© Copyright by Yousif M.S.Abdelrahim 2019 All

The undersigned, approved by the Doctoral Dissertation Committee, have examined the dissertation entitled

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION:

SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

The undersigned, approved by the Doctoral Dissertation Committee, have examined the dissertation entitled

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE AND SCALE CONSTRUCTION

presented by Yousif Abdelrahim

a candidate for the degree of Doctor of Business Administration

and hereby certify that in their opinion it is worthy of acceptance.

Aditya Simha, Ph.D. Associate Professor of Management Committee Chair

SIGNATURE:______

K. Praveen Parboteeah, Ph.D. Professor of Management Second Committee Member

SIGNATURE:______

Rimi Zakaria Assistant Professor of Management Reader

SIGNATURE:______

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE ______

A Dissertation Presented to The Graduate Faculty of The University of Wisconsin—Whitewater ______

In Partial Fulfillment Of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Business Administration ______By:

YOUSIF ABDELRAHIM Dr. Aditya Simha, Dissertation Chair Dr. K. Praveen Parboteeah, Dissertation Second Committee Member Dr. Rimi Zakaria, Dissertation Reader

May 2019

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all those who directly or indirectly contributed to the successful completion of this project. It is by God's love and grace that I was able to complete this great project. I give many thanks to the Lord God for His faithfulness, grace, and favor and for granting me the health, patience, and energy to complete this work. I give warm gratitude to my dissertation chair, Dr. Aditya Simha, my second committee member

Dr. K. Praveen Parboteeah, my reader Dr. Rimi Zakaria, and to all my lecturers at the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater for their professional advice, support, and motivation to achieve this great goal. These individuals imparted useful knowledge and made me more valuable to society. I must also remember my colleagues who continually encouraged me both in class and during group discussions. I also sincerely acknowledge my wife Rian and my children Mugtba,

Muayed, Muram, and Ahmed for their patience and encouragement throughout my studies. The entire family gave me material, financial and moral support for the completion of this project.

To them, I give great honor. iv

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION:

SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

YOUSIF ABDELRAHIM

Dr. Aditya Simha, Dissertation Chair

ABSTRACT

The first essay in this dissertation develops and validates a new, reliable, scale for measuring and predicting individual tribal behavior within society using segmentary lineage theory (Evans-Pritchard, 1940). The primary measurement data were collected using a pencil- and-paper questionnaire survey. The newly developed tribalism scale suggested three reliable and valid dimensions for measuring tribalism at the individual level; these three dimensions are tribal pride, tribal loyalty, and tribal group identity.

The second essay examines the relationships between tribalism and ethically suspect behaviors at the individual level; and tribalism and corruption at the country level. It further v

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE explores whether tribalism is a unique cultural behavior—different from Hofstede’s cultural dimensions and those of the GLOBE study. I used institutional anomie theory to develop my hypotheses relating tribalism to individuals’ ethically suspect behaviors.

The present study used hierarchical linear modeling techniques (HLM) and multiple linear regression analysis of secondary datasets of 68,630 individuals from 56 countries. The secondary datasets were borrowed from the Jacobson and Deckard (2012) Tribalism Index (TI), the KOF Index of Globalization (KOFI), and the World Value Survey (WVS, sixth edition).

The findings showed that tribalism is a unique cultural behavior that differs from

Hofstede’s cultural dimensions (i.e., collectivism, masculinity, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance). I extended Hofstede’s cultural dimensions by identifying, validating, and showing the uniqueness of tribalism construct. Besides, the results confirmed that the concept of tribalism is positively related to corruption and that the relationship is weaker at a higher level of globalization. However, the results did not support the relationship between tribalism at the country level and ethically suspect behaviors at the individual level. Future research, theoretical vi

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE and practical implications, and research limitations are also discussed.

Keywords: Tribe, tribalism, Tribalism Index, tribal behavior, pride, group identity, tribal pride, unethical behaviors, corruption, belonging, patriarchy.

vii

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………….……………………………………….………...... iv

ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………...……….….v

LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………….….…..xiv

LIST OF FIGURES….…………………………………………….….……………………..….xvi

I. CHAPTER 1- THE RESEARCH SUMMARY ...... 1

Essay 1 Tribalism: Scale Construction and Validation………………….……….………..….3

Essay 2 Tribalism and Corruption: Explorations Beyond National Culture…...... 5

Conclusion ...... 6

References ...... 9

II. ESSAY 1—TRIBALISM: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND VALIDATION………..…..11

Abstract ...... 11

Literature Review ...... 15

The Concept of Tribalism…………………………….……….……...…….…………..15

Tribal Loyalty.…………………………………….…………………………………….18 viii

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Tribal Belonging and Oneness………..……………………………….….……………...19

Tribal Group Identity..………………………………………...…….………...... 20

Tribal Patriarchy…..………………………………….……….…………….…………...21

Tribal Pride…..………………………………………………………………...... 24

Tribal Commitment, Favoritism, and Face Saving…..…………………………………..25

How is the Newly Developed Tribalism Scale Different from Meir's (2009) measure?...27

Methodology……...... 30

Scale Development and Procedures………………………………………………………….….30

The Guidelines for Tribalism Scale Development and Analyses...……………………31

Step 1: Creation of Scale Items (Item Generation).……………………...…………….32

The Theoretical Domain of the New Measure………...……...…………………..32

Number of Items in the Scale……….………...…………...... ……………………33

Deductive Approach…………………....……………………...... 34

Item Development………………………...……………………………………....35 ix

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Content Validity………………………………...………………………………...38

Step 2: Assessment of Content Adequacy…...………………………………...……....39

The Content Adequacy Sample….……………………….……………………....40

Step 3: Questionnaire Administration………….….………………...…………………41

Using Paper-and-Pencil Self-Administered Questionnaires...…………………....42

The Influence of Incentives on the Study Response Rate………………………...43

Item Scaling…………...…….………………………………...………………….43

Sample Size………………...……………………….………...…...... 44

Step 4: Exploratory Factor Analysis and Factor Analysis………………………...…...45

Conducting an Exploratory Factor Analysis …………….………...... 45

Conducting Confirmatory Factor Analysis………....…………...... 50

Step 5: Assessment of Internal Consistency….…….…...……………………...……...50

Step 6: Content Validity……….………...…………….…………...…………...……...51

Model Fit in Analysis of a Moment Structures…………………………...…...... 52 x

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Common Method Bias…………………………...…………………………....….46

Testing Common Method Bias…………………………...…………………...….58

Ethical Considerations….……………………………..……………………….....59

Step 7: Reliability and Final Scale Validity……………...…..……………....………..61

Results and Analysis…………..…………………………………………………………………63

The scale Validation Using Simple Regression Analysis……….….…...... 63

Discussion, Limitations, and Future Research...... 68

References……...... 71

Appendix A: Tribalism Indicator Item Legend Indicator (as per Survey)……………………….84

Appendix B: A Pool of the Scale Items (Version 1) …...………...... 85

Appendix C: A Pool of the Scale Items (Version 2)……...……………………………………...90

Appendix D: The Common Latent Factor Analysis………………………………...…………...94

Appendix E: The Common Marker Variable Analysis……………………………………….....95

Appendix F: The Signed Consent Form for Research Involving Human Subjects………...……96 xi

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Appendix G: The Model Fit during Confirmation Factor Analysis in Analysis of Moment...... 101

Appendix H: The Scale Items for Construct Tribalism………………….……………………..102

III. ESSAY 2—TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL

CULTURE……………………...………………………….…………………………………...103

Abstract…...……….…………………………………………...………….…………………....103

Literature Review and Hypothesis Development………..…...... 110

Tribalism Versus Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions….………………………………...116

Why Tribalism Relates to Ethically Suspect Behaviors……………………………….127

How Tribalism Relates to and Ethically Suspect Behaviors……………………...…...128

Tribalism and Corruption…………………………………………………………...... 130

Tribalism and Globalization….…………………………………………...... 132

Methodology……..………………………………………………………………...... 136

Methods of Data Collection………………………………………………………...... 136

Dependent Variable: Ethically Suspect Behaviors and Corruption…………...... 136 xii

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Independent Variable: Tribalism…………………………….……………………...... 139

Control Variables: Power Distance, Masculinity, Uncertainty Avoidance, and

Individualism….………………………………………………………………………140

Moderating Variable: Globalization…………………….………….……………...….143

Multicollinearity in Multiple Regression Analysis……………………………………144

Hypotheses Testing…………………..….……………………….………...... 146

The Study Results…………...………………………………………………………………….154

The Findings and Discussion………...………………….……………………………………...155

The Dissertation Conclusion……………....……….……….……….………………………….161

Theoretical Implications…………………………….…………………….…………..161

Practical Implications……….………………….……………………………….…….164

Limitations and Future Research…………………………………………………...... 166

References……...……………………………………………………………………………….169

VITA…………………………………………………………………...……………………….179 Xiii

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

LIST OF TABLES

Essay 1

Table Page

1. The Scale Development and Validation Process…..………………………………………….31

2. Factor Loadings……...... …………………………………………………………….………..47

3. The SPSS Output…..………………………………………………………………………….49

4. The Values of the Model Fit Indices and Acceptable Thresholds…...….…………………….55

5. The Reliability and Validity Values Using Gaskin Spreadsheet…….……………….…...... 62

6. The Reliability and Validity Values Using Gaskin Spreadsheet for the Scale………………..65

7. The Values for the Model Fit Indices and Acceptable Thresholds for the Scale Validation…66

Essay 2

1. Selected Countries and Scores on Tribalism Index and Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions…..141

2. Collinearity Statistics Results…….………………………………………………………...…47

3. Correlations between the Independent Variables….…...……………………...……………...49 xiv

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

4. Pearson Correlations………….…...…………………………………………………………150

5. Spearman’s Correlations…….……………………………………………………………….150

6. Shapiro-Wilki Test of Normality……..……………………………………………………...151

7. The Rule of Thumb for Interpreting the Strength of a Relationship Based on its (R) Value..153

8. Correlations and Descriptive Statistics………...……………………...……………………..153

9. Multiple Regression Results…….………………………………………………….………..154

10. The Hierarchical Linear Model Results...…………………………………………………..155

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

LIST OF FIGURES

ESSAY 2

Figure Page

1. The theoretical framework for the relationship between the tribalism, corruption, ethically suspect behaviors, globalization, and ethically…………………………………………………116

xvi

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS

BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Chapter I- The Research Summary

There are several definitions for a tribe including common culture, belonging, loyalty, and group identity. Nothwehr (2008) and Evans-Pritchard (1940) defined a tribe as individuals' intense feelings of belonging and loyalty to the tribe. Mael and Ashforth (1992) defined a tribe as a sharing of collective group identity. Glaze and Moynihan (1975) recognized a tribe as a social group that feels distinctly different by a decent and shared culture.

Tribalism is a factor in many problems globally, including corruption (Jacobson &

Deckard, 2012; Ronfeldt, 2006), underdevelopment (Trombley, 2014), tribal violence (Sanou,

2015) election rigging (Chirambo, 2009), and civil war (Jacobson & Deckard, 2012).

Transparency International (TIN) estimates that approximately 75 million people in sub-Saharan

Africa paid a bribe in 2015 to either escape punishment by the courts or police or to gain access to essential services. According to a new report, corruption in Africa is estimated to cost

Africans $150 billion each year (TIN, 2016).

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Corruption, as unethical behavior, leads to financial losses, reputational damage, loss of

Customers, decreased organizational performance, and other safety concerns). For these reasons, corruption and other unethical practices are a concern for businesses. The success of an organization could depend on understanding why these types of behaviors have occurred

(Askew, Beisler, & Keel, 2015). Hence, for both academics and practitioners, the question of why and how people become involved in unethical behavior is critical, given its destructive and costly consequences for businesses, organizations, society, and individuals (Kilduff, Galinsky,

Gallo, & Reade (2012). Tribalism (i.e., the feeling of being loyal to a tribe, belonging to one another, and debt to kinship regardless of the credibility or reality of the sense of belonging) can have a substantial impact on individuals’ thinking and behavior (Ronfeldt, 2006). For example, racial dynamics have been astonishingly significant to the prosperity or failure of businesses from South America to Central Asia to Africa (Jackson & Deckard, 2012). The literature has established that tribalism has influenced socioeconomic (Trombley, 2014), accounting (Abidin &

Baabad, 2015), and political variables (Cornstage, 20008) including accounting values (Abidin &

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Baabad, 2015), auditor independence (Abidin & Baabad,2015), sources of corruption (Cerqueti

& Coppier, 2011), political stability (Chirambo, 2009), favoritism (Ronfeldt, 2006), nepotism

(Ronfeldt, 2006), levels of economic development (Trombley, 2014), financial development

(Trombley, 2014), innovation (Ighomereho, Agbalajobi, & Edegwa,2013) and bribery

(Rondfeldt, 2006).

There is no doubt that people in many tribal countries are hired based on their tribe loyalty and regardless of qualifications. Thus, available skills are not often used efficiently, leading to immigration flux and unprecedented refugee disasters in Europe. The International

Organization for Migration (IOM, 2015) claimed that Africa has already lost 33% of its skilled personnel and human capital. An estimated 20,000 experienced engineers, doctors, and university lecturers have left the African continent annually since 1990 (IMO, 2015).

Essay 1 - Tribalism: Scale Construction and Validation

The Tribalism Index has measured tribalism as a construct at the country level as a predictor of tribal patriarchy and religiously motivated violence. The Tribalism Index developed

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE by Jacobson and Deckard (2012) is the only quantitative measure of tribalism at the country level. The tribalism index includes five decisive factors attributed to tribal communities— population demographics, ethnic and linguistic fractionalization, gender inequality, perceptions of corruption, and grievance measures. The Tribalism Index has focused on tribal behavior within society and has overlooked individuals’ behavior within the tribe. In fact, the tribalism index is an indicator of tribal patriarchy and religiously motivated violence. Meir (2009) developed the only quantitative measurement for tribalism at the individual level. However,

Meir’s tribalism measurement was limited to tribalism construct in the professional rugby union and the rugby league at the individual level. To date, there is no other quantitative measure related to tribalism used to measure this construct. Therefore, the main purpose of the first essay was to fill that gap by developing a comprehensive tribalism measure that helps researchers understand tribal behaviors at the individual level. That brief line of discussion led to the first research question: Can researchers measure tribalism at the individual level in management and other disciplines?

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Essay 2 - Tribalism: Explorations Beyond National Culture

Few researchers have tested the tribalism phenomenon. In the marketing literature, researchers have tended to focus on the characteristics of a tribe and its observed behaviors to measure tribalism (Meir, 2009). Although tribalism is a concept that seems to apply primarily to

African and Arab societies, I argue that it is relevant to all societies. In that respect, the contemporary usage of tribalism indicates that the term refers to simple activities that represent cultural and community unity; members of a tribe feel a sense of belonging to one another owing to kinship, regardless of the credibility and reality of their feelings of belonging (Jacobson &

Deckard, 2012). Most societies have some level of tribalism based on the aforementioned definition. It is therefore surprising to see that international management researchers have mostly ignored the concept.

In this dissertation, I argue that the idea of tribalism applies to all nations and it is also distinct from the national culture variables developed by Hofstede (1980). In other words, I build the case that tribalism should be considered by researchers as an additional indicator of the

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE culture, different from cultural dimensions as proposed by current national culture frameworks such as Hofstede (1980). This line of discussion led to the second research question, “Is tribalism a unique or distinct cultural dimension that is different from Hofstede's four cultural dimensions?” Conclusion

Answering the research questions and testing the eight hypotheses mentioned essay 1 and essay 2, this research found that tribalism does have a relationship with corruption and tribalism could be measured at the individual level in the management field. Specifically, tribalism at the country level displayed a positive connection with corruption. Also, this dissertation proved that tribalism is a unique cultural dimension which is different from the Hofstede cultural dimensions of individualism, masculinity, collectivism, and uncertainty avoidance. Hence, this dissertation contributes to the literature by examining the concept of tribalism and arguing that tribalism is distinct from other cultural elements such as Hofstede's cultural framework. Also, this dissertation explained the influence of globalization on tribal behavior and how that behavior can impact corruption and ethically suspect behaviors. Findings, limitations, and implications related

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE to both essays are presented in the following chapters. The findings in this dissertation could validate the tribalism concept by examining its link to the justification of unethical behaviors and corruption. By linking the concept of tribalism with an ethical outcome and corruption, I validated the tribalism concept.

Moreover, in this dissertation, the newly developed tribalism measure of the construct tribalism could benefit multicultural business practitioners and cross-cultural researchers. The scale linked tribal values to individual behaviors and attitudes because the data regarding tribalism, ethics, and beliefs come from the same source. Finally, by measuring tribal values and not equating them to the Tribalism Index, researchers could avoid the ecological fallacy, which happens when researchers simply interpret the country level relationships (Tribalism Index) as would be the case when researchers apply country-level relationships to individuals (Hofstede,

1980).

For practitioners, the findings of this paper provide direction for multinational firms to be aware of the critical power of tribes in today’s global market. That concept validation might

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE empower multinational companies to understand the growing force of a tribe and its influence on people’s behavior, and integrate that behavioral understanding in their business activities overseas. For example, in the Arabian peninsula, tribalism has been an explicit cultural pillar

(Habib & Kassem, 1989) and tribal character related to Arab and Middle Eastern cultures

(Berger, Silbiger, Herstein, & Barnes, 2015). In the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia, a tribe

Is the basic social unit of social structure; the tribe has become the primary form of social

Behavior and organization in that part of the world (Ronfeldt, 2006). Tribalism is also

Considered a social power and is of continuing social importance in many tribal countries such as the State of Qatar (Paglia, 2007).

In summary, this dissertation contributes to several areas in academia and practice.

Specifically, this dissertation offers a better understanding of the influence that individual tribal behavior has on ethically suspicious behaviors as well as corruption. The ultimate goal of this research was to provide helpful information that can feedback into academia and practice.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

References

Askew, O. A., Beisler, J. M., & Keel, J. (2015). Current Trends of Unethical Behavior within Organizations. International Journal of Management and Information Systems, 19(3), 107-114.

Berger, R., Silbiger, A., Herstein, R., & Barnes, B. R. (2015). Analyzing business-to-business relationships in an Arab context. Journal of World Business, 50(3), 454-464.

Chirambo, R. (2009). Corruption, tribalism, and democracy: Coded messages in Wambali Mkandawire's popular songs in Malawi. Critical Arts: A Journal of South-North Cultural Studies, 23(1), 42-63.

Evans-Pritchard, E. E. (1940). The Nuer: A description of the modes of livelihood and political institutions of a Nilotic people.

Glazer, N., Moynihan, D. P., & Schelling, C. S. (Eds.). (1975). Ethnicity: Theory and experience (No. 109). Harvard University Press.

Habib, G., & Kassem, S. (1989). Services in the Arab Gulf States. European Journal of Marketing, 23(12), 36-43.

Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values. Beverly Hills CA: Sage Publications.

Jacobson, D., & Deckard, N. (2012). The Tribalism Index: Unlocking the relationship between tribal patriarchy and Islamist militants. New Global Studies, 6(1).

Kilduff, G. J., Galinsky, A. D., Gallo, E. and Reade, J. J. (2016). Whatever it takes: Rivalry and unethical behavior. Academy of Management Journal, 59 (5). pp. 15081534. ISSN 19480989

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Mael, F. & Ashforth, B.E. (1992). Alumni and their alma mater: A partial test of the reformulated model of organizational identification. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 13, (2), 103-123.

Meir, R. A. (2009). Tribalism, team brand loyalty, team brand value and personal/group identity in professional Rugby football (PhD thesis). Retrieved from https://epubs.scu.edu.au/theses/126/

Nothwehr, D. M., & Haynes, F. H. (2008). That they may be one: Catholic social teaching on racism, tribalism, and xenophobia. Orbis Books.

Paglia, P. (2007). Ethnicity and tribalism: Are these the root causes of the Sudanese civil conflicts? Africa Economic Analysis, 22-38.

Ronfeldt, D. (2006). In search of how societies work. (RAND working paper WR-433-RPC). Retrieved from https://www.rand.org/pubs/working_papers/WR433.html.

Sanou, B. (2015). Ethnicity, tribalism, and racism: A global challenge for the Christian church and its mission. The Journal of Applied Christian Leadership, 9(1), 94-104.

Trombley, L. (2014). The constitutional tribe: Re-thinking governance in the developing world (Doctoral dissertation (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/ handle/2027.42/107787.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

ESSAY 1-TRIBALISM: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND VALIDATION

ABSTRACT

This research paper develops and validates a new reliable tribalism scale for measuring and predicting individuals’ tribal behavior within society using segmentary lineage theory

(Evans- Pritchard, 1940). The primary measurement data were collected using pencil-and-paper questionnaires handed out to respondents in three mosques following Friday afternoon prayer in the Greater Hamilton Area (GHA), Ontario, Canada. Each of the respondents was originally from Pakistan. Using exploratory factor analysis (EFA), factor analysis (FA), and structural equation modeling technique (SEM), the newly developed tribalism scale suggested three reliable and valid dimensions for measuring tribalism at the individual level—tribal pride, tribal loyalty, and tribal group identity. The study also discussed future research and the theoretical and practical implications of the scale.

Keywords: Tribalism, Tribalism Index, tribal behavior, tribal loyalty, group identity, belonging, pride, patriarchy.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Because tribalism influences social life in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA), historians, political scientists, and sociologists have shown significant interest in ethnicity and tribalism (Dukhan, 2014). Tribalism accounts for many problems around the world such as corruption (Jacobson & Deckard, 2012; Ronfeldt, 2006), underdevelopment (Trombley, 2014), violence (Sanou, 2015), election rigging (Chirambo, 2009), and civil war (Jacobson and

Deckard, 2012). There is no doubt that in many tribally-based countries people are hired based on tribal loyalty regardless of their qualifications. Available skills are, therefore, not used efficiently, causing immigration flux and unprecedented refugee disasters in Europe and elsewhere. The International Organization for Migration (IOM, 2015) claimed that Africa loses

33% of its skilled personnel and human capital each year. An estimated 20,000 experienced engineers, doctors, and university lecturers have left the African continent annually since 1990

(IMO, 2015).

Tribalism’s continuing importance as social power in contemporary tribal countries was confirmed by Puglia (2007). The tribalism phenomenon is more prominent in Africa, Asia,

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE and the Middle East than the rest of the world. For example, tribalism has grown stronger in

Libya (Cherstich, 2014). The literature on tribalism has established that tribalism has influenced

Accounting (Abidin & Baabad, 2015), political (Chirambo, 2009), and socioeconomic variables, such as accounting values (Abidin & Baabad, 2015), auditor independence (Abidin & Baabad,

2015),) sources of corruption (Cerqueti & Coppier, 2011, political stability (Chirambo, 2009), favoritism (Ronfeldt, 2006), and nepotism (Ronfeldt, 2006). Other variables influenced by tribalism include levels of economic development (Trombley, 2014), innovation (Ighomereho,

Agbalajobi & Edegwa, 2013), and bribery (Rondfeldt, 2006).

The Tribalism Index developed by Jacobson and Deckard (2012) is the only quantitative measure of tribalism at the country level. The index includes five decisive factors attributed to tribal societies and communities. The first factor is population demographics (i.e., the degree to which the population is indigenous; highly tribal societies tend to have more native or indigenous communities [Jacobson & Deckard, 2012]). The second factor is ethnic and linguistic fractionalization (i.e., the extent to which a society is heterogeneous [Jacobson & Deckard,

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

2012]). The third factor is gender equality (i.e., the degree to which men and women share equal roles in society [Jacobson & Deckard, 2012]). The fourth is perceptions of corruption (i.e., the extent to which societal members engage in corruption activities [Jacobson & Deckard, 2012])

The fifth and final factor is group grievance (i.e., the degree to which a particular group feels aggrieved and left out of political processes [Jacobson & Deckard, 2012]). The tribalism index focuses on tribal behavior in a society and overlooks individuals’ behaviors within the tribe.

Meir (2009) developed another quantitative measure of tribalism at the individual level.

However, Meir’s (2009) tribalism measure was limited to the tribalism construct in professional rugby union and rugby league at the individual level in marketing.

To date, no other quantitative measure related to tribalism has been used by researchers to measure this construct in management science. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to fill that gap by developing a comprehensive tribalism measure to shed light on tribal behaviors at the individual level in marketing and non-marketing disciplines (i.e., in business management and international business). The purpose of this study led to one research question: Can researchers

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE measure tribalism at the individual level in management and other disciplines? Few researchers have tested the tribalism phenomenon. In the marketing literature, specifically, few researchers have focused on tribal characteristics or observed behaviors to measure tribalism.

The tribalism measure developed in this work will benefit operators of multicultural businesses and cross-cultural researchers alike. The scale links tribal values to individual behaviors and attitudes because the data about tribal behaviors and attitudes come from the same source.

Finally, by measuring tribal values and not equating them to the Tribalism Index, researchers could avoid the ecological fallacy. The ecological fallacy occurs when researchers directly apply country-level relationships to individuals (Hofstede 1980).

Literature Review

The Concept of Tribalism:

Classically, the word tribe applies to a few pre-Roman European and pre-colonial African societies (James, 2006). According to James (2006), modern tribalism is defined by divisiveness

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE that threatens state integrity. An example of this is the 1994 Rwandan genocide involving the

Hutu and Tutsi tribes in which 800,000 people were killed, and more than two million people lost their homes (James, 2006).

Tribalism is the second subcategory of the Tribalism Index after culture. However, there is no single accepted definition of tribalism in the literature (Dadfar, 1993). The engaged theory defines tribalism as a way of being based on collections of oral communication, reciprocal exchange, kinship-based organization, manual production, and analogical inquiry (James, 2006).

Glaze and Moynihan (1975) defined tribalism as “a label for social groups who feel recognizably different by descent and the common culture”. Regardless of how researchers have defined tribalism, the common theme among these various definitions still exists. Loyalty, oneness, belonging, commitment, identity, face-saving, and patriarchy are characteristics broadly associated with tribalism.

Segmentary lineage theory, developed by Evans-Pritchard (1940), explains the dynamics of tribal society. According to this theory, tribal loyalty stems from the need to ensure the well-

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE being and rights of tribesmen in the absence of a central government ment (Evans-Pritchard,

1940). For example, during crises, such as an external threat, the tribe usually divides its members into subgroups based on genealogical ties. It is critical for every segment to plant clan members in all ecological zones to ensure togetherness and oneness of the tribe should the tribe experiences an attack from outside. Caton (1987) explained how segmentary lineage theory links to the concept of honor in the Arab tribal societies. The theory also explains how feuds over honor unify a tribal group against other groups (Evans-Pritchard, 1940). The concept of honor indicates patriarchy in the Arab tribal culture.

The literature review, therefore, helped me to understand the many definitions of a tribe.

Each description provided my study with a deep understanding of tribalism, and how it relates to other concepts such as loyalty, group identity, belonging, patriarchy, and pride. The existing literature also provided this study with a theory that explains the dynamics of tribal society.

Without the past and the current research, I would not have been able to link the concept of tribalism to other concepts, write my questions, or have appropriate content validity.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

In conclusion, there are several definitions for a tribe including common culture, belonging, loyalty, and group identity. Evans-Pritchard (1940) defined a tribe as individuals' intense feelings of belonging and loyalty to the tribe. Mael and Ashforth (1992) described a tribe as a sharing of collective group identity. Glaze and Moynihan (1975) defined a tribe as a social group that feels distinctly different by a decent and shared culture.

Based on the aforementioned definitions of a tribe and the link between the tribe patriarchy, I concluded that the concept of tribalism relates to many other concepts including, tribal loyalty, tribal belonging, tribal pride, tribal patriarchy, and tribal group identity.

Tribal Loyalty:

Tribal loyalty is the strong sense of being loyal and faithful to the tribe. It requires supporting and defending the tribe and its members emotionally, financially, and physically.

Tribal loyalty has been the spine of tribal societies. Without tribal loyalty, these societies cannot offer stability or protection to tribe members. However, tribal loyalty has also supported wrongdoing by requiring blind adherence by tribal peoples. The literature has consistently

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE defined tribalism as tribal loyalty and the sense of belonging shared by tribal members.

According to Glazer and Moynihan (1975), tribalism may refer to a way of behaving or thinking in which individuals are more loyal to their tribes than to their social groups, friends, and countries (Glazer & Moynihan, 1975). Tribesmen are more loyal to their tribes because of kinship structure built on genealogical relationships and strong ancestral unity (Evans-Pritchard,

1940). Hence, it is obvious that tribal loyalty stems from shared blood and genes. Every tribe member considers themselves a brother or sister of other tribe members. Tribalism also refers to the attitude of intense loyalty to one’s tribe (Nothwehr, 2008). Tribes usually provide their members with safeguards for unquestioning loyalty when tribe members need protection against blood feuds and revenge from other tribe members (Evans-Pritchard, 1940; Hofstede, 2010).

Tribe members need protection when problems such as blood feuds and revenge arise with other tribe members (Evans-Pritchard, 1940).

Tribal Belonging and Oneness:

Tribal belonging is the emotional need of tribal members to associate with and be

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE accepted by other members of the tribe. Nothwehr (2008) defined tribalism as the attitude and practice of having strong bonds to one’s tribe and loyalty that leads one to demonize or exclude others who are not part of the tribe, such as those who are not related to the tribe by blood, do not speak the same tribal language, or do not share the same traditions.

According to Evans-Pritchard (1940), tribes are a segment unified by the genealogical structure of common kinship to form a lineage system. Tribesmen have a feeling of oneness that comes from their belonging to a tribe of shared blood. Tribal feelings of unity and belonging help a tribe settle their inter-tribal disputes. The sense of belonging also encourages tribesmen to come together should disputes with outsiders arise (Evans-Pritchard,1940). Tribalism stimulates tribesmen to have a positive attitude toward people who are related to them through family, clan, and kinship. Therefore, tribalism distances tribe members from individuals unrelated to them

(Nwaigbo, 2005).

Tribal Group Identity:

Group identity may be defined as a feeling of oneness or belongingness with the object of

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE identification or as self-definition regarding that object (Bhattacharya, Mael, & Ashforth, 1992;

Shamir, 1992). In other words, individuals could have their identity modeled by the groups to which they are connected. Members of ethnic groups and political movements draw their sense of identity from their group sharing ideas and aspirations (Gabriel & Lang, 2006). In the context of a tribe, I defined group identity as members’ sense of belonging to their tribe through ethnic or cultural characteristics such as distinctive language, dialect, norms, land, or customs that identify one tribe from another. In the MENA, some tribe members use their distinguished family name to recognize their tribe. The concept of tribalism suggests the possession of a strong ethnic or cultural identity that may separate one member of a tribal group from the members of another tribal group. Based on stable relations of kinship and closeness, members of a tribe tend to have a strong feeling of shared identity. A strong sense of collective identity could lead members to feel tribally connected (Ḍekā, 1993). The desire to assure one’s sense of identity where other people gather induces involvement with a particular group (Mael & Ashforth 1992).

Tribal Patriarchy:

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Patriarchy is a social system that describes society as a whole rather than individuals within a community (Hassel, Reddinger, & Van Slooten, 2011). Patriarchy in a tribal structure refers to a hierarchical system of a society in which men control political, economic, and cultural structures (Iheriohanma, 2014). There are many patriarchal features in tribalism. Patriarchy is stronger in tribal communities and societies in rural areas (Moghadam, 1992). Patriarchal systems persist in most tribal and developing countries in Africa and the Middle East where women live under male-domination (Okebukola, 2008). Nakpodia and Urien (2012) and

Okebukola (2008) believe that patriarchy is predominant in Nigerian tribal society. In Israel,

Arab women are a minority and live in a patriarchal system of male-domination (Abu-Rabia-

Queder, 2007). According to Pettygrove (2006), the common patriarchal system allows boys more mobility and freedom than girls.

According to Solati (2017), patriarchy has three indicators—survival rates, public spheres, and education and demography. Solati (2017) also claimed that, on average, countries in the MENA are more patriarchal regarding women’s access to public spheres. While the local

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE culture in the Arab world is tribal (Hofstede, 1980), the legitimacy of patriarchy often comes from religion (Moghadam, 1992).

Christianity, Judaism, and Islam came into being in patriarchal societies (Moghadam,

1992). In Muslim communities, in particular, and because of the firmness of kinship-ordered and tribal structures, gender relations are continuously governed by patriarchy. For example, the patriarchal tribal structure built on blood ties is still seen in Iran, Afghanistan, and the Arab world (Eickelman, 1981). Ironically, the tribal structure of countries in the MENA was labeled as a government of cousins (Tillion, 1983). Men control nomadic women (Keddie 1990; Tillion,

1983) because society views women as a potential source of social or moral disorder (Mernissi,

1987).

Traditionally, men have the unilateral responsibility for divorce and control permission to travel or work outside the home in patriarchal societies. Patriarchy, therefore, should be understood in developmental and social-structural terms rather than as being blended with Islam

(Moghadam, 1992). Although the tremendous oil incomes in some of the MENA countries have

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE made patriarchy affordable (Solati, 2017), it can be argued that economic development and globalization integration within the world system have helped create greater employment and educational opportunities for women. Hence, some researchers have concluded that patriarchy has been declining globally and in the MENA (Moghadam, 1992).

Tribal Pride:

Tribal pride is a deep feeling of satisfaction or pleasure derived from a tribe member's achievements or from honorable qualities such as generosity and courage. In other words, pride is found in a skill or quality that someone has. According to Evans-Pritchard (1951), tribesmen feel pride, love, and support for other members of their tribe. Tribe members are proud of their tribes, and they believe themselves superior to those outside the tribe.

Several researchers have viewed pride as a construct consisting of two or more emotions

(i.e., authentic and hubristic [Ekman, 2003; Lewis, 2000]). Pride in individuals’ successes may promote positive behaviors in the accomplishment domain and share in the development of an authentic sense of self-esteem (Herrald & Tomaka, 2002). Hubristic pride, on the other hand, is

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE associated with narcissism (Lewis, 2000). Narcissism could contribute to interpersonal problems, aggression, hostility, relationship conflicts, and maladaptive behaviors (Bushman &

Baumeister, 1998; Campbell, 1999; Paulhus, Robins, Trzesniewski, & Tracy, 2004). As such, hubristic pride may lead to tribal blood feuds.

Tribal pride may lead tribe members to demean other tribes or defend or elevate their own tribe if criticized. However, it is likely that ego plays a functional role in both the enhancement and maintenance of social status. People encounter and feel pride after they accomplish socially valued achievements. The feeling of pride gives individuals an indication of how other individuals in the group evaluate their behaviors and the likelihood they are to be accepted by their group and may deserve increased status (Leary et al., 1995).

Tribal Commitment, Favoritism, and Face-Saving:

Tribal commitment, favoritism, and face-saving are not tribalism scale dimensions.

However, in this essay, these concepts are discussed because they relate to some aspects in the newly developed tribalism measure. One cannot talk about tribal loyalty and a strong feeling

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE of unity and oneness without mentioning tribal commitment, favoritism, and face-saving. The following paragraph gives more insights into how the tribalism scale dimensions relate to tribal commitment, favoritism, and face-saving.

Tribal commitment, favoritism, and face-saving come from unquestionable loyalty and a strong feeling of oneness and unity. According to Hofstede (1991) and Tremble (2014), Arab countries are characterized by social networks, group orientation, face-saving, and extended family commitment. Al-Haddad (2008) discussed the spread of intermediation (i.e., wasta) and favoritism among tribesmen and their strong sense of belonging. In this spirit, tribal members may emphasize communal sharing, doing favors for one another, honorable reciprocity, and mutual gift-giving (Mauss, 1990). Favoring family members, friends, acquaintances, religious, geographic, and ethnic groups over more qualified others is a kind of corruption (Ozler, Ergun &

Gümüştekin, 2007). Hence, tribal favoritism has become a critical topic as non-business corporations, governmental organizations, nongovernmental organizations, and business corporations have become more concerned about these ethical issues (Ozler & Buyukarslan,

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

2011).

How is the Newly Developed Tribalism Scale Different from Meir's Measure?

In sports marketing research, Meir (2009) developed a measure of tribalism regarding

Australian and English rugby union fans and a professional rugby league, answering the research question: How can tribalism be measured in followers of professional rugby football?

In contrast, this study developed a comprehensive tribalism measure to shed light on tribal behaviors at the individual level in management answering one research question: Can researchers measure tribalism at the individual level in management and other disciplines?

Meir (2009) defined sports tribalism in a professional team sport as a distinctive feature of fans who have a high degree of identification and emotional attachment with the teams they usually support. The newly developed tribalism scale defined tribalism in society as a whole to shed light on tribal behaviors at the individual level in marketing and non-marketing disciplines

(i.e., in business management and international business).

According to Meir (2009), in rugby sports, tribal members from different tribes are linked

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE together by their strong shared emotion for the team they support. Tribalism in a sports marketing environment is linked to the sense of identification and attachment to a specific category of fans who favor the same team by many activities including, chanting, singing, wearing team branded shits, and socializing before, during, or after the game. Fans showing tribal behavior during games seek out opportunities to influence the match officials and the opposition. The team’s home stadium, history, and tradition have particular meaning for fans.

However, in the tribalism scale, tribe members are connected to their tribes by blood. Hence, tribalism, in this case, stems from the sense of belonging, loyalty, identification, and pride.

According to Meir’s (2009) definition of sports tribalism, the two key factors to measure tribalism are the sense of identification and attachment attributed to a specific group of fans that support the same team. Also, the Meir (2009) study showed how construct tribalism relates to other sports marketing constructs (such as team brand value, team loyalty, self-identity, and social identity). Whereas, in the newly developed tribalism scale does not relate to these sports marketing constructs.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Meir (2009), used combinations of quantitative and qualitative research techniques with online collected data from rugby fans in Australia and England to develop his tribalism measure at the individual level in marketing consumption. Respondents were rugby fans and were asked four questions to measure construct tribalism (Appendix A). In the first question, fans were asked if they feel a part of the group when they attend games to support their teams (Meir,2009).

In the second question, fans were asked about their need to participate in sports and helping their teams through singing, shouting, or cheering to influence the rival team or game officials

(Meir, 209). In the third question, fans were asked if they can get together with other fans of their team at games (Meir, 2009). Finally, fans were asked if they feel a sense of power while congregating with other fans and dressing their team-branded goods (Meir, 2009). In contrast, the newly developed tribalism scale used only quantitative research technique to collect data from respondents.

Meir’s (2009) sports tribalism scale contributed to the sports marketing research literature by identifying indicators of the sports tribalism construct in Australian and English rugby union

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE fans and professional rugby league setting. Also, Meir’s (2009) sports tribalism scale explained the relationship between tribalism in sports and other constructs in sports marketing such as team brand value, team brand loyalty, and group and individual identification. In contrast, the newly developed tribalism scale contributes to the management research showing the relationship between tribalism in management and other constructs such as loyalty, belonging, and group identification. Methodology

Scale Development and Procedure:

Developing a reliable and valid scale is not an easy task for a researcher. Therefore, I adapted the process and procedures for developing a reliable and accurate tribalism instrument at the individual level from the scale construction process developed by Hinkin, Tracey, and Enz

(1997). Hinkin et al. (1997) developed a systematic seven-step process that outlines how to create a reliable and valid scale. Development of this new scale was also guided by Hinkin

(1998).

My justification for adapting Hinkin et al. (1997) is that the process is a well-established

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE framework. As of November 2017, Hinikin (1997) has been cited in more than 1,945 articles.

Besides, Hinkin et al. (1997) study offer a straightforward and conceptual framework. Finally, each stage of the Hinkin (1997) process increases the confidence of the construct validity.

The Guidelines for Tribalism Scale Development and Analysis:

The seven-step procedure for constructing a new scale is shown in Table 1. Hinikin et al.

(1997) organized their seven steps in sequence, and each step should be applied accordingly to get the best results. However, the last step (i.e., replication) could be done in a separate study or by a different researcher. The scale validity could be the last step in the scale construction and validation (see Table 1).

Table 1

The Scale Development and Validation

Step Number Procedure

1 Item generation (creation scale items). 2 Content validity assessment. 3 Questionnaire administration. 4 Exploratory & confirmatory factor analysis.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

5 Internal consistency assessment. 6 Scale construction validation. 7 The scale replication (reliability & validity). Note. Based on Hinkin et al. (1997).

Step 1: Creation of the Scale Items

The theoretical domain of the new measure:

According to the domain sampling theory, it is not feasible for a researcher to measure the entire domain of interest (Hinkin et al., 1997). However, it is essential that the items generated from the potential domain appropriately represent the construct under examination

(Ghiselli, Campbell, & Zedeck, 1981). The theoretical domain of a new measure is critical in

Step 1 because it is the key to successful item creation.

The literature review was helpful in articulating a sound theoretical foundation for the scale content validity of the tribalism measure. The existing literature on tribalism helped me to understand how previous research has defined and measured tribalism at the country and individual levels. Meir’s (2009) research helped me understand what tribalism means to individuals and about which concepts I should ask the study respondents. Understanding how

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE researchers have defined tribalism has guided me looking for tribalism concepts and in writing questions. Ultimately, I was able to develop items (i.e., questions) that improve the tribalism construct validation and eventually the scale generalizability.

Number of items in the scale:

Specific rules about the number of items to be retained in a newly developed scale were not available from the literature. However, a new measure should be parsimonious, internally consistent, and comprised of a minimum number of questions that appropriately assess the primary domain of the researcher’s interest (Thurstone, 1947). Adequate reliability (i.e., internal consistency) can be achieved with four or five items per scale (Harvey, Billings & Nilan, 1985;

Hinkin & Schrie-sheim, 1989). However, it is possible to keep a factor with two items that are highly correlated with each other and not highly correlated with additional questions

(Worthington & Whittaker, 2006, p.821). Some recent studies suggest that a single-item measure may be sufficient for constructs with very narrow definitions (Bergkvist & Rossiter

2007; Drolet & Morrison, 2001; Wanous & Hudy, 2001). For instance, Yoo & Donthu (2001)

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE developed a 9-item Sequel Scale with two questions regarding ease of use, three regarding aesthetic design, two for processing speed, and two for security.

It is important to keep the scale short by using fewer items, minimizing response biases caused by fatigue and boredom (Schmitt & Stults, 1985). As a rule of thumb, additional items also demand more time in both the scale development and survey administration of a measure

(Carmines and Zeller, 1979). According to Hinkin et al. (1997), the response bias and time issues suggest that four to six items could be adequate for most constructs in developed measures. Also, Hinkin et al. (1997) anticipated that for a newly developed scale, about 50 % of the new items would be retained; hence, these researchers suggested that the number of questions generated for a new scale developed should be as twice the number of items needed for the final measurement.

Deductive approach:

I started the scale development process deductively by using the segmentary lineage theory, the definition of the tribalism construct, and the literature review. According to Schwab

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

(1980), in deductive scale development, both an understanding of the relevant literature and a theoretical definition of a construct are needed to guide the creation of items. For example,

Getty and Thompson (1994) used a deductive approach and provided an excellent example of item development for a lodging quality measurement. I chose deductive scale development to create the primary set of questions because it provided me with enough information to generate the initial round of items based on the segmentary lineage theory and the literature. The deductive process is also the most appropriate approach for most situations when a theory exists

(Hinikin, 1998). For example, both the segmentary lineage theory and the literature review helped me define the tribalism construct.

Next, I used the theoretical definition of tribalism as a guide in generating and developing the items (Schwab, 1980). Finally, the deductive approach helped to assure the content validity of the final scale and, therefore, the scale generalizability (Hinkin et al., 1997).

Item development:

According to Harrison and McLaughlin (1993), a few things should be considered when

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE writing measurement statements. First, the language used in the statement should be simple and familiar to the target audience. Second, statements should not be too long; instead, they should be as short as possible. Third, a researcher should avoid mixing items that assess behaviors with items that assess other feelings. Finally, it is critical for a researcher to be consistent in all questions in the measure regarding perspective.

According to Hinkin (1989), items should address a single issue. Also, double-barreled items should be avoided. For example, a statement such as “people in my tribe are generous and honest” could confuse respondents and may well represent two separate constructs. Leading questions may bias responses and are also to be avoided. To obtain more variance, researchers should use items that allow respondents to provide different answers. Finally, there is no agreement on the issue of reverse-scored items or negatively worded questions. Schriesheim,

Eisenbach, and Hill (1989) recommended that researchers pay careful attention to commonalities and factor loading when conducting factor analysis.

Following the aforementioned guidelines, I began writing the items for the tribalism

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE construct based on the segmentary lineage theory and the literature review. To assess the construct under investigation, I created a pool of 48 items for the first scale version as a starting point (Appendix B). However, after conducting a preliminary pilot study in the United States with 50 respondents (male and female, ages of 25 and 67) via an email link to Survey Monkey, I realized that many respondents either quit the survey before answering the last ten questions or provided the same answer for all questions. Based on the Survey Money feedback I received, I determined that the survey had too many questions. I also realized that some questions were either double-barreled or too long. Respondents to the pilot study seemed unhappy with a survey that took more than 15 minutes to complete.

To address the problems mentioned previously, I interviewed sixteen tribal people from

Sudan, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nigeria, Somalia, and Iraq who are fluent in English. These interviewees were males and females between the ages of 25 and 67. Based on the interviews and feedback from my dissertation chair, I eliminated confusing and double-barreled items and replaced them with single-issue items. For example, items such as “attending tribal rituals,

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE wearing tribal clothing, and singing tribal songs are all important parts of being a tribe member” could appear in more than one construct and may confuse some respondents. It was also critical to keep all items consistent and avoid mixing items that assess cultural dimensions such as collectivism and unethical behavior with items that assess tribalism (Harrison & McLaughlin,

1993).

Furthermore, the questions were kept as short and straightforward as possible, and I used language that was familiar to my target respondents. This helped me create questions that would be understood by the respondents as intended by me as a researcher. Finally, based on the content analysis, only 41 items (Appendix C) were retained in the second version of the tribalism questionnaire.

Content validity:

It was important in this study to use a content validity assessment technique to provide an argument of content adequacy. I adopted a method described by Schriesheim et al. (1993) which was used by Mac Kenzie, Podsakoff, and Fetter (1991). Based on this technique, I provided five

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE naïve respondents with a two column table; the first column had construct definitions while the second had the corresponding items. The naïve respondents were then asked to match definitions in the first table with questions in the second table. Also, an unclassified category of items was included in the second column that did not match any of the definitions in the first table. This provided a measure of how accurate the naïve respondents were in matching items with definitions. With this method, more than 75 % of the naïve respondents correctly matched items. Although this technique does not promise content validity, it gives evidence of content adequacy (Hinikin, 1997).

Step 2: Assessment of Content Adequacy:

There are three techniques used by researchers to provide evidence of a content valid scale. However, none of the three guarantees a 100 % content valid measurement (Hinkin et al.,

1997). Therefore, to ensure adequate content validity, I used a technique that is better suited to my study. This technique was a method from Step 1 that I modified to allow me to delete conceptually inconsistent items. Accordingly, I consulted experts in the domain as well as

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE respondents who were required to sort or categorize the scale items based on their similarity to the definition of the tribalism construct. In addition, I asked some naive respondents if they could read the words, understand the questions, and understand the construct definitions.

Furthermore, I asked two respondents to read definitions without a title and then match the definition with a corresponding item. Following the adequacy assessment of the scale content, I created the second version of the 41 questions. I developed these questions to assess five dimensions of an individual in the tribalism construct. These five dimensions included belonging, loyalty, pride, group identity, and patriarchy.

Content adequacy:

The sample used to assess content adequacy encompassed 50 respondents who currently live in Hamilton, Ontario. These interviewees were males and females between the ages of 25 and 67, all of whom were born and raised in Pakistan. The majority of these respondents only recently immigrated to Canada. I chose respondents from Pakistan because Pakistanis are the most tribal people in the world (Jacobson & Deckard, 2012).

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Step 3: Questionnaire Administration and Data Collection

Questionnaires were administered in three mosques in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada following Friday afternoon prayer. First, the religious leader of the mosque (Imam) announced the survey. Then, with the help of three volunteers, verbal and written instructions were handed out, followed by the consent forms and surveys. The respondents answered the survey questions in 10 to 12 minutes. The paper-and-pencil surveys were answered anonymously and dropped in a sealed box at the mosque doors. As mentioned previously, I presented the 41 retained items to 130 survey respondents using paper-and-pencil administered questionnaires. Respondents were males (71%) and females (19 %), ages 25 and 67. The surveys were not translated to any other languages because the respondents were all fluent in English.

To clean the collected dataset, I excluded all respondents who did not complete the survey questions or who answered each of the questions with the same answer. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA), factor analysis (FA), and structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis were performed in SPSS 24 software using the cleaned dataset (118 responses). Out of the 41

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE questions, only items with a 0.40 criterion level and no cross loading were retained for an additional sample and subsequent administration. This item reduction process appears to be the most commonly used for ensuring significant factor loading (Ford et al., 1986). These factor loadings provided strong support for the five proposed dimensionalities of construct tribalism.

Using paper-and-pencil self-administered questionnaire:

Because web-based questionnaires are less expensive to administer than pencil-and-paper surveys, they can take the place of the paper-and-pencil surveys (Hohwü et al., 2013). Recently, researchers have argued that web-based questionnaires could provide comparable participant responses to paper-and-pencil questionnaires (Wu et al., 2009). However, responses to internet questionnaires may be affected by differences in computer displays or participants’ computer- related anxieties (Schulenberg & Yutrzenka, 2004). Given the chosen study population, I decided to use paper-and-pencil questionnaires to avoid computer-related issues and to achieve immediate responses. It was challenging to find mailing addresses and email address to communicate with all participants. Not having reliable means of communication was another

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE reason why I preferred to use paper-and-pencil questionnaires in the present study.

The influence of incentives on the study response rate:

Some researchers have reported improved response rates when incentives are present

(Dillman, 1978; Gunn & Rhodes, 1981; Kellerman & Herold, 2001). Others concluded that using incentives has only a negligible impact on response quality (Singer et al. 1999). Cash incentives also bring down the overall costs of the survey administration (Doody et al., 2003).

The value of the incentive influences the survey response rate (Gunn & Rhodes, 1981).

Therefore, each respondent in this study received a $5 gift card before completing the survey.

As a result, the response rate for this survey was 91%. In other words, out of 130 surveys, only twelve respondents either failed to answer all questions or marked all items with the same answer.

Item scaling:

In this study, I used a 5-point Likert scale. Response choices ranged from 1 (strongly agree) to 5 (strongly disagree). The 5-point Likert scale is one of the most commonly used

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE scales in survey research questionnaires (Cook, Hepworth, Wall, & Warr, 1981; Schmitt &

Klimoski, 1991). I chose to use a 5-point Likert scale for several reasons. First, this scale offers improved response quality and rate due to a lower respondent “frustration level” (Babakus &

Mangold, 1992). Furthermore, a 5-point Likert scale is less confusing (Babakus & Mangold,

1992). This scale is also reported to be more reliable (Jenkins & Taber, 1977; Remmers &

Ewart, 1941; Mc Kelvie, 1978). Finally, a five-point scale is readily understandable by respondents, and it also allows respondents to express their views quickly and easily (Marton-

Williams, 1986). The 5-point Likert scale used in this study ranged from strongly agree to strongly disagree.

Sample size:

The adequate sample size for statistically significant results depends on the number of items or variables assessed in the study. For example, to determine the sample size needed for robust results, have suggested calculating the sample size from item-to-response ratios ranging from 1:10 (Schwab, 1980) to 1: 4 (Rummel, 1970) for each set of scales when a researcher does

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

FA. According to Guadagnoli and Velicer (1988), in most studies, a sample size of 150 respondents should be enough to obtain satisfactory EFA results provided that inter-correlations between items are reasonably high. However, Bollen (1989) recommends a minimum of 100 observations for CFA. As a rule of thumb, power increases as the number of observations increases. Hence, a sample size of 118 responses for the EFA in this study is considered appropriate.

Step 4: Factor analysis and exploratory factor analysis

For scale development, EFA and FA are the two fundamental factor analyses used by researchers. CFA is a critical step that helps determine scale validity (Hinkin et al., 1997).

Researchers use EFA as a technique for data reduction (i.e., to obtain a more parsimonious set of variables). CFA, on the other hand, is usually used to statistically evaluate the quality of the factor structure as well as the relationships among scales and items.

Conducting an exploratory factor analysis:

Researchers have conducted EFA for both deductive and inductive studies because of its

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE usefulness. For example, in inductive research, EFA helps identify predicted item loadings. In both deductive and inductive studies, before FA, deleting a variable that correlates with all other variables at less than 0.40 is recommended (Kim & Mueller, 1978). According to

Churchill (1979), low correlation items suggest that the items are producing unreliability and errors because they are not drawn from the adequate domain. The number of questions to be retained using EFA is subjective. However, a scree plot of the percentage variance explained or

Eigenvalues greater than 1 are the most common ways to determine the number of retained factors (Cattel, 1966). If a researcher assumes that factors are largely uncorrelated, then an orthogonal rotation should be used. If the factors are correlated, then the researcher should use an oblique rotation. However, it may be useful to conduct both the orthogonal and oblique analyses in determining which items to retain.

When eliminating questions, I relied more on the orthogonal analysis because my study intended to develop a scale with factors that are relatively unrelated to one another. Therefore, in this study, I only retained items that distinctly loaded on a single factor. I also used extraction

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE from communality statistics in the SPSS 24 and a scree plot to decide which items to keep. The proportion of variance explained by each of the items allowed me to exclude those items with lower communality and keep those items with higher communality extraction.

I followed prior research recommendations when conducting EFA. Among the factoring methods commonly used in previous research, principal axis has been recommended to avoid issues associated with the principal component method of analysis (e.g., specific, common, and random error variances; Ford, Mac Callum, & Tait, 1986; Rummel, 1970). Up to this point, five factors were retained in the present study. The decision of maintaining five factors depended on both the empirical results (R ≥ 0.70) and the underlying theory. The empirical results support factors based on reliability, a scree plot, factor loadings (Table 2), Eigenvalues, and communalities.

Table 2

Factor Loadings

Items Factor 1 Factor 2 Factor 3 My tribe’s land has a special meaning to me. .716

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Belonging to my tribe is important to me. .711 The history of my tribe’s land is important to me. .701 My tribe's reputation is important to me. .699 Speaking my tribe's language is important to me. .682 Interdependence between extended family members is important .679 to me. My tribe’s home ground is important to me. .616 I feel proud of my tribe's success. .614 I feel proud of my tribe’s history. .576 I appreciate having knowledge about my tribe’s history. .836 I appreciate having knowledge about my tribe’s traditions. .769 I feel proud of my tribe. .761 I feel like a faithful person to my tribe. .736 I proudly describe myself as a member of my tribe. .684 I enjoy attending social events with extended family members. 0.864 I am willing to grant favors to extended family members. 0.749 I enjoy social gatherings with my extended family members. 0.725

Although retaining items is a subjective process, various indicators are available. In this study, Eigenvalues greater than 1 (Table 3), as well as a scree plot of the variance (Cattell,

1966) were used to determine the number of factors to retain. I used an oblique rotation because the three factors were correlated. However, to increase confidence in item removal decisions, I also conducted an orthogonal rotation. I relied heavily on orthogonal rotation when removing

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE items because my ultimate goal was to develop a new reliable and valid scale. Hence, I retained items that loaded on only a single factor. Also, I used the 0.40 criterion level in judging meaningful factor loadings (Ford et al., 1986).

Table 3

The SPSS output

Test Result Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO) 0.869 Approximate Chi-Square 1136.831 Bartlett's Test of Sphericity (df) 136 Bartlett's Test of Sphericity (Significance) 0.00 Communalities (Extraction) 0.50 - 0.81 Extraction Method Principal Component Analysis. Total Variance Explained 63.245 Eigen Values 1.572 and above

Furthermore, I retained items with higher communalities (i.e., > 0.60) using communality statistics, which show the proportion of variance explained by each item (Getty & Thompson,

1994). Finally, after dealing with Eigenvalues, communality statistics, and a scree plot, I deleted items loading inappropriately, and the analysis repeated. I stopped the process when I obtained a

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE clear factor structure matrix. The EFA process resulted in five factors with twenty items for a reliability check.

Conducting Confirmatory Factor Analysis:

In scale development, CFA is recommended because it confirms appropriate and thorough EFA analyses (Hinkin, 1998). Another reason for conducting the CFA is the possible lack of external consistency in EFA items that load precisely, potentially demonstrating a lack of fit in the measurement model of multiple indicators (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988). In the CFA each item is supposed to load only on its appropriate factor. To achieve that goal, I followed the recommendation of Harvey et al., (1985) and used CFA analysis with an item variance- covariance matrix. Procedures for the two analyses were the same except that in the CFA, I adjusted the system for five factors rather than relying on an Eigenvalue greater than one.

Adjusting the system for five factors allowed me to get the five factors I had from the EFA.

Step 5: Assessment of internal consistency

There are many ways to calculate reliability. However, Cronbach’s alpha (α), which

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE refers to how well the scale items are consistently measuring the same construct, is the most accepted reliability measure (Price & Mueller, 1986). According to Nunnally (1978), for an exploratory measure, a significant coefficient alpha (α=0.70) indicates high item homogeneity

(or covariance) and suggests that the study sampling domain has been captured appropriately

(Churchill, 1979).

Reliability in the new tribalism scale developed in the present study is supported by high internal consistency (i.e., Cronbach’s coefficient alpha). The new tribalism scale has a preliminary (i.e., via Cronbach’s coefficient alpha) acceptable level of reliability for three factors including tribal group identity (α=0.899), tribal pride (α=0.879), and tribal loyalty (α= 0.760).

However, Cronbach’s coefficient alpha tests showed tribal belonging (α=0.629), and tribal patriarchy (α= 0.645) were not reliable (α < 0.70). Therefore, I excluded both tribal patriarchy and belonging while keeping tribal loyalty, group identity, and pride as the three dimensions for further reliability and validity tests using AMOS (i.e., the model fi-test).

Step 6: Construct validity

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

As a rule of thumb, the new scales should demonstrate construct validity. Construct validity includes convergent validity (i.e., the extent to which the tribalism scale correlates with other instruments designed to value similar constructs), discriminant validity (i.e., the extent to which the tribalism scale does not correlate to different measures), and content validity (i.e., the extent to which an instrument measures the intended behavior it is designed for). Acceptable reliability (α > 0.70 ) and content validity provided strong evidence of construct validity

(Hinikin, 1997).

Model fit during confirmatory factor analysis in analysis of a moment structures:

Researchers have used numerous statistics to assess goodness of fit. However, in this study, I used the chi-square statistic (x2) because it allows the assessment of a model fit and permits the comparison between the distribution of the observed sample with the expected probability distribution. Carmines and Mclver (1981) suggest that the chi-square could be acceptable if its value is up to three times the degree of freedom. However, a smaller chi- square is deemed to improve model fit. Thacker, Fields, and Tetrick (1989) suggested that a

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE better model fit is when the value of chi-square and the value of the degrees of freedom are closer to one another.

It is desirable for a researcher to have a nonsignificant chi-square. However, a significant chi-square may not be problematic if a researcher can achieve additional adequate fit indices, considering the sensitivity of chi-square to sample size. Several researchers have recommended that the value of relative chi-square to the degree of freedom (ԃf) should range from 5.0

(Wheaton et al., 1977) to 2.0 (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). In other words, (x2/ԃf) approximately lies between 5 and 2. Besides the chi-square, researchers could use several goodness-of-fit indices (about 30 indices) to assess analytic results out of the CFA (MacKenzie,

Podsakoff, & Fetter, 1991). These indices gauge the amount of covariance and variance accounted for in a model. In addition to the comparative fit index (CFI), which have recommended to control for the sample size effects, some scholars recommend the Tucker-

Lewis, normalized fit, and the adjusted goodness of fit indices (Muliak, James, Van Alstine,

Bennet, Lind, & Stilwell, 1989). The values of these indices range from 0 to 1.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

The interpretation of model fit indices is somewhat subjective. However, a reasonably good model fit has index values greater than 0.90 (Widaman, 1985). Bagozzi and Phillips (1991) recommended the use of the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), where the value of less than 0.05 is considered acceptable. However, a cut-off value around .06 (Hu &

Bentler, 1999) has the consensus in the social science area. According to Moss (2009), a model is considered as acceptable if:

1. The normed fit index (NFI) is greater than 0.90 (Byrne, 1994);

2. The Goodness of fit index (GFI) is greater than 0.90 (Byrne, 1994);

3. The CFI is greater than 0.93 (Byrne, 1994);

4. The RMSEA is less than .08 (Browne & Cudeck,1993); and

5. The RMSEA, ideally, is less than .05 (Stieger, 1990), If not, the RMSEA upper confidence of interval should not surpass 0.08 (Hu & Bentler, 1998).

In conclusion, the matter of which indices should be reported by a researcher as evidence of scale validity is based on the recommendations of Kline (2005) and Boomsma (2000). Kline

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

(2005) recommended researchers to report the chi-square statistics, p-value, the CFI, the degrees of freedom, the RMSEA, the root mean residual (RMR), and one of the parsimony fit indices such as parsimony normed fit index (PNFI). In addition, the previously indices mentioned,

Boomsma (2000) recommended researchers to report the squared multiple correlations of each equation. The rationale behind choosing these indices over other indices comes from their sensitivity to model misspecification, sample size, and parameter estimates. These accepted indices (Table 4) have been found to be the most insensitive indices to parameter estimates, model misspecification, and sample size.

Table 4

The values of the model fit indices and acceptable thresholds

Fit Index Values of the Index Acceptable Threshold Levels NFI 0.952 Values greater than 0.95 PNFI 0.510 Within region (Mulaik et al., (1989)) RMSEA 0.046 Values less than 0.07 (Steiger, 2007). RMR 0.038 Good models have small RMR (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). CFI 0.990 Values greater than 0.95 p-Value 0.230 Not a significant value. df 15 No consensus. Chi-Square 18.648 Low χ2 relative to df with an insignificant p-value (p > .05). GFI 0.964 Values greater than 0.95 (Miles & Shevlin, 1998). Probability 0.230 No concerns. Level

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Note: The normed fit index (NFI); the Goodness of fit index (GFI); the root mean residual (RMR); the parsimony normed fit index (PNFI); the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA); the comparative fit index (CFI); the Goodness of fit index (GFI).

Common method bias:

Common method bias (CMB) in survey design affects accurate measurement of variables and provides inaccurate correlations. Effects due to CMB may be interpreted regarding response biases (e.g., common source or rater, acquiescence, leniency effects, halo effects, yea- and nay- saying, and social desirability). Regardless of the CMB source or origin, systematic error variance could have a significant negative impact on the empirical results of a study, leading to potentially false conclusions (Campbell & Fiske, 1959). This type of bias occurs in surveys because the survey instrument causes variations in responses and introduces a bias, hence, variances, which the instrument attempts to find. Therefore, results may be contaminated by the bias of the survey instrument (Podsakoff, Mac Kenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003).

Because CMB errors are the major source of measurement errors, it is critical to address

CMB by taking proactive steps to ensure that CMB is not misrepresenting the data results. This type of bias is associated with surveys designed for respondents to answer questions about both

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE dependent and independent variables (Podsakoff et al., 2003). A recent study by Chang,

Witteloostuijn, and Eden (2010) emphasized that a potential CMB error occurs due to respondents’ sociability, that is, the belief that the need for social approval can be obtained through culturally acceptable and adequate behaviors (Crowne & Marlowe, 1964). In other words, social desirability could lead to CMB because some respondents want to provide favorable or positive answers. Based on that argument and the nature of my topic, I decided to address CMB, taking proactive steps to reduce it and testing whether this study was influenced by CMB errors. Podsakoff et al. (2003) suggested several strategies to address CMB and to design survey protocols and statistical controls. This study used the following methods to address

CMB using different response techniques:

1. Rather than relying solely on interviewing respondents at their homes or sending them envelopes by mail, I met respondents at a place of their choice (i.e., at the mosque).

2. I changed the order of the questions.

3. I kept the wording simple and clear. I also avoided terminology that can have multiple

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE meanings for respondents.

4. I protected the rater’s anonymity; the Pakistani community is a collective society and people mostly know one another.

5. I reduced the rater’s anxiety by telling them that there are no right or wrong answers. This increases the likelihood of receiving honest answers.

6. I randomized the order of questions to hold up possible interference between items.

7. I pretested the survey instrument with a representative group of raters to validate the scale’s clarity, readability, length, and its adequacy for the sample frame.

Testing common method bias:

Three CMB techniques are used in surveys including, Harman’s Single Test-Factor

(HSTF), the common latent factor, and the common marker variable (Eichhorn, 2014). The

HSTF is widely used to determine if one general factor has caused the majority of the variance

(Podsakoff, 2003). In the HSTF all items that measure latent variables load into a single common factor. According to Eichhorn (2014), the CMB does not affect data if the percentage

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE of the total variance for the common single factor is below 50 % of the portion of the total variance explained. Therefore, the CMB did not affect the data of this study because the total variance explained by a single factor was 47% which is less than 50 % of the total variance.

The second CMB technique is the common latent factor which is similar to the HSTF

In that variables load to a single common factor. Researchers estimate the common variance by taking the square of each common factor path before standardization. Eichhorn (2014) concluded that the threshold for the common latent factor is set to 50 %. As such, CMB does not influence this study because the common variance was 12.25% (Appendix D).

The third CMB technique is the common marker variable which allows researchers to encompass measures thought to affect the source of the bias itself. Again, the common threshold is 50 % (Eichhorn, 2014). Based on that threshold and the results from the common marker variable test (25 %), CMB did not influence the results of this study (0.35 x 0.35 = 0.1225;

Appendix E).

Ethical considerations: Ethical concerns have been recognized and addressed by Ramos (1989), Shaw (2003),

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE and others. Informed consent, beneficence (i.e., do no harm), respect for confidentiality and anonymity are the primary ethical issues in conducting research (Fouka & Mantzorou, 2011). By complying with the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater Signed Consent Form for Research

Involving Human Subjects, the study has addressed all major ethical issues. The aforementioned consent form guides and approves guides and approves research through the Institutional Review

Board. The aforementioned board requires that informed consent (Appendix H) comply with the requirements of the US Department of Health and Human Services, Office for Human Research

Protections Title 45 of the Code of the Federal Regulations 46.116 (45 CFR 46.116).

This study addressed the ethical issues in research by requiring participant signatures on the consent form which was approved by the IRB. The IRB form includes several things related to the study:

1. The title and a brief description of the study.

2. The risks and the benefits of the research.

3. The time commitment required to complete the survey and payment provided for participating.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

4. Information on how participant identities are safeguarded.

5. A statement on participants’ right to withdraw from the study.

6. The names and contact information of the investigators.

Step 7: Reliability and final scale validity

The EFA and CFA analyses indicate that the newly developed tribalism scale comprises three reliable and valid factors: tribal loyalty (R = 0.78), tribal pride (R = 0.82), and tribal group identity (R = 0.78)). These values are explained in table 5 (see Table 5). Coefficient alpha scores for each of the interval scaled dimensions exceeded the conventional benchmark established for construct reliability for exploratory scales (α > 0.70; Nunnally, 1978).

For the scale validation, I used data from 41 questions from an initial set of 118 respondents. I conducted the CFA using the remaining 10 items, which allowed me to confirm the remaining three-factor structure of the scale and to validate uni-dimensionality (Churchill,

1979).

Measurement model fit was estimated using AMOS 24. The statistical chi-square for the

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE study model was not significant (χ2 = 18.648, df = 15, p = 0.230). The CFI was 0.990, the adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI) was 0.915, the NFI was 0.952, the RMR was 0.038, GFI was 0.964, and RMSEA was 0.046). Each of these indices collectively suggested an acceptable model fit (Moss, 2009). Based on Mathwick and Rigdon (2004), the individual item loadings were all significant at p < .001 and the standardized regression weights for all items ranged from

0.60 to 0.99, suggesting high convergent validity. The coefficient alpha scores for tribal loyalty

(R=0.78), tribal pride (R=0.82), and tribal group identity (R=0.78) are shown in Table 6.

Table 5

The reliability and validity values using Gaskin spreadsheet test for the scale

Dimension CR AVE MSV ASV Group ID Loyalty Pride Group identity 0.777 0.545 0.504 0.271 0.739 Loyalty 0.784 0.653 0.267 0.153 0.195 0.808 Pride 0.824 0.540 0.504 0.386 0.710 0.517 0.735 Note. CR denotes the composite reliability; AVE denotes the average variance extracted; MSV denotes the maximum shared variance; and ASV denotes the average shared variance.

Each of the three factors had good internal reliability (Nunnally, 1978). Lastly, testing for discriminant validity, I found that MSV was less than AVE and ASV was less than AVE, that

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE is, the square root of AVE was greater than the inter-construct correlation (Hair et al., 2010), which provided substantial evidence of discriminant validity. The standardized regression weights (AVE > 0.5) were evidence of convergent validity, that is, the composite reliability was high for all factors. The SEM validity tests in AMOS indicated that only eight of the 41 questions should be retained because, based on the results from the convergent and discriminant validity, the fourth and the fifth factors did not fit the model (Appendix G). The Gaskins AMOS validity test using an Excel spreadsheet offered evidence of reliability, and convergent and discriminant validity. The square root of AVE (0.739) is greater than the inter-construct correlations (0.735). Besides, both MSV and ASV were less than AVE.

Results and Analysis

The Scale Validation Using Simple Linear Regression Analysis

For the scale validation, I used the newly developed tribalism scale to collect primary data on tribalism at the individual level using an email link for 220 respondents from 17 different countries. These countries included: Angola, Chad, Ethiopia, Jordan, India, Iran, Iraq, Kenya,

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Libya, Nigeria, Pakistan, Rwanda, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, South Sudan, Sudan, and Yemen.

These 220 respondents were university students at the International University of Africa in

Khartoum, Sudan. The age of these respondents ranged between 19 and 45; 80 % of the respondents were males; and 20 % were females. Twenty-one percent of respondents were married, and 79 % are not married. The respondents were 87 % Muslims, 9 % Christians, 1 %

Hindus, and 3 % non-religious. The ethnicity of the survey respondents included 93 % black, 6

% Asian, and 1 % white. I met these students with the help of the research centre at this school when I visited Sudan in January 2018. I handed out the signed consent form for research involving human subjects to every participant. I provided 250 students with my email address, and I received responses from 220 students.

As of 2017, the International University of Africa had approximately 6000 students from

92 different countries worldwide. To avoid translation issues, I only surveyed students in the faculties of medicine, engineering, pharmacy, nursing, dentistry, and faculties of laboratory sciences. The students in these faculties are fluent in English and English is the language of

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE instructions. I asked respondents the eight questions from the newly developed tribalism developed scale (Appendix H).

I conducted the CFA using the remaining eight items (Appendix H), which allowed me to confirm the remaining three-factor structure of the scale and to validate uni-dimensionality

(Churchill, 1979). The EFA and CFA analyses indicated that the newly developed tribalism scale comprises three reliable and valid factors: tribal loyalty (R = 0.75), tribal pride (R = 0.88), and tribal group identity (R = 0.76)). These values are explained in Table 7. Coefficient alpha scores for each of the interval scaled dimensions exceeded the conventional benchmark established for construct reliability for exploratory scales (α > 0.70; Nunnally, 1978). The

Measurement model fit for the scale validation was estimated using AMOS 24 (see Table 8).

Table 6

The reliability and validity values using Gaskin spreadsheet test for the scale-validation

Dimension CR AVE MSV ASV Group ID Loyalty Pride Group ID 0.878 0.783 0.375 0.346 0.885 Loyalty 0.751 0.601 0.466 0.392 0.564 0.776 Pride 0.763 0.616 0.466 0.421 0.612 0.683 0.785

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Note. CR denotes the composite reliability; AVE denotes the average variance extracted; MSV denotes the maximum shared variance; and ASV denotes the average shared variance.

Table 7

The values of the model fit indices and acceptable thresholds-scale validation / SEM

Fit Index Values of the Index Acceptable Threshold Levels NFI 0.963 Values greater than 0.95 PNFI 0.385 Within region (Mulaik, James, Van, Bennett, Lind, & Stilwell, 1989). RMSEA 0.086 Values less than 0.07 (Steiger, 2007). RMR 0.018 Good models have small RMR (Tabachnik & Fidell, 2007). CFI 0.982 Values greater than 0.95 p-Value 0.094 Not a significant value. df 6 No consensus. Chi-Square 10.819 Low χ2 relative to df with an insignificant p-value (p > 0.05). GFI 0.971 Values are greater than 0.95 (Miles & Shevlin, 1998). Probability 0.094 No concerns. Level Note: The normed fit index (NFI); the Goodness of fit index (GFI); the root mean residual (RMR); the parsimony normed fit index (PNFI); the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA); the comparative fit index (CFI); the Goodness of fit index (GFI).

The statistical chi-square for the study model was not significant (χ2 = 10.819, df = 6, p =

0.094). The CFI was 0.982, the AGFI was 0.898, the NFI was 0.963, the RMR was 0.018, GFI was 0.971, and RMSEA was 0.086). Each of these indices collectively suggested an acceptable model fit (Moss, 2009). Based on Mathwick and Rigdon (2004), the individual item loadings were all significant at p < .001, and the standardized regression weights for all items

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE ranged from 0.768 to 0.925, suggesting high convergent validity. The coefficient alpha scores for tribal loyalty (R=0.75), tribal pride (R=0.76), and tribal group identity (R=0.88) were all greater than 7.

Each of the three factors had good internal reliability (Nunnally, 1978). Lastly, testing for discriminant validity, I found that was less than MSV < AVE and was less than ASV < AVE, that is, the square root of AVE was greater than the inter-construct correlation (Hair et al., 2010), which provided substantial evidence of discriminant validity. The standardized regression weights (AVE > 0.5) were evidence of convergent validity, that is, the composite reliability was high for all constructs. The SEM validity tests in AMOS indicated that only six of the eight questions should be retained in this newly developed scale. The Gaskins AMOS validity test using an Excel spreadsheet offered evidence of reliability, convergent, and discriminant validity.

The square root of AVE (0.785) was greater than the inter-construct correlations (0.885). In addition, both MSV and ASV were less than AVE. Discussion, Limitations, and Future Research

The newly developed tribalism scale had three factors rather than the five factors I

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE theorized at the beginning of this study. According to Nunnally (1978), the reliability of the fourth (tribal belonging, R = 0.629 < 0.70) and the fifth (tribal patriarchy, R = 0.645 < 0.70) factors were not acceptable. Hence, I removed the tribal patriarchy and tribal belonging and oneness items before conducting the model fit test in AMOS. The new scale would be invalid, and the scale generalizability would be jeopardized if the fourth and fifth factors were retained.

The three factors of the newly developed scale comprise eight items: two questions regarding loyalty, three questions regarding pride, and three questions on group identity (Appendix H).

That tribal patriarchy is not a reliable dimension is no surprise at this point. Many scholars have perceived patriarchy as a social system that describes society as a whole, not as an individual behavior within the community (Hassel, Reddinger, & Van Slooten, 2011). Patriarchy in tribal structures refers to a hierarchical system in which men control political, economic, and cultural structures (Iheriohanma, 2014). Patriarchy is a social system which cannot be brought down to the people who participate in it. I designed the tribalism scale to measure individual tribal behavior, not the social system of tribes, though some tribe members may show

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE masculinity behaviors, which are very close to patriarchy.

Tribal belonging, too, is an unreliable dimension. This may be explained by its inclusion in group identity. Group identity is the feeling of oneness or belongingness with the object of identification or as a self-definition regarding the specific object (Bhattacharya, Mael, &

Ashforth, 1992; Rao & Glynn 1995; Shamir 1992). Group identity holds the same meaning of belonging or oneness. Individuals belong to a social group if they share the same identity, which could be speaking one language or having the same customs and norms (Rouchy, 2002).

This study examined tribal behavior in Pakistan because Pakistan scored is high on the tribalism scale (Jacobson & Deckard, 2012). The assumption was that Pakistanis are the world’s most tribal people. Future research should collect data from more diverse tribal countries in

North America, South America, Central America, Asia, and Africa. More diverse data collection would help improve the generalizability of the tribalism scale.

Future research should also focus on mixed model research, which involves qualitative and qualitative studies being mixed in more than one stage of the study (i.e., research methods,

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE data collection, questions, data analysis, and the interpretation or inference process; Tashakkori

& Teddlie, 2003). Triangulation (i.e., the use of multiple data sources or methods in qualitative research to help develop a thorough understanding of a phenomenon; Patton, 1999) is a powerful technique that facilitates validation of data through cross verification from two or more sources.

The application and combination of several research methods in the study of the same tribalism phenomenon will ensure more consistency and generalizability to the scale.

The newly developed measure can benefit multicultural business practitioners and cross- cultural researchers. The scale links tribal values to individual behaviors and attitudes because the data about tribalism, behaviors, and attitudes come from the same source. Finally, by measuring tribal values and not equating them to the Tribalism Index, researchers may avoid the ecological fallacy, which happens when researchers simply interpret country-level relationships

(i.e., Tribalism Index) as if they were applying them to individuals (Hofstede,1980).

Practitioners could benefit from understanding individuals’ tribal behaviors to build better international and cross-cultural management systems in the era of globalization. Business

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE corporations that run overseas businesses should consider individuals’ tribal behavior when hiring managers from local communities. Not knowing the international business environment, through its economic and cultural diversity, frequently puts global managers in difficult positions creating a great variety of ethical problems (Gangone, 2011). Measuring and understanding individual tribal behaviors could help international managers formulate their organizational policies and standards by combining the local tribal values, the law, the ethical business principles, and the regulatory standards in most countries of the world.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

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Appendix A

Tribalism Indicator Item Legend Indicator (as per survey; Meir, 2009)

Q1. I feel like part of a “group” when I attend matches to support my team.

Q2. If I am at a game, I feel like I can contribute to the team’s performance by cheering, shouting out support to my players, or shouting out to try and influence match officials or opposing players.

Q3. Being able to stand/sit with my fellow fans all together is an important part of the match day experience for me.

Q4. When I attend games wearing my team merchandise and chanting for the team with all the other fans, I feel a sense of power.

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Appendix B

A Pool of Scale Items (Version 1)

Q1. I feel a strong sense of pride in my tribe.

Q2. Supporting my tribe is important to me.

Q3. I proudly tell others that I support my tribe.

Q4. I feel close to my tribe and think that my support in some way helps the tribe.

Q5. I describe myself as a member of my tribe to others.

Q6. I feel that being a supporter of my tribe is an important part of who I am.

Q7. When I support my tribe, I feel I am also supporting my fellow tribesmen.

Q8. Supporting the tribe makes me feel part of a larger community of tribesmen, all of whom help the tribe.

Q9. I feel good about myself when I wear clothing with my tribe’s logo or design on it.

Q10. Having a good level of knowledge about the tribe and its history is an important part of being a “true” tribe member.

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Q11. Being a supporter gives me a sense of belonging to the tribe.

Q12. I feel a stronger bond with my tribe’s local community because of my support of the tribe.

Q13. Attending tribal rituals, wearing tribal clothing, and singing tribal songs are all important aspects of being a tribe member.

Q14. I like to contribute to tribal events and discuss with other tribal members how the tribe is doing and decisions being made by tribal leaders.

Q15. I enjoy socializing with fellow tribe members and talking about the tribe, its history, current situation, and its future.

Q16. I really enjoy attending or watching tribal events with family and friends.

Q17. I like to spend time with my family and friends talking about the tribe and its situation.

Q18. Wearing tribal clothing makes me feel more a part of the tribe.

Q19. I feel special when I wear my tribal clothing.

Q20. I really enjoy the company of fellow tribal members.

Q21. When I attend tribal rituals or events with fellow tribe members, I feel good about myself.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Q22. I feel a strong sense of attachment to my tribe.

Q23. I spend part of each day thinking about my tribe.

Q24. I think that attending tribal rituals or events is a good way of demonstrating my support of the tribe to other people.

Q25. My tribe’s home ground has special meaning for me and it is a substantial part of my tribe’s history.

Q26. I like to participate in tribal rituals and attend events with other tribe members.

Q27. I think that it is important to have a good knowledge of the tribe and its history.

Q28. Supporting my tribe is more important to me than helping my country.

Q29. My tribe’s home ground has special symbolic meaning to me.

Q30. The history and tradition of my tribe’s home ground are an important part of my experience as a tribe member.

Q31. My tribe reflects something positive about me as a person, for example, that I am successful, a winner.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Q32. It is important to me that I can buy merchandise with my tribe’s logo on it.

Q33. I feel like part of a group when I attend tribal events or rituals to support my tribe.

Q34. When I sing songs or recite poetry in support of the tribe, I feel like part of the tribe.

Q35. Being able to stand or sit with my fellow tribal members all together is an important part of the event for me.

Q36. When I attend my tribe events wearing my tribal clothing and singing for the tribe with all of the other tribe members I feel a sense of power.

Q37. I think that it is important to tell stories about the tribe’s past, present, and future and to share these with other tribal members.

Q38. Young kids in my tribe should know something about the tribe’s history, suffering, and victories.

Q39. In my tribe, women are the promise of reproduction of family and culture.

Q40. In my tribe, men are the bedrock of security.

Q41. Men are able to intimidate those who would victimize their parents, wives, and children.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Q42. Senior men in my tribe have authority over everyone else in the tribe.

Q43. In their fathers’ absence, young boys may have authority over their mothers and older sisters.

Q44. Doing favors to my tribe members is important to me.

Q45. Mutual gift giving makes feel connected to other members of my tribe.

Q46. Saving face with my tribal members makes feel happy.

Q47. My tribe provides me with pride, dignity, honor, and respect.

Q48. My tribe motivates me to protect, shelter, and care for others.

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Appendix C

A Pool of the Scale Items (Version 2)

Q1. I feel happy to support my tribe.

Q2. Being a member of my tribe is important to me.

Q3. Interdependence between extended family members is important to me.

Q4. My tribe's reputation is important to me.

Q5. I feel proud when my tribe does well financially.

Q6. Speaking my tribe's language is important to me.

Q7. I am willing to grant favors to extended family members.

Q8. I feel proud of my tribe's success.

Q9. Belonging to my tribe is important to me.

Q10. I feel like a part of my tribe.

Q11. My tribe’s land has a special meaning to me.

Q12. My tribe’s home ground is important to me.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Q13. The history of my tribe’s land is important to me.

Q14. I feel proud of my tribe’s traditions.

Q15. I feel happy to help people from my tribe.

Q16. I think marrying someone from my tribe is good.

Q17. Women's primary role should be to have children.

Q18. Men should be responsible for the safety of their tribes.

Q19. Men should protect their tribes.

Q20. Younger boys may have authority over their older sisters.

Q21. I feel proud of my tribe’s courage.

Q22. I feel proud of my tribe’s generosity.

Q23 I feel proud of my tribe’s history.

Q24. I feel happy when my tribe does well financially.

Q25. I feel proud of my tribe.

Q26. I feel like a faithful person to my tribe.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Q27. I feel happy to help people from my extended family.

Q28. The structure of my society allows men to control women.

Q29. In my community, men usually obtain most of the privileges.

Q30. Women who want children should stay married to their husbands.

Q31. I perceive the woman’s role as a married mother.

Q32. I believe that people should live in harmony.

Q33. I feel happy about the achievements of my fellow tribe members.

Q34. I feel happy about the success of my fellow tribe members.

Q35. I appreciate having knowledge about my tribe’s history.

Q36. I appreciate having knowledge about my tribe’s traditions.

Q37. I proudly describe myself as a member of my tribe.

Q38. I enjoy social gathering with my extended family members.

Q39. I enjoy attending social events with extended family members.

Q40. I am happy to wear my tribal clothing.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Q41. Wearing my tribe’s traditional dress makes me feel different from others.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Appendix D

Figure D1. The common latent factor analysis. Notes: Q4 denotes question 4 (i.e., my tribe's reputation is important to me). Q6 denotes question 6 (i.e., speaking my tribe's language is important to me). Q9 denotes question 9 (i.e., belonging to my tribe is important to me). Q35 denotes question 35 (i.e., I appreciate having knowledge about my tribe’s history). Q36 denotes question 36 (i.e., I appreciate having knowledge about my tribe’s traditions). Q37 denotes question 37 (i.e., I proudly describe myself as a member of my tribe). Q38 denotes question 38 (i.e., I enjoy social gathering with my extended family members). Q39 denotes question 39 (i.e., I enjoy attending social events with extended family members). E denotes the error term.

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Appendix E

Figure E1. The common factor marker variable analysis. Note: Q1 denotes question 1 (i.e., I feel happy to support my tribe). Q8 denotes question 8 (i.e., I feel proud of my tribe's success). Q11 denotes question 11 (i.e., my tribe’s land has a special meaning to me). Q4 denote question 4 (i.e., my tribe's reputation is important to me). Q6 denotes question 6 (i.e., speaking my tribe's language is important to me). Q9 denotes question 9 (i.e., belonging to my tribe is important to me). Q35 denotes question 35 (i.e., I appreciate having knowledge about my tribe’s history). Q36 denotes question 36 (i.e., I appreciate having knowledge about my tribe’s traditions). Q37 denotes question 37 (i.e., I proudly describe myself as a member of my tribe). Q38 denotes question 38 (i.e., I enjoy social gathering with my extended family members). Q39 denotes question 39 (i.e., I enjoy attending social events with extended family members). Q41 denotes question 41 (i.e., wearing my tribe’s traditional dress makes me feel different from others). E denotes the error term.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Appendix F

The Signed Consent Form for Research Involving Human Subjects

Consent to Participate in University of Wisconsin-Whitewater Approved Research

Title: (Tribalism: Scale Construction and Validation)

Investigator:

Yousif Abdelrahim [email protected] (289) 933-8976

Research Sponsor:

Dr. Aditya Simha [email protected] (509) 432-9239

Description:

This research project develops and validates a new reliable tribalism scale for measuring and predicting individual tribal behavior in a society using the engaged theory. The primary measurement data will be collected using a pencil-and-paper questionnaire. Survey respondents

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE are from Pakistan and currently live in the Greater Hamilton Area (GHA), Ontario, Canada. The newly developed scale is expected to show five reliable and valid dimensions for measuring tribalism at the individual level including tribal belonging, tribal pride, tribal loyalty, tribal patriarchy, and group identity. The study will also discuss future research and the theoretical and practical implications of the scale.

Risks and Benefits:

There is no direct benefit to an individual subject. However, there are many benefits to society, researchers, and businesses. The newly developed measure of the tribalism construct can benefit multicultural business practitioners and cross-cultural researchers. The scale links tribal values to individual behaviors and attitudes because the data about tribalism, behaviors, and attitude come from the same source. Finally, by measuring tribal values and not equating them to a tribalism index, researchers can avoid the ecological fallacy, which happens when researchers simply interpret country-level relationships with individuals.

Special Populations: N/A.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Time Commitment and Payment:

Any participant who completes or drops out of the study will receive a gift card worth of five Canadian dollars.

Safeguarding the Identity of Participants:

All research elements will be opened to other researchers and publications except my

Data: (a) I will use the immediate data for my own test of the five proposed dimensions; (b) the data will not be used by other researchers. (i.e., the data are not for public use); (c) participants in my study are un-identifiable because the survey doesn't ask participants to provide their names, phone numbers, addresses, emails, social security numbers, dates of birth, places of birth, mother’s maiden name, or biometric records. The study does not ask for any information that is linked or linkable to an individual, such as medical, educational, financial, and employment information. The survey asks participants for an age range and gender. No identifiers will be used for the collected data. (d) to safeguard participants' data from unauthorized access, I will use a non-WAN connected computer server and /or a hard disk. The data will be accessed only

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE by the principal investigator using a secure password.

Right to Withdraw:

As a participant, you are not obligated to participate or continue participation in this project if you are uncomfortable. Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary. You may choose not to participate without any adverse consequences to you. However, should you decide to participate and later wish to withdraw from the study, there is no way to identify you or your anonymous document after it has been turned into the investigator.

The Institution Review Board Approval:

This study has been reviewed and approved by The University of Wisconsin-

Whitewater's Institution Review Board (IRB). The IRB has determined that this study meets the ethical obligations required by federal law and University policies. If you have questions or concerns regarding this study, please contact the Investigator or Advisor. If you have any questions, concerns, or reports regarding your rights as a research subject, please contact the IRB

Administrator.

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Principal Investigator (Faculty / Staff) IRB

Dr. Aditya Simha Carol Katch [email protected] Compliance Manager 509-432-9239 UW-Whitewater Co-Investigator: N/A. Office of Research and Sponsored Programs Student Investigator: 800 West Main St., Andersen Library 2243 Yousif Abdelrahim Whitewater, WI 53190 [email protected] [email protected] 289-933-8976 262-472-5288

Statement of Consent:

“By signing this consent form you certify you are at least 18 years of age and agree to participate in the project titled, Tribalism: Scale Construction and Validation ”

______

Signature Date

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Appendix G

Figure G1. Model fit during confirmatory factor analysis in analysis of a moment structures. Note: Q4 denotes question 4 (i.e., my tribe's reputation is important to me). Q6 denotes question 6 (i.e., speaking my tribe's language is important to me). Q9 denotes question 9 (i.e., belonging to my tribe is important to me). Q35 denotes question 35 (i.e., I appreciate having knowledge about my tribe’s history). Q36 denotes question 36 (i.e., I appreciate having knowledge about my tribe’s traditions). Q37 denotes question 37 (i.e., I proudly describe myself as a member of my tribe). Q38 denotes question 38 (i.e., I enjoy social gathering with my extended family members). Q39 denotes question 39 (i.e., I enjoy attending social events with extended family members). E denotes the error term.

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Appendix H

The Scale Items for Construct Tribalism

Q4. My tribe's reputation is important to me.

Q6. Speaking my tribe's language is important to me.

Q9. Belonging to my tribe is important to me.

Q35. I appreciate having knowledge about my tribe’s history.

Q36 I appreciate having knowledge about my tribe’s traditions.

Q37. I proudly describe myself as a member of my tribe.

Q38. I enjoy social gathering with extended family members.

Q39. I enjoy attending social events with extended family members.

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ESSAY 2

TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

ABSTRACT

This study examined the relationship between tribalism and ethically suspect behaviors,

As well as tribalism corruption. The work is an examination of whether tribalism is a unique cultural behavior that is different from Hofstede’s (1980) and other cultural dimensions. I used institutional anomie theory to develop my hypotheses relating tribalism to individuals’ ethically suspect behaviors. Using the hierarchical linear modeling technique and secondary data from the

Jacobson and Deckard (2012) study, the World Value Survey (WVS), and the Economic Cycle

Research Institute (KOF) Index of Globalization (68,630 individuals from 56 countries) the study showed that tribalism is a cultural dimension different from Hofstede’s (1980) four cultural dimensions (collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity). The study also showed that tribalism is positively related to corruption and that the positive relationship between tribalism and corruption is weaker at a higher level of globalization. However, the

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE study did not support the positive relationship between tribalism at the country level and ethically suspect behaviors at the individual level. Future research, theoretical and practical implications, and research limitations are also discussed.

KEYWORDS: Tribe, tribalism, tribal behavior, unethical behaviors, corruption, Tribalism

Index.

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Essay 2—Tribalism and Corruption: Explorations Beyond National Culture

Although tribalism is a concept that seems to apply to particular African /Arab societies, I argue that it is relevant to all societies. The contemporary usage of tribalism indicates that the term refers to simple activities that represent cultural and community unity. For example, due to kinship, members feel a sense of belonging and indebtedness to one another, regardless of the reality of those feelings (Jacobson & Deckard, 2012). Most societies have some level of tribalism based on that definition. It is therefore surprising to see that international management researchers have mostly ignored the concept.

In this paper, I argue that the idea of tribalism applies to all societies and is also distinct from national culture variables. In other words, I build the case that tribalism should be considered by researchers as an additional indicator of the culture, different from cultural dimensions as proposed by current national cultural frameworks such as that of Hofstede (1980).

This idea led to the first research question: is tribalism a unique cultural dimension that is different from Hofstede's (1980) four cultural dimensions?

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With the growing globalization of the world economy and rising international business transactions, understanding individuals’ ethically questionable behaviors from a cross-national perspective is critical to researchers and practitioners. Transparency International (TIN) estimated that about 75 million people in sub-Saharan Africa paid a bribe in 2015 to escape punishment by the courts or the police or to gain access to essential services (Index, 2010).

According to a recent report (Index. 2010), corruption in Africa is estimated to cost approximately $150 billion a year. Corruption as an unethical behavior relates to financial losses, loss of customers, reputational damage decreases in organizational performance, and safety concerns. The success of any organization could depend on understanding why these types of behaviors occur (Askew, Beisler, & Keel, 2015). Understandably, businesses are anxious about corruption and unethical behavior.

For both academics and practitioners, the question of why and how most people become involved in unethical behaviors is a critical one given the destructive and costly consequences for business, organizations, society, and individuals Kilduff, Galinsky, Gallo, & Reade, 2012) .

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Tribalism (i.e., the feeling of being loyal to a tribe, belonging to one another, and owing to kinship regardless of the credibility and reality of their sense of belonging) could influence individuals’ thinking and behavior (Ronfeldt, 2006). For example, tribal dynamics have been astonishingly notable in the prosperity or setback of some businesses, from South America to

Central Asia to Africa (Jacobson & Deckard, 2012).

Although tribalism is a fundamental aspect of life in many African, Asian, and Middle

Eastern societies, it has mostly been ignored in the international management area. In fact, the role of tribalism is often overlooked in many business and economics studies in both Western and developing countries (Baabbad & Abidin, 2015). However, the situation is different in Arab countries where the tribe plays a key role in politics and social lives (Loewe, Blume & Speer,

2008). According to Hofstede (1980), both cultural values and socioeconomic conditions prevailing in tribal environments will affect an individual’s perceptions and behavior. More importantly, the tribe is the basic social unit of Arab societies (Habib, & Kassem, 1989). The influence of the tribal environment on individual behavior leads to the third research question,

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“Does tribalism positively relate to the justification of ethically suspect behaviors?”

Ethically suspect behaviors have been defined in the literature as behaviors that fall outside the accepted norms and moral behaviors of society (e.g., lying, stealing, cheating, or bribery; Reynolds & Ceranic, 2007; Trevino, Weaver, & Reynolds, 2006). Unethical behavior may happen because an employee has directly engaged in wrongdoing, or because of the employee's failure to report wrongdoings or immoral activity (Bowditch et al., 2007). An individual at the workplace could be an antecedent to unethical behavior because of negative influences (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, & Trevino, 2010). Many of these negative influences such as kickbacks, reciprocal exchange, gift-giving, and face-saving are associated with the concept of tribalism in African and Arab societies (Berger et al., 2015). Based on this line of discussion, bribery is unethical behavior, and bribery is corruption leading to the third research question:

Does tribalism positively relate to corruption?

According to the Tribalism Index (Jacobson & Deckard, 2012 ), the Middle East, South

Asia, and Africa still have explicit clans, extended families, and tribes. However, there is

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE no single agreed on definition for tribalism in the literature (Dadfar, 1993). The engaged theory defines tribalism as a way of being based upon collections of oral communication, reciprocal exchange, kinship-based organization, manual production, and analogical inquiry (James, 2006).

Glazer and Moynihan (1975) defined a tribe as a label for a social group that feels recognizably different by descent and a common culture. Regardless of how researchers have defined tribalism, the common theme among these various definitions still exists. Loyalty, belonging, commitment, face-saving, identity, and oneness are characteristics associated with a tribe or tribalism. This work defined tribalism as a social phenomenon of being organized in a tribe or tribes that have their subculture in society, with their lifestyles, loyalty, commitment, norms, beliefs, customs, identity, and social behavior.

This study contributes to the literature by examining the concept of tribalism and arguing that tribalism is distinct from other cultural elements such as Hofstede's cultural framework. I also validated the tribalism concept by examining its link with the justification of unethical behaviors and corruption. In addition, by explaining the interaction between tribalism and

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE globalization, the study contributes to the literature in these areas. Furthermore, the present work may help explain why tribalism is declining in some countries and societies.

The study provides direction to multinational firms in understanding the critical power of tribes in today’s global market. For example, tribalism is considered a social force and is known to be of continuing social importance in many tribal countries such as the State of Qatar (Paglia,

2007). On the Arabian Peninsula, tribalism is a cultural pillar (Habib & Kassem, 1989) and tribal character relates closely to the Arab and the Middle Eastern culture (Berger et al., 2015). Hence, understanding tribalism could empower multinational companies to comprehend the growing force of a tribe and its influence on behavior. Knowing that relationship can help companies and individuals to integrate that behavioral understanding in their business activities overseas.

Literature Review and Hypothesis Development

The literature review showed several factors that could contribute to unethical behavior.

For example, three individual characteristics of followers (i.e., proactivity, impulsivity, and authoritarianism) could influence unethical behavior (Mowchan et al., 2015). Different

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE factors, including demographic characteristics (e.g., gender and age) and dispositional traits (e.g., cognitive, moral development, and locus of control) could also influence unethical behavior and organizational misconduct (Greve, Palmer, & Pozner, 2010; Kish-Gephart et al., 2010; Whitley,

1998). In addition, factors such as environmental and situational characteristics (e.g., honors codes, norms, and organizational culture) may influence unethical behavior and corporate misconduct (Greve et al., 2010; Kish-Gephart et al., 2010; Whitley, 1998)).

Tribalism is another factor that may influence unethical behavior and corporate misconduct. Unethical practices, such as the level of corruption in a country, not only relate to the laws of that state but also to tribalism (Jacobson & Deckard, 2012) because of the intense loyalty of tribe members to their tribes (Rowland, 2009). Tribal loyalty leads tribe members to demonize non-tribe members (Nothwehr, 2008). Even in the Christian church, racism and tribalism have negatively influenced people, leaving their professional ethics and faith compromised (Graham, 1993).

Ronfeldt (2006), associated tribalism with reciprocal gift-giving, kickbacks, patronage,

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE nepotism, favoritism, cronyism, and corruption. Tribe members consider such unethical practices standard because their goal is to connect kith and kin in alignment with the tribe and thereby enhance their access to resources (Ronfeldt, 2006). Ronfeldt (2006) added that the stronger a society leans toward clannish relationships, the more that society is breached by corrupt practices. In the Arab world, tribal customs and norms cater to the interests of the tribe

(Anthony, 1982; Corstange, 2008; Makhfee, 2011; Muhammad, 1999). The literature has shown that the three concepts of tribalism, racism, and ethnicity potentially carry elements of collective, personal, and political self-interest (Sanou, 2015). These concepts are grounded in the desire of a group or an individual to exploit, dominate, or assault others (Sanou, 2015).

Although the international management literature has mostly ignored tribalism, it has received some support in accounting, marketing, politics, management, and finance. In finance, there a negative correlation was found between tribalism and financial development (Trombley,

2014). The magnitude of the negativity is higher for intermediary economic growth relative to stock market development (Trombley, 2014). These findings are particularly relevant to African

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE and Middle Eastern countries where the scourge of tribalism is most pronounced (Kodila-Tedika

& Asongu, 2015). In accounting, the widespread group loyalty of tribalism affects auditor independence, especially when the client, accountant, and auditor each comes from the same tribe or allied tribes (Abidin & Baabbad (2015).

In Arab countries specifically, a tribe plays the primary role in social life and politics (Cornstage, 2008). The least developed countries in the world are countries with the highest level of tribalism (Trombley, 2014). In other words, countries with greater tribalism experience less effective governance (Kodila-Tedika & Asongu, 2015).

Government inefficiency and tribalism have been found to reinforce one another in a mutually healthy relationship (Trombley, 2014). Tribalism is a doctrine of unreasonably favoring individuals within a tribe or group of tribes. It causes corruption, threatens the social and political stability of multi-ethnic nations, and threatens democracy itself (Chirambo, 2009).

Tribal loyalty is blamed for government corruption because individuals within the government whether civil servants or politicians seek to enrich their families, themselves, their

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE kinship networks, and their tribesmen before the organization for which they work (Jackson &

Deckard, 2012). According to Jacobson and Deckard (2012), the level of corruption in a country depends on the laws of the country, the execution of those laws, and on whether the kinship network and the tribe of the ruling party harmonize (or not) with civil servants.

In management, at the country level, there is a nonlinear relationship between corruption and ethnic fractionalization, which is one of the pillars of tribalism (Cerqueti & Coppier, 2011).

Tribalism negatively affects creativity (Kim, 2009) and innovation (Ighomereho, Agbalajobi, &

Edegwa, 2013) through the unethical behaviors of gender inequality and discrimination against women. In tribal countries, discrimination against women occurs in access to the skilled workforce and to financing (Ighomereho, Agbalajobi, & Edegwa, 2013). However, women are not discriminated against in access to support services, partnerships, or education (Ighomereho,

Agbalajobi, & Edegwa, 2013).

It is noteworthy that tribalism has also received attention in the marketing area. For instance, a recent study by Badrinarayanan, Sierra and Taute (2014) suggested that tribalism

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE can also be explained in the context of branding. The authors showed that among video game players engaged in online role-playing, the sense of community fostered by millions of online consumers can result in brand tribalism. In such cases, the players actually interact and collaborate resulting in the sense of community and a tribe in the anthropological sense

(Badrinarayanan et al., 2014). Ghosh (2015), Precious (2010), and Scott (2007) concluded that the influence of tribalism on individuals’ behavior in tribal countries is weakening due to other external factors. Some of these external factors are globalization (i.e., a process of increasing integration, interconnectedness, interdependence of societies, politics, and economies) and

Westernization (i.e., a process of social change within which societies or countries, converting to the practices and customs of Western civilization).

In recent studies, researchers have paid more attention to the impact of globalization

(Dreher, Gaston, Martens, 2008) and Westernization (Crenshaw, 1995) around the globe.

Westernization is one of the leading causes of the erosion of Nigerian cultural norms and values

(Wahab, Odunsi, & Ajiboye, 2012). Ross (2009) concluded that there is a significant negative

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE relationship between Westernization, collectivism, and uncertainty avoidance in Tongan tribal cultural values. Because globalization and westernization look very similar to many researchers, this research study only discusses the influence of globalization on individuals’ tribal behavior.

Figure 1. The theoretical framework for the relationship between tribalism, justification of ethically suspect behaviors, corruption, and globalization.

Note. +H2 denotes the positive relationship between tribalism and ethically suspect behaviors; +H3 denotes the positive relationship between tribalism and corruption; and -H4 denotes the negative interaction between globalization and tribalism.

Tribalism Versus Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

Because tribalism is a primal form of behavior, some researchers have argued that tribalism is a part of a national culture (Hartman & Hartman, 1999; Sinha, 1958). The concept

of tribalism is closely related to national culture because it comprises cultural components such

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE as language, values, and religion (Brown, 1998). However, tribalism is different from national culture because national culture is built on other components such as values, law, language, religion, politics, and education (Mullins, 2010). Tribalism, on the other hand, refers primarily t o a societal subculture belonging to social groups with unique lifestyles, beliefs, and behaviors

(Al-Kandari & Al-Hadben, 2010).

Based on the literature review, tribalism is seen as a concept that is distinct from national culture but applies to all societies. To understand this perspective, consider that the Tribalism

Index is made up of five key dimensions as conceptualized by Jacobson and Deckard (2012).

Specifically, to understand the degree of tribalism in any society, it is important to comprehend the factors that represent a tribal society. Jacobson and Deckard (2012) argued that tribal communities are represented by the following five factors:

1. Gender inequality (i.e., the unequal sharing of roles in society);

2. Perception of corruption (i.e., the extent to which societal members engage in corruption activities);

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3. Group grievance (i.e., the degree to which particular community groups feel aggrieved and are left out of political processes);

4. Ethnic fractionalization (i.e., the extent to which society is heterogeneous); heterogeneity increases with increased tribalism; and

5. Population demographics (i.e., the degree to which the population is indigenous; highly tribal societies tend to have more native or indigenous communities).

More tribal societies tend to have higher elements of each of the five factors (Jacobson &

Deckard, 2012). As mentioned above, the concept of tribalism applies to most societies and likely impacts business outcomes in these societies. Therefore, in this study I hypothesized that tribalism is a unique cultural dimension, distinct from current cultural dimensions. National culture describes how a group shares a common set of values, beliefs, and opinions (Hofstede,

1980). Furthermore, research has shown that these common cultures or values display a relationship with a variety of individual-level behaviors (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, & Trevino,

2010).

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There are many cultural frameworks, but two of the most frequently used measures in current research are Hofstede (1980) and the GLOBE studies (House, Hanges, Javidan,

Dorfman, & Gupta, 2004). The focus of this study is a comparison with the Hofstede (1980) national cultural dimensions. The Hofstede (1980) dimensions provide the basis for many alternative frameworks. Even newer cultural dimension models, such as the GLOBE study, can be traced to Hofstede’s work Hofstede (2006). Additionally, although Hofstede created his dimensions in the 1970s, they have held up well in the modern context (Taras & Steel, 2010).

In this study, I argue that tribalism is distinct from Hofstede's four cultural dimensions

(uncertainty avoidance [UA], power distance [PD], collectivism [COL], masculinity [MAS]) because tribalism does not necessarily address issues relevant to these dimensions. To clarify

UA is the degree to which societal members prefer certainty over ambiguity; PD is the extent to which societal members accept power differentials; COL is the degree to which societal members need to belong to groups with a sound and unquestioned sense of loyalty; and MAS is the degree to which a society values masculine values such as the acquisition of wealth and

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE competitiveness over feminine values such as quality of life and relationship building (Hofstede,

1981). There is no doubt that there is some correlation between tribalism and these dimensions; however, I argue that tribalism measures essential aspects of a society not tapped by Hofstede's

(1980) cultural dimensions.

However, one can argue that tribalism is somewhat similar to collectivism (i.e., the degree to which societal members need to belong to groups with a sound and unquestioned sense of loyalty). I buttress the point that tribalism addresses concepts much broader than loyalty to a social group or a mere preference to belonging to groups. In tribalism, loyalty to a tribe is often combined with strong negative feelings for people outside the group (Nothwehr, 2008). One example of strongly negative feelings is the desire of a group or an individual to exploit, dominate, or assault others (Sanou, 2015). In that context, tribalism addresses the members’ bonds through a sense of kinship, which is reflected in the willingness of members to defend the tribe.

Unlike collectivism, tribalism is associated with blood feuds (Ronfeldt, 2006) and honor

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE killing (Cohan, 2009; Patel, & Gadit, 2008), both of which originated in tribal areas. In Arab cultures, tribes’ reputations are traditionally connected to the dignity of individuals and the honor of families. Neither Hofstede (1991) nor the GLOBE (House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, &

Gupta, 2004) study has linked collectivism to blood feuds, honor killings, or the needs of individuals to exploit, dominate and assault others (Sanou, 2015). Hofstede (1991), the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004), and other studies have conceptualized collectivism as the idea that individuals’ lives and unquestioning loyalty belong to the society of which are merely a part. In collectivism, the group or the community does not have to be from one tribe, an extended family, or a kinship group. Any group of homogenous people with shared identities or interests may live collectively. For example, in large cities, people from different tribes and ethnic groups have lived together collectively for many years. In conclusion, loyalty is the common denominator between tribalism and collectivism.

Finally, in examining tribalism from a marketing perspective characteristics such as a sense of community and kinship bonds are of interest for researchers (Badrinarayanan et al.,

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2014). The willingness of the members to defend the tribe is significant (Sanou, 2015). This characteristic also suggest that tribalism is distinct from collectivism. Hence, tribalism and collectivism are different constructs. Thus, I argue that tribalism is a cultural dimension that is different from collectivism and posit Hypothesis 1a:

H 1a: Tribalism is a cultural dimension which is unique from Hofstede's (1980) four

cultural dimensions, specifically, collectivism.

I also believe that tribalism is distinct from masculinity (i.e., the degree to which a society values masculine values such as the acquisition of wealth and competitiveness over feminine values such as quality of life and relationship building (Hofstede, 1981)). Tribalism addresses broader issues than mere gender equality, acquisition of wealth, competitiveness, quality of life and relationship building. In that context, I argue that tribalism addresses how tribal members portray, treat, and socially value women in society.

According to Boungpui (2013), Northeast Indian tribal society diminishes the social status of women and the value of their work in their homes. In many Indian tribal communities,

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE women are emotionally humiliated by certain sayings such as a woman is just like an old fence, and men could replace women at any time they and a woman has no wisdom (Boungpui, 2013).

The humiliation of women implies how the Indian tribal society values women and how women are treated and portrayed in society. Unlike tribal societies such as India, in masculine societies such as the United States women’s social status and work are highly valued and recognized.

Following this idea, I argue that tribalism is a cultural dimension that is different from masculinity and posit Hypothesis 1b:

H 1b: Tribalism is a cultural dimension which is unique from Hofstede's (1980) four

cultural dimensions, specifically, masculinity.

Power distance (i.e., the extent to which societal members accept power differentials) as defined by Hofstede (1980) addresses issues relevant to power hierarchy, degree of power expectancy, and power acceptance by the less powerful members of organizations (i.e., the workplace) and institutions (i.e., the family, community, tribe, and school). As such, less powerful individuals in society usually expect the unequal distribution of power and accept that

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE power differential without reasoning or with no further justification.

In cultures with high power distance, power hierarchy is evident, and individuals honor their superiors without questioning their power (Alteneiji, 2015). In cultures with low power distance, individuals tend to favor autonomy and personal responsibility (Alteneiji, 2015) which suggests that power is well dispersed, shared, and accepted. It also implies that society members perceive themselves as equal.

In tribal societies, power distance does not necessarily address issues relevant to power differentials and hierarchy. Hierarchy is not a tribal structure (Al-Dawsari, 2012). However, in tribal societies, power distance addresses elder respect, obedience by age, selecting leaders due to their service to the tribe, and making decisions by consensus Gilliland, Hap, & Reyhner, Jon,

1988). Tribe members respect elders for their knowledge and experience (Gilliland et al., 1988;

Cajete, 1994). For example, Native Indian children are taught by their parents to show their respect in the presence of elders by being quiet; and children are expected to be quiet in the presence of elders to show their respect (Oppelt, 1989).

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Unlike in cultures with high power distance where individuals honor their superiors without questioning their power (Alteneiji, 2015), in tribal societies, leaders acquire their leadership status by how much service and help they grant to the tribe (Cajete, 1994). As such, leaders are questioned by tribe members about their service they awarded to the tribal community before and during the lead times (Alteneiji, 2015). And consensus is a way by which tribes make their decisions to choose their leaders, which implies that tribe members do not expect their leaders to have power over them without consultation and consensus (Trosper,

1995). Tribe members only accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place with the justification of age and respect of elders (Cajete, 1994); Gilliland et al., 1988). Based on this discussion, I posit Hypothesis 1c:

H 1c: Tribalism is a cultural dimension which is unique from Hofstede's (1980) four

cultural dimensions, specifically, power distance.

Uncertainty avoidance is the degree to which societal members prefer certainty over ambiguity (Hofstede, 1980). In high uncertainty avoidance countries, people might have fewer

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE regulations and rules controlling every unknown and unexpected situation or event and society also has a high tolerance for new ideas, beliefs, thoughts, and ambiguity (Thakur, 2010).

However, uncertainty avoidance does not necessarily address how society deals with an

Ambiguous or unexpected situation as Hofstede (1980) described. In tribal societies, uncertainty avoidance addresses people’s concerns for the emotional and financial well-being of other members of their community (Tripathi & Cervone, 2008). There is no expectation at this point because tribe leaders know who needs financial and emotional help and how to deal with it.

Hence, I argue that tribalism is different from uncertainty avoidance as described by Hofstede

(1980) and posit Hypothesis 1d:

H 1d: Tribalism is a cultural dimension which is unique from Hofstede's (1980) four

cultural dimensions, specifically, uncertainty avoidance.

Based on the previously mentioned line of discussions, I argue that tribalism is a cultural dimension unique from Hofstede's four cultural dimensions (COL, MAS, UA, P) and propose

Hypothesis 1:

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

H 1: Tribalism is a cultural dimension which is unique from Hofstede's (1980) four

cultural dimensions (COL, MAS, UA, P).

Why Tribalism Relates to Ethically Suspect Behaviors

Culture shapes both ethical and unethical behaviors (Pitta, Fung, & Isberg, 1999). This implies a link between tribalism and unethical behavior, given that tribalism is a subculture connected to national culture through language, values, and religion (Brown, 1998).

Corrupt and unethical practices stem from intense loyalty to the tribe (Rowland, 2009).

People who are loyal to their tribes are committed to helping their tribesmen and extended family members. Thus, government corruption occurs when individuals, whether civil servants or politicians, seek to enrich their families, kinship networks, themselves, and tribesmen before their government (Jacobson & Deckard, 2012). Tribalism influences unethical behavior because it favors tribe members or affiliated tribe members over others (Chirambo, 2009).

Furthermore, in tribalism, loyalty to a tribe is often combined with strong negative feelings for people outside the group (Nothwehr, 2008). Strong negative feelings in tribe

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE members are the desire to exploit, dominate, or assault non-tribe members (Sanou, 2015).

People with such negative influences are more likely to reflect negative characteristics and behave unethically (Kish-Gephart, Harrison, & Trevino, 2010).

Moreover, tribalism is associated with unethical behaviors such as patronage, favoritism, nepotism, cronyism, kickbacks, and reciprocal gift giving (Ronfeldt, 2006). Such unethical practices are deemed reasonable in tribes, and they are intended to connect kith and kin in alignment with the tribe, empowering their access to resources (Ronfeldt, 2006).

Finally, the Tribalism Index measures tribalism by compiling multiple indicators and indices on ethnic fractionalization, gender inequality, indigenous population, and group grievance (Jacobson & Deckard, 2012). It is likely that these signs are related to a higher incidence of unethical behavior. Where tribal allegiances replace those in central government, government corruption will be perceived to be high (Cerqueti & Coppier, 2011). This may happen because individuals in the state seek to enrich themselves, their families, kinship networks, and tribesmen before their own government (Jacobson & Deckard, 2012). Therefore,

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE it is likely that tribalism links to a stronger justification for ethically suspect behaviors.

How Tribalism Relates to Ethically Suspect Behaviors

In this study to show the validity of the tribalism construct, it is necessary to demonstrate that tribalism is predictive of an outcome of interest to the international management community.

In that respect, many international management scholars are interested in issues of ethics

Parboteeah, Hoegl, & Cullen, 2008). Thus, I examined how tribalism relates to the justification of ethically suspect behaviors based on the institutional anomie theory (Messner, Rosenfeld,

1997).

The institutional anomie theory (IAT) provides a foundation for positively relating tribalism to unethical behaviors. The IAT is a refinement of Robert Merton’s (1968) classic anomie theory. The IAT assumes that some cultural values make individuals disconnected from their social norms and laws which inspire individuals' abnormal behaviors by motivating their self-centered moral reasoning (Cullen, Parboteeah, & Hoegl, 2004); Messner & Rosenfeld,

1997, 2001). According to Messner and Rosenfeld1 (1997), individuals who are disconnected

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE from their social norms are more likely to have no ethical mind conscience about morally acquiring their goals. In the case of tribal society, despite the presence of the shared norms, it is likely that ethnic fractionalization and gender inequality have created anomic conditions. Both aspects are likely to create barriers whereby some are not able to achieve what they want. Given such anomic conditions, it is more likely that individuals will deviate to try to reach their goals.

As such, I expected that anomic conditions in tribal societies will likely create more deviance through the justification of ethically suspect behaviors. I, therefore, posit Hypothesis 2:

H 2: Controlling for Hofstede's (1980) cultural dimensions, tribalism has a

positive relationship with the justification of ethically suspect behaviors.

Tribalism and Corruption

Corruption is the misuse of authorized power by a private or public officer, administrator, executive or any official for personal gain (Seldadyo & De Haan 2005). Seldadyo and De Haan

(2005) identified 70 causes of corruption including economic, non-economic, and cultural determinants. As to cultural variables, several researchers have concluded that ethnolinguistic

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE homogeneity is prone to lessen corruption (La Porta et al., 1999; Lederman etal., 2005). As such, tribal communities are more likely to be more corrupt than homogeneous populations since tribes are highly fragmented communities (Jacobson & Deckard, 2012).

Corruption has been linked to tribalism by many researchers. For instance, tribalism was conceptualized by Gullette (2007) as a form of corruption caused by kinship ties. Jacobson and

Deckard (2012) also conceptualized tribalism as the main reason for corruption in many corrupt states because of kin networks which force government employees to practice favoritism and nepotism to enrich their tribe members.

People's norms and values significantly determine corruption (Bauer, 2000). In that context, tribes have their values and norms that encourage corruption. For example, it is the norms among African tribal officials to receive gifts, a practice that is considered bribery in the

Western culture (Theron, 2013). Another cultural norm among African tribes that can cause corruption is communalism (i.e., the loyalty to one's ethnic group instead of the broader society;

Theron, 2013). Communalism could make African tribal societies vulnerable to corruption

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE because it causes the distinction between public and private funds to become vague and puts people under enormous financial stress (Van der Walt, 2003). People are accountable to look after their immediate family members and relatives. That social pressure forced by the kinship and extended family system could cause people to become involved in acts of corruption to meet their obligations through nepotism and favoritism (Dassah, 2008). As such, tribalism is an ideology that involves unreasonably favoring individuals within a tribe, extended family members, or a group of tribes (Kodila-Tedika & Asongu, 2015). Such favoring behavior is visible when tribesmen and clansmen are obligated to favor kin should an opportunity arises to hire someone (Ronfeldt, 2006). Following this discussion, I argue that corruption is more likely to increase as the level of tribalism increases in society and posit Hypothesis 3:

H 3: Controlling for Hofstede’s cultural dimensions (1980), tribalism has a

positive relationship with corruption.

Tribalism and Globalization

Deb and Sen (2016) defined globalization as a process of increasing integration,

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE interconnectedness, and interdependence of societies and economies. Based on that definition, globalization is dynamic, and it includes the integration and interdependence of countries and nations from everywhere around the globe. Hence, globalization does not mean the integration of a specific country with another country from Western Europe or the United States. Instead, globalization could be the integration and interdependence of a particular country with any other country. Globalization allows communities or countries to benefit from increasing integration, interconnectedness, and interdependence.

Globalization is facilitated by knowledge, military, communication, and political power which increases and advances interaction among peoples (Nsibami, 2001). Many scholars believe that globalization is directly or indirectly influencing all aspects of human life around the world (Ghosh, 2015). Unlike Westernization, globalization is more dynamic in integrating people of different cultures through communication, products, education, military, and transportation (Nsibami, 2001). Hence, the dynamics of globalization have caused the spread of modernity all over the world, which may change or destroy preexisting cultures.

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As witnessed in the Arab Gulf states, globalization has caused countries and societies to adopt Western cultures in many areas such as technology, economy, industry, politics, and education (Nsibami, 2001). For example, in the United Arab Emirates, the official language of instruction in the educational system is English. Almost all teachers in the United Arab Emirates are non-Arabic speakers (Hopkyns, 2014; Raddawi, & Meslem, 2015). Adoption of western culture has made it the dominant culture in a host country.

Globalization has an enormous impact on the tribal culture of the indigenous society due to improvements in literacy and job creation (Ghosh, 2015). It is possible for indigenous people to exchange ideas, beliefs, and customs through education (Tylor, 1871). In Africa, globalization has caused the quick decline of old African tribal values, which has led to fears that the ancient cultures will become extinct without efforts to retain them (Precious, 2010). Another example of the effect of globalization on tribal culture is in West Bengal, India. In that region, globalization has caused migration from different parts of India to West Bengal, which has witnessed many changes as a result (Saren, 2013).

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According to Saren (2013), the impact of globalization due to migration can be seen in the culture, traditions, language, customs, and work of the West Bengal people. Migration has directly forced tribal people in the Hooghly and Barddhaman districts of West Bengal to accept aspects of other cultures that have led to the deterioration of traditional tribal culture (Saren,

2013). For instance, people of West Bengal have adopted new cooking styles and Western dress

(among the young people), while ignoring the instructions of their traditional tribal leaders

(Saren, 2013). Additionally, because of globalization, perceptions have changed regarding gender equality. The role of women in India has changed from the traditional to one influenced by new rights and freedoms due to education, communication, and social media integration (Deb

& Sen, 2016). Following this line of thinking, globalization could influence tribal culture, and therefore, tribalism. Hence, I argue that globalization influences the positive relationship between tribalism and corruption, and posit Hypothesis 4.

H 4: Globalization moderates the relationship between tribalism and corruption

such that the impact of tribalism is weaker for corruption with greater globalization.

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Methodology

Methods of Data Collection

In this study, I used secondary data from five different sources including the WVS website, Hofstede’s (1980) study, the Jacobson and Deckard (2012) Tribalism Index, KOF Index of Globalization (2017), and the Corruption Perceptions Index (CPI; Transparency International

[Index], 2017). I used the secondary datasets to test the relationships between the two dependent variables (i.e., ethically suspect behaviors and corruption), the independent variable (tribalism), the moderating variable (globalization), and the control variables (masculinity, collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, and power distance). The secondary data are available online for researchers from each of the sources mentioned previously.

Dependent Variable: Ethically Suspect Behaviors and Corruption

Ethically suspect behaviors (e.g., lying, stealing, cheating, and bribery) was the first dependent variable in this study and was measured at the individual level. The dependent variable in this study captured the extent to which people justify behaviors that can be deemed

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE ethically suspect (Parboteeah et al., 2004). Seven items were pertinent to managers and organizations; the answers to these were averaged. Representative behaviors include stealing property, accepting bribes in the course of duties, and cheating on taxes. Furthermore, rather than asking respondents whether they engage in unethical behavior, this measure asks respondents to indicate the degree to which they observe such practices around them. Presenting the questions in this way prevents social desirability bias (Cullen, Parboteeah & Hoegl, 2004).

Justification of ethically suspect behaviors is accepted as a measure of ethical outcome because it asks respondents to indicate the degree to which they justify these behaviors. These behaviors include cheating on taxes, accepting bribes in the course of duty, and stealing property.

Most importantly, this measure is also cross-culturally generalizable and has been used in several studies (e.g., Cullen et al., 2004).

While the independent and control variable data came from country-level sources, for the dependent variable, I used individual-level data from the WVS 6. This survey consists of national probability samples collected every five years by the WVS Group, a global network of

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE social scientists. The primary purpose of the survey is to observe changes in global values and beliefs (WVS, 2016). Data from the survey are available the WVS website. I obtained data from the 6th wave of the WVS survey to test my hypotheses.

Corruption was the second dependent variable measured at the country level. I used a secondary dataset for the level of corruption from the corruption perception index website developed by TIN (Index, 2017). The CPI aggregates data from several sources that provide country experts and business people with perceptions of the public sector corruption level. The

TIN compiles the various dimensions of corruption to create an index that is available from their publication at their website (Index, 2017). Respondents (i.e., business executives and experts) were asked questions that capture corruption in the public sector including bribery, nepotism, and so forth. For example, respondents were asked their opinions on the extent to which public office employees abuse their positions and; the extent to which office employees in the public sector and prohibited from abusing their positions for personal interests (Index, 2017).

The CPI ranks 180 countries and regions and is calculated by capturing perceptions of

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE corruption in the last two years in 12 diverse institutions that compile data from 13 different sources. The CPI uses a scale of zero (highly corrupt) to 100 (very clean). For example, New

Zealand ranks first with a score of 89 while Somalia scores the lowest at 9 (Index, 2017).

Independent Variable: Tribalism

Tribalism was the independent variable measured at the country level. I used secondary tribalism data from the Tribalism Index developed by Jacobson and Deckard (2012). The tribalism index ranks 160 countries and includes five decisive factors attributed to tribal societies and communities (Jacobson & Deckard, 2012). The first factor is population demographics (i.e., the degree to which the population is indigenous; highly tribal societies tend to have more native or indigenous communities; [(Jacobson & Deckard, 2012]). The second factor is ethnic and linguistic fractionalization (i.e., the extent to which society is heterogeneous; [(Jacobson &

Deckard, 2012]). The third factor is gender equality (i.e., the degree to which men and women share equal roles in society; [Jacobson & Deckard, 2012)]). The fourth is perceptions of corruption (i.e., the extent to which societal member engages in corruption activities; [Jacobson

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

& Deckard, 2012]). The fifth and final factor is group grievance (i.e., the degree to which a particular group feels aggrieved and left out of political processes; [Jacobson & Deckard, 2012]).

Index scores range from a perfect 1 to indicate a high level of tribalism to 0 indicating no tribalism. Pakistan ranks first with a score of 0.995 while Iceland scores the lowest at 0.06.

Jacobson and Deckard (2012) used a weighted aggregate of the five mentioned dimensions to create the Tribalism Index. What follows is the formula developed by Jacobson and Deckard (2012) for the Tribalism Index:

Tribalism Index = 2 Gender Equality + Corruption Measure + Group Grievance + 0.5 Indigenous

Population + 0.5 Ethnic Factionalism.

Control Variables: Uncertainty Avoidance, Power Distance, Masculinity, and Individualism

Culture forms the basis for ethical behavior and determines what is considered ethical and unethical (Pitta, Fung & Isberg, 1999). Therefore, in this study, the cultural dimensions of collectivism, masculinity, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance were controlled for because they influence the outcome between the independent and dependent variables (i.e., tribalism,

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE justification of ethically suspect behaviors, and corruption). Hofstede’s (1980) widely researched, and cited study was the source of this study’s secondary data used for the control variables, which were measured at the country level. These dimensions were created using an extensive empirical study of more than 100,000 surveys performed at IBM from 1967 to 1973

(Hofstede, 1980). Each of the four cultural dimensions for each of the countries was scored from zero to 100.

To provide some insights on the aforementioned dimensions, Table 1 shows selected countries and their respective scores on the various dimensions.

Table 1

Selected countries and scores on Tribalism Index and Hofstede’s cultural dimensions

Power Uncertainty Countries Distance Avoidance Individualism Masculinity Tribalism Argentina 49 86 46 56 0.34 Australia 36 51 90 61 0.12 Austria 11 70 55 79 0.27 Bangladesh 80 60 20 55 0.57 Belgium 65 94 75 54 0.36

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Brazil 69 76 38 49 0.5 Bulgaria 70 85 30 40 0.48 Canada 39 48 80 52 0.25 Chile 63 86 23 28 0.21 China 80 30 20 66 0.54 Colombia 67 80 13 64 0.54 Costa Rica 35 86 15 21 0.26 Denmark 18 23 74 16 0.14 Ecuador 78 67 8 63 0.55 Finland 33 59 63 26 0.04 France 68 86 71 43 0.35 Germany 35 65 67 66 0.25 Greece 60 112 35 57 0.45 Guatemala 95 101 6 37 0.63 Hong Kong 68 29 25 57 Hungary 46 82 80 88 0.43 India 77 40 48 56 0.59 Indonesia 78 48 14 46 0.69 Iran 58 35 70 68 0.14 Ireland 28 81 54 47 0.47 Israel 13 59 41 43 0.78 Italy 50 75 76 70 0.46 Jamaica 45 13 39 68 0.38 Japan 54 92 46 95 0.34 Malaysia 104 36 26 50 0.54 Malta 56 96 59 47 0.39 Mexico 81 82 30 69 0.53

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Morocco 70 68 46 53 0.72 Norway 31 50 69 8 0.00 Pakistan 55 70 14 50 0.89 Panama 95 86 11 44 0.43 Peru 64 87 16 42 0.58 Philippines 94 44 32 64 0.45 Poland 68 93 60 64 0.35 Portugal 63 104 27 31 0.28 Romania 90 90 30 42 0.52 Russia 93 95 39 36 0.53 Singapore 74 8 20 48 0.28 Slovakia 104 51 52 110 0.47 Spain 57 86 51 42 0.38 Sweden 31 29 71 5 0.04 Thailand 64 64 20 34 0.64 Trinidad 47 55 16 58 0.40 Turkey 66 85 37 45 0.69 United States 40 46 91 62 0.25 Uruguay 61 100 36 38 0.22 Venezuela 81 76 12 73 0.52 Vietnam 70 30 20 40 0.52 Note. Based on Jacobson & Deckard (2012) and Hofstede (1980).

Moderating Variable: Globalization

In this study, I measured globalization (the moderating variable) at the country level using indices from the KOF Globalization Index (Dreher, Gaston, & Martens, 2008). The KOF

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Globalization Index measures the three major globalization dimensions; social, economic, and political. The KOF data are available for the period 1970 through 2014 and includes 207 countries and territories around the world (Dreher et al., 2008). The primary purpose of the KOF studies is to observe changes in social values, economics, and political globalization (Dreher et al., 2008).

Multicollinearity in Regression Analysis

Multicollinearity (i.e., the linear prediction of one independent variable by another predictor in a multiple regression analysis) could cause misleading and wrong interpretation which could give rise to false-positive results (Type 1 error; Tu, Kellett, Clerehugh, & Gilthorpe,

2005). Multicollinearity occurs when there is a high correlation between more than two covariates. In multiple regression analysis, coefficients could show no statistical significance because of incorrectly estimated confidence intervals (Tu et al., 2005). Researchers examine multicollinearity by using the variance inflation factor (VIF). In fact, the VIF is most commonly used parameter by researchers to examine multicollinearity; the VIF is considered a problem \

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE when VIF is greater than 10 (Glantz & Slinker, 2001; Slinker & Glantz, 1995). As such, based on the collinearity statistics test (Table 2) and correlations test (Table 3), multicollinearity was not a perceived problem in this study.

Table 2

Collinearity statistics

Independent Variable Tolerance VIF Tribalism 0.548 1.825 TrClGlob 0.481 2.080 Note. VIF denotes variance inflation factor; TrClGlob denotes tribalism cultural globalization.

Table 3

Correlations between the independent variables

Tribalism TrCulGlob. Tribalism 1 0.595** TrCulGlob 1 Note. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level.

There are three solutions to multicollinearity problems; removal of redundant explanatory variables, centering, and ridge regression (Tu et al., 2005). Researchers have recommend

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE removing a redundant independent variable from the model because these collinear variables provide no additional useful information (Tu et al., 2005).

In centering, the independent variables with high correlations are transformed by subtracting the mean values of each correlated independent variable from the original variables.

Centering does not solve multicollinearity for the interaction variables. In ridge regression, principal component analysis (PCA) is used to solve problems caused by multicollinearity

(Chatterjee & Hadi, 2000; Glantz & Slinker, 2001; Slinker & Glantz, 1985). Ridge regression requires that the explanatory variables be centered and reorganized into uncorrelated components. Each principal component in ridge regression is a linear combination of all explanatory variables, and the number of the number of explanatory variables is equivalent principal components (Chatterjee & Hadi, 2000; Hadi & Lin, 1998).

Hypothesis Testing

To test H2, I used hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) technique because it is an appropriate statistical method that has been used by many scholars for cross-level studies.

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Indeed, it is necessary to use HLM because my independent and control variables were assessed at the country level while the dependent variable was estimated at the individual level. Using

HLM improves accuracy, reduces misestimated precision, prevents aggregation bias, and minimizes problems associated with this level of analysis (Bryk & Raudenbush, 1992; Rousseau,

1985).

The HLM approach was necessary as traditional regression techniques ignore the critical assumption of independence of observation. The approach was also chosen given that people in the same country tend to respond similarly. The HLM technique is now well accepted in the international management literature as evidenced by its use in studies by Parboteeah and Cullen

(2003) and Cullen et al. (2004). Therefore, I examined the impact of tribalism on the justification of ethically suspect behaviors with four of the Hofstede cultural dimensions (COL,

MAS, PD, and UA) included as control variables.

In this study, the HLM model had two levels due to the assessment of the influence of individual-level factors on the country-level factors (Bryk & Raudenbush, 1992). At Level 1, the

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE individual was the unit of analysis and each person’s tribalism to influence justification of ethically suspect behaviors was a function of corruption, demographics, gender, grievance, linguistic, and ethnicity. Level 1 took the form:

Yab = β0b + β1bXab + rab (1)

where, Yab refers to the individual dependent variable; and Xab refers to the individual level predictor values such as corruption, demographics, gender, grievance, linguistics, and ethnicity. The intercept and slopes were estimated for each country, while rab refers to the residual. At Level 2, the country was the unit of analysis. The dependent variable (i.e., justification of ethically suspect behaviors) was proposed to depend on specific tribalism factors.

I adjusted these factors in the Level 1 model for the regression coefficients. Instead of using the slopes-as-outcome model, I used the intercept-as-outcome models because the tests of my hypotheses were significant effects of Level 2 variables on the national mean Level 1 outcome adjusted for the within-country Level 1 predictor. The intercepts of separate individual-level regressions by individuals’ tribalism to influence justification of ethically suspect behaviors

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE became the country-level-dependent measures for equations using four of Hofstede’s (1980) national cultural dimensions (PD, UA, MAS, COL) as control variables. The Level 2 model took the form:

b0b= Y00+Y01Gb+ U0j (2)

where, b0b refers to the intercept from the Level 1 equation; Gb refers to country-level

variables such as PD, MAS, UA, and COL; Y00 refers to the level 2 intercept terms; and

Y01 refers to the slope relating the independent-country-level variables, G refers to the intercept

whereas U0j refers to the Level 2 residual. Per Hofmann and Gavin (1998) and because of my interest in the impact of country-level factors after controlling for individual-level factors,

I used grand-mean centering.

To test H1a, H1b, H1c, and H1d, I used the bivariate analysis correlation test in SPSS 24.

Then bivariate analysis allowed me to compare the tribalism construct with Hofstede's (1980) cultural dimensions (COL, MAS, PD, UA). Hence, to test H1a through H1d, in this study I used correlations from the bivariate analysis test (i.e., Pearson correlations [Table 4], and Spearman’s

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE correlations [Table 5]) to show that tribalism is not highly correlated with COL, MAS, PD, and

UA dimensions. Pearson and Spearman’s correlation tests measure the strength of the linear and non-linear (if they exist) relationships between tribalism and Hofstede’s (1980) cultural dimensions.

Table 4

Pearson correlations

Power Masculinity Uncertainty Collectivism Tribalism Distance Avoidance PD MAS UA COL Tribalism PD 1 0.023 0.059 0.638** 0.493** MAS 1 -0.164 -0.008 0.087 UA 1 0.083 0.206 COL 1 0.455** Tribalism 1 Note. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level.

Table 5

Spearman’s correlation

Power Masculinity Uncertainty Collectivism Distance Avoidance

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PD MAS UA COL Tribalism PD 1 0.052 -0.015 0.372** 0.414** MAS 1 -0.341** -0.056 0.003 UA 1 -0.006 0.170 COL 1 0.328* Tribalism 1 Note. ** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level. * Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level.

The Pearson correlation test is used by researchers to test the strength of linear relationships between normally distributed variables while Spearman’s correlation test is used to test the strength of linear and non-linear relationships between normally and not normally distributed variables (Mukaka, 2012). Since the Shapiro-Wilk test of normality (Table 6) showed that two of the five variables are not normally distributed, I relied on Spearman’s correlation test to test H1a, H1b, H1c, and H1d.

Table 6

Shapiro-Wiki test of normality

Statistics df Significance

Power distance 0.949 56 0.18 Masculinity 0.971 56 9.191

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE

Uncertainty avoidance 0.952 56 0.023 Collectivism 0.892 56 0.000 Tribalism 0.969 56 0.157 Note. df denotes the degree of freedom.

Based on Spearman’s correlation test and Mindrila and Balentyne (2017) (Table, 7), there was no correlation between tribalism and masculinity (R=0.003, <0.3) which indicates that masculinity is different from Hofstede’s (1980) cultural dimensions, and therefore, hypothesis

H1b was supported. Table 7 also shows that there was no correlation between tribalism and uncertainty avoidance (R=0.170, R<0.3) which indicates that uncertainty avoidance is different from Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, and therefore, H1d was supported. There was a weak and significant correlation at the 0.05 level between tribalism and collectivism (R=0.328, 0.5 < R

>0.3). Hence, H1a was supported. Finally, there is a weak and significant correlation between tribalism and power distance (R=0.414, 0.5 < R> 0.3). Hence, H1c was supported. Hypotheses

H1d and H1c were supported because very weak correlation indicates a lower likelihood of there being a negligible or a fragile relationship between tribalism and collectivism and tribalism and power distance.

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Table 7

The rule of thumb for interpreting the strength of a correlation between variables based on R values

Absolute Value of R Strength of Relationship r < 0.3 None or very weak 0.3 < r <0.5 Weak 0.5 < r < 0.7 Moderate r > 0.7 Strong Note. Source: Mindrila, D., & Balentyne, P. (2017).

However, to test H3 and H4, I used multiple regression analysis because the data for the dependent variable (i.e., corruption), independent variable (i.e., tribalism), control variables (i.e.,

UA, PD, MAS, and COL), and the moderating variable (i.e., globalization) were all at the country level (see Table 8 for more insights).

Table 8

Correlations and descriptive statistics

Construct Mean SD Corruption PD MAS UA COL Tribalism Corruption 0.5302 0.1966 1 0.658** 0.119 0.206 0.537 0.619** PD 67.520 18.858 1 -0.023 0.057 0.638** 0.493** MAS 51.340 16.247 1 -0.164 -.008 0.087

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UA 64.375 21.358 1 0.083 0.206 COL 18.916 64.929 1 0.455** Tribalism 0.5474 0.2340 1 Note. SD denotes the standard deviation; PD denotes power distance; MAS denotes masculinity; UA denotes uncertainty avoidance; COLO denotes collectivism; **P < 0.001

The Study Results

Using multiple regression analysis, the results supported H3 (β = 0.433, p-value

= 0.000, < 0.000, significant), H4 (β = -0.004, p-value = 0.026, < 0.05, significant). (see Table

9 for additional information).

Table 9

Multiple regression results

Parameter Value Significance

R 0.799 ______R2 0.639 ______F 12.124 Significant change (p-value < 0.000) Anova 0.000 Significant (p-value < 0.001) Tribalism Β = 0.433 Significant (p-value < 0.001)

Tribalism x Globalization β= -0.004 Significant (p-value < 0.01) Constant β= -0.093 Not Significant Note. R denotes the coefficient correlation in regression; R2 denotes the square roots of R; F denotes the F value in regression.

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Using the HLM technique, the results did not support H2 (see Table 10). I hypothesized that tribalism is positively related to the justification of ethically suspect behaviors controlling for PD, UA, MAS, and COL.

Table 10

The hierarchical linear modeling results

Level 1 variables (individual level) Not Significant Justification of ethically suspect behaviors Level 2 variables (control) Not Significant. Masculinity Not Significant. Collectivism Not Significant. Power Distance Not Significant. Uncertainty Avoidance Not Significant. Level 2 variables (country level) Not Significant. Tribalism

Finally, the interaction between globalization and tribalism had a negative impact on the relationship between tribalism and corruption (β= -0.004). Therefore, in countries with high globalization, tribalism is more likely to have less impact on the country level of corruption.

The Findings and Discussion

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As the results showed, the data supported three out of the four proposed hypotheses. The test results showed that there is no correlation between tribalism and masculinity which indicates that masculinity is different from Hofstede’s cultural dimensions, and therefore, H1b was supported. As I mentioned previously, tribalism measures important aspects of society that are not tapped by the Hofstede’s (1980) cultural dimensions. I believe that the concept tribalism is distinct from masculinity (the degree to which a society praises masculine values, such as the acquisition of wealth and competitiveness, over feminine values, such as quality of life and relationship building (Hofstede, 1981). The results confirmed that tribalism addresses broader issues than mere gender equality, acquisition of wealth, competitiveness, quality of life and relationship building. Infarct, tribalism addresses how tribal members portray, treat, and socially value women in society.

The results also supported H1d and showed that there was no correlation between tribalism and uncertainty avoidance which means that uncertainty avoidance is different from

Hofstede’s (1980) cultural dimensions. Hofstede (1980) defined uncertainty avoidance as the

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE extent to which societal members prefer certainty over ambiguity. However, in tribalism uncertainty avoidance does not necessarily address how society deals with an ambiguous or unexpected situation as Hofstede (1980) described. In tribal societies, uncertainty avoidance addresses people’s concerns for the emotional and financial well-being of other members of their community (Tripathi & Cervone, 2008). There is no expectation at this point because tribe leaders know who needs financial and emotional help and how to deal with those situations.

Hence, it makes sense that uncertainty avoidance has no correlation with tribalism and that the two concepts are different from each other.

There was a weak and significant correlation at the 0.05 level between tribalism and collectivism. Hence, H1a was supported because the very weak correlation indicated a higher likelihood of there being a negligible or a fragile relationship between tribalism and collectivism.

There is no doubt that there is some fragile correlation between tribalism and collectivism; however, I argue that tribalism measures essential aspects of society not addressed by collectivism.

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One could argue that tribalism is somewhat similar to collectivism (i.e., the degree to which societal members need to belong to groups with a sound and unquestioned sense of loyalty). It is true that tribal members have a sense of belonging and loyalty to their tribes

However, tribalism addresses concepts much broader than loyalty to social groups or a mere preference for belonging to groups. In tribalism, loyalty to a tribe is often combined with strong and negative feelings for people outside the group (Nothwehr, 2008). One example of strongly negative feelings is the desire of a group or an individual to exploit, dominate, or assault others

(Sanou, 2015). In that context, tribalism addresses the members’ bonds through a sense of kinship, which is reflected in the willingness of members to defend the tribe.

Unlike collectivism, tribalism is associated with blood feuds (Ronfeldt, 2006) and honor killing (Cohan, 2009) which originated in tribal areas. In Arab cultures, tribes’ reputations are traditionally connected to the dignity of individuals and the honor of families (Patel, & Gadit,

2008). Neither Hofstede nor the GLOBE study linked collectivism to blood feuds, honor killings, or the needs of individuals to exploit, dominate and assault others (Sanou, 2015).

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Hofstede (1991), the GLOBE study (House et al., 2004), and other studies have conceptualized collectivism as the idea that individuals’ lives and unquestioning loyalty belong to the society of which they are merely a part. In collectivism, the group or the community do not have to be from one tribe, an extended family, or a kinship group. Any group of homogenous people with shared identities or interests may live collectively. In conclusion, loyalty is the only common denominator between tribalism and collectivism. Hence, loyalty is more likely to be t he reason behind the very weak correlation between collectivism and tribalism.

Finally, there was a weak and significant correlation between tribalism and power distance. However, tribalism is distinct from PD (i.e., the degree to which societal members accept power differentials) as the concept of tribalism does not necessarily address issues relevant to power differentials and hierarchy. Hierarchy is not a tribal structure (Al-Dawsari,

2012). However, in tribal societies, power distance addresses elders respect, obedience by age, selecting leaders due to their service to the tribe, and making decisions by consensus (Gilliland et al., 1988). Tribe members respect elders for their knowledge and experience (Cajete, 1994;

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Gilliland et al., 1988).

1994). As such, leaders are questioned by tribe members about their service they awarded to the tribal community before and during their lead times (Cajete, 1994). A consensus is a way in which tribes make their decisions to choose their leaders and make decisions (Trosper, 1995), which implies that tribe members do not expect their leaders to have power over them without consultation and consensus. Tribe members only accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place with the justification of age and respect of elders (Cajete, 1994; Gilliland et al.,

1988). Therefore, one can expect tribalism to have a weak correlation with power distance since hierarchical orders exist in both tribalism and power distance.

Using the HLM technique and multiple regression analysis, the results supported H3 and

H4. In H3, I hypothesized that tribalism is positively related to Corruption, controlling for PD,

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MAS, UA, and COL. The results supported H3 and confirmed the positive relationship between tribalism and corruption controlling for Hofstede’s (1980) four cultural dimensions (MAS, UA,

PD, and COL). These results support the findings by Ghosh (2015), Precious (2010), Scott

(2007), and Wahab et al., (2012) as tribalism links to corruption. In H4, it was assumed that the interaction between globalization and tribalism negatively affects the positive relationship between tribalism and corruption. This study showed that in countries with high globalization, tribalism will have less influence on corruption.

The Dissertation Conclusion

Theoretical Implications

The newly developed tribalism scale fills the gap in the management, business and politics literature by responding to the call by Jacobson and Deckard (2012) regarding the absence of a quantitative scale of tribal culture that would help researchers and practitioners measure the degree of tribalism. The two researchers claimed that a tribalism scale would assist in exploring the link between tribalism, religion, and the export of violence in Western nations

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(Jacobson & Deckard, 2012).

The new tribalism scale contributes to the business management research literature by identifying three indicators of the tribalism construct in business and non-business settings. The scale also helps researchers collect primary data at the individual level and explain the link between tribalism at the individual level in business and non-business disciplines. For example, business researchers could explain the relationship between tribalism at the individual level and auditor independence, branding, creativity, innovation, ethically suspect behaviors, reciprocal gift-giving, kickbacks, favoritism, nepotism, and cronyism.

In other disciplines such as politics and economics, researchers could explain the link between tribalism at the individual level and government inefficiency, effective governance, corruption, and financial development. By measuring tribal values and not equating them to the

Tribalism Index, researchers can avoid the ecological fallacy, which happens when country-level relationships (e.g., Tribalism Index data at the country level) are merely applied to individuals and wrongly interpreted (Hofstede, 1980). Besides, the newly developed tribalism scale would

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE help researchers validate construct tribalism by linking construct tribalism to behaviors that are ethically suspect.

While previous research has focused mostly on Hofstede's (1980) cultural dimensions, this study garnered additional insights into the culture through the integration of tribalism. By examining how tribalism in society is related to the justification of ethically suspect behaviors, the study not only validates the concept of tribalism but also shows its relevance to ethical outcomes. Given the sustained interest in understanding the determinants of unethical behaviors, this study offers additional insights beyond our present knowledge. Parboteeah and Cullen

(2003).

While most studies have focused on the link between tribal attitudes and ethics within an Arab context, extending the research to other cultures will yield insights that are more generalizable. The results from testing the four hypotheses showed the utility of the tribalism concept beyond African and Arab societies. The present work advances researchers understanding of tribalism through the addition of this cultural dimension.

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Although tribalism is indeed typically associated with Arab cultures, it is important to note that all nations have some level of tribalism. Such tribalism likely affects many outcomes that have consequences for international business. By furthering understanding of tribalism, I make a significant contribution advancing knowledge of an additional cultural dimension. While most cultural research has focused on Hofstede's (1980) and the GLOBE (House et al., 2004) cultural dimensions, this study showed that further insights into culture may be garnered by integrating tribalism.

Finally, this research empirically explains the influence of globalization on tribal societies and how globalization interacts with the country level of tribalism to reduce unethical behaviors such as corruption.

Practical Implications

For practitioners, the findings of this dissertation provide directions for multinational firms to be aware of the critical power of tribes in today’s global market. Knowing the dynamics of a tribe may empower multinational firms to understand the growing force of a tribe and the

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE tribe influence on people’s behavior and to integrate that behavioral understanding in their business activities overseas and elsewhere. For example, by measuring the level of tribalism at the individual level, human resources managers should be able to evaluate applicants’ levels of tribalism and, therefore, their level of commitment to ethics which helps HR managers to decide on applicants who are more likely to be ethical in the workplace. In addition, understanding the dynamics of a tribe could also be a critical factor in explaining strategic management outcomes such as preferences for international entry and the choice of strategic alliance partners.

Furthermore, the new tribalism scale could help politicians and policymakers to draw out the underlying political and sociological conditions of tribal militancy in countries such as

Somalia, Yemen, Iraq, Afghanistan, and so forth. Understanding of such tribal conditions would help politicians and policymakers decide on whom to accept in the Western countries as refugees and whom to offer help in their home countries.

Finally, the findings could also aid multinational practitioners in integrating this

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE behavioral understanding into their business activities overseas. For example, in the Arab

Peninsula, tribalism is an explicit cultural pillar (Habib & Kassem, 1989) and tribal character is associated with Arab culture (Berger, 2015). In the Middle East, Africa, and South Asia, a tribe is the basic social unit (Habib & Kassem, 1989). The tribe has become the primal form of behavior and organization in the Middle East and North Africa (Ronfeldt, 2006).

Limitations and Future Research

Limitations to the study should be noted. First, due to the collection of cross-country data, it is difficult to evaluate the validity and reliability of the information provided by the originator. I recommend that future research replicates the findings in this study using primary data (i.e., data on tribalism) collected in many diverse countries.

The results in this study are particularized to 56 countries in specific regions. There are other nations and areas to be covered. Hence, I suggest that future research expands on the present findings in other parts of the world to improve generalizability. In addition, the influence of tribalism on the justification of ethically suspect behaviors might lead to more

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE unethical behavior, but the relationship needs to be further examined by controlling for factors such as age, gender, and education. The literature shows that these individual characteristics might play a critical role in defining justification of ethically suspect behaviors (Parboteeah,

Hoegl, & Cullen, 2008). The impact of other cultural factors such as religion should also be tested given the significance of religion in Arab life.

This study focused on studying tribal behavior in Pakistan because of its high ranking in the Tribalism Index (Jacobson & Deckard, 2012). The assumption is that the level of tribalism is highest among the Pakistani people. Future research should collect data from more diverse tribal countries in North America, South America, Central America, South Asia, and Africa. That diverse data collection will provide the tribalism scale more generalizability. Furthermore, future research should also focus on testing tribalism at the individual level in remote areas (i.e., areas far from cities) versus tribalism in urban areas (i.e., cities and towns) to understand whether the interaction between tribalism and globalization stays the same.

Finally, this study provides many implications for future research. Extending the

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TRIBALISM AND CORRUPTION: SCALE CONSTRUCTION AND EXPLORATIONS BEYOND NATIONAL CULTURE tribalism concept to most societies provides an added avenue to explain cross-national phenomena. I hope that future researchers will examine the impact of tribalism in many communities to advance the understanding of tribal behavior in both academia and the business world. For instance, adding the avenue of tribalism could provide an enhanced understanding of relationships among firms. It is well known that businesses in China, Latin America, and Arab countries rely on social networks to function effectively (Velez-Calle, Robledo-Ardilla, &

Rodriguez-Rios, 2015). Expanding the concept of tribalism to the larger world may show that such effects are not unique to a few societies.

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VITA

Yousif M. S. Abdelrahim was born on October 23, 1973, in Khartoum, Sudan. He completed his undergraduate work at Kuwait University in Kuwait, where he received a B.Sc. in Science with a concentration in chemistry (1996). His MBA (Master of Business Administration) was awarded by Western Governors University, Salt Lake City, Utah (2014). Yousif recently is working on getting a position at Mc Master University where he will be teaching business management.

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