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From Kartosuwiryo to Sungkar: the Evolution of Indonesia's Darul Islam

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From Kartosuwiryo to Sungkar: the Evolution of Indonesia's Darul Islam The London School of Economics and Political Science From Kartosuwiryo to Sungkar: The evolution of Indonesia’s Darul Islam movement, 1928-1993 Judith P Jacob A thesis submitted to the Department of International History of the London School of Economics and Political Science for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, September 2020 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my prior written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 89,601 words. Following mandatory minor amendments, thesis consists of 105, 836 words. 2 Contents Abstract 4 Acknowledgements 5 Abbreviations 7 Glossary 8 Note on Transliteration and Translations 10 Introduction 11 Analytical Framework: Historiography and Methodology 41 Chapter 1 | Hākimiyya: The Need for an Islamic State of Indonesia, 1928-1949 87 Chapter 2 | Jihad: The Obligation to Secure the Islamic State of Indonesia, 1928-1962 119 Chapter 3 | Takfīr & Al-walā’ wa-l-barā’: Defining the Enemy 162 Chapter 4 | Expanding Jihad: Reconceptualising Warfare After Kartosuwiryo, 1962-1979 201 Chapter 5 | Global Jihad with Caveats: Assessing the Impact of Afghanistan, 1979-1989 227 Chapter 6 | Reimagining Hākimiyya: Preserving or Creating the 255 Islamic State in Indonesia? 1985-1993 Conclusion 270 Bibliography 274 3 Abstract This dissertation examines the ideological evolution of the Darul Islam (DI) movement in Indonesia. It argues the movement was defined by two core ideas: hākimiyya and jihad. While these ideas are not unique to Indonesian militant Islamists, this dissertation aims to examine how each concept was understood, interpreted and transformed by key DI leaders from the Indonesian independence struggle to the final years of the Suharto regime. Beginning with Sekarmadji Maridjan Kartosuwiryo’s bid to establish an Islamic state in opposition to Dutch rule, this dissertation assesses how DI defined and promoted an understanding of hākimiyya and jihad through the works of classical ideologues to form a cohesive doctrine. Following Kartosuwiryo’s death in 1962, this thesis outlines how these ideas were reinterpreted by subsequent leaders, ultimately resulting in a split within the movement and the formation of Jemaah Islamiyah (JI) in 1993. This dissertation argues the accelerated globalisation of the 1970s gave Indonesian Islamists unprecedented exposure and access to the teachings and works of hard-line Salafist groups and Wahhabi preachers and organisations in the Middle East. The selective adoption of their interpretations of hākimiyya and jihad, and the introduction of related concepts such as takfīr and al-walā’ wa-l-barā’, reinvigorated DI after Kartosuwiryo’s execution. While the material for this ideological revival largely appeared from foreign sources, the movement’s new intellectual leader, Abdullah Sungkar, with help from his close friend, Abu Bakar Ba’asyir, largely applied these ideas in response to growing state repression and the perceived secularisation of Indonesian society. Finally, this dissertation argues the ideology of DI was shaped through participation in conflict. Periods of struggle against the Dutch in the 1940s, the Republican government in the 1950s and the Soviet Union in Afghanistan between 1985 and 1991 led to significant transformations in the beliefs of DI members. Notably, the Afghan conflict cemented the increasingly takfīri outlook of Sungkar’s faction, narrowing their conceptualisation of jihad. These ideological transformations proved to be sufficiently severe leading to a rupture within DI and the formation of JI. 4 Acknowledgements Before I began this PhD, I was certain it was going to be a lonely slog. I am very pleased that was one of the many things I learned I was thoroughly wrong about. This thesis would not exist without the support of so many colleagues, friends and family. I am indebted above all to Dr Kirsten Schulze, whose unfailing encouragement and innate grasp of this project enabled me to realise its full potential. I am thoroughly grateful for her counsel, constructive criticism, and generous support over the years. She has been a truly excellent supervisor and I have been so lucky to have been guided by her through this process. Throughout the doctorate, I have been so fortunate to have had the opportunity to have met so many respected academics, researchers and journalists whose work I have long admired. These individuals have all been so generous with their time and have provided me with such valuable advice. I am thoroughly grateful to Martin van Bruinessen, Francis Chan, Jolene Jerard, and Kumar Ramakrishna, who gave useful suggestion at the early stages of this project and practical advice for navigating Indonesian bureaucracy as an impatient Singaporean. In Jakarta, I must thank Raisya Maharani, Wahyudi Soeriaatmadja, Vishnu Juwono, Indah Novita, Angel Damayanti, Zulhilmie Zaba, and Atik, for providing me with so much help in navigating access into archives, prisons, and wary organisations. In London, I am indebted to John Sidel and Shiraz Maher who opened my eyes to new ways of approaching the topic of Islamism and militancy. My cohort at LSE have also provided me with invaluable insight and support throughout this process. Special thanks must go to ‘the history girls’, Eline van Ommen, Grace Carrington, and Caroline Green who have provided me with invaluable support and constructive suggestions, usually over many bottles of red wine. Jin Li Lim, Cees Heere, Anne Irfan and Will King have given great advice for wrestling with LSE bureaucracy, inspired me with their diligence, and provided me with a model for how to do a doctorate well. Outside the international history department, huge thanks must go to Joe Roussos and Richard Stupart, who have been excellent sounding boards over many terrible cups of coffee nearly every Thursday afternoon. Thank you both for listening to half-baked ideas and patiently helping me shape them into coherent thoughts. Beyond LSE, Will Jones, Anser Aftab, Wen-Qing Ngoei, Katherine Furman, and Jake McAuley, have been invaluable guides throughout the PhD. All have 5 given me constructive suggestions, generously introduced me to their contacts, and provided me with an academic community that is inspiring and challenging. I am very grateful that I have been able to carry on working throughout the doctorate. Many thanks must go to my colleagues who have tolerated my absence from the office and belated responses to emails. I am particularly thankful to Beth Hepworth, Ruarigh Thornton, Nick Zambellas, Otso Iho, and Matt Henman, who have kept me on the payroll and always reassured me that the doctorate was valuable. I am especially grateful to Evan Jendruck who allowed me to combine client meetings and fieldwork, flying me out to Southeast Asia on the organisation’s dime on multiple occasions. Thank you, Evan, believing my thesis was relevant and not asking too many questions about where I was before the meetings began. My friends have provided invaluable support throughout this process. Thank you especially to Diego Cominazzini, Jen Coyne, Erin Fitzgerald, Colm Kelly, Viknesh Kobinathan, Michael Kotrly, Magdalene Lie, Zhiheng Png, John Ringer, and Giles Robertson. Some of them were even kind enough to read over bits of this work as it was thrust upon them, and for that I thank Claudia Chang, Margherita Devine, Scott MacDonald, Eugene Oh, and Chiara Rech. My biggest thanks are for the Ashbourne and Jacob families. Marybeth, Simon, Val, John Sr., and honorary Ashbourne, Liz, have been the biggest cheerleaders throughout this process and I am so very grateful. Huge thanks must also go to my brother, Jonathan Jacob, who took one for the team and became a ‘real’ doctor, thus giving mum and dad at least one successful Asian child. I am infinitely indebted to John Ashbourne, who has been the best sparring partner, personal chef, tea supplier, editor, and pillar of emotional support that one could ever hope for. Thank you for always supporting my decision to be overeducated and underemployed. I could not have done this without you. Above all, I am so grateful for my mother and father, Olivia and Paul Jacob, who have given me endless support in so many ways throughout the doctorate. Their willingness to uproot themselves and two toddlers to live in Jakarta throughout the 1990s sparked a life-long fascination with Indonesia. Thank you for teaching me resilience, discipline, and for always encouraging me to read and learn. This thesis is dedicated to you both. 6 Abbreviations ANRI Arsip Nasional Repubik Indonesia AABRI Arsip Angkatan Bersendjata Republik Indonesia ASG Abu Sayyaf Group BAKIN Badan Koordinasi Itelijen Negara DDII Dewan Dakwah Islamiya Indonesia DI Darul Islam Golkar Partai Golongan Karya JI Jemaah Islamiyah MILF Moro Islamic Liberation Front NII Negara Islam Indonesia NU Nahdatul Ulama PNRI Perpustakaan Nasional Republik Indonesia PKI Partai Komunis Indonesia PSI Partai Sarekat Islam PSII Partai Sarekat Islam Indonesia RI Republik Indonesia SDI Sarekat Dagang Indonesia SI Sarekat Islam TII Tentara Islam Indonesia TNI Tentara Negara Indonesia 7 Glossary Amīr (Ar./In) A leader, ruler or commander ‘Aqīda (Ar.) The core beliefs of the Islamic faith Bay’ah (Ar/In. Bayat) Pledge of allegiance to a caliph or amīr Bid’a (Ar.) Heretical or deviant innovation Bughāh (Ar./In Bughat) Transgressors or rebels who oppose a legitimate Islamic authority Dakwah (In./Ar.
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