding insects such as forest cockchafer, feed on roots, – seed-destroying insects, e.g. spruce cone worm, acorn weevil on seeds, – xylophages on wood, e.g. large timber worm beetle; – cambiophages on cambium and phloem, e.g. bark beetles; – defoliators/folivores/defoliating/leaf-feeding insects feed on leaves, e.g. nun moth. Other insect pests that damage leaves include skeletonizers, leaf miners and leaf rollers. 4. Soil contamination, air and water pollution affect the whole ecosystem by weakening or sometimes killing animals and plants. The most common air pollutants include: sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, fluorine and hydrogen fluoride. Hazardous waste, fertiliser leaching, heavy metals such as lead, mercury pose a grave threat to soil and water ecosystems. 5. The most common plant damaging factors are larvae, e.g. caterpillars and grubs because this insect developmental stage is extremely voracious. Insect plant damage include, for instance, galls, skeletonising and wormholes. Trees and seedlings are also damaged by other animals such as nematodes, birds, rodents and the deer family. 6. Fungi play various roles in a forest ecosystem. On the one hand, they cause diseases or wood decay, on the other, they form a symbiotic relationship with tree roots known as mycorrhiza. 7. There are four main divisions/phyla of fungi: water moulds/ egg fungi, conjugation fungi/ zygospore-forming fungi, club fungi and imperfect fungi. 8. Fungi reproduce by spores, fragmentation of hyphae, fission and budding. 9. Many species of club fungi are edible, e.g. the king bolete, the bay bolete, others are poisonous, e.g. the death cap. Some club fungi such as rusts and smuts cause plant diseases. 10. A lichen is an organism that consists of sac or club fungi that are in a symbiotic relationship with algae. 11. A mycelium consists of hyphae, the mushroom fruiting body of a cup, stem, ring/annulus and volva. The underside of a cap may have different shapes and forms, for instance, gills – gill fungi, pores – poroid fungi.

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 173 26.11.2020 18:10:05 12. The large pine weevil is a beetle that prefers walking to flying. Adults destroy seedling bark, larvae pine and spruce roots. Females lay eggs in the soil on roots. 13. The winter moths mate in late autumn. Females lay eggs which overwinter. Caterpillars that are light green with white stripes at the sides appear in April and feed on leaves. 14. Pine beauty, pine tree lappet, nun moth, pine looper, pine false webworm and pine sawfly are primary pests of pine stands. 15. Forest fuels can be divided according to: a. their size (coarse fuels, fine fuels); b. the speed they catch fire, e.g. flash fuels; c. their location (ground fuels, aerial fuels, ladder fuels); d. the content of dead or live tissues (dead and live fuels).

ANIMALS

page 112 INSECT CLASSIFICATION

EX. I 1F – Lepidopterans include moths and butterflies. 2T 3F – Hoverflies are beneficial insects. 4F – Ship timber beetles are wood-destroying insects. 5T 6F – Aphids are sap sucking, soft-bodied insect pests that produce honeydew. 7T 8F – Tortricid moths are pests. 9T Hidden term: LACEWINGS – złotookowate

EX. II clear-wing, sphinx, tussock, lappet: MOTHS membrane-winged, net-winged: INSECTS dobson, true: FLIES click, ground, lady, snout: BEETLES moths: clear-wing … – przeziernikowate, sphinx … – zawisakowate, tussock … – brudnicowate, lappet … – barczatkowate insects: membrane-winged … – błonkówki, net-winged … – siatkoskrzydłe flies:dobson… – wielkoskrzydłe, true … – muchówki beetles: click … – sprężykowate, ground … – biegaczowate

EX. III 1. eggars 2. fishflies 3. snout beetles 4. flower flies 5. hawk moths 6. lepidopterans

EX. IV 1. aphids 2. lady beetles 3. hoverflies 4. lacewings 5. weevils/ snout beetles 6. longhorn beetles 7. butterflies 8. geometrid moths

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 174 26.11.2020 18:10:05 page 114 ANIMAL CLASSIFICATION AND TYPES

EX.I 1a 2c 3b 4c 5b 6a 7c 8b 9a

EX.II 1. annelid 2. arachnid 3. even-toed 4. rodent 5. amphibian 6. odd-toed animal 7. ruminant/ even-toed animal 8. gastropod

page 116 ANIMAL SPECIES: ANNELIDS, FLAT WORMS, ARACHNIDS, REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS

EX. I and II grass, smooth: SNAKE Carpathian, great crested: NEWT grass, marsh: FROG fire-bellied, natterjack: TOAD sand, viviparous: LIZARD slow, earth: WORM snake: grass …. – zaskroniec, smooth … – gniewosz plamisty newt: Carpathian … – traszka karpacka, great crested … – traszka grzebieniasta frog: grass … – żaba trawna, marsh … – żaba śmieszka toad: fire-bellied … – kumak nizinny, natterjack … – ropucha paskówka lizard: sand … – jaszczurka zwinka, viviparous … – jaszczurka żyworodna worm: slow … – padalec zwyczajny, earth… – dżdżownica

EX. III 1H – padalec zwyczajny 2F – żmija zygzakowata 3G – kumak gorski 4A – kleszcze 5C – wąż Eskulapa 6B – tasiemiec bąblowiec 7E – traszka karpacka 8D – salamandra plamista

page 117 BIRD SPECIES

EX. I 1Dh/Ci 2Fc 3Id 4Bj 5Jf 6Ga 7Ci/Dh 8Ab 9Eg 10He

EX. II 1.long-eared owl 2. grey heron 3. grey partridge 4. common kingfisher 5. mistle thrush 6. Eurasian nuthatch 7. winter wren 8. willow warbler 9. blue tit

EX. III 1. black stork – bocian czarny 2. collared flycatcher – muchołówka białoszyja 3. Eurasian bittern – bąk zwyczajny 4. European nightjar – lelek kozodój 5. long-tailed tit – raniuszek 6. red crossbill – krzyżodziób świerkowy

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 175 26.11.2020 18:10:05 EX. IV 1. western capercaillie – głuszec 2. hoopoe – dudek 3. white stork – bocian biały 4. red crossbill – krzyżodziób świerkowy 5. grey partridge – kuropatwa 6. great-spotted woodpecker – dzięcioł duży 7. Eurasian treecreeper – pełzacz leśny 8. common crane – żuraw zwyczajny 9. northern goshawk – jastrząb zwyczajny 10. common goldeneye – gągoł 11. common snipe – kszyk 12. little owl – pójdźka

page 120 MAMMAL SPECIES

EX. I 1b 2a 3c 4a 5c 6b 7c 8b 9c

EX. II 1. roe deer 2. lynx 3. mole 4. chamois 5. ermine 6. pine marten 7. roe deer 8. alpine marmot 9. hazel dormouse 10. common noctule

EX. III and IV pygmy, lesser white-toothed: SHREW bank, common: VOLE brown long-eared, Daubenton’s: BAT giant, lesser: NOCTULE forest, garden: DORMOUSE fallow, sika: DEER shrew: pygmy … – ryjówka malutka, lesser white-toothed … – zębiełek karliczek vole: bank … – nornica ruda, common … – nornik zwyczajny bat: brown long-eared … – gacek brunatny, Daubenton’s … – nocek rudy noctule: giant … – borowiec olbrzymi, lesser … – borowiaczek dormouse: forest … – koszatka, garden … – żołędnica deer: fallow … – daniel, sika … – jeleń wschodni, sika

EX. V 1. alpine marmot: 13–18 cm, European rabbit: 4–8 cm 2. wood mouse: 9 cm, west European hedgehog: 3 cm 3. wild boar: 15–20 cm, chamois: 5–8 cm 4. fallow deer: 15–20 cm, roe deer: 2–3 cm 5. Norway rat: 20 cm, European pine vole: 3,5 cm 6. raccoon dog: 20–40 cm, least weasel: 3–7 cm

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 176 26.11.2020 18:10:05 page 122 INSECT ANATOMY

EX.I

horizontally: abdomen – odwłok, ocellus – przyoczko, labrum – warga górna, trochanter – krętarz, labium – warga dolna, ovipositor – pokładełko, forewing – skrzydło przednie vertically: mesothorax – śródtułowie, hindleg – noga tylna, antenna – czułek, sting – żądło, tarsus – stopa, mouthpart – aparat gębowy, head – głowa, metathorax – zatułowie, elytron – pokrywa, coxa – biodro, prothorax – przedtułowie

EX.II 1T 2F – A haustellate mouthpart is used for sucking. 3T 4F – A pedicel is a part of antenna. 5F – A thorax has three parts: prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax. 6T 7F – An appendage refers to a structure attached to the main part of animal body or its head, e.g. leg, tail, antenna. 8T Term: MANDIBLE – żuwaczka

EX. III 1. antennae 2. coxae 3. elytra 4. maxille 5. probosces 6. protothoraces 7. rostra 8. femora

page 123 ANATOMY OF MAMMALS, BIRDS, REPTILES, AMPHIBIANS, ARACHNIDS and MOLLUSCS

EX. I 1. antlers 2. tooth 3. talons 4.circulatory system 5. scales 6. whiskers 7. bill 8. geese 9. digestive 10. pinnae

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 177 26.11.2020 18:10:06 EX. II bird anatomy: down, feather, remex, beak, plumage ruminant anatomy: abomasum, reticulum, omasum, rumen snail anatomy: shell, posterior tentacle, anterior tentacle spider anatomy: pedipalps, cephalothorax, chelicerae, abdomen

EX .III 1G 2I 3A 4H 5C 6E 7B 8F 9D

page 124 ANIMAL HABITATS AND DWELLINGS

EX. I 1D 2E 3B 4A 5C

EX. II 1F 2D 3B 4G 5C 6A 7E

EX. III 1. marine 2. semiaquatic 3. subterranean 4. aquatic 5. terrestrial 6. freshwater 7. arboreal

EX. IV 1. home range 2. waterfowl 3. molehill 4. wildlife refuge

page 125 ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR AND COMMUNICATION

EX. I 1F 2H 3I 4B 5G 6C 7E 8A 9D

EX. II 1. nocturnal animals 2. resident birds 3. vespertine animals

EX. III 1E/C 2A 3D 4C/E 5B

EX. IV 1T 2F – Vespertine animals are active at dusk. 3T 4F – Philopatric birds tend to come back to a particular area or site.

page 126 ANIMAL FEEDING BEHAVIOUR

EX. I 1F – Heterotrophs cannot produce their own food therefore feed on other organisms. 2F – Omnivorous animals eat all kind of food just like polyphagous organisms. 3T 4F – A foliophage is an animal that feeds on leaves. 5T 6T Term: RAPTOR

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 178 26.11.2020 18:10:06 EX. II 1. herbivorous 2. heterotrophic 3. predatory 4. parasitic 5. polyphagous

EX. III 1. bird of prey 2. piscivorous 3. decomposer 4. ectoparasite 5. scavanger 6. carrion 7. food chain 8. predatory insects 9. ruminant

page 127 ANIMAL SEXUAL BEHAVIOUR, BREEDING HABITS AND RE- PRODUCTION

EX. I 1Gb 2Jf 3Fi/Be 4I/Ad 5Ha 6Ch 7A/Ij 8Dg 9Be/Fi 10Ec

EX. II 1. precocial 2. multivoltine 3. incomplete metamorphosis 4. polygamous 5. viviparous

EX. III 1. altrical 2. oviparous 3. precocial 4. complete metamorphosis 5. monogamous

EX. IV 1. pupation – przepoczwarzenie 2. eclosion – wylęganie, wykluwanie (larwy, owada) 3. gestation – ciąża 4. hatch – wykluwać się z jaja 5. parasitoid – parazytoid 5. estrous cycle – cykl rujowy, miesiączkowy mammals: gestation, estrous cycle insects: pupation, eclosion, hatch, parasitoid

page 128 MALES, FEMALES, THE YOUNG AND THEIR GROUPS

EX. I males: boar, buck, drake, cock, stag females: hind, jill, doe, vixen, bitch, sow young animals: eyas, fawn, fledgling, tadpole, cub groups of animals: brood, herd, litter, pack

EX. II 1. hind 2. buck 3. herd 4. tadpole 5. eyas 6. drake 7. brood 8. vixen 9. drone 10. litter 11. jill 12. pack

EX. III 1C 2F 3D 4B 5A 6E

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 179 26.11.2020 18:10:06 page 129 HUNTING

EX. I 1c 2a 3b 4c 5b 6c

EX. II 1Dc 2F/Ji 3Aj 4Hg 5J/Fd 6Cf 7B/Ea 8I/Gb 9G/Ie 10E/Bh

page 130 REVISION

EX. I 1. ungulates 2. odd-toed 3. even-toed 4. ruminants 5. cold-blooded 6. scales 7. oviparous 8. viviparous 9. grubs 10. elytra 11. insect pests 12. ladybirds/ladybugs/ lady beetles 13. aphids 14. raptor 15. talons 16. moths 17. nocturnal 18.diurnal 19. caterpillar 20. chrysalis

EX. II 1. invertebrates 2. warm-blooded 3. hindwing 4. ventral 5. apterous 6. anterior 7. compound eye

EX. III 1. bloodhound, retriever, scent hound 2. burrow, den, lair 3. eggars, weevils, proturans 4. oesophagus, liver, pancreas, intestine, stomach 5. peregrine falcon, northern goshawk, white-tailed eagle 6. producers, consumers, decomposers 7. toad, newt, salamander 8. pedicel, flagellum, scape 9. hibernation, thanatosis, diapause 10. tit, starling, robin 11. mandible, ocellus, trochanter, tibia 12. predation, monophagy, parasitism 13. noctule, mole, pipistrelle 14. bullet, muzzle, cartridge, rifle 15. tufted ears, paws, whiskers 16. turtle, adder, lizard, slow worm 17. nostrils, throat, lungs 18. game, quarry 19. hoof, velvet, antlers

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 180 26.11.2020 18:10:06 EX.IV 1

2 L Y N X

A 3

K C

4 B E A V E R

E I 6

5 B A T C H 8

R 7 C U C K O O O

E V W 10

11 13 9 B U T T E R F L Y S C 12 A N T R T

H A F O

14 H A R E P 16 15 B L A C K B I R D

M E M I K

17 F O X 18 W O O D P E C K E R

I O L S

19 S Q U I R R E L

EX. V 1T 2F - Insects have compound eyes. 3T 4F – The stork or eagle nests are called platforms. 5T 6T 7F – Some reptiles slough from eggs. 8F – Birds of prey build aeries. 9T 10F – A leveret is a young hare. 11T 12T Term: YELLOWHAMMER – trznadel (Emberiza citrinella)

EX. VI open season, courtship dance, hunting dogs, primary consumer, fallow deer, arboreal animals, digestive system, webbed feet, subordinate males, resident birds Terms that refer to hunting: fallow deer, hunting dogs, open season

EX. VII benevolent – vole, molecular – mole, briefly – fly, bee chmast – bee, Newton – newt, Timothy – moth, lipstick – tick, knowledge – owl, competition – tit, beagle – eagle, debate – bat, emigration – rat, shareholder – hare, lottery – otter, wolfram – wolf

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 181 26.11.2020 18:10:06 insects: fly, bee, moth birds: eagle, owl, tit mammals: wolf, otter, hare, rat, bat, vole, mole arachnid: tick amphibian: newt

EX. VIII 1. dragonfly – ważka 2. starling – szpak 3. kingfisher – zimorodek

EX. IX 1. Insects are invertebrates that have three pairs of legs and a head with the antennae. They can be wingless, e.g. protrurans, or possess one pair of wings, e.g. true flies or two pairs, e.g. membrane-winged insects, lepidopterans and beetles, to mention but a few. 2. Some beetles are insect pests whereas others are beneficial, e.g. ladybirds/ ladybugs/lady beetles. The latter reduce the population of plant pests, e.g. aphids. 3. The life cycle of cockchafers consists of four developmental stages: an egg, larva known as a grub, pupa and adult. 4. Beetles have two pairs of wings. The outer wings are harder and called elytra. 5. Lepidopterans encompass moths and butterflies. The former are nocturnal whereas the latter diurnal. In contrast to moths, butterflies are colourful. Lepidopteran larva is called a caterpillar. 6. The name of the geometrid family (Geometridae) can be translated as earth- measurers because ‘geo’ in Greek means earth and ‘metron’ – measure. Geometrid caterpillars move in a peculiar way because they do not have prolegs in the middle of their body. As a result, during movement their body forms a characteristic arch because caterpillars draw the back of their bodies to the front. 7. An insect body consists of three major parts: head, thorax and abdomen. 8. Arachnids are invertebrates that have four pairs of legs. Some of them, e.g. ticks, feed on blood and can transmit diseases/ be vectors of diseases, e.g. Lyme disease. 9. Cold-blooded animal temperature depends on the temperature of their surround- ings in contrast to warm-blooded animals whose blood temperature is stable. 10. Reptiles are cold-blooded animals whose skin is covered with scales. As far as reproduction is concerned, reptiles can be divided into oviparous (the ones that lay eggs) and viviparous which bear their young. 11. Amphibians live close to water, their skin is wet and susceptible to dessication, which, when prolonged, can cause animal's death.

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 182 26.11.2020 18:10:06 12. The Aesculapian snake is the longest snake that lives in Poland. It is non- venomous and extremely rare. It can lay eggs in hollows and tree crowns. 13. Adders have a characteristic zigzag on its back, grass snakes have yellow or white spots behind their heads and smooth snakes have shiny, smooth scales at their back. 14. Newts, salamanders, toads and frogs are amphibians whereas snakes, turtles and lizards are reptiles. 15. Birds are warm-blooded animals whose body is covered by feathers. They have one pair of wings. The majority can fly. Migrant birds such as storks and cranes travel every year from breeding grounds to the place where they spend winter whereas resident birds, e.g. woodpeckers, magpies, stay in one area all year long. 16. An eagle is a raptor/bird of prey which means that it hunts for other animals such as small mammals, other birds and fish. Birds of prey are well adapted to hunting because they have strong, hooked beaks and sharp talons which are used for killing their prey. 17. Hoofed animals/ungulates are divided into odd-toed, e.g. horses and even-toed, e.g. animals from the deer family, the European bison and wild boar. The Eu- ropean bison and animals from the deer family are ruminants which means that they have a four-chambered stomach which consists of rumen, reticulum, omasum and abomasum. 18. Many animals are symbols of national parks in Poland. For example: • fire salamander is the symbol of the Gorce National Park, • chamois of the Tatra National Park, • ruff of the Biebrza National Park, • white-tailed eagle of the Wolin National Park, • otter of the Drawno National Park, • wisent of the Białowieża National Park, • elk of the Kampinos National Park, • bat of the Ojców National Park, • lynx of the Bieszczady National Park, • beaver of the Wigry National Park, • capercaille of the Tuchola Forest National Park, • crane of the Polesie National Park. 19. Different species of birds prefer various food in their diet. For instance, starlings are fond of fruit such as sweet cherries, sparrows are mainly granivorous, magpies and ravens are scavengers and feed on carrion whereas birds of prey/ raptors hunt for their prey. Some of them, e.g. osprey are piscivorous. 20. As far as feeding habits are concerned, animals can be roughly divided into herbivorous, omnivorous, carnivorous and scavengers. Within herbivores one can distinguish granivores, frugivores, etc, carnivores encompass insectivores, piscivores and so on. 21. Cuckoo is a brood parasite which means that it lays eggs in other birds’ nests and in this way avoids taking care of its young.

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 183 26.11.2020 18:10:06 22. Social insects like ants live in anthills, beavers in beaver lodges, foxes in dens, birds in nests or hollows. 23. Animals occupy different habitats: aquatic animals can live either in freshwater or in oceans and seas (marine animals). Terrestrial animals live on land whereas subterranean underground. 24. In contrast to horns, antlers are shed every year. Wisents and chamois have horns whereas elks, red deer, roe deer and fallow deer have antlers. 25. The most numerous forest pests are insects. Insect pests can damage all parts of a tree, e.g. foliophages destroy leaves, rhizophages – roots. The most voracious are larvae because they need a lot of food to grow and develop. 26. A butterfly larva is called a caterpillar whereas a beetle's one is known as a grub. 27. Animals are hunted only during the open season. During the closed season hunting is forbidden/prohibited/banned. 28. Illegal hunting is called poaching. 29. Foxes are vaccinated against rabies. The vaccine is dropped from an aeroplane. 30. Many animals greatly contribute to successful hunting. For instance, birds such as falcons, and various types of hunting dogs, including flushing dogs, hounds and retrievers.

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 184 26.11.2020 18:10:06 SOURCES ŹRÓDŁA

Encyclopedia of Forest Sciences. 2004. Elsevier Academic Press Helms, John. A. 1998. The Dictionary of Forestry. The Society of American Forest- ers and CABI Publishing Kloc, Elżbieta. 2015. Thematic Forest Dictionary. Tematyczny słownik leśny. Cen- trum Informacyjne Lasów Państwowych. Warszawa Wielojęzyczny słownik terminów leśnych i drzewnych. 1998. Stowarzyszenie Inżynierów i Techników Leśnictwa i Drzewnictwa. Wydawnictwo Świat

Online forest glossaries – Internetowe słowniki leśne

A glossary of engineered wood terms /www.apawood.org/level_b.cfm?content=srv_med_new_bkgd_gloss

Compilation of forestry terms and definitions http://www.efi.int/files/attachments/publications/ir_06.pdf

FAO model code of forest harvesting practice http://www.fao.org/docrep/v6530e/v6530e12.htm

Forest fire glossary http://home.epix.net/~nooyawka/glossary.htm http://www.nwcg.gov/pms/pubs/glossary/d.htm

Forest genetics glossary http://www.esf.edu/for/maynard/GENE_GLOSSERY.html

Forest management terms http://library.rawlingsforestry.com/ncdfr/glossary_of_forest_management_terms/

Forest pathology http://bugs.bio.usyd.edu.au/learning/resources/PlantPathology/glossary.html http://jpkc.sdau.edu.cn/zbgpp/vocabulary/rightA-Z.htm

Forest products glossary http://forestry.about.com/library/weekly/aa110997.htm

General forest glossary http://www.maced.org/foi/generalforestryglossary.htm http://forestry.about.com/blforgls.htm http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/forestry/pdf/WON/won26.pdfssary

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 185 26.11.2020 18:10:06 Glossary of forestry terms http://www.dnr.state.md.us/forests/gloss.html

Glossary of forest management terms http://cdm16062.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p249901coll22/id/645650

Glossary of hunting terms http://www.osbwk.co.uk/glossary%20of%20terms.htm http://www.keswickhuntclub.com/fox-hunting/a-glossary-of-fox-hunting-terms/

Glossary of insect terminology http://www.borealforest.org/insects/glossary.htm http://www.entomology.umn.edu/cues/4015/morpology/

Glossary of mycological terms http://www.mycology.adelaide.edu.au/virtual/glossary/ http://www.first-nature.com/fungi/facts/glossary.php http://www.emlab.com/s/sampling/FungalGlossary.html http://fungiforthepeople.org/mushroom-info/mycoglossary/

Glossary of wood and woodworking terms https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ file/14565/Glossary_of_wood_and_woodworking_terms.pdf

Glossary of wood related terms http://www.wooduniversity.org/glossary/

Glossary of wood words http://www.woodmagazine.com/woodworking-tips/techniques/skills/glossary-of- wood-words/

Non-wood forest products http://www.greenfacts.org/glossary/mno/non-wood-forest-products.htm

Reforestation: A Glossary of Terms http://www.cof.orst.edu/cof/teach/for442/glossary/gloss1.htm

The forest biome http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome/forests.html

Tree and botanical glossary – forestry http://forestry.usu.edu/htm/treeid/tree-and-botanical-glossary/

Washington forest protection association glossary http://www.wfpa.org/news-and-resources/glossary/

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Forest terminology in use 2020.indd 186 26.11.2020 18:10:06 YOUR NOTES TWOJE NOTATKI

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