URBAN REGENERATION IN A SOUTH AFRICAN CONTEXT

C. STEENKAMP

Dissertation submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree Magister Artium et Scientiae in Urban and Regional Planning of the Potchefstroom University of Christian Higher Education

Supervisor: Prof H.S Geyer

2004

Potchefstroom ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:

I wish to extend my sincere thanks:

To Professor H.S. Geyer, my Supervisor, that taught me

the wisdom required through the dissertation and

understanding my viewpoints on the different matters.

To Hilton for helping me with the technical part of the

dissertation.

To my friends, Alec (Boetie), Lyzaan (Patience), Jolien,

Jannie, Daleen, Erika and Johan for enduring all my new

ideas.

To my parents, I extend heartfelt thanks for the years of

support and encouragement, and not for blinking an eye

when I decided to further my studies.

And to Zane for his support, encouragement and love,

thanks! To the joyful memory of Zagie OPSOMMING

As gevolg van die oorgang van 'n moderne Hierdie studie demonstreer die wyse na 'n post modeme gemeenskap, en die waamp nuwe pogings na stedelike besef dat die wbreld se hulpbronne nie vir hernuwing, plaaslik en internasionaal altyd gaan hou nie, moet 'n verskeidenheid aangewend kan word om die probleem van gebruike vir die hulpbronne ontwikkel word stedelike degenerasie in Suid-Afrika te om die stygende sosiale en ekonomiese hanteer. Dit bevestig die feit dat alhoewel druk te balanseer. Om die ideale van die daar aandag gegee word aan stedelike volhoubare stad te bereik sal hierdie studie hernuwing in Suid-Afrika, daar 'n gebrek op die aspekte van stedelike hernuwing aan gestruktureerde beleid en wetgewing fokus. 'n Toenemende probleem waarmee bestaan wat daarop gerig is om die die beplanner te kampe het is die konstante potensiele voordele van die proses te destruktiewe teenwoordigheid van metodes vergmot. Twee belangrike bevindings van wat premature stedelike ve~alverwrsaak. die studie is dat stedelike hemuwing slegs

Dit is dus die intensie van die outeur dat die suksesvol kan wees indien daar groter karakter en funksie van stedelike hernuwing betrokkenheid van die inwoners en 'n weer besoek moet word om te verbeter op verskeidenheid aspekte van die stedelike die tradisionele metodes wat gebruik word omgewing soos ekonomie, kuns, kultuur, om sentrale stedelike gebiede te verbeter. bemarking asook natuurlike en

institusionele potensiaal ontwikkel moet

word om die verlangde resultaat te bereik. As a result of the transition from a modem This study demonstrates how new to post-modem society, and the realization approaches to urban regeneration, locally

that the earth's resources are no longer and internationally, could be applied to

infinite, a diversity of uses needs to be urban areas in South Africa to help solve created in order to balance out the the problem of urban degeneration. It

increasing social and economic pressures shows that although some attention is paid

in built-up areas. In order to achieve the to urban regeneration in South Africa, there

ideal of a sustainable city this study will is a lack of a dedicated set of policies and

focus on the aspects of urban regeneration. legislation aimed at maximizing the

A growing problem the planner has to potential benefits of the process. Two of the

contend with is the constant presence of important findings of the study are that in destructive tools that are working their way order for urban regeneration to be

through inner cities causing premature successful, there should be greater

urban decay. It is the contention of the involvement from the inhabitants, and that a

author that the characteristics and functions variety of aspects of the urban environment

of urban regeneration need to be revisited such as its economic, artistic, cultural,

in order to improve on the methods that marketing, natural, and institutional

have traditionally been used to improve potential needs to be exploited in order for it

inner urban areas. to have the desired outcome. CONTENTS

CHAPTER I...... 4 CHAPTER 3 ...... 46

1.1 OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ...... 5 3.1 URBAN REGENERATION DEFINED.... 47

1.11 INTRODUCTION...... 5 3.1) INTRODUCTION...... 47 1. l:l] PROBLEM STATEMENT ...... 6 3.21 DEFINING URBAN REGENERATION 48 I.3 AIM OF THE STUDY ...... 7 3.2:1] TEN PRINCIPLES OF URBAN 1.31 GLOSSARY ...... 7 REGENERATION ...... 51 1.41 METHOLOGY ...... 9 3.31 REASONS FOR URBAN 1.4.11 UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH ...... 9 REGENERATION ...... 51 1.4.21 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH METHODS 3.41 OBJECTIVES OF URBAN ...... 10 REGENERATION ...... 54 1.4.31 RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 11 3.51 TOOLS OF URBAN REGENERATIONS~~ 1.51 PROJECT STRUCTURE...... 11 3.5.11ACTORS INVOLVED...... 54 1-61CONCLUSION ...... 13 3.5.21 LEGISLATION AND POLICIES ...... 55 3.5.31 IMPROVEMENT DISTRICTS ...... 56 CHAPTER 2 ...... 14 3.61 URBAN REGENERATION TERMINOLOGY ...... 57 3.6.11 FLAGSHIPS ...... 57 3.71 EFFECT OF URBAN REGENERATION 2.1 THE URBAN REALITY ...... 15 ...... 58 3.81 SUSTAINABLE DNELOPMENT...... 60 3.91 CONCLUSION ...... 60 2.1) INTRODUCTION...... 15 2.4 SOUTH AFRICAN URBAN AREAS IN HISTORY ...... 15 CHAPTER 4 ...... 61 2.2.11 THE PERIOD BEFORE AND AFTER THE ANGLO-BOER WAR ...... 16 2.2.21 THE PERIOD BETWEEN AND AFTER THE TWO WORLD WARS ...... 18 4.1 UTOPW PRAC-TOPIA ...... 62 2.2.31APARTHElD ...... 21 2.2.43 RECONSTRUCTION OF A NATION 30 4-11INTRODUCTION ...... 62 2.31 TOOLS OF DESTRUCTION ...... 33 4-21 PHILOSOPHER'S UTOPk ...... 63 2.3.11 POVERTY ...... 36 4.31 THE MASTERS OF UTOPIAN 2.3.21 CRIME ...... 37 THOUGHT ...... 65 2.3.31 SPRAWL ...... 40 4.3.11 PLAT0...... 65 2.3.4i URBAN ECONOMICS ...... 42 4.3.23 ARISTOTLE ...... 66 2.3.51 URBAN LANDSCAPE ...... 42 4.3.31 THOMAS MOORE ...... 67 2.3.4 SOClAU COMMUNITY 4.3.41 CHARLES FOURIER ...... 68 DEVELOPMENT ...... 43 4.3.51 ROBERT OWEN...... 68 2.41 CONCLUSlON ...... 45 4.3.6) HENRl SAINT-SIMON ...... 69 4.3.71 KARL MARX AND FREDRICH ENGELS...... 70 4.3.81 EBENEZER HOWARD ...... 71 4.3.91 LE CORBUSIER ...... 73 4.3.101 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT ...... 75 4.3.111 LEWIS MUMFORD ...... 75 4.3.121 NORTHROP FRYE ...... 76 4.3.121 PAUL TlLLlCH ...... 77 CHAPTER 7 ...... 119 4.3.13) THE EXTREMES ...... 78 4.4) THE THREE CITIES ...... 79 4.51 MODERN UTOPIA ...... 80 4.61 CONCLUSION ...... 81 7.1 THE PREllY CITY ...... 120

CHAPTER 5 ...... 83 7.11 INTRODUCTION...... I20 7.21 PUBLIC ART ...... 121 7.3j THE HISTORY IN THE CITY ...... 123 7-41CITY BEAUTIFUL MOVEMENT...... 126 5.1 THE FRAGMENTED CITY ...... 84 7.4:1] MUNICIPAL ART ...... 127 7.4.21 CIVIC IMPROVEMENT ...... 127 7.4.31 OUTDOOR ART ...... 128 5.11 INTRODUCTION...... 84 5.21 SKEWED DEVELOPMENT...... 85 7.51 URBAN DESIGN ...... 129 7.61THEARTlST IN THE CITY ...... 132 THE MARALIASTADREGENERATION PROGRAMME ...... 86 7.6.11 GRAFFITI ...... 136 5.31 NATURAL BOUNDARIES ...... 90 7.6.21 HISTORICAL BUILDINGS ...... 137 5.41 THE PRESENCE OF SLUMS...... 91 7.71 CONCLUSION ...... 138 5.4.11 SLUMS ...... 91 5.5) CRIME AND PLACE ...... 92 CHAPTER 8 ...... 140 5.61 CONCLUSION ...... 94

CHAPTER 6 ...... 95 8.1 THE CULTURE CITY ...... 141

8.11 INTRODUCTION...... 141 6.1 THE GREEN CITY ...... -96 8.2j DEFINING CULTURE ...... 142 8.2.11 UNlVERSlAL CULTURES ...... 143 6.11 INTRODUCTION...... 96 8.1 THE SOUTH AFRICAN CULTURAL 6.21 THE ENVIRONMENT ...... 96 ORIENTATION...... 143 6.2.11 POLLUTION IN URBAN AREAS ...... 97 8.41 THE CITY AND URBAN LIFE ...... 144 6-31SPRAWL ...... 103 8.51 POST MODERNISM ...... 145 6.3.11 URBAN SPRAWL DEFINED...... 103 8.61 CULTURAL REGENERATION ...... 146 6.3.21 THE COST OF SPRAWL: A 8.6.11 THE CONTRIBUTION OF CULTURAL REGENERATION...... 147 MULTIFACTOR PROBLEM ...... 104 .... 6.3.3) REACTIONS TO URBAN SPRAWL 105 8.71 SPORT RENEWAL ...... 148 6.41 SMART GROWTH ...... 108 8.7.11 INCLUDING THEYOUTH...... 149 6.5) OPEN SPACES ...... 110 8.81 CONCLUSION ...... 151 6.5.1) HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF OPEN SPACES ...... 1 10 CHAPTER 9 ...... 153 6.5.21 NEED FOR OPEN SPACES ...... 112 6.5.31 FUNCTIONS OF OPEN SPACE ..... 113 6.5.41 OPEN SPACE PROBLEMS ...... 115 6.5.51 SUSTAINABLE OPEN SPACE 9.1 THE LANDMARK CITY ...... 154 MANAGEMENT...... 116 6-51CONCLUSION ...... 118 9.11 INTRODUCTION...... 154 9.21 LANDMARKING THE CITY ...... 154 9.31 THE MEANING OF A LANDMARK ... 156 9.41 WATERFRONT DEVELOPMENTS .. 159 9.51 CITY MARKETING...... 160 9.5.11 THE IMPORTANCE OF MARKETING ...... 162 9.61 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT ...... 167 FIGURE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 215 9.71 CONCLUSION ...... 167

CHAPTER 10 ...... 169

10.1 THE ECONOMIC CITY ...... 170 10.11 INTRODUCTION...... 170 10.21 ECONOMIC REGENERATION...... 170 GALESHEWE.KIMBERLY ...... 170 10.31 CRIME AND ECONOMIES...... 172 ALEXANDRA.GAUTENG ...... 173 DOMEVILLAGE. LOS ANGELES...... 174 BLUEIQ ...... 174 BATTERYPARK. NEW YORK ...... 175 10.41 URBAN AGRICULTURE ...... 176 10.51 LOCAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ...... 178 EASTERNBELFAST ...... 181 10.61 CONCLUSION ...... 182

CHAPTER 11 ...... 183

11.1 CONCLUSIONS...... 184

11.11 INTRODUCTION...... 184 11.21 SUMMARY OF ISSUES IDENTIFIED ...... 184 11.31 THEMES IN URBAN REGENERATION STRATEGIES ...... 185 11.3.1]ACKNOWLEDGlNG THE CITY .... 185 11.3.21 THE ROLE OF PUBLIC PARTICIPATION IN SOUTH AFRICA ...... 185 11.3.31 TARGETING THE CULTURAL MARKET ...... 186 11.3.41 RESCUE INFRASTRUCTURE ..... 187 11.3.51 ENRICHING THE PUBLIC REALM187 11.3.61 LANDMARKING URBAN AREAS . 188 11.3.71 DECORATE! ...... 188 11.41 UTOPIAN STRATEGIES...... 189 11.4.11 THE FRAGMENTED CITY ...... 189 11.4.21 THE GREEN CITY ...... 190 11.4.31 THE PRETTY CITY ...... 191 11.4.41 THE CULTURAL CITY ...... 192 11.4.51 THE LANDMARK CITY ...... 192 11.4.61 THE ECONOMIC CITY ...... 194 IIS]CONCLUSION ...... 195

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 196 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: The research design 13

Figure 2: Batman the (comic] hero that come to rescues when a citizen of Gotham city is in 16 need of help.

Figure 3: The Durban CDB developed dramatically due to its port and sugar plantations and is 17 one of South Africa's major cities.

Figure 4: 'City Burning". Artist unknown. The painting shows the image from World War 1 and 20 its consequences.

Figure 5: Vetwoerd was seen as the architect of the apartheid policy. 23

Figure 6: Racially segregated stands at a South African sport stadium during the Apartheid era. 24

Figure 7: The Shop Hour Ordinance stated that these shops may only be open at a specified 25 time. Other signs also stated 'whites only'.

Figure 8: Nelson Mandela became the first democrat'ially selected president of South Africa. 26

Figure 9: the South African Police force was controlling the demanding crowds forcefully. 29 During the Sharpeville riots 600 students died.

Figure 10: Graffiti showing the crying of a depressed nation to stop Apartheid. 31

Figure 11: F.W. de Klerk's election called for the abolishment of anti-apartheid policies. He won 32 the Nobel price for peace in 1991 together with N. Mandela Figure 12: Visions of how the RDP and UDF wanted to address problems in South African 35 urban areas.

Figure 13: A Squatter camp, located outside Port Elizabeth 36

Figure 14: Unemployment in squatter camps is one of the reasons for poverty and high crime 37 rates. This camp is located in Alexandra that is notorious for high crime rates and unemployment.

Figure 15: Poor housing areas growing on the edge of Malaysia's urban centers as migrants 37 move to take new advantage of the new job opportunities.

Figure 16: Typical development pattern of South African cities in the late 20h centuly. 42

Figure 17: The Rue Mosnier with flags, painted by Edouart Manet, Paris 1878. 49

Figure 18 The model developed by Hart and Thorssen. Xis where equilibrium is achieved. 54

Figure 19: The improvement district in Cape Town. Improvement to the area was done by 59 cleaning up the area and planting tress.

Figure 20: Characters of the movie Chicken Run, in front, Ginger the chicken. 64

Figure 21: Doxiadis maps Plato's Republic and Aldous Huxley's Brave New World on his graph 66 with the Republic as more eutopian and Brave New World more dystopian. Indeed Doxiadis associates dystopia with real cities, and is compelled to place Brave New World of his graph somewhere worse than dystopia. Both these worlds are placed towards u-topia because their escapsuim restricts them from existing in a real place.

Figure 22: Constantine Doxiades observed that the utopian ideal can be impracticable. 67 Figure 23: Plato's work, Republic is seen as the starting point for utopian thought. 68 Figure 24: Thomas Moore, writer of the book Utopia. 69

Figure 25: Charles Fourier stated that to look back into the past was the best way of solving 71 present problems.

Figure 26: Robert Owen believed that the establishment of an agrarian society would 72 reconstruct the society as it has been before.

Figure 27: Henri Saint-Simon believed that every citizen must be treated as equal. 72

Figure 28 and 29: Karl Marx (right) and Fredrich Engels (lefl) believed that more drastic 73 measures should be taken in the society to reach the desired utopia.

Figure 30: Letchworth located in England was an attempt by Ebenezer Howard for building his 74 utopian city. The city was laid out by R. Unwin and B. Barker in 1904.

Figure 31: A diagram of the three magnets as proposed by Howard.

Figure 32: Although Ebenezer Howard ideas for the Garden City were never implemented in 75 reality; some of his ideas played a major role in developments, such as Letchworth.

Figure 33: A diagram of Howard's proposal for his Garden cities that are dependent on one 76 central city.

Figure 34: Le Corbusiet's Unite de Habitation is an example of Le Corbusier's ideas of high 76 density living.

Figure 35: Le Corbusier also tried to achieve the utopian city through his Radiant City proposal, 77 but it was never implemented to such an extend as Howard's. Figure 36: Model of the Radiant city, 1930 as proposed by Le Corbusier. 77

Figure 37: Frank Lloyd Wright envisioned the Broadacre city as a solution to the problems existing in urban areas at that time.

Figure 38: Lewis Mumford believed that utopias are ideals never realized.

Figure 39: Northrop Frye believed that if there is any revival of utopian thought, it cannot be based on passed utopias.

Figure 40: Paul Tillich believed in the positive truth of a utopia and the advantage a society can get from it.

Figure 42: Ted Kauynski beliefs dmve him to post letter bombs to people and killng them.

Figure 42: Hitler's idea of a racial cleansing resulted in the killing of more than a million people.

Figure 43: the envisioned utopias of Howard, Wright and Le Corbusier plotted on Doxiades graph of Utopia

Figure 44: Demonstrating has become one of the ways of 'getting what the masses want'.

Figure 45: A view of the Brandenburg gate from the West.

Figure 46: Marabastad, with the buildings of the Pretoria CBD at the back

Figure 47: The temple found in Marabastad is a tourist attraction.

Figure 48: Walter Gmpuis was the starter of the Bauhaus movement, which based art and architecture on practicality. Figure 49: The Oak street neighbourhood was demolished in the late 1950s. 98

Figure 50: Wooster Square in the winter

Figure 51: Notice boards like these are becoming regularity by rivers in South Africa,

Figure 52: Harare, Zimbabwe

Figure 53: First street in Harare. Urban areas in Zimbabwe needed to work against the pollution of fuel and fires.

Figure 54: An aerial photograph of Kiambiu, Kenya.

Figure 55: Traffic is considered as one of the problems created by urban sprawl.

Figure 56 and 57: Buffalo is known for its racial segregation and development, however, preventive are taken against it.

Figure 58 and 59: Portland, USA is one of the cities with the highest proactive sprawl reduction.

Figure 60: Dedication of the Picasso sculpture, August 1967.

Figure 62: Camillo Sie studied historical plans of cities to introduce his artistic ideas for cities

Figure 63: Olmsted designed various outdoor areas which were actively implemented during the City Beautiful movement.

Figure 64: A public art sculpture done by JT Young. Title Pegs. Washington.

Figure 65 and 66: Proposed SOD0 Urban Art conidor's southem gateway. 141 Figure 67 and 68: A conceptual drawing of the Blue carpet project and figure 123 is the end result.

Figure 69: The Knot by E. Villa.

Figure 70: Artist unknown. Location: Louis Botha Ave, Orange Grove

Figure 71: The Eiffel Tower is one of the most known landmarks throughout the world.

Figure 72: The El Borg hotel in Cairo. Many residents believe that this building destroys the dignity of Cairo's skyline.

Figure 73: A popular waterfront destination in Australia with a strong mix of leisure activities.

Figure 74: Public and Private sector involvement in city marketing.

Figure 75: Internal and external involvement in city marketing.

Figure 76: The marketing process

Figure 77: The Dome Village is built on an unused parking lot with temporary house structures on it.

Figure 78: A rooflop Garden in Toronto. Awareness is created by the public through community 183 education and media awareness.

Figure 79: Table Mountain is one of South Africa's most exploited landmarks. 195

Figure 80: Durban's Golden Mile is not to the standard it is set to be. New developments 195 around the mile will, however contribute to the scenic beauty of the area. Figure 81: The Union Buildings is one of Pretoria's best assets, however, high crime is a threat 195 to the possible tourist. The SAPD plays an active mle in securing that the area is safe.

Figure 82,83 & 84: The different skylines of Johannesburg needs to be promoted to tourist, 200 since it is a asset that is not used that much CHAPTER 1 I.] OVERVIEW OF THE the visions that there are for cities in the world despite the variances in visions for STUDY cities across the world, there are common features that people envision. These include:

a safe and healthy environment; a city in which inhabitants and organizations contribute, rather 1.11 INTRODUCTION than take out; an attractive city in which Change is inherent in our society, but inhabitants can be proud of; what kind of cities do we envisage and adequate housing and income for how do we get from where we are to all its inhabitants; where we want to be? Considering past good infrastructure; practice and how it influenced decisions a incubator of cultural excellence around urban fabric it is difficult to and; determine the future as far as achieving opportunities to pursue business our expectations is concerned. To interest and other activities. regenerate the urban fabric and the areas of decline is one of the greatest Each of these ideas has implications for challenges for the well-being of our implementation, Imagine living in a society. The challenges that face us, not perfect world. The structures of everyday only includes the physical form but also life are created to suit each and every those affected by degeneration. Two need at an individual and societal level. questions come to mind: first, how will the This dream or ideal is what is commonly constraints of achieving the changing known as a utopia. Unfortunately the social-political and economic Biblical adage pertaining to the original circumstances influence the visions of our sin of Adam and Eve resulted in the cities? Secondly, we must realise that permanent destruction of the utopian visions for the future will vary concept. There have been many attempts considerably as time passes. However, to recapture the utopian ideal. Hitler and his utopian ideal of the Herenvolk is one safeguard of the envimnment. Whatever such example. The current reality of the case, the protection of urban areas is many major urban areas around the essential if there is to be an urban future. world is that of decaying, crime infested, In an effort to protecting the urban anti-social and rundown buildings, envimnment various urban regeneration surrounded by mazed networks of roads. projects are embarked upon with the This is the grim reality of what has hope of attracting new business and become of areas across the world. creating a safer envimnment. Urban regeneration is implemented to ensure Improving the wellbeing of urban areas is better development possibilities. This an important objective of the South idea of urban regeneration is not a new African society. Urban areas are the one, but, techniques to achieving the end economic generators, and the social- have evolved over time. political and cultural hubs. Urban areas are also the home of more than half the 1.1.11 PROBLEM STATEMENT population of South Africa and are thus the driving force behind each country's continuation (Statistics South Africa. Various regeneration methods exist 1996: 6). In the urban setting one finds internationally and locally. Many of these built-up areas, partly covered by the dust can be implemented or improved upon in of the slums, and surrounded by "green urban areas in South Africa. However, areas" the latter being the protector of the not all these methods are known or natural envimnment. Within the urban implemented in South Africa. The space one is introduced to a mixture of following questions will assist the study in cultural and social activities and various solving the research problem: transport modes connecting several nodes. This seems to be a footprint that What is the status of South is found in nearly every city in the world. African cities in regard with social, economic, institutional and Urban areas represent both negative and cultural aspects? positive space. On the one hand they can What does urban regeneration be seen as the destroyer of the natural mean? environment and on the other hand as a What methods are used in urban urban areas by combining them with regeneration locally and relevant writings on the required subject. internationally?

0 What makes certain cities more The study will also revisit methods that liveable than others? exist globally and to apply them to the

a How can these methods be current situation of South African cities implemented in South Africa? that can be used for future planning and efforts in this country. The study aims to How can the sustainability of find solutions for many of the ills of our cities be improved? urban environment while returning to the utopian icon of a compacted, well functioning urban environment. It will 1.21 AIM OF THE STUDY introduce techniques for urban renewal that have not as yet been used in South The hypothesis of the study is that Africa before or techniques that deserve methods investigated in this study such more attention. as urban art, urban landscaping, architecture, cultural improvement and The theme 'Urban Regeneration' is of regeneration legislation can contribute to great importance to every urban area that improvement of urban areas. Thus exists. Due to the popularity of this attracting investment, thus creating jobs, subject a huge amount of information and residents back to the dying urban exists. It is thus important to limit the core again. information gathered. The data collected will then have a time frame to the end of Various urban renewal projects have 2002. In some cases articles were added been started as a result of the 'rotten that were written before May 2003, due to apple" syndrome of the city core. The the relevance to the subject. outcomes of these projects have both been viewed both positively and 1-31GLOSSARY negatively by the public. The aim is to look at urban areas of other countries and The following definitions will apply within to use the positive elements of projects the context of the dissertation: that can be adapted for South African Dystopia - A bad place. A place or U-topia - No place. An interpretation of utopia that is considered bad. utopia that recognizes its impartibility. A description of a real place that it so Eutopia - A good place. An interpretation abstract that particularities are irrelevant. of utopia that recognises the quality of its ideals. Thus a description of a real place Ubuntu - Zulu word for a feeling of that is considered good. brotherhood. Thus belonging to a group.

Flagship development - as used in this Urban agriculture - as used here, refers study refers to high profile developments to small areas (e.g. vacant plots, that can play an influential part in urban gardens, verges, balconies, containers) regeneration which can be justified if they within the city for growing crops and attract other investment. raising small livestock or milk cows for ownconsumption or sale in Prac-topia - The term used in this study neighbourhood markets. to describe both the model and the result of the modem cornpromise of utopian Urbanite - a person living in an urban vision and pragmatic execution made area. possible by the abstraction of both. Urban Regeneration - the process in Rotten Apple Syndrome - this effect which the problems (such as crime and happens when a bad (such as high pollution) in urban areas are attempted to crime) area or business locates itself in a be corrected through different strategies. good area and then attracts bad businesses or industries to the area and Utopia - An imaginary or visionary place thus downgrading the area. that is ambiguously happy and ideal but impracticable and impossible. Squatter settlement - a settlement where people occupy land without the permission of the owner. Topia - A place that exists or has the potential to exist. 1.41 METHOLOGY The method, whether quantitative or qualitative, then also perceives the way in 1.4.11 UNDERSTANDING what tools will be used to solvelanswer RESEARCH the research problem. More attention has been given to quantitative research since 'In virtually every subject area, our it was regarded by the society as a better knowledge is incomplete and problems science because it related to numbers are waiting to be solved. We can address and precision (Berg. 1998:2). Qualitative the holes in our knowledge and those research, broadly defined means 'any unresolved problems by asking relevant kind of research that produces findings questions and then seeking answers not anived at by means of statistical through systematic research" (Leedy & procedures or other means of Ormrod. 2001:3). Research is thus the quantification (Strauss & Corbin. systematic process of collecting and 1990:17). Qualitative data are data that analyzing information in order to increase describe a certain object or situation and understanding on the relevant subject. can therefore not be measured or Research methodology refers to the analyzed statistically (Martins. 1996:131). "approach that the researcher takes in It is important to emphasize the emergent carrying out the research project this nature of qualitative research design. approach then dictates the particular Because the researcher seeks to observe tools that the researcher selects and will and interpret meanings in context, it is be using" (Leedy & Ormrod. 2001:14). neither possible nor appropriate to finalize research strategies before data In this study research is done by mainly collection has begun (Patton. 1990). using qualitative research methods. It is, Qualitative research proposals should, however, important to note that to a however, specify questions to be lesser extent use will be made of explored and plans for data collection quantitative research methods. strategies. According to Martins (1996:125) quantitative research generally involves the 'collection of primary data from a huge population with the intention to apply the results to a wider population'. 1.4.21 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH documents or observations (Yin. METHODS 1984 & Hagan. 1993). A case study can also be multicase, where several different entities This study is based on several research methods. Qualitative research methods are studied. were developed in the social sciences to Ethnographic research - enable researcher to study social and ethnographic research is an in- cultural phenomena. According to Smit depth analytical description and (2000), there are various qualitative interpretation of naturally methods and he defines a research occurring behaviour within a method as a strategy of inquiry which culture or social group. Leedy et moves from the underlying philosophical al(2001:151) adds that the focus assumptions to research design and data of the investigation is on the collection. The way in which data is everyday behaviours of the collected determined by the choice of the people in the group, with an method: intent to identify cultural norms, beliefs and other cultural norms. Primary data: original data collected Grounded theory - This method specifically for solving the problem in hand is used to discover or generate a Secondary data: existing data which can theory. The theory is essentially be used in solving the problem under study an abstract schema, or set of propositions, that pertain to a specific experience, situation or Case Study research - this setting. It is thus to derive a research is an 'indepth analysis theory from data collected in a of one or more events, settings, natural setting (Leedy & Ormrod. programmes and individuals to 2001:157). permit the researcher to Content Analysis - Content understand how it operates or analysis is a detailed and functions' (Berg. 2001:212). This systematic examination of the approach may also imply a contents of material for the number of data technologies purpose of identifying themes or such as interviews, life patterns (Leedy & Ormrod. 2001:155). This refers to books, The internet. newspapers, television or art, thus any form of human The analysis process for qualitative communication. This study is a research aims to make sense out of the literature study and thus it is data that were captured in order to allow important to set limitations. some conclusions to be made. Because of the scope of the study literature that is 1.4.31 RESEARCH DESIGN investigated on can be dated. Historical research - involves a The research design can be seen as a process that 'examines events or complete attack on the central research combinations of events in order problem (Leedy & Ormrod. 2001:91). It to uncover accounts of what provides the overall procedures that the happened in the past' (Berg. researcher follows, the data collected and 2001:199). analyzed and the final conclusion. The research design for this research can be

This research consists of an eclectic seen in figure 1: combination of various qualitative methodologies. This approach was 1.51 PROJECT STRUCTURE adopted so that a holistic view could be reached, instead of merely focusing on This study is presented as a document one type of data retrieval. The techniques that includes a critical analysis of the used to retrieve data include: South African status quo followed by different urban utopias to be researched Analysis of literature that can have an impact on the South Evaluation of developed and Afiican condition. developing countries case studies Secondary data that were used included:

Books relating to the subject; Articles; Television programs and STATING OF THE PROBLEM: WHAT URBAN REGENERATION METHODS EXISTS?

REVISITING PROBLEM DATA COLLECTION:COLLFPTtnL1' 1d...... I I WORKING TOWARDS AN UTOPIA

URBAN REGENERATION DATA COLLECTION: I UTOPIA'S I I I DATA ANALYSING (MEASURED AGAINST 1- DATAOFCASESTUDUES THE PRETTY CITY; L THE CULTURAL CITY; THE LANDMARK CITY; AND THE ECONOMICAL CITY I I FIGURE 1: THE RESEARCH DESIGN

Chapter 2 - South African urban areas Chapter 4 - Urban Utopia. This chapter in history. The aim of the chapter is to looks into the utopias formed in the past establish the state of urban areas in such as the Garden City or the Radiant South Africa by looking at the history of City. The aim of this chapter is to urban areas and their planning; introduce the following chapters that are prac-topian based. The study then Chapter 3 - Urban regeneration moves on to discuss various elements in defined. This chapter investigates the the following six chapters. theory behind urban renewal in a South African context. It investigates the various Chapter 5 - The Fragmented city. This definitions of the concept and techniques chapter investigates the role of policies used; such as apartheid on urban form. It also looks at case studies, internationally and locally. Chapter 6 - The Green city. In this chapters to make possible chapter the natural areas of urban areas recommendations that must be are investigated. Attention is mainly given implemented to ensure sustainable urban to parks and the role they can play as the regeneration. lungs of urban areas.

1.61 CONCLUSION Chapter 7 - The Pretty city. Art is sometimes seen as a method to make something 'pretty'. This chapter will thus 'There's some good in this world, Mr be looking into the possibility of using art Frodo, and it is worth fighting for'." to revive urban areas. Urban regeneration is of great importance for the sustainability of urban areas as Chapter 8 - The Cultural city. This well as for the nation, it citizens. It is thus chapter looks into the possibility of imperative that attention is given to urban introducing cultural activities into urban regeneration. areas in order to regenerate these areas. The investigation will focus on the Because of the trustworthy issue of preservation of historic buildings. qualitative research, the most important aspect in qualitative research is the Chapter 9 - The Landmark city. This persons who review it and give credibility chapter deals with the marketability of to it. This report is thus done by using the cities and the influence of tourism on the relevant research tools in order to create possibilities to introduce this as a method the best answer for the research problem. for implementing urban renewal. In the following chapter the state of South Chapter 10 - The Economical city. African cities will be investigated. The Local economic development is used history of South Africa that had an impact globally. Urban agriculture is investigated on its urban form will also be and the possible role it can play in urban investigated. regeneration. Chapter 11 - Drawing Conclusions. This chapter brings together the 1 conclusions accumulated throughout the Sam, character from Lord of the Rings - The two towers written J.R. Tolkiin. CHAPTER 2 2.1 THE URBAN REALITY

2.11 INTRODUCTION

"A disease known is a half cure" - Latin proverb

A city has several roles. What makes a Figure 2: Batman the (comic] hero hat come to rescues when a citizen of Gotharn city is in need city? Is it the cosmopolitan feeling of I of hela. I Manhattan, the crowds of Japan, the old 2.21 SOUTH AFRICAN URBAN buildings in Europe or the shacks of AREAS IN HISTORY Soweto? A city is the sum total of places, features, trading, sports, vast spaces, The Batman series ignited the rooms for living, rooms for culture, rooms imagination of the world. It started with for religion, night spots, landmarks comic strips and was later developed into expressing spirit and homes to confront several movies. The retail market the individual. attracted the interest of the public and exploited it. The mystery surrounding According to Gwen (1967:21) a 'city acts Batman and his Gotham City made him as a mixing ground of races and nations, to be a hero in Gotham City where there of the rich and poor, and the powerful were many problems. Apart from the and helpless'. horrible visual conditions of Gotham City, This chapter will examine the history of there are also the antics of Mr Freeze or South Africa as it relates urban planning the Joker (the villains of the Batman and its resultant problems, since history legacy). Batman's 'help' button is pressed determines the future. whenever someone needs to be rescued. The residents and the government rely on Batman to come and solve their problems so that life can go on. Batman to the as the country with high crime rates. rescue! Changes within the government structure are taking place at a fast rate in South The idea of reconstruction, and the Africa and new policies are formed to calling on planning (Batman), stuck to work for a new future. Contmversial mind each time South Africa was faced issues arise in the parliament daily a new with stress and conflict in the past (this African identity is being established. It is also happened throughout the world in essential to look at the history of urban various other countries for example the areas in South Africa to establish what Marshall Plan in Europe). Each time the factors played a mle in the shape and trust was put on urban planning to solve reasoning of urban areas in South Africa the problems that were 'created by today. various destructive tools' (Mabin and Smit. 1997:193). After each period of turmoil, the South African government started to develop new institutions, laws, visions and plans to deal with the rising issues such as urban migration, poor health conditions and lower standards of living. dramatically due to its port and sugar plantations and is one of South Africa's major

South Africa is still a country in progress; it is still rebuilding itself from the past. It is 2.2.11 THE PERIOD BEFORE AND undergoing strong currents of AFTER THE ANGLO-BOER WAR democratisation and is becoming part of the global village. Socially, new The origin of South African urban movements are being formed; planning can be traced back to the 19th institutional restructuring is taking place, century. After the Treaty of Vereeniging and new identities for South Africa are was signed new local authorities with the being forced on them. This is being power to remake the urban environment enforced by other countries and can be were established. Initially the black that of positive such as the whole population established themselves on the democratisation process or negative such periphery of urban areas near mines in In 1910 the Union of South Africa was Johannesburg (Chipkin. 1993:197). formed after the amalgamation of the four Because of the unpleasant conditions colonies. A new Department of Land was facing people in Johannesburg, attempts formed through the merger of previous were made by the government to revive Township Boards. The aim was to the urban areas of the city. The initial standardise the way in which urban land stages of the reconstruction process were would be handled by the authorities. successful. The process involved the removal of 'native' people to Klipspruit Olive Schreiner predicted some of the (part of Soweto today) to work against the dangers that lay ahead in the Union of bubonic plague that broke out in South Africa. In an open letter she pinned Johannesburg. In 1899 the Transvaal the fact that the 'dark man' was only seen government started their plan of moving as a tool to work in mines (Schreiner. certain people from the innercity. Indians 1908). George Orwell also suggested that were moved to designated locations for a miner is the perfect tool to do work and the 'purpose of sanitation' (Chipkin. never resist anything because he is too 1993:197). Physical reconstruction also tired to work against the government took place at Newtown, west of (Orwell in Chipkin. 1993). Johannesburg where in 1904 the area was surveyed and replanned. This urban Large slums developed as of a result of 'cleansing' was not done to impmve the the discovery of a new gold reef and the life of the minorities but to impmve the expansion of industrial sectors. South quality of life for the majority, financially Africa's land ownership system was and physically. It is unfortunate that the centred on the 1913 Land Act, which later energy spent in this type of became known as simply the Land Act. reconstruction, at that time, could not be The Act, the first law in the twentieth replicated elsewhere because of the size century to create group areas, declared of the project and determination of the that the whole of South Africa would be actors involved (Mabin and exclusively for white South Africans, with Smit.1997:195). Chipkin (1993:198) the provision that certain "designated states that this was the start for areas" would be kept in trust solely for the Johannesburg's long history of urban welfare and benefit of black South renewal. Africans. These scheduled areas would comprise approximately 13% of total land were adjacent to, but always at a area and were mainly occupied by tribal distance from white towns or cities communities. In later years, "homelands" (Tager. 1998:2). were created out of these areas, which were expected to become the permanent The Black Native Land Act, no. 27 of abode for all black South Africans 1913 made pmvision for the appointment (Tager. 1998: 1). of the Beaumont Commission that led to subdividing the country into a number of In 1922 the Stallard Commission on local homelands. This act also led to the government had issued its establishment of the Representation of recommendations: total residential the Blacks Act, no. 12 of 1936 and the segregation and no security of tenure for South African Bantu Trust and Land Act, blacks (Chipkin. 1993: 200). These no. 18 of 1936 (Geyer. 1989:253). Geyer recommendations were, however, only (1989:253) adds that the Black Act of incorporated into the Native Urban Act of 1936 made pmvision for 'separate 1923. political development' in the designated One of the Black Land Act's key elements black areas and the South African Bantu was that, although blacks lived in urban Act of 1936 allocated more land to the areas, they could not have tenure over Bantustans. the land. In later years, the Black Land 2.2.21 THE PERIOD BETWEEN AND Act curtailed the right of blacks to occupy AFTER THE TWO WORLD WARS property without the so called 'pass' system. Influx control, for example, During the First World War that started in limited the freedom of non-whites' 1914 and ended in 1918, many pressures movements through a system of passes from the black communities and the (this was the backbone of the apartheid international community for a new system). This system became ever approach to the reconstruction ideas of harsher under apartheid. Blacks were urban areas in South Africa emerged. treated as temporary sojourners, forced Costs of living increased as a result of the to live in residential areas called locations war consequently increasing the demand (later called townships, such as Soweto, for housing. The 'temporary segregation Mamelodi, Katlehong, inter aha), which camps' (Chipkin 1993: 198) that were hastily created and renamed to wipe out thereby influencing urban layout in the the old names from maps and human country for decades to follow (Mabin & consciousness demanded another Smit. 1997:197). The Pinelands project approach. Urban planning (Batman) was was developed on the farm Uitvlug and called upon to play an integral part in this 365 ha farm was made available to attempts at reconstruction. During this the then Union Government of South era, reconstruction aimed at altering the Africa. physical urban reality to ensure better living conditions, efficiency and a social This also started the 'health theme' and a consciousness in the city was a driving reaction to the bubonic plague attributed factor in the reconstruction process. to the Public Health Conference held in September in 1918 to highlight the 'demands for new powers to address issues raised by concerned parties in slum clearance, housing and town planning' (Mabin & Smit. 1997:198).

The concerns surrounding the influenza epidemic also called for a new direction in Figure 4: 'City Burning". Artist unknown. The thinking about reshaping urban areas. I painting shows the image from World War 1 and its I consequences. I This era can be identified as the eye of a The British Garden City movement was tornado, where calm conditions emerged started at this time in Cape Town at about globally, and the world resettling afler the this time. The promoter of the Garden storm. Locally more focus was given to City ideal in South Africa was Richard the relocation of Africans to new urban Stuttaford, a member of the Union areas. Urban areas were considered as cabinet. After a visit to Letchworth, one of white areas by the South African Ebenezer Howard's projects, he launched govemment and development was thus a Garden Cities Association. Using his mainly 'white' focussed leaving non- access to govemment and his own whites on the fringes of the cities. Non- finances, he initiated the 'Pinelands" whites were only allowed into the urban project, South Africa's first Garden City, areas to work or for reasons that suited ideal of Le Corbusier), some of their the ruling government. influences on ideas still exist today. As one of Le Corbusier's disciples, In 1934 the Slums Act was promulgated, Martienssen influenced left a mark in which allowed for greater powers to local Johannesburg. Chipkin (1993:227-228) authorities to destroy existing slum areas notes that Martienssen influences and to replace them. The implementation pewaded the busy practices in town required the substitution of alternative where young Martienssen proteges housing, but because of the great moved into key design positions... most depression there was little or no funding of Martienssens's works/buildings were available and the substitute for alternative built in Hillbrow. After the war this area housing was delayed until much later. became a trendy place to do business.

Changes in technology also occurred. In South Africa, as in other countries, This called for reconstruction once again. modernistic planning developed into a Changes in transportation, urbanisation strong movement and its principles were and industrialisation affected cities applied through town planning and significantly. The industrial age brought architecture and thus working towards with it an increase in population and one goal: the need to create distance subsequently also a refocusing on the from traditional forms or the need to problems of overcrowding in urban areas. secede from traditional styles (Hope. 1975). New technology and thus leading Le Corbusier's ideas were also to the expanding in infrastructure introduced to South Africa during a developed the breeding ground for conference organized by a group of modernism in South Africa. Various students at the University of committees were established to address Witwatersrand in Johannesburg (Mabin & the issues affecting urban areas of South Smit. 1997:202) where his modemistic Africa. The idea of racial zoning arose as thoughts influenced the thinking of Rex a key post-war reconstruction method. Martienssen and his followers. Although none of Rex Martienssen and his Report no.5 on Regional and Town followers' theories were developed in Planning (commissioned by the practical form (such as the Radical city government) made some very clear statements on how reconstruction after South Africa ... (we want planning to the Second World War could be done. keep South Africa white." - Dr H.F. Meyer, et al, (20005) noted that: Verwoerdi

'a national department of With the Physical Planning and Regional electin of the planning had to be established; National Party macro-zoning had to be done at in 1948 the national level; government regional surveys and planning emerged as a had to be undertaken; dominant new cities and towns had to be player in the

planned by making use of the planning field. I Figure 5: Verwoerd was seen I as he architect of he neighbourhood concept; I Two spheres Of apartheid policy. I extensions to urban areas had to planning emerged: namely,- planning for apartheid be planned by local authorities rather than private developers; and planning for the segregated areas, and thus monochromatic planning in both green belts should be used to directions. Planning of large new public separate the neighbourhoods of housing estates, required to house the the whites and non-whites". workforce and also to accomplish more comprehensive segregation started to The end result of the Report was not develop. what the Smuts government hoped for or expected it to be as very little of its The implementation of the apartheid proposals came to fruition or wherever policy was made possible by the implemented. Population Registration Act of 1950, which put all South Africans into three racial categories: Bantu (black African), 2.2.31 APARTHEID white, or Coloured (of mixed race). A fourth category, Asian (Indians and "It was not safe to allow the free Pakistanis), was added later (Robinson. movement of Natives over the whole of 2000). The system of apartheid was later enforced by a series of other laws in the 1950s:

Racial law that touched every aspect of social life, including the prohibition of marriage between non-whites and whites and the Prohibition of Mixed Maniages Figure 6: Racially segregated stands at a South African Act, No 55 of 1949 were I sport stadium during the Apartheid era. I established; to the city being much more the Group Areas Act of 1950 ordered. These controlled assigned races to different satellite towns were placed on residential and business sections the periphery of urban areas - in urban areas whereas the Land Orange Farm (Johannesburg) Acts of 1954 and 1955 restricted and Motherwell (Port Elizabeth) non-white residence to specific were examples of these. The areas. These laws further Group Areas Act also made it restricted the already limited right possible for upper income non- of black Africans to own land and whites to be absorbed into entrenching the white minority's existing white residential areas control of over 80 percent of (Mabin & Smit. 1997:214). They South African land (Robinson. were, however, not welcomed in 2001). The visions pursued by all cases to the community, Apartheid reconstructionist was resulting in many moving back; based on modemistic views. It The Bantu Authorities Act of was highly ordered and 1951 and the Promotion of Bantu controlled thus making non- Self-Government Act of 1959 whites temporary workers to the furthered these divisions city. The government also between the races by creating introduced large informal ten African "homelands" settlements in order to keep the administered by what were non-whites out of the city, since supposed to be reestablished they believed that this would lead "tribal" organisations. In Johannesburg there was a sharp increase in the demand for housing. (Mabin & Smit. 1997:206). Thousands of people were also moved out of the urban areas in order to 'tidy-up' cities. Figure 7: The Shop Hour Ordinance stated that The urbanisation of non-whites these shops may only be open at a specified time. was also tightened; Other signs also stated 'whites only'. I I The Bantu Homelands Group Areas Acts of 1950, about Citizenship Act of 1970 made 1.5 million Africans were forcibly every black South African a removed from cities to rural areas citizen of one of the homelands, (Columbia Encyclopedia. 2001). effectively excluding blacks from The Act was also supported by South African politics. The the Illegal Squatting Act, no 52 of homelands being small and 1951 and the Development Trust fragmented lacked the autonomy and Land Act, No 18 of 1936 of independent states; making it impossible for black In 1953, the Public Safety and Africans to own land in urban the Criminal Law Amendment areas. Acts were passed, which To reduce job opportunities and empowered the government to industries for Africans in declare stringent states of metropolitan areas the Physical emergency and increased Planning Act, no 8 of 1968 was penalties for protesting against or introduced (Robinson. 2000). supporting the repeal of a law. The underlying reason was to The penalties included fines, promote jobs for the poor-white, imprisonment and whippings; thus denying certain to non- African townships that had been whites; and overtaken by 'white' urban sprawl The National States Constitution were demolished and their Act, 21 of 1974 resulted in the occupants were removed to new establishment of legislative townships well beyond city limits. assemblies and executive Between the passage of the councils in African areas. This act must be read together with the brother situation lasted for 156 days, Black Authorities Act, 68 of 1951 leaving 69 people dead and 187 people which provided for the wounded. Wielding the Public Safety Act establishment of African and the Criminal Law Amendment Act, authorities in African areas the white regime had no intention of (Geyer. 1994: 379). changing the unjust laws of apartheid. An iron fist was imposed leading to the In 1950 the South African government imprisonment and banning of opposition appointed the Tomlinson Commission to movements. Activists rose from the investigate the possibility into the socio- homelands and fought their way to economic development of the something (freedom) they thought that 'homelands' with the intention to maintain was right. It should be noted that, unlike the social structure and culture of the previous administrations, the Nationalist black Africans in the homelands (Geyer. government maintained an ideological 1989:253). The report was tabled in 1956 and practical commitment to the and contained the following implementation of reconstruction into the recommendations: the Bantustans should 1970s - the reconstruction of apartheid. be consolidated into economically viable But the problems within the system areas and that the industrial development widened dramatically in the midseventies within the Bantustans should be (Mabin & Smit. 1997:209), as people stimulated on a partner basis between realised that the government could not black and white, but as far as possible always be right. from their borders (Union of South Africa in Geyer. 1989:253). Ways to circumvent the Group Areas Act emerged very quickly. Companies (such The apartheid image provoked a rising as the first company formed by Nelson tide of resistance of which the shootings Mandela in 1952) were formed and trusts at Sharpeville is clear evidence. In 1960, were established to hold the property on a large group of blacks in Sharpeville behalf of individuals who could not own refused to carry their passes and the land themselves. Indian and Coloured government declared a state of South Africans who relied on this emergency. The 'emergency' of people "nominee" system had to place their trust wanting to free themselves from the big and faith in the white individual who held legal title to the land (Tager. 1998:2) for them to work or live on. Much exploitation occurred since the arrangement was illegal; there could be no action against a nominee who abused the trust of the investor.

The Apartheid policy was also denounced by the international community and in 1961 South Africa was forced to withdraw from the British Commonwealth by member states that were critical of the apartheid system. This also led to South Figure 8: Nelson Mandela became the Africa being expelled by the United first democratically selected president of Swth Aha. Nations in 1974 and in 1985 the IResidential permits were a type governments of the United States and of statutory lease with stringent Great Britain imposed selective economic provisions as to who was sanctions on South Africa in protest of its permitted to occupy the property; racial policy (Robinson. 2000). The outcome of sanctions had a more Another option permitted blacks negative impact on the people at the to purchase a council house from bottom and not the people on the top, the state, but, under this permit, where the target should have been. blacks did not by law own the houses they purchased; these Black ownership of land was not always belonged to the state; considered necessary since the and government planned to return all blacks to the homelands. Blacks were thus A third permit allowed blacks to allowed three types of temporary build on a vacant site, but, again, occupancy permits in the townships, all of did not permit actual ownership which were strictly controlled: (Tager. 1998:3). In 1962 the South African government grant for residential sites placed stringent established the first of the Bantustans, controls over the occupant (Tager. the Transkei, as the homeland of the 1998:4). This was done in fear that the Xhosa people, and granted it limited self- blacks would become economically govemment in 1963, later becoming powerful and resist the actions of the 'independent." Bophuthatswana, Ciskei, state. and Venda were also granted In the townships, a permit system similar "independence," but no nation other than to the residential permit system applied to South Africa acknowledged them. trading sites. Robinson (2000) states that Lebowa, Kangwane, Gazankulu, township managers were assigned to Qwaqwa, KwaZulu, and KwaNdebele townships and there received the power were declared "self-governing" in the to identify sites for trading purposes and 1970s. This was made possible by the then allocate those sites to fortunate Promotion of Black Self-Government Act applicants at their discretion, but yet no 46 of 1959. This was ideal of the again trading permits did not establish South African govemment to acquire their ownership of the site. utopian dreams of a South Africa for whites, yet there needed to be blacks to Initially, the law empowered township work in the mines. managers to identify a site and specify

The Black Land Act, the Group Areas Act the particular trade that could be and the Urban Areas Act collectively conducted on it. Later, the law was barred black entrepreneurs and farmers partially amended and the nature of the from becoming economically active in trade was specified in the license issued South Africa. This was accomplished by to the applicant. There were a limited denying them not only ownership of land number of retail trades in which black for trading and farming purposes, but persons could engage, but manufacturing denying them permission to lease the was absolutely prohibited until 1979, and land as well. In the tmst areas and people were criminally prosecuted for homelands, no private ownership was attempting to do so (Tager. 1998:5). allowed and the deed of grant that could Few trading sites were assigned and the be acquired for trading sites permitted process of acquiring a site was in many very few types of businesses. Deeds of cases unsuccessful. Out of frustration people started to set up informal the settlement pattern in the Republic to businesses at home, in their back yards the maximum benefit of all population and in the streets. According to Tager groups and communities, and the country (1998:5) all of this business activity was as a whole (Tapscott.1998:15). The plan illegal, and thus unlicensed and laid down broad guidelines for both the unrecorded. The term spaza, which public and private sectors to channel their means to camouflage, was used to actions and make their contribution describe "house shops."House shops towards the optimum utilisation of were hidden from the officials who shut resources (de Lange, et at., 2001: 5). them down, and criminally charged the "offenders"and confiscated their stocks. The objectives of the National Physical During the 1970s an "unofficial" view of Development Plan boils down to these reconstruction began to surface (Meyer & four growth factors: Oranje. 2000:7). The negative views of " a good agricultural hinterland the apartheid city, neighbourhood idea which contributes to an initial and the car-bias views to planning were concentration of people in an discredited for the effects it had on the othewise homogeneous and poor. sparsely distributed population; the availability of physical In the 1975s the South African resources which, in tum, readily govemment was requested to reconsider leads to industrialization and the whole 'apartheid' ideal. According to diversification; Geyer (1994379) pressure from an infrastructure including disenfranchised people, more sanctions railways, roads and power supply and the financial burden of the which creates further Bantustans had become a reality. Opportunities for concentration at focal points on growth axes; and In 1975 the National Physical momentum generated by the Development Plan was introduced by the concentration of markets and South African govemment. This plan was labour at these points" (N.P.D.P. the result of extensive study and 1975:14). research, and was an attempt to regulate was established for the purpose of Figure 9: the South African Police force was controlling the demanding crowds forcefully. During- facilitation of the private sector's I the ~ha6evilleriots 67 &dents died. involvement in urban reconstruction. It zoned for that purpose. However, by enabled private organisations to be means of careful restricting urban land for involved in township development and housing and supported by the Prevention through that address issues such as the of Illegal Squatting Act, no 52 of 1951, provision for infrastructure. influx control was basically the same as in the past (Geyer. 1994383). The Good Hope Plan (GHP) was announced in 1981 and it was aimed to Beginning in the late 1970s, increasing provide guidelines for industrial political pressure to end apartheid from development for South Africa and to both inside South Africa and abroad implement the plan (Geyer. 1989:258). started a process of political change, but these changes had hardly begun to affect Through the 1970s and early 1980s the overall dynamics of land ownership in urbanisation was seen as a major the country. The permanence of blacks in problem for urban areas in South Africa. so-called white South Africa was As a result of this, the White Paper on recognised by law when the government Urbanisation was released, that dealt with began granting 99-year leaseholds to urbanisation in a positive manner to blacks in black urban areas (Tager. enhance the quality of all South Africans 1998:6). These leaseholds later became (Mabin & Smit. 1997:212). Formal influx titles in perpetuity, so that when control was also abolished and special transferred to another lessee the 99 areas were set aside for development. years began over again. This concession People could settle on land in urban at least provided a form of tenure over areas which was earmarked and properly which a mortgage could be raised, enabling blacks to begin to build a capital After the 1982 general election, the South base. It also introduced security of tenure African government announced its plan of for many thousands who acquired reintegrating Asians and Coloureds. leasehold titles. Previous legislation that controlled race in South Africa were repealed such as the Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, no 55 The government policy of apartheid in of 1949. South Africa was one of the most discussed issues of the twentieth century. The apartheid legacy that still haunts Few people realize that not only was South Africa to date was probably one of apartheid an example of political injustice, the most controversial spatial planning it was also one of the most glaring initiatives, and it also disabled South examples of environmental injustice the Africa's cities to give a decent urban life world had seen (Duming. 1999). to the majority of their citizens today (Mabin & Smit. 1997: 193). In the Ciskei, fertile ground was either eroded or overgrazed. This is just one In 1986, the legal restrictions on a black example of many. The cause for person's right to own property in black degradation in the ecology could be urban areas were repealed. In that same ascribed to the following reasons. Firstly, year, the restrictions on freedom of the homelands are situated in movement and the pass laws were questionable environments and secondly repealed by the Abolition of Influx Control the forced overpopulation in the Act. Although the restoration of one of the homelands instigated by apartheid. most fundamental human rights denied to Thirdly labour shortage or the lack of black persons (the freedom of movement) knowledge and the final cause is poverty represented a significant change, the itself. This completed the cycle of people removal of the restriction on the right to that simply could not afford to buy fencing own property was really just a symbolic to control grazing, hire labourers to help gesture (Tager. 19985). terrace sloping fields, or invest in tree planting to conserve soil and water Holders of 99-year leases could in theory (Duming. 1999). obtain full ownership but in reality it took more than six years for the process to unfold. According to Tager (1998:3) one reason for the delay was a clear lack of commitment among govemment officials to accelerate the process.

The Conversion of Certain Rights to Leasehold Act of 1989 entitled all permit holders who had bought or built their houses to acquire the land on which their Figure 10: Graffiti showing the crying of a depressed nation to stop Apartheid. houses were built (Robinson, 2000). This I I Minister from 1958 to 1966, justified Act also repealed the regulations apartheid policy to his followers by noting governing urban areas, including the that government should take into account prohibition against trading on residential the trends in the world and Africa. property. Overnight, one of the most serious legal barriers to black As anti-apartheid pressure mounted entrepreneurship, the zoning restrictions within and outside South Africa, the affecting spazas, was removed (Tager. South African govemment, led by 1998:6). President F. W. de Klerk, began to To put it simply, for a long time the dismantle the apartheid system in the Afrikaner leadership attempted to early 1990s. 1990 Brought a National maintain white supremacy in South Party govemment dedicated to reform Africa. The post-war situation, however, and also saw the legalization of formerly posed this dilemma: how to suppress the banned political organizations and the emerging challenge posed by black release of imprisoned black leaders. political and economic power, while at the same time return legitimately 2.2.41 RECONSTRUCTION OF A NATION internationally apartheid in its instrumental aspects was an attempted As a result of these pressures, many key to this dilemma. It was a way to have other apartheid laws-such as those white supremacy under the historical banning interracial marriages and circumstances that characterized the segregating facilities-were repealed or decades after the war. Dr. Verwoerd, fell into disuse by 1990. In 1991 chief architect of apartheid and Prime President de Klerk obtained the repeal of the remaining apartheid laws and called for the drafting of a new constitution.

On February 2, 1990 President F.W. de Klerk launched South Africa into an era of democracy; various acts involving the apartheid ideal were removed. Acts such as the Black Land Act and the Group Figure 11: F.W. de Klerk's election called for the abolishment of apartheid policies. He won Areas Act" were repealed. With the the Nobel price for peace in 1991 together with N. Mandela. changes taking place, sanctions were been affected by the repeal. Long before lifled and many international institutions its repeal, the Group Areas Act was gave their support to South Africa. One of already being eroded throughout South these institutions was the World Bank. Africa (Tager. 1998:6). There were Returning after many years of absence virtually no pure white group areas, because of apartheid, they argued that because almost every white household South African cities were amongst the employed black domestic workers that most inefficient cities in the world. slept in a room outside the house. Certain The Conversion of Certain Rights to urban areas, known as grey areas, such Leasehold Act of 1989 combined with the as Hillbrow in Johannesburg with its elimination of the licensing requirement dozens upon dozens of high-rise under the Businesses Act of 1991 buildings, were occupied by South produced a dramatic, almost immediate Africans of all races who deliberately result: spaza shops emerged from hiding flouted the law. Other laws were also and expanded and new businesses of all abolished. These include the: kinds are mushrooming daily in townships 1986 - Legal restrictions on throughout South Africa. . blacks' right to own property in In 1991, the Land Act and the Group black urban areas repealed. Areas Act were repealed. The repeal of Conversion of Certain Rights to the Land Act has really only had symbolic value and the ten homelands (four of Leasehold Act (1989) - Granted which were considered independent and the right to purchase land to six of which was self-governing) had not certain types of permit holders and repealed prohibitions against the urban environment and its trading on residential property, surroundings. In 1997 the Urban removing some major legal Development Framework was produced barriers to black by the Department of Housing and entrepreneurship. together with the RDP it spelled out what the 'future' of South African cities would Businesses Act (1991) - . be like (Figure 59. A RDP budget was Eliminated the requirement for approved and through goals such as the trading licenses for all remaking of urban space and the businesses except those rebuilding of houses that were destroyed preparing meals and places of during the apartheid years were begun. entertainment. The RDP also defined reconstruction for . 1991 - Land Act and Group the whole country and all its institutions. Areas Act abolished. There was a sharp focus on higher 1993 - National Party and African densities and infill development in South National Congress reach Africa to compensate for the higher cost agreement on interim of infrastructure and to bring the Constitution that grants blacks previously 'banned' residents of the right to vote in the parliamentary homelands closer to the urban areas. elections (Tager. 1998:7).

Since the mid-nineties, there have been In 1993 a multiracial, multiparty planned attempts to change the existing transitional government was approved, inefficient urban patterns. Two of the and free elections were held in 1994, main policy documents regarding which gave majority representation to the planning and development, the Green African National Congress. Paper on Development and Planning (2000) and them Development The Reconstruction and Development Facilitation Act (1995) both advocate an Programmeiii was written as a manifesto integrated and holistic approach to for the 1994 non-racial elections. This planning and development in South Africa programme was later transformed into (CSIR 2002). policy and various aspects touched upon One, however, cannot expect to change land use, towns and townships, cities and large cities and towns overnight. Scarce Bantustans could be addressed (Mabin & resources, existing infrastructure and Smit. 1997:217). In 1995 the wellestablished mindsets are but a few Development Facilitation Act was passed. aspects that are providing difficulties This was a major piece of planning towards achieving integrated cities. legislation that allowed for old planning mechanisms to be bypassed and also

Under the old constitution, courts were called for the speeding up of the delivery not permitted to test the validity of acts of of land." Parliament, except those dealing with the 2.31 TOOLS OF DESTRUCTION dual language clause. That is why South

African courts could never pronounce on Alvin Toffler (1972) wrote about three the validity of apartheid legislation and large waves or revolutions that had could not prevent forced removals or the deeply changed humanity. The first of prohibition on the right to own land these three waves was placed by Toffler (Tager. 1998:3). ten thousand years ago with the

In the new Constitution there is a discovery of agriculture, which brought a fundamentally important change, section whole social revolution went from being 28 of the Bill of Rights establishes hunters and gathers to becoming farmers property rights, in terms of which every and cattle dealers. "The greater person is entitled to acquire and dispose sociological consequence of this change of rights in property. No-one may be was the consolidation of settled "deprived of their property rights other populations to harvesting and tending the than in accordance with a law cattlen(Toffler. 1972:15). This is seen as "(Constitution. 1996:24). the initial stages of the development of cities as they are known today.

As a result of the divisions of local authorities caused by apartheid, new planning departments were created. Nine provinces were established in which concerns about planning for housing, The second wave IMPLEMENTATION coincides with the Creating institution for delivery Promoting LED'S discovery of the Integration and Managing growth steam engine; thus Building Habitable and safe environments 0 Investment the industrial revolution, dated three hundred years URBAN REALITY Different size cities with diverse needs and problems ago (Toffler. Costly sprawl 1972:13). The Inner city problems Regional and Rural links machine made it A large and growing population possible for man to 1 THE VISION produce a greater Access to resources variety of goods and An environmentally sustainable and integrated urban and rural strategy acquire the capacity Leaders of a globally competitive Economy of more modem Centres of opportunities Free from discrimination modes of travel. The Participative Planning Good services and infrastructure greater productivity needed more Figure 12: Visions of how the RDP and UDF wanted to address problems in South -African urban areas. extensive markets, and that could be revolution of information technologies. achieved by having greater mobility. The The third wave had created a significant most immediate socio-political change in knowledge, production and consequence was that the United States mobility, giving way to a new civilisation, and other colonies appeared as a new and to a globalisation phenomenon. entity of greater spaces of socialisation to Agreements among different countries to promote and guarantee a greater adapt to the new era (example NAFTA.), development of the technological shows the age of globalisation has potentials that they had (Toffler. dawned. There is also an advance in total 1972:15). relations through multilateral organisations such as the United Nations. Finally, the third wave, according to The internet changed the world into a Toffler (1972:16), would be recognised by global village and changed the way of the failure of industrialisation and the doing business dramatically. Moreover, all of these changes also have consequences for the cities that have to adapt to that overall nature of interdependency and total mobility.

Even though globalisation is one of the most discussed topics in the Figure 13: An example of a squatter camp located contemporary world, Sen (2002:2) in Port Elizabeth. These areas are usually inhabited by a diversity of cultures living together. believes that it is not altogether a well- far and wide, globalisation has been more defined concept. A multitude of global visible in terms of trade and the interactions are put under the broad information highway. heading of globalisation, varying from the expansion of cultural influences across borders to the enlargement of economic With all this changes taking place, urban and business relations throughout the areas are being targeted by various tools world. Debates on the merits and de- of destruction such as poverty, crime, low merits of globalisation have been active public participation, urban decay, in recent years, examples of which are migration, poor transport, sprawl, the protests in Seattle, Prague and dumping, low investment, urban Genoa. landscape, lack of diversity and unemployment. Fifty-three percent (Statistics South Africa. 2002: 7) of the With the world rapidly becoming a global South African population live in urban village through free trade pressures, areas, which are not much more than many are raising questions about what rural, but one should be reminded that will happen to Africa's rich and diverse there is more space in rural areas than in culture and people heritage (Sithole. urban areas (there are, however, other 2001: 1). Globalisation is a phenomenon tools that impact on rural areas and not that seems to be based on the success of on urban areas). These tools make South trans-national corporations to promote a Africa's urban areas very inequitable, "new economic order" (Sen. 2002:2). It is inefficient, unsustainable and expensive a concept that has occurred across much to manage and maintain. They also of the world. Although its tentacles reach exacerbate poverty and unemployment. A unique diversity of urban Figure 14: Unemployment in squatter camps is one of the reasons for poverty and high crime rates. residents living together in South This camp is located in Alexandra that is notorious for high crime rates and unemployment. African urban areas; A suspicion towards the capacity A specific political and socio- and delivery of local governments economic environment present in in South Africa; and urban environments that is based 0 Notorious extremes between the on the history of South Africa; rich and the poor. Particular crime patterns (hijacking, farm killings, urban 2.3.11 POVERTY violence) and a rather high crime rate; Poverty is one of South Africa's main Proportionately high levels of fear problems. Various poverty alleviation of crime with relation to projects have been implemented in urban developed countries; areas. These include local economic Low levels of trust in the police in development projects but these only have many communities and the short term benefits. The high poverty rate forming of gangs or security is a result of too few work opportunities companies for protection; for a too large population. Poverty is A unique heritage of fragmented usually differentiated between absolute and separated urban and relative poverty. Absolute poverty environments, resulting from refers to a lack of the basic resources previous planning sectors; needed to maintain health and effective Large differences in existing bodily functioning. According to Geddes facilities and services accessible (1996:249) relative poverty refers to the to particular sectors; "gaps between the living conditions of some groups and those enjoyed by the majority of a population". In South Africa attention is given to poverty since it can lead to crime. Because of poverty many people will stay in slums, since it is a cheaper way of living. This usually includes horrific living conditions. Women make up the majority of the poor, mostly earning money from infomal trading. Figure 15: Poor housing areas growing on the edge of Malaysia's urban centers as migrants move to take new advantage of the new job Unemployment in South Africa is remarkably high. In 1998 it was officially Urban-based violence occurs on a wide measured at 39 per cent on the broad scale and is emerging as one of the definition and 26 per cent on the narrow challenges for urban landscapes (Louw & definition (Statistics South Africa, 2000: Bekker. 1996:4). Many people believe 7). Moreover, it had risen steadily in the that the urban drain that is taking place to subsequent years. Unemployment is the suburbs is because of crime. Once potentially a matter of serious concem - crime is tackled more people would come for its effects on economic welfare, back to the urban areas. Targets of crime production, erosion of human capital, include appropriation of property, which social exclusion, crime and social includes theft and destruction of property. instability. It is important to note that the Vandalism and complete destruction are poverty characteristics to race only differ pervasive, sometimes as a result of wars. slightly from before 1994, thus the poor remain poor. Since the general elections in 1994 the crime situation has been described as 'stabilising' (Louw. 2002). Available police 2.3.21 CRIME data for the period 1994 to 1999 suggest less comforting trends. Between 1994 The urban areas of South Africa are and 1997 there was little change in what facing high and rising crime rates (Farr: amounted to very high crime levels. In 2002). 1998 and 1999 there have been increases in several categories of serious crime (SAPD. 2002). Overall, recorded crime increased by fifth-teen percent in the country as a whole (Schonteich. between 1994 and 1999. During this time 2002). Most factors associated with high the country's population increased by crime rates characterise cities to a eleven percent. In 2002 crime in South greater extent than small towns. Africa was fifty two times higher than in Population density, for example, is Britain, mainly due to economic changes thought to be associated with crime, in leading to poverty. that greater concentrations of people lead to competition for limited resources, The geography of the South African cities greater stress and increased conflict. contributes to crime patterns (Louw. Other factors which characterise 2002). The apartheid policies of separate urbanisation, such as overcrowding and development that aimed to divide the high levels of gang activity are mainly population and control movement in the evident in urban areas and are known to city achieved disproportionate levels of be related to criminal activity (Schonteich. safety (white) in some areas while 2002). fostering insecurity (non-white) in others. Recorded crime levels vary between In townships and informal settlements, cities. Because the boundaries of city infrastructure was either absent or poorly governments do not match those of the maintained and formal urban planning South African Police Se~ice(SAPS), this was inappropriate. According to Louw city analysis is based on a selection of (2002) poor street lighting, no electricity, 'police areas' that best represent the vast open spaces and recreational cities discussed (Lattin. 2002). spaces, increase vulnerability to crime. This, along with the fact that rich and poor oflen live side by side, interspersed In urban areas crime can occur due to by tracts of unused land and highways continuing high rates of urbanisation and that provide opportunities for committing inefficient mechanisms of urban crime and rapid escape mutes, provide integration. Many people flock to urban an enabling environment for offending. areas to find the rare commodity in South Africa: employment.

Crime levels in the South Africa's The entry of Sub-Saharan Africa into the metropolitan areas tend to be higher than modem economy simultaneously initiated active rural-urban migration. For Lewis value of expected income streams from (1954), and Fei and Ranis (1961), rural- employment in the rural and urban areas. urban migration is a response to the high When the present value of the expected demand of labour by an industrial sector urban real income stream exceeds that of which assures greater levels of the rural income stream (or vice versa), productivity for workers, and positive migration occurs (Frankman. 1998:4). profits for investors. Rural regions are over-populated relative to their ability to For Todaro (1969) and Hams and Todaro feed themselves. Labour productivity is (1970), rural-urban migration in less low, approaching zero, resulting in a developed countries depends on the subsistence level of production and difference of the expected wage from providing incentives for migration to the migration (urban wage) versus the cities (Ndarishhikanye, et al. 1999:2). agricultural wage. That expected wage is equivalent to the actual industrial wage However, in many African countries weighted by the probability for a migrant significant rural-urban migration flows obtaining a job in the modem urban have coincided with limited sector. Hence, rural-urban migration can industrialization, high unemployment and coexist with high levels of urban poverty rates in urban areas. unemployment. Rural workers interpreted them as signals of higher probabilities of Todaro (1969:138) postulated an obtaining urban jobs (Todaro 1969:140). "economic behavioural model of rural- urban migration" to serve as a skeleton in Todam based his theory on the fact that the analysis of the employment effects of people are drawn to urban areas through alternative economic policies. While 'city lights' and other urban ideals. Todaro and John Hams have elaborated upon and expanded the model (1970), One may be able in some measure to the basic model originally developed by bring city lights to the countryside, but it Todaro remains essentially unaltered. can hardly be expected to substitute for the diversity found in urban areas. It is as Central to the labour migration model unlikely that the desire for urban living formulated by Todam is the comparison can be overcome as it is that the desire by the potential migrant of the present for economic development itself can be overcome. Rather than recommending prevention strategies in the local the reversal of historical trends, it would or metro area. seem more fruitful were economists to However, neither of these policy concentrate on policies by which these documents provide detailed guidelines to trends could be tumed to developmental local authorities, nor do they differentiate advantage. significantly between local, rural and metropolitan areas. The funding issue In Hillbrow, Johannesburg crime is a way came again since, there were not enough of living. According to a police captain in funds to develop innovative ways for the the SAPD the first step to ensure a lower 'fight against crime'. This has led many crime rate is to deal with corruption in the local authorities to view the policy as an police force since it is at the root of all "unfunded mandatehnd to take no problems (Lattin. 2002). action (Memeza & Rauch. 2000:l).

Local government's role in the provision 2.3.3) SPRAWL of security and the prevention of crime became clear in mid-1990 when two The cities will be part of the country, I important policy documents on Safety shall live 30 miles from my office in one and Security were introduced: direction, under a pine tree, and my secretary will live another 30 miles away The 1996 National Crime from it too, in the other direction, under Prevention Strategy suggested another pine tree. We shall both have our that local government would be a own car. We shall use up tyres, wear out prime implementation agency for road surfaces and gears, consume oil new approaches to crime and gasoline. All of which necessitate a prevention; great deal of work ...enough for all." Le The 1998 White Paper on Safety Corbusier 1967~1 and Security outlined two main roles for local authorities - law The dysfunctional form of South Africa's enforcement (through urban areas is a legacy of past policies, municipallmetro policing), and planning approaches and economic the co-ordination of social crime forces which have influenced the town, city and township development for decades. As a result of this, South African urban settlements are characterised by spatial separation based on class and race and also the concentration of the poor in relatively high density areas. This also leads to low infrastructure provision since it gets more costly to extend the infrastlucture lines Figure 16: Typical development pattern of further. South African ci* in fie late 20fi centuw.

Urban decay can be a result of the Sprawl also leads to poor transport following factors: between the previous apartheid cities. To overcome the fragmented nature of our "Physical decaying of buildings. cities and towns the need for efficient Pollution can contribute to the urban transport should be answered. decay; Urban areas in South Africa are Social decay such as the characterised by poor transport in urban development of slums; areas. Economic decay because of the

It is estimated that 15 per cent of the demand for low cost housing, urban population rely on water which is thus leading to slums; untreated and not reticulated and that 32 Functional decay which is the per cent do not have access to electricity cause of a large industry closing (UDF. 1997:19). Urban decay is one of down; and the major problems to be faced by Irrational decisions taken by authorities. Urban decay is normally government" (Nieuwoudt.1993:6). associated with rundown buildings and streets. Selvices to the area declined. As Other reasons that would also lead to soon as all these processes take place urban decay is that of 'brain drain' to decay starts to develop and it can end up suburbs and developments not being in slums. approved. 2.3.4) URBAN ECONOMICS In South Africa, however, the chant of public participation can be seen as a Effective urban areas are a prerequisite funeral song. During planning processes for attracting investment and to generate the public is either ignored or the economic growth (UDF. 199734). involvement in the process is ignored. Currently South Africa is faced with few Although conflict should be reduced at all investment opportunities since the times, meetings are usually characterised 'picture' to the outside world is not good. by conflict. Another problem is that of To promote urban economic illiteracy. People attending the meeting development, means to promote growth, do not necessarily understand the that will then tackle the high process that is taking place. This could unemployment South Africa is facing. lead to confusion and lack of interest.

2.3.51 URBAN LANDSCAPE Although many policies called for higher public participation, it was not answered. Dumping is one of the major problems Many development initiatives taking facing South Africa's urban landscape place, failed because the public was not and to ensure sustainable human involved in the whole process. According settlements, environmental management to Mills (1992:2) public participation is must form an integral part of the urban essentially a managed procedure or set planning process. In order to make South of procedures, most commonly co- African cities more 'liveable' urban ordinated by planning staff. An effective systems need to be responsible for the public participation process is requirements of their inhabitants. As characterised by the following aspects: noted earlier, 30 per cent of the urban population have access to electricity. Meetings must be representative of all members of the area; Brownfield sites are typically associated Information must reach with distressed urban areas, particularly everyone affected by the project; central cities and inner suburbs that once and were heavily industrialised but have since Conflict must be avoided at all been vacated. These sites are usually times (CSIR. DCD & GTZ. seen as problem areas because they are l998:46) empty and lure unwanted people. These a bigger impact than any other sickness. sites also have the problem of poor inner People who live in rural areas find health city access (Hospital Development. care services to be more inaccessible 2001). than those who live in urban areas.

2.3.61 SOClAU COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT Former President Nelson Mandela attended the Social Development Summit The Housing Department (1997:31) in March 1995, in Copenhagen, states that 'social development is central Denmark. The summit dealt with key to sustainable development.70 acquire issues surrounding community and social decent living conditions attention must be development, the creation of given to health, educational and employment, the ending of poverty and recreational facilities. South Africa is social unity. The summit also looked at marked for its diversity, and there are ways in which countries could increase many different people living in urban development across nations, thus areas. The problem, however, is that competing globally. Various community there is a lack of diversity in urban areas. development programmes such as the Urban Foundation, the Foundation of A country's ability to produce depends on Rural Development and the Development whether is has a healthy workforce. If half Bank of South Africa have initial projects the people of a country were sick at a that aim to create conducive given time, the country would not produce environments to live in work at the effectively. South Africa spends 6,4 per problem of creating liveable cent of its Gross National Product on environments. Lund (1987:l) states that health care. This is higher than the 5,5 community development 'does not take per cent stipulated by the World Health place in a vacuum - since it is always Organisation (WHO 1990). However, situated in a concrete social, economic millions of South Africans are still in need and political contexV. He further states of better health care. The influence of that community development is about HlVlAlDS must be noted since it deliberate, purposive intervention in consumes a huge portion of the health social change. budget. HlVlAlDS should, however, be seen as a problem of its own, since it has A community must be seen, as a social life style - this covers decisions part (group) in which there is passing on by individuals that may affects of common life among the people their health, including self- composing the unit. It functions with imposed risk such as smoking, rational balance in promoting the overeating and alcoholism; and common interest inherent in society. health care organisation- Healy et al (1993) believe that if the elements of these are medical community is 'healthy' it can survive the practices, hospitals and nursing onslaughts threatening urban areas. homes.

"Health can be defined as the state of The health goal that the community comprehensive bodily, psychic, and health programme seeks for every citizen social well being, and not merely the lack in its area is not only an absence of of disease or injury (Cockemam 1998:2)". disabling defects and disorders. But also According to Anderson (1964:19) there vitality, buoyancy, and an abundance of are various factors that have an impact energy that enables the individual to do on the health of a community. These the things that he or she wants to do and factors are as follows: reasonably expect to do, with a corresponding enjoyment and "human 'Biology- these are for gratification in living. Not perfect health, example ageing and growth. This but a high level of well-being in which an is a direct focus on the human individual finds life stimulating, is a body (How the body is treated); realistic goal for inhabitants of every

a environment- includes all those community (Anderson. 1964:26). factors related to health that are external to the body and over which the individual has little Services to the communities can also be control yet over which the provided via nongovernmental community may have a large organisations. These organisations degree of control. Examples depend largely on finance through the include safe, uncontaminated public or business sector. food, air, water and medication; The international community can now in South Africa. People died fighting for play a role in South Africa and the region their freedom. Families were ripped apart. by expanding the economic base to meet Although the scars can still be seen, the needs of over 100 million people. there is no use to peel the sore open People need skills to be able to do the every time something bad happens. It is jobs that investment creates. time to heal the scars. A way of doing that is to attack it to its face. Reduce crime and reduce poverty through urban 2-41CONCLUSION renewal.

'A city is like a cat, it have 9 lives, but be In the following chapter the core of urban careful not to use them all up' - Gruen. renewal and the tools used for urban regeneration will be investigated. Poverty, crime and pollution are the destruction agents for urban decay in South Africa. Past policies did not help to alleviate these tools and soon this started to develop a snowball effect. A new era of reconstruction was introduced since the democratic elections in 1994. The rainbow-nation was born and everybody waited for delivery. Some of the promises made were delivered, some not (some people are still waiting for microwaves to fall out of the sky). South Africa's urban areas are in need for some kind of revitalization, due to the problems created by past actions of the public and private institutes.

There is a debate on whether you live in your past and build on it or if you start a new day at a time. The latter will not work CHAPTER 3 3.1 URBAN REGENERATION DEFINED

3.1) INTRODUCTION

Eduardo Manet's, 'Rue Monsieur with Rags' (Fgure 17), was painted to (ureF~he Rue Mwnier with Rags, painted by [ I ~douartManet Paris 1878. J celebrate the end of the Franco-Prussian Urban regeneration as an idea War of 1870 - 1871. The painting reflects encapsulates the perception of city new buildings, windows and the patriotic decline in the environment, the quality of harmony of the red, white and blues. The our buildings, the hope of regeneration to painting announces the new-found reverse the existing trends and the hope prosperity of Paris that developed afler for changes in economic growth and the war. As stated in the previous social well-being (Parkinson. 1992:422). chapter, urban regeneration was usually The positive and negative sides of urban used as a method to reconstruct the regeneration are to be investigated in this areas affected by wars, an example of chapter. Urban regeneration is a which is the Marshall Plan. controversial issue, leading to a variety of views about the importance and effect of Jones (2000:3) states that urban urban renewal. Thus in this chapter the regeneration is 'a widely experienced but definition and reason for and tools of little understood phenomenon'. In South urban renewal will be discussed. Africa little attention is paid to urban regeneraCon since the initial impact is not According to Mumford (1968:i) the city is understood to its full extent. It is widely a place for 'multiplying chances and stated that South Africa, and to a further making the most of unplanned extent Africa, are in need of a Marshall experiences.' Urban regeneration deals Plan similar to the one that was used in with the 'unplanned experiences' that a Europe afler the Second World War. city offers such as slums and making it into 'multiplying experiences' where economic or social benefits can be shctures (such as the settlements on extracted from the urban environment. the outskirts of urban areas) with ever growing demands for better infrastructure Over the past 20 years, more cities have and services on the countryside and in become dysfunctional and poorly urban places. integrated (Cox. 2000:l) because of the increase in population. Cities have With the African Renaissance dawning therefore become overpopulated with few (supported by the African Union) South work opportunities. This lead to most Africa's cities are now moving towards a cities responding negatively to change. In rebirth or there is a need for that and one South Africa the majority of local needs to understand their dynamics. authorities are ill equipped to handle Given that successful cities (utopia) may issues such as increased urbanisation be the most sustainable form of human and informal urban use, increased crime settlement thus far, urban regeneration is and the negative financial implications of widely accepted within the sustainability decentralisation (Cox. 2001:2). The fact debate for reaching the desired utopia. remains that, however degraded, cities 3.21 DEFINING URBAN remain the centre of culture, of ambition, dynamism, economic virtue and creativity REGENERATION and the crucibles for the advance of civilization. They have always acted as Regeneration involves the rebuilding of magnets (according to Howard's Garden the city, i.e. clearing away dysfunctional City ideal) for people, ideas, culture and buildings, finding appropriate uses for entrepreneurial activity. They have also vacant sites and producing new building been places of conflict and problems, and forms and designs. According to Goodall have therefore been at the edge of (1988:490), "urban regeneration is a innovation to address problems and continuing process of remodelling urban issues. areas by means of rehabilitation and conservation as well as redevelopment. Cox (2001:2) argues that in South Africa, Urban renewal programmes are generally the rapid growth of South African cities undertaken by public authorities (often has, along with inappropriate apartheid through public private partnerships) planning models, created inefficient because of the need to amalgamate many small property ownerships in order dysfunctional buildings, facilities and over to redefine plot boundaries and realign time whole areas are being changed or streets and public utility services. The reconstructed because of economic and emphasis of urban regeneration is on social changes. Nieuwoudt (1993:l) those parts of the city which have fallen states that urban regeneration gained below current standards of public more popularity in urban areas after the acceptability such as slums. These are Second World War with a good example commonly to be found in the residential being the Marshall Plan. Batey (2000:l) parts of the inner city, as well as in the adds that urban regeneration is a term central business district itself. The inner which has come to describe a city faces problems of inadequate comprehensive and coordinated housing, environmental deprivation, approach to solving urban problems. social malaise and presence of non- conforming uses". Urban regeneration, much for the same reason as it is done in South Africa is a Robinson (2000) adds that urban reaction to problems within the urban regeneration is a comprehensive and context. Roberts (2000) argues that "the integrated vision and action which leads regeneration of urban areas is a stem to the resolution of urban problems and process of economic, environmental, which seeks to bring about a lasting social and cultural decline that bring with improvement in the economic, physical, it accompanying decay of the physical social and environmental condition of an built environment" This will then lead to area that has been subject to change. programmes such as resettlement to be implemented in an area of need. The underlying purpose of urban regeneration can be according to Stohr (1989) and Lichfield (1992) Johnson (2000:l) is to improve specific believed that through the years urban areas of a city that are poorly developed regeneration has taken various forms, or underdeveloped. These areas can lack with different goals. The following of the basic infrastructure thus causing chronology selves as a summary: bad streets and bad areas. Urban regeneration can be seen as the reaction During the 1950s urban of changes in the physical city where regeneration concentrated on physical changes with demand from economic and reconstruction and extension of social changes. older areas of towns I cities based on the 'masterplan' Urban regeneration is the revitalisation of concepts; established urban areas to provide for a The 1960s brought with it the greater and improved range of activities 1950s theme of urban relating to housing, employment and regeneration but began to have social activities. The principle focus of some social objectives; urban regeneration is to transform old Urban regeneration in the 1970s and neglected suburbs into vibrant focused on in situ renewal and communities with viable investment neighbourhood schemes; still opportunities through infrastructure development at the periphery; improvements, effective planning and The 1980s included many major partnerships between government, projects with flagship schemes community and private enterprises and in situ social objectives (Brisbane City Council. 2002). incorporated; and Urban regeneration in the 1990s Urban regeneration can also take place focused on a comprehensive through redevelopment, rehabilitation and form of policy and practice with preservation. Redevelopment involves more emphasis on integrated the clean-up of existing buildings and the treatments. re-use of the area. This also involves the use of existing infrastructure. Urban regeneration involves: Rehabilitation includes the renovation of buildings and areas that have fallen Prevention of urban decay; under the pressure of decay. Working against the mtten-apple Preservation of the urban environment syndrome, by renewing the parts includes the safeguarding of buildings of the city that are not functional; that are in a good condition, while and redevelopment takes place. Readjusting the urban environment to deliver the 3.2.11 TEN PRINCIPLES OF URBAN accept the likelihood initial REGENERATION implementation programmes will need to be revised; and According to Roberts (2000:9) principles recognise that various elements of 21st century urban regeneration of strategy will make progress at should: different speeds, requiring redirection of resources or be based on a detailed analysis additional resources. of the urban area; be aimed at simultaneous 3.31 REASONS FOR URBAN adaptation of REGENERATION o physical fabric o social structures A city can be seen as a big house (based o economic base on Le Corbusier's view that a home must o environmental condition be seen as a machine). Social, cultural, of the urban area; institutional and economic functions take be based on a comprehensive place in the house and if the house fails and integrated strategy; to establish these functions adequately in be based on aims of an effective manner the house (city) fails sustainability; to function. It is believed that if the employ quantifiable operational majority of cities no longer fulfil these objectives; functions, they are ineffective; they use make best use of natural, human, up the green environment, depress economic resources; individuals and the lack of order seek to ensure consensus undermines the citizen's well being. Yet, through full participation and co- Sachs-Jeanet (1998:15) notes that cities operation of stakeholders are not for people and that cities are for through a partnership; change, however this statement is recognise the importance of contradictory. Why would cities change? measuring progress and Because of the dealings of its inhabitants, monitoring change; thus leading to the idea that cities are for people because without its inhabitants there would be no change, being a ghost town and thus not being a city.

The need that exists for urban regeneration is to decongest our cities or to increase the green lungs of the cities such as parks and open spaces. As TIME stated in chapter 2, there is a need for Figure 18 The model developed by Hart and Thonsen. Xis where equilibrium is achieved. urban regeneration because of the tools I I- of deconstruction such as crime or politicians across Europe tried to address pollution. Other reasons for urban slum areas with 'building schemes' but renewal can be the massive 'brain drain' they did not take into account the into suburbs (because of technology depression in 1930s and that the wars left making it possible to work at home, due many lowquality housing districts and to the internet) not to mention it leading to derelict buildings. There are usually a money drain out of the central business many reasons for why urban regeneration district. needs to take place. Roberts (2000) suggests four conditions that create the Thorssen and Hart (1979:38) developed needl demand for urban regeneration: a model for urban renewal (Figure 18). Line A represents the value of the Negative economic transition and specific site. Line I3 represents the value employment change: of the alternative use for the site, o Economic processes including clearance. As 'A' falls overtime within the urban and '0' rises, an equilibrium point is environment create an achieved at X. At this time, the inquiry urban problem because into alternative usage should be of crime or pollution; investigated. This is when urban o Inherent weaknesses of regeneration is considered. the urban economic base and inability to adapt to Yet, the methods of urban regeneration new trading and were not always viewed positively. According to Jones (2000:3) 20th century infrastructural o Changing social values requirements; and thus making crime a way o 'Locked-in' decline - e.g. of life; and old buildings, leading to o Concentration of lagging inappropriate skills that communities in the urban do not create a market core. for new economic development. Physical obsolescence o Functional obsolescence Social and community issues of buildings; o More people migrate to o Dereliction of buildings; the urban areas, creating o Outdated infrastructure fewer job opportunities in and changing needs of the cities; urban users; and

0 o Environmentally o Breakdown of the contaminated land. traditional family unit to extended families as Poor environmental Quality and relatives stay together in Sustainability order to save money. o Growing awareness of This then usually leads 'unsustainable to slums since there is urbanisation' - origins I not enough space to impacts of cities accommodate all the developed to serve people; economic goals; o Decline of community o Cities that continue to structures for example generate environmental health services; costs that outweigh o Changing of the nature benefits; of urban policies and o excessive energy outcomes that impact on consumption; the family unit such as o inefficient use of raw health policies; materials; o neglect of open space; o the desirability of encouraging and vertical co-operation (local, o pollution of land, water regional, national) will depend on and atmosphere. the process being successful; o the importance of private sector involvement and; 3.41 OBJECTIVES OF URBAN o the need to involve local REGENERATION voluntary and residents' groups

Objectives of urban renewal can be to encourage enterprise and new 3.51 TOOLS OF URBAN businesses and help existing businesses REGENERATION to grow stronger. Other objects can also 3.5.11 ACTORS INVOLVED be to improve people's prospects (their motivation and skills) and to make areas attractive to residents and businesses to Urban renewal tends to happen attract various actors such as residents, incrementally (Gumitt. 2000). That is investors and tourists. Crime can be seen partly because economic situations do as the 'killer' of urban areas. One of the not always allow much public funds to be main objectives therefore will be to make allocated for large scale regeneration urban areas safe and attractive places in projects and partly because there has not which to live and work. been private money for it either, until recently, where planners, architects, The objective of any urban renewal developers and neighbouhood leaders project is to be successful. However, saw the benefits in letting communities Drewe (1999) suggests that: undergo more organic change, thus allowing them to take the first initial steps.

o the extent and quality of horizontal co-operation - how In order for urban renewal to be stakeholders work together is sustainable government's role should be important to make sure that the active and the following requirements regeneration process is joined by should be met: all groups of citizens; Local level: Real long term The South African Constitution of partnerships need to be started 1996; between the public and the local Development Facilitation Act (Act government; 96 of 1995); and Regional level: Need to develop Reconstruction and Development strategies to which local level Programme (1994). could relate and need to build a bridge between national and Other policies that can be used are local level; and Integrated Development Plans and National level: Develop strategies Spatial Development Initiatives, which are that promote broader long term now widely used in South Africa. Another development. policy in terms of which regeneration can take place is special financial incentives 3.5.21 LEGISLATION AND POLICIES to facilitate private sector property development. This can be done through Legislation and enough investment are enterprise zones and urban development necessary to have successful urban grants (Healy et al. 1992:16). In England regeneration. South Africa does not have the Urban Renewal Tasks force was a regeneration act but there are some established to tackle the relevant issues acts and ordinances that provide the of urban improvement. backbone and that can be used. They are: In the past, urban planning was governed by the idea that it would be possible to The Slums Act (Act 76 of 1979); resolve urban problems through a Nation Health Act (Act 36 of Vational process of comprehensive city 1919); planning"(Bourassa. 1989). To do that, Housing Act (Act 107 of 1997); land use control was rationalised through Municipal Powers to Expropriate zoning and slums through urban Act (Ord 64 of 1903 (Tvl)); clearance. However, South Africa is The Ordinance on Township using more normative planning establishment 1986 (Ordinance instruments such as the Green Paper on 15 of 1986); Planning and thus moving away from prescribed control orientated policies lmprovement Districts create a self- such as the Structure plans. sustaining instrument to maintain, manage and market investment in the Inner City. Basic factors presently 3.5.31 IMPROVEMENT DISTRICTS addressed through Improvement Districts are physical, social, economic and lmprovement Districts are twlslplatforms environmental imbalances leading to used to fund additional services, which urban decay as well as facilitating change improve the vitality of urban areas. management and promoting creativity in According to Cox (2000:3) an problem solving. improvement district is a geographic area in which property owners andlor tenants Through adding value in terms of agree to pay for certain services which sustainability, (unlike local government are supplementary to those supplied by where all services are provided), (Cox. local government and which enhance the 2000:3) supplementary services provided physical, economic and social by the lmprovement District are tailored environment of the area. This, however, to the specific needs of the area. only includes a small portion of the Sustainable benefits include: population of the city and usually

excludes the lower class. o 'creating cleaner, safer and more attractive urban places; Property owners or tenants determine the o ensuring a stable and predictable type and scope of services that are resource base to fund required based on the needs of the area supplemental services and under consideration. These typically programmes; include security, cleaning, maintenance, o providing non-bureaucratic and marketing, physical improvements and innovative management of Urban special programmes to address aspects areas; such as transportation, access, parking, o responding quickly to market greening and hornelessness (Cox. changes and community needs; 2000:3). o helping to maintain and increase property values; o helping to stabilise rentals and improve occupancy rates; and o providing an identity which can make the area more competitive than sumunding or even suburban areas".

Farr (2002:4) adds that lmprovement Figure 19: The improvement district in Cape Districts also have sustainable benefits I Town. Improvement to the area was done bv I [ cleaning. Uw area and planhg teu. . from the perspective of the local I government: In South Africa the Cape Town Partnership is an excellent example of

They create a self sustaining lmpmvement Districts. Although it is in a mechanism to maintain, manage relatively young phase, positive remarks and market new investments in have come from it. According to Farr civic infrastructure such as street- (2002:3) there was a drop in urban crime scaping or environmental and more businesses were attracted back upgrade pmjects; to the central business district. The lmprovement District serves 3.61 URBAN REGENERATION as a unified private sector voice TERMINOLOGY for the area; The lmpmvement District 3.6.11 FLAGSHIPS leverages supplemental services to mitigate declining municipal Flagships are large-scale urban renewal budgets; and pmjects, and it is suggested that every The lmprovement District city should have one or more flagship advances revitalisation strategies projects in order to break the cycle of that lead to increases in sales innercity decline (Healy et al. 1992:245). revenue and property values and Flagships can fulfil many functions such thus ultimately to an increased as to serve as magnets and attracting rates base. further development, or they can promote tourism, new land uses and transform the planned has a direct impact on the urban image of the city. experience" (UTF. 1999:83).

Flagships can be seen as urban boosters The economic benefits of urban renewal that are raising competitiveness and will filter down to all groups, but it is hard establish a global identity that is to find it in the poorest groups. This then necessary for the modem age, on the leads to the poor grouping together since negative side the development will mainly they feel threatened and thus create the be concentrated on a number of non-local rotten-apple. The whole cycle is then hands (Kleinman. 2000:6). started again.

The negative side of flagships includes 'In a democracy people can do as they further the risk of cultural standardisation wish and (may) do not get what they and issues of access (for example the wanr (Santayana. 1963). The belief that casino complexes that are found in urban regeneration will save cities is Johannesburg and surrounding areas, a wrong. In certain places urban renewal non African theme). The question of can lead to more decay, if it is done in an active public participation also plays an ineffective manner. important role. Flagships can also contribute to social and political diversion The doughnut effect started to develop because they can cater for the middle around the inner city areas that were and upper classes to the exclusion of the developed. This is the price to pay since lower class. the people moved back to the suburbs and left the city centres empty.

3.71 EFFECT OF URBAN The world is moving towards an REGENERATION entertainment economy. If inner cities are to become places where people want to "The form and layout of our town and be, they should offer positive rather than cities is more than a backdrop of urban negative urban experiences. Being self- life. The way in which the &sign of sustaining, improvement districts create buildings, neighbourhoods and districts is the perfect platform from which regeneration for the "Experimental City" can take place. The idea that "The City is grants, Rich City has to bear the cost of not a Tree" (Christopher Alexander) - this. If not, 'Rich City' is in danger of illustrates the myriad of overlapping going down with 'Poor City' - a fragile activities and contact points - the more relationship. complexity a city displays, the more its social and economic opportunities are To see that behaviour rooted in this maximised (Cox. 20005). attitude contributes to why the city does not work" (Middleton, 2000). The system There is a worldwide tendency to change is to be blamed for a malfunctioning the nature of civic relationships from urban environment. It is difficult to identify dependency to leverage, as this is more problems and find solutions in such an productive and sustainable. In environment. Rich City, whilst subsidising Johannesburg, resources are few and Poor City, still needs urban management conflicting needs many - city decision- and service delively. This, together with making and governance is extremely the approach of 'sharing' described complex and conflictual (Cox. 2000:5). above, can be achieved and facilitated Middleton suggests that South African through Improvement Districts, providing cities tend to be made up of 'Rich City I an interface between local government Poor City' scenarios - "Rich City is rich in and the private sector - there is enough infrastructure, urban facilities, services, for all (Cox. 20005). Cities need common management resources, business goals and visions, Improvement Districts networks and property rates base. Poor are a way of overcoming the "us and City is poor in all the foregoing factors, them"approach and enabling but rich in character. 'Poor City' is made stakeholders to take responsibility for up of an area which was considered their environment thereby fostering transitional. "Poor City' was not intended sustainability and enhancing a feeling of to be permanent and therefore, property 'ownership'. markets and institutional structures have to be developed from scratch. As a result It is thus important that cities do not work there is a small rate base from which alone in reaching their goals, but must restructuring can occuT (Middleton, 2000) work together as the one has an impact Poor City has to be improved. In the on the cities around them. The Blue IQ absence of both national and regional project in Gauteng is an excellent example of where two cities (Pretoria and buildings stand close to vacant lots and Johannesburg) work together in order to highways are strung out by billboards. meet their goals and promote South Africa as a whole. Nevertheless, South African cities must be regenerated; for if they are not, decay 3.81 SUSTAINABLE and 'tools of destruction' will work against DEVELOPMENT the efficiency of the city and may eventually render it unable to cany out its One of the most important challenges functions. The attitude towards urban facing countries is how to ensure that renewal is that buildings should be towns and cities remain both rebuilt. In fact it is communities that have economically and environmentally to be rebuilt. sustainable. Aderinto et al (2002:l) states that over time, the failure of public The role of the public must also not be management and scarcity of financial and underestimated since they are an technical capacity, especially in the important factor in attracting renewed developing countries such as Nigeria market interest. resulted in widespread deficiencies, causing environmental problems such as Sustainable development is a reaction pollution, urban sprawl and inadequate towards the ideal of the human race in infrastructure. This then impacts on the achieving an utopia. In the following health of citizens and the economy chapter, the theory surrounding utopian resulting in a downward trend of the thought will be investigated. sustainability of the environment.

3.91 CONCLUSION

When looking at the urban setting, our engineered cars are seen against a background of slums. Black rivers flow through the streets and spreading suburbs with no evidence of life. Tall CHAPTER 4 4.1 UTOPIA1 PRAC-TOPIA

4.11 INTRODUCTION Figure 20: Characters of the movie Chicken The movie Chicken Run is about Run. in front. Ginaer the chicken. I chickens laying eggs for the farmer. They facts, ducks. The chances of us getting soon realise that they are fed up with the out of here are a million to one". circumstances surrounding them and Ginger: "There is still a chance." decide to do something to find their utopia, their nirvana. The following scene At the end of the movie, the chickens takes place: escape from the farm, and find their utopia, where they could live a normal life Ginger: "Fences aren't around the farm, where they can have families and work they are around up here in your head. together for a goal in achieving happiness There is a better place out there, and security, away from the threat of somewhere beyond that hill and wide death. open spaces with lots of trees and grass. Can you imagine that cool, green grass"? South Ahica's history plays a similar part Babs: "Who feeds us"? where blacks during the apartheid era Ginger: "We will feed ourselves." can be seen as the chickens kept inside Babs: "Where is the farm?" their cage, in the backyard and never Ginger: "There is no farm." seeing the results of their work. In this Babs: "Where does the farmer live?" chapter the views surrounding different Ginger: "There is no farmer." utopians and the influence they had on Babs: 'Is he on holiday?" planning and the areas surrounding it will Ginger: 'He isn't anywhere, don't you get be investigated. it? Nobody that counts, no farmers, no dogs, no tees and no fences." Old Chicken: "In all my life I've never heard such a load of tripe. Oh, face the 4.21 PHILOSOPHER'S UTOPIA example and maybe the only utopia that will ever exist, people have always tried

The Bible depicts the first Utopia, the to create some sort of utopia. There are Garden of Eden. This must be one of the further Biblical references to the 'New first references that were made to a Jerusalem', but this will only be achieved perfect living environment surrounded by through an act of God. perfect conditions. However, the utopian ideal could not or cannot exist. The first Octaaon. Kansas, USA reason is that when a utopia is achieved there is nothing more for. The utopian In the American settlement era during the situation would mean the virtual end of nineteenth century a community was the human endeavour (Meisner 1982:4- established at Octagon. You could get 8). The second reason is that if such a land there if you vowed to be a place does exist it must not be allowed to vegetarian. This was to be their 'no meat- change in any way for this would only eating' utopia.vii destroy the utopia (Tod & Wheeler. 1978:22). People always had a desire to live in a good place. Aldous Huxley explored this

Plato created a myth that there were desire through his book, Brave New three classes based on the normal World. In the book he admits that the capabilities. According to his myth people utopia he desires would never be are bom with either gold, silver or iron in attained. Although he describes the their hearts. It is this that determines what utopian world he develops a character class the person would be and no one that is not happy with his surroundings could change or should dare to change and strives for a better world. this. Utopia is generally an expression of a

In the Bible we find that Adam and Eve place where most people would like to did in fact strive for something better and live. Both desirable and impossible, it has because this changed the conditions of long remained an imaginary place. Ever the utopia they were banned from the since Sir Thomas Moore introduced the Garden of Eden (Bible). Since this first word 'utopia' in 1516 with his book by that name, it had many interpretations and incarnations. Moore was influenced by UTOPIA Plato's work, Republic, and although there were some differences in their beliefs, Moore's book shows some similarities to that of Plato so much so that they are both written in the form of a dialogue. Plato recognised that in cities it is the new generations that change the order of society and make the progress of society possible. 'YSTOPI ZEAL Constantine Doxiades (1966:25) in his TOPlA U-TOPIA Place analysis of utopia Observes that some .. . see it as a happy, ideal place, while ' BRAVE NEW WORl Figure 21: Doxiadis maps Plato's Republic and Aldous others consider it as an impractical place, Huxley's Brave New World on his graph with the Republic its existence impossible. Oflen it is given as more eutopian and Brave New World more dystopian. Indeed Doxiadis associates dystqia with real cities, and both meanings simultaneously, making is compelled to place Brave New World of his graph somewhere worse than dystopia. BoM these worlds are room for more confusion. Doxiades placed towards u-topia because their escapsuim restricts them from existing in a real place. notes Patrick Geddes's observation that utopia could have originated in either two Greek words: u-topia, meaning no place, diagram is subjective, which Doxiadis or eutopia, meaning good place, admits, it is useful for considering the considering both meanings valid and utopias that had an effect on the shape of necessary. Doxiades proposes a diagram cities in the twentieth century. in which the two meanings are positioned on different axes (Figure 21). On one axis The ambiguity of utopias - once he plots degree of zeal which progress describes as striving to reach 'the good from place (topia) to no-place (u-topia). place' and the futility of searching for no This is a measure of the possibility of place - reflects the ambiguity inherent in realisation, or perhaps of place-ness. On utopian modes of thought and their the other axis he maps degree of quality, ambiguous relationship in history. Utopia, which progresses from dystopia (bad the perfect world that many wish for, and place) to eutopia (good place). While this in history, the imperfect future that man is in the process of creating, does' not correspond. It is this consciousness of the lack of correspondence, which gives utopian thought its scene of moral pathos and its historical ambiguity. Morally, utopia may be 'the good place' but historically it is 'no place' (Meisner. 1982:4-8).

Utopias can therefore not be achieved, but it does allow an image of what the Figure 22: Constantine Doxiades perfect state of the urban environment obse~edmat the utopian ideal can I I be imoracticable. can resemble. This image was also I addressed throughout the history, and allowed for some diverse opinions on how exactly the urban environment Plato wrote his book The Republic ten should look, and how this was to be years after the Peloponnesian war, in achieved or what attempts were to be which Sparta overpowered Athens. His made. The following section describes 'Republic' is based on the success of some of these images that were created Sparta at the time and can be seen as throughout history. the foundation of fascism. Fascism in the context of Plato relates to a dictatorship ruling of the masses to allow a precise 4.31 THE MASTERS OF UTOPIAN and effective functioning society. THOUGHT

In order to understand the work of Plato Several utopians and their utopias are on utopias the manner in which he addressed in this section. The aim is to depicted the Republic must be create a perspktive from history on what underlined. According to Manuel utopia was believed to look like and to (1966:33) he pictures the city as a self- identify some strategies that were contained unit and to ensure this self- proposed. sufficiency it must have enough land to feed its inhabitants and make it independent of any other community.

In this city, there are three groups or classes in the community: the husbandmen and the craftsmen, the military or protectors and the guardians. The guardians were in fact nothing else than ideal commonwealths, where Plato argued for kingship. Plato also argued that once the structure was set, it must not be tampered with. This meant that Figure 23: Plato's work, Republic is seen as the starling point for utopian thought. once you were made part of a 'class you seen as the first deterministic utopian must take orders from the top without (Mumford. 1966:3). questioning and that you would never be able to change your own situation" Aristotle in his second book makes his (Mumford. 1966:3-24). purpose clear in the words: . . . to consider what form of political community is best of all those who are most able to realise Aristotle was more focused on the their ideal of life (Mumford. 1966:4). physical or actual structure of the city (Schonfeldt. 2000:17). AristoUe saw the However when the early Greek polis as a work of art, which meant that philosophers' work on utopias are the physical structure could be changed. examined, it is striking how limited it was. However, the medium and the capability None of them addressed utopia as of the artist limited the expression. This anything more than the perfect city. In implies that there were shortcomings in other words they did not see utopia as the cities. Aristotle was not in fact being a commonwealth or that it could concerned with these shortcomings, but include more than one city. Furthermore the idea that there was a possibility for the class system as well as slavery and improvement supported his utopian war were not to be discarded at any cost thoughts. He might, for this reason, be (Mumford. 1966:4). 4.3.31 THOMAS MOORE

Just afler the first phase of the Renaissance was completed (1515-1516) Thomas Moore published his book: Utopia. Moore wmte the book to seem like fiction, in order to protect himself against possible 'consequences for being too outspoken' (Tod and Wheeler. 1978:30). This book, however, was not to describe an utopian myth, but was in fact a critique on the society of the time. Figure 24: Thomas Moore, writer of the book Utopia. According to Todd and Wheeler He criticised, firstly, the fact that people (1978:30), Moore wanted this to be were starving because of the feudal enforced by laws that forced someone system that allowed the rich to become who destroyed a farm to rebuild it or to richer, but keep the poor hungry and give the land to someone who would. starving. This according to Moore, forced Furthermore, the rich had to be stopped the poor to steal in order to survive. fmm creating monopolies in the market, During the specific time period the and the agriculture and wool industry punishment for thefl was oflen the death should be divided to allow more penalty. This was an unacceptable employment (Tod & Wheeler. 1978:30). aspect of social life and Moore identified two solutions for this: the first entailed a Moore described utopia as an island that true revolution in the form of bloodshed was about 10 000 square miles in extent. and unrests cutting out the rich and On this island physical structures such as allowing the poor access to the land; the the capital city being fortified, with wide second was to be a change in the straight streets, three storey flat mof agricultural economy, in other words houses, and a communal building for something to replace the feudal system each thirty houses were also to form part (Tod and Wheeler. 1979:30). of this utopia. Moore even placed a population restriction onto utopia by only allowing 80 000 people to live here. He young would also wanted the island to host 54 towns in educate which each had to be self-sufficient by themselves using the 1 600 square miles of spontaneously agricultural land that surrounded it (Tod in a natural and Wheeler. 1978:20). social setting based on the

4.3.41 CHARLES FOURIER Figure 25: Charles Fourier stated that to look back into the past was the best way of I solving present problems. I Meisner (1982:14) explains that Fourier's unity ofliving and working. There would famed 'phalansteries' were to be also not be any place for university- voluntary associations of 1600 persons educated intellectuals, whose specialised cultivating 5000 acres of land. Fourier training necessarily created sharp was generally hostile towards modem separation between mental and manual large-scale industry and technology. labour incongruous with the new order Fourierists (individuals who believe in (Taylor. 1982:lOO). Fourier believed that Fourier's work) believed that agriculture by giving the children a free choice, they was the natural occupation of man and would pick up enough knowledge towards celebrated the virtues of agrarian which they had natural instincts. Fourier simplicity. The people of Fourier's ideal called this 'hanonic education'. As can 'phalansteries' were to engage in various be seen he proposed this utopia in order occupations and activities, and had to be to eradicate class differentiation, and switched every two hours. The ideal was establish a community geared towards the well-rounded individual, a person who cooperation and improvement of life in would combine many different kinds of general. This can be seen against the physical labour with a wide variety of backdrop of industrialisation poverty and cultural and intellectual pursuits, thus class distribution (Taylor. 1982: 100). satisfying the natural human desire for diversity and self-fulfillment, 4.3.51 ROBERT OWEN

In his ideal society there was no need for According to Meisner (1982:15), Robert formal institutions of education, for the Owen was a wealthy industrialist with a profound faith major causes of pain and suffering and in the powers of proposed means to replace them. Owen science and believed that religion destroys the rational industry to yield faculties of the human race, private unlimited property creates poverty amongst the economic masses, and marriage generates abundance. He jealousy, revenge, envy and anger. He did, however, not propose the Figure 26: Robert Owen believed that the establishment of an agrarian society would abolishment of maniage and religion all reconsbuct the society as it has been together, but pmposed them to take on a eventually pmposed that the new form, which dictates rational thinking establishment of an agrarian-based (Taylor. 1982:69). model should bring about the restructuring of society. Communities 'By going back to nature, men will go were to function more or less in a self back to their own nature' (Taylor. sufficient manner in what he called 1082:72). This fore-going clearly 'Villages of Cooperation'. illustrates Owen's attachment and contribution to utopian thought. When Like Saint Simon, Owen believed that viewing Owen's work one comes to the communal land ownership was the way conclusion that he actually criticised the forward and that private land ownership whole relationship between the state, the should be abolished in order to reach a church and society as it prevailed in the better community. He pmposed the nineteenth century. restructuring of the educational system as a prerequisite to the implementation of 4.3.6) HENRl SAINT-SIMON the democratic system. He believed that the democratic system would eradicate St Simon belonged to a distinguished all forms of evil thus leading to an aristocratic family, but always believed establishment where courts, prisons and that he had a role to play in the socialist poverty would not exist (Taylor. 1982:69). sphere. He also believed that land ownership is the cause of class He further believed that marriage as well differentiation, and by the removal of land as private property and religion were the ownership privileges and rewriting the Figure 28 and 29: Kad Marx (right) and Fredrich Engels (left) believed that more drastic measures should be I taken in the societv to reach the desired utooia. I better society were only based on the I Figure 27: Henri Saint-Simon believed that ( I everv citizen must be treated as eaual. I society of that time. Marx and Engels laws that govem land-ownership, one believed that they had the 'correct' could move to an egalitarian state where understanding of history and that the there is unity in terms of production. history of utopian thought only exists because of the history of class struggles. According to Taylor (1982:40) Saint- According to them the only way that the Simon believed in class differentiation in rivalry between proletariat and the sense that different 'production bourgeoisie would end was through classes' should exist, for example, political revolution, which must lead to farmers, bankers, merchants and fully communist society. manufacturers, but not in any social class differentiation, this will mean that there According to Engels the 'crude conditions would be no bourgeoisie and proletariat. of capitalistic production and the crude Thus everybody will be treated as equals. class conditions correspond to crude theories. The solution to social problems,

4.3.71 KARL MARX AND FREDRICH which as yet lay hidden in undeveloped economic conditions, the utopians (i.e. St ENGELS Simon, Fourier and Owen) attempted to evolve out of the human brain. Society Marx and Engels authored the presented nothing but wrongs; to remove Communist Manifesto in 1848, wherein these was the task of reason. It was they described Owen, Fourier and Saint necessary, then, to discover a new and Simon as being utopian socialists. They more perfect system of social order and believed that utopians did not understand impose this upon society from without by history correctly and that all attempts to - Figure 30: Letchworth located in England was an From this foregoing it is clear that Engels attempt by Ebenezer Howard for building his utopian city. The city was laid out by R. Unwin and and Marx thought the utopians simply 1 8.Barker in 1904. I imply solutions for the era they found economic sense. The diagram was themselves in. basically a comparison between communities and threats in the city and 4.3.81 EBENUER HOWARD those found in the third magnet would most likely have more opportunities than the city itself, but fewer threats, and it Howard's idea was that industries had to would have more opportunities than the resettle outside the city centre (be countryside and almost as little threads decentralised); this meant that new towns due to the design (Hall. 198545). had to be created in order to allow labour to be nearby.

Howard's idea was derived from Alfred Marshall's argument that industries would settle wherever, where labour is available (these are also the thoughts of Todam), but that the community would later pay the price of poor health and living conditions (Hall. 198544).

Howard used the diagram of three Figure 32: A diagram of Me three magnets as proposed by Howard. magnets in order to justify the use of garden cities or new towns in an When mass production of cars first started Howard could hardly be expected to predict what the consequences might be. However, he argued that the Garden City or towncountry could be able to combine the advantages found in the cities with those found in the country. This would leave out the disadvantages of both. Decentralising both workers and Figure 32: Although Ebenezer Howard ideas their employment to new settlements, for me Garden City were never implemented in reality; some of his ideas played a major which would be within normal commuter role in developments, such as Letchworth. existing cities. Each 'city' would have its range of the inner city became the new L approach. He suggested a settlement of own centrality, but would be connected on 6000 acres, of which not less than by transportation to the original (mother) 5000 acres were to serve as a green belt. city. All land was also communally All these new settlements were to be owned, thus requiring collective decisions linked up with each other as well as with upon its use. the inner city; this is also indicated in his diagram of the Social City. Furthermore This idea of Howard was to be the settlements would be dense for he implemented in a few cities. The concept suggested 15 houses per acre that at that was, however, expensive and did not time would mean about 80 - 90 persons allow private companies to invest in the per acre. Today it would be around 40 development. However, it is still a good per acre. The towns were also not to be examDle of isolated, but would stop growing when I urban utopian they reached a certain size. The spill-over need then is accommodated in other Figure 33: A towns close by (Hall. 1985:47). Howard's proposal for his Garden cities Howard developed the garden city idea dependent on so that urban growth would be directed one central city. into suburban areas that would surround thought in the sense that this was His second proposition was a paradox in supposed to lead to ideal living, health itself, saying that congestion would be and economic conditions. dealt with by higher density. The key to the paradox was that density was increased at one level, but decreased at 4.3.91 LE CORBUSIER another. This was to be established through huge skyscrapers that were According to Le Corbusier, when asked surrounded by large areas of open space. to prepare a town planning exhibit for the Le Corbusier wanted 95% of the available Salon d'Automne in Paris in 1922, he land to be left open (Hall. 1985:59). inquired, 'What is town planning"? In response he was told by the head of the The third proposition was concerned with section, "Well, it is a sort of street art - for the density distribution across the city. shops, shop signs and so on; it includes Before mass urban transport the density such things as the glass knobs on the was concentrated in the inner city or city stair ramps of houses: Le Corbusier centre but later it was the outskirts that replied, 'All right I will do you a become dense. Le Corbusier wanted to monumental fountain, and behind it I will rid the city of all this by allowing equal put a town of three million inhabitants densities across the city. Hall (198559) (Evenson. 1917)" The resulting exhibit states that this would reduce the pressure was greeted with shock. on the city centre and would allow for a more even flow. Le Corbusier made a number of propositions on how he believed the city should be designed. According to his first proposition the traditional city's function became absolete because of the increase in size and congestion in the city centre. Because of this growth and increase in congestion the strain on other services in the inner city like communications Figure 34: Le Corbusier's Unite de Habitation is an example of Le became very high (Hall. 198557). Corbusier's ideas of high density living. Lastly, Le Corbusier argued that this new urban form would allow a more efficient mass urban transport system combining fast rail systems with a highway system that would run above ground level. This would be done with a multi-level free-fbw highway interchange system, which at that stage was not yet properly designed Figure 35: Le Cutbusier also hied to or prevalent anywhere in the world (Hall. achieve the utopian city through his 198559). Radiant City proposal, but it was never implemented to such an extend as Howard's.

To Le Corbusier, as to many others, the modem city represented a problem to be solved. Le Corbusier postulated that a town is a tool which no longer fulfil functions. They are ineffectual:, they use human bodies and they thwart human souls. The lack of order to be found everywhere in them offends humans; their degradation wounds self esteem and humiliates one's sense of dignity. Figure 36: Model of the Radiant city, 1930 as They are not worthy of the age; they are proposed by Le Corbusier. no longer worthy of humans (Evenson. like landscape. This rational city would be 1918)." separated into discrete zones for working, living and leisure. Above all, everything "By our immense step in evolution, so should be done on a big scale-big brutal and so overwhelming, we bum our buildings, big open spaces, big urban bridges and break with the past. There highways". (Le Corbusier. Radiant City) will be no more congested streets and sidewalks, no more bustling public Le Corbusier's Radiant city, as with the squares, no more untidy neighbourhoods. Broadacre city, is based on technological People would live in hygienic, regimented advances. The radiant city is one of high rise towers, set far apart in a park- skyscrapers and freeways, arranged diagrammatically into zones, each 4.3.101 FRANK LLOYD WRIGHT separated by plazas and parks. The

centre compromises a multi-level traffic Wright proposed a more thoroughly interchange. Le Corbusier also believed decenhlised city. The Broadacre city is that only a dictatorial government was semi-rural, with the homestead equipped to handle the city. Le Corbusier considered the conceptual centre. Natural was not planning only a physical and agricultural environments separated environment. He was planning for a urban facilities and social utopia too. "Maximum individual liberty by which Le Corbusier seems to have meant not liberty to do anything much, but liberty from ordinary responsibility (Jacobs. 1977:32).

Le Corbusier was not only important for the intuitive ideas which he brought forward, but his use of scale is very 4.3.1 I]LEWIS MUMFORD important to planners, even today. It shows how scale can be used to create Mumford (1966) argues that utopia is not high-rise buildings to allow higher density, a Hellenic fantasy, but a derivation from a but with lower levels of congestion historic event, and that the first utopia because of lower scale in density in was the city itself. The utopian city did relation with the buildings to each other. however not His ideas like some others show urban last long and utopianism in the sense that it tries not soon became only to better the living conditions, but a dystopia. also to almost perfect them within easily Mumford accessible economic and other (1966) opportunities (Schonfeldt. 2000:25). explains that there should Figure 38: Lewis be a Mumford believed Mat towards utopias are ideals I never realized. 1 embracing the utopian idea once more. andlor genuine beliefs, and many He argues that utopian views are anxieties are seen as entirely unreal. neglected and that the time had arrived Every utopian writer has to struggle with for using the existing literature, learning the anxieties presented to him by his own from it, and thus building a new utopia. society, trying to distinguish the moral He also argues that utopias are ideals from the convenb'onal, would really be never realised in the full sense, but views disastrous from what merely inspires a it as essential for human development. vague feeling of panic, uneasiness, or ridicule. This forms the basis of the 4.3.12) NORTHROP FRYE utopian outlook according to Frye (1966).

Frye (1966) argues that the utopian writer Frye (1966) further argues that classical looks at the ritual habits of his own utopias derived their form from city states society and tries to see what society and, though imaginary, were thought of would be like if these ritual habits were as being, like the city state, exactly made more consistent and more locatable in space. Modem utopias are inclusive. Some social habits express the seen as deriving their form from a uniform needs of society, and others, for pattern of civilization spread over the example, its anxieties. He also argues whole globe, and so are thought of as that society attaches more emotional world states, taking up all the available importance to anxieties than to needs space. He also argues that if there are to be any revival of utopian imagination in the future, it cannot return to the old style spatial utopias, such as the Garden City. New utopias would have to derive their form from the shifting and dissolving movement of society that is gradually replacing the fixed position of life. Frye argues that they would not be rational cities evolved by a philosopher's dialectic; Figure 39: Northrop Frye believed that if there is any revival of utopian they would have to be rooted in the thought, it cannot be based on passed utopias. conscious, in forests and deserts as well as in highways and buildings and in bed as well as in the symposium (Schonfeldt. 2000:26).

Frye (1966) concludes with the following: 'A fixed position in space is 'there' and 'there' is the only answer to the spatial question 'where'? utopia in fact and etymology, is not place; and when the society it seeks to transcend is Figure 40: Paul Tillich believed in the positive everywhere, it can only fit into what is left, truth of a utopia and the advantage a society I can.- oet... fmm. it. the invincible non-spatial point in the history. Thirdly, he emphasises the fac centre of space. The question 'where is that it is the negative in man that makes utopia?' is the same as the question the idea of utopia necessary. 'where is nowhere?' and the only answer to that question is 'here" (Manuel. Tillich analyses utopian thought through 1966:49). three steps:

4.3.121 PAUL TlLLlCH The positive views; The negative views; and The transcendence of utopia Tillich (1966) argues that the analysis of utopia is rooted in the nature of man The positive views of utopia are that of himself, because it is impossible to utopia as a truth, its fruitfulness and its understand what it means for man to power. Utopia as truth expresses man's have an utopia, if one does not essence, his inner aim of existence. understand the nature of man. Every utopia is one's manifestation of what man has as inner aim what he must Tillich (1966) also argues that it is have for fulfilment as a person. He says impossible to understand history without that a society defined utopia as a mislay utopia, for he says that neither historical of hth if it does not at the same time fulfil consciousness nor action can be the person, just as the individually meaningful unless utopia is envisaged defined utopia loses its truth if it does not both at the beginning and at the end of at the same time bring fulfilment to controversial ever. His approach was that society (Schonfeldt. 2000:28). The of 'racial cleansing' and 'breeding' the fruitfulness of utopia means that utopia uber (chosen) race. However, he did not opens up possibilities, which would have succeed in his ideal since he was remained lost if not seen by utopian stopped by international pressaure. anticipation. According to Tillich (1966) 4.3.13.2) TED KACZYNSKI every utopia is seen as an anticipation of human fulfilment, and anything Kaczynski, aka the Unabomber, anticipated can be seen as real terrorised the possibilities. The power of utopia is American anchored in those who bear utopias postal (Tillich. 1966). A utopia is capable of services in transforming the given, and that the 1997, sending bearers of utopia are those who are able letter bombs to transform reality. to various people and

4.3.13) THE EXTREMES Figure 42: Ted Kaczynski beliefs drove him to post letter bombs to people and killing them. Although the following persons have not establishments. His absurd act should not directly contributed to utopian thoughts be praised but in his manifesto 'Industrial their reasoning had an influence on the society and its future' he creates the history of the world. world he believes that human beings are 4.3.13.1) ADOLPH HITLER 'made' for living in the modem era. 'The industrial revolution and its Killing more consequences have been a disaster for than one the human race (Kaczynski. 1998:l). He million people argues that for primitive people the Hitler's ideal natural world (which usually changes only utopian idea slowly) provided a stable framework and was probably therefore a sense of security, and in a one of the Figure 41: Hitler's idea of an racial deansing resulted in modem society there is no stable most the killing of more than a framework resulting on social problems their citizens. They shared an internal (Kaczynski. 1998:14). perfection bome from the single-minded attention of their authors. The goal of In order for the human race to live in a each utopia was to present a better place sustainable manner with peace; humanity to live in, than the cities of the day. But needs to go back to the primitive world. these utopias were unrealisable. Early He thus sees the utopia as one of implementations of Howard's Garden freedom without violence. Cities in Letchwofth and Welwyn resulted in neighbourhoods that appeared similar 4.3.13.3) HENDRIK VERWOERD to Howard's utopia, but politically or economically differed never attained his Known as the father of separate co-operative ideal. Le Corbusier's vision development (implementer of apartheid), could not muster the political support, Hendrik Vemrd implemented a plan particularly in democratic countries. that resulted in the desegregation of a Wright's city has been attempted by racially divided South Africa. The struggle North America, but in brutally condensed from the black population of South Africa form: suburban houses cramped together is one of the reactions against his utopian without untouched nature belween them. ideal of a white dominated state Howard's, Wright's and Le Corbusiefs (boerestaat). ideal cities shared the qualities of a pure utopia, yet only some were built. Their 4.4) THE THREE CITIES ideas however became the cornerstones for planning in the 20th century. If the

Although each of Howard's, le ideas of these authors were to be Corbusiefs and Wright's utopias graphed on Doxiades graph Howard's represented a different set of values, Garden City would be near eutopia and within their own logic each was eutopian. Le Corbusier's Radiant city nearer to u- Wright's city supports American notions topia (Figure 5). of mobility and space, and the value of individuality. All three cities were The ideas of the three utopias were decentralised, fully planned and tumed into a practical utopia that embraced the comfort and security of continues to define our cities today. The practical utopia reproduced many aspects of Howard's, Wright's and Le Corbusier's translated into common visions of visions. The Garden City was escape. represented as the Garden Suburb, Broadacre City was abstracted into iUTOPlA Envisioned Utopia's provisions for mobility and low density, ;d-Place and the Radiant City loaned its high rise Garden City 0 aesthetics and its demand for authority. This 'utopia' is a simulation/simplification Bmadacre City 0 of the original versions. Radiant City 0

This practical utopia is disguised by QUALITY placelessness and authority, two aspects within the three utopias that have emerged in the translation from utopia to DYSTOPIA ZEAL reality. Placelessness was not intended Bad-Place 0 by the original authors. Lewis Mumford TOPlA U-TOPIA Place No-Place (1963) distinguished utopias of Figure 43: the envisioned utopias of Howard, Wright and Le reconstruction and utopias of escape, the Corbusier plotted on Doxiades graph of Utopia. Source: former providing "a condition for our Bamecut. 1999 release in the future" and the latter merely an "immediate release from the difficulties or frustration of our lor. 4.51 MODERN UTOPIA

Doxiades (1966:28) continues this In today's hyper-specialised environment, statement by associating u-topias with utopian and dystopian literature seems escape and topias with reconstruction. far removed from "practical" issues of city He suggests that "a u-topia cannot be a planning, political reform, and even condition for the realization of a plan as intentional communities. However, new there is no-place for it". Put another way, media (such as the World Wide Web) the desire not to be in one place presents challenge traditional assumptions about insufficient insight for the design of the use of space, the role of the another place. Regardless of this, the individual, and the boundaries of author's visions of reconstruction were community - creating a no-place where idealism might thrive. Such an From the above sections the image of a environment might meet the requirements utopia is different for several people of Alvin Toffler (l972:ll3) who wrote, (utopia is in the eye of the beholder). "we need ... a revolution in the production These images reflect the differences in of utopias: collaborative utopianism. We living conditions that dominated during need to construct utopia factoriesM. time the specific utopian models were

Cacotopia: Sad and fearful scenarios of formulated. doom and despair descriptions of horrifying worlds to come. This is Moore's model was formed around the portrayed in the movies such as Blade early phase of the Renaissance. This era Runner, 5th Element and Gattaca. was known for its feudal system and the poverty it entailed. The ideas of Moore were thus aimed at bettering the 4.61 CONCLUSION conditions through the abolishment of the feudal system. The system that was Theory is not always practical. In most proposed was later viewed to include the cases, it explains. To achieve a fundamentalism of socialism. theoretical utopia can sometimes lead to not being pursued, thus only resulting as Owen, Fourier and St Simon were a u-topia. influenced by the start of the industrial revolution. They concerned themselves There are countless ways of achieving with the enlightenment of the working prac-topias. Established ideals can be class. Their models aim to achieve the seen as ways of realizing the prac-topia eradication of class differentiation and a which are (1) life, liberty and the pursuit move towards an agrarian based model of happiness; (2) reciprocity, (3) with communal land ownership. These democracy, (4) equal opportunity, (5) men were in fact humanist and justice, and (6) the beautiful city. In the philanthropists. following section six prac-topias are discussed by using theories andlor case Man: and Engels later describe Owen, studies. Fourier and St Simon as utopian socialists. According to them utopia would not be achieved without a revolution in the dominating system. The Since the industrial revolution there were full communist society of Marx and few original utopias formulated. The Engels can be seen as the utopian model works of Tillich, Manheim and Frey are that they set out in the communist only some examples of more modem manifesto. utopians. Although they are not original they extracted their ideas from previous The poor living conditions caused by the utopians. They can be seen as analysers industrial revolution that to place during rather than hardcore utopians. the 19m century lead to Howard's, Le Corbusier's, Wright's and other utopian From all of the above we find that social proposals. Their utopian idealslpmposals disorders, reformation and poor living were in fact focused on the conditions as were found after the implementation of new structures that Peloponnesian War, prior to the could allow better living conditions. Most Renaissance, and during the industrial of utopian thought of this time was revolution, initiated utopian thought. deterministic in the sense that a healthy Apartheid established a way for South social life was to follow from sound Africa to go through a transfomation. environmental conditions. All three This led to the dawning of a new era utopias (Le Corbusier, Wright and wherein previous disadvantages can be Howard) were a reaction to the paralleled to the class problems as unplanned and uncontrolled development depicted by Owen amongst others that took place. Each participated in a (Badenhorst. 1992:2). movement away from eutopia of future cities. Frank and the others each The following chapter will consider the participated in a movement away from fragmented city concept in South Africa, dis-utopia towards the potential eutopia of since it is one of the characteristics of future cities. By investigating these South African cities. attempts to eutopia with respect to Doxiades' understanding of the eutopianldystopian and topianlu-topian dimensions of utopia and reality have come to coexist, and the nature of the compromise that allows this to happen. CHAPTER 5 5.1 THE FRAGMENTED CITY

Figure 44: Demonstrating has become one of "A Procession of perhaps a hundred the ways of 'getting what the masses want'. toddlers marched by, many of them not countries of the world you find 'divided' older than four and five carrying placards cities. reading 'stop child abuse'. They sang protest songs and waved their fists in the Acts of government in the past had air - they start young here" (Rostron. several effects on cities. The building of 2002). the Berlin Wall in 1968 seemed like a good idea, at the time. After the breaking down of the wall in 1989, several 5.11 INTRODUCTION problems arose. People moved from the east to the west for better job "A tale of two cities, the Apartheid and opportunities and left the 'panel' Renaissance City. One is characterised apartments empty. Since the unification by uneven, skewed development and of Germany, Schwedt had lost one-fifth of commercial and industrial regression that its population and in 20 years it is typified the dying years of the isolation projected that it will loose another twenty era, the other a vision of opportunity for per cent (Kim. 2000:3). As a result of this, new growth and development." Mi It is Germany had made many attempts to well-known that South Africa is in a revive their city centres. Infrastructure unique situation because of the apartheid had been upgraded and the areas were legacy. The idea of separate made 'liveable' again. development is, however, not unique to South Africa, since there are various This chapter deals with the problem forms of segregation. Governments have created by the past (policies) of a not developed segregated policies as in country, which in the case of South Africa the case of South Africa, but in many was apartheid. As discussed in chapter 2, apartheid was implemented by the South African govemment to promote segregation and reach the utopia of a racially seperated South Africa. The scars of apartheid are visible in our daily lives. South African urban areas are characterised by skewed development, low housing provision that results in Figure 45: A view of the Brandenburg gate from the West. squatting, segregated areas and low was introduced in 1994 to work against infrastructure pmvision in townships. the fragmented and racially locked urban areas, such as the Reconstruction and The utopia that the post-apartheid city Development Program (RDP), wants to achieve is to eradicate the scars Development and Facilitatin Act (DFA) of apartheid. Although this may take time, and White Paper on Housing. it has to start somewhere.

5.21 SKEWED DEVELOPMENT Apartheid left a foot print on the urban areas of South Africa. As stated earlier the policies of economic and political The South African renewal problem is discrimination were formalised under that govemment offers housing subsidies National Party rule after 1948. Two where land is cheap but where there are signifcant pieces of legislation were few job opportunities for example the promulgated in 1950. First was the Winte~old area in Gauteng. The Population Registration Act (mandated upgrading of townships is also taking classification of population into discrete place at a slow pace (although racial groups: white, black, and coloured). govemment cannot afford a faster pace) Second, the Group Areas Act whose goal and demands for housing are met to a was to divide cities into sections that was limited extent. As with other cities in the to be inhabited only by members of one world, South African cities were mainly population group. These were seen as dominated by policies. Although the important components of the apartheid apartheid policies are not active anymore, state. Effects of the two acts were that the unsustainable form of these urban downtown areas were resewed for areas is still being continued. Legislation whites. Areas for non-whites were of the CBD - in an area smaller than the peripheral, restricted, and oflen without rest of the CBD. On the other hand formal urban services such as transportation or traders sell all types of household items shopping facilities. Large numbers of at the most affordable prices in the city, non-whites were displaced with little or no compensation and buffer zones were created between residential areas and curtail contact.

The Marabastad reaeneration proaramme

Marabastad the backyard of the city of Pretoria CBD at the back. Pretoria: It has a long and painful history of social injustice, political agendas, providing a treasure-trove for bargain neglect and physical decay. It is located hunters. approximately ten minutes walking distance from the CBD of Pretoria. 180 In the early years Marabastad was the 000 people are daily streaming through hub for "alternative entertainment" in the Belle Ombre Railway station and two Pretoria (the "Marabi culture") (Jordaan & official, but informal taxi ranks. There are Loots. 2000:4). It was a vibrant area also numerous unofficial and informal taxi where living, trading and socialising were assembly points and two bus terminals at the order of the day. The vibrancy that belween home and work opportunities also existed in Hillbrow, Johannesburg, (Jordaan & Loots. 2000:3). that characterised those days, still resounds in the hearts and minds of the There are also a huge number of elderly in the community. Stories of a squatters living in unhealthy and unsafe multicultural, closely knit community are conditions. They generally occupy vacant oflen told with a tear in the eye. land, street reserves and parking lots. Informal trading takes place on a large In the early 1960s Marabastad excelled scale with informal traders operating in as the exhibition platform for engineering Marabastad being more than in the rest skills. The majority of built structures were demolished to make way for grand plans to build highways and other infrastructure such as sewage works.

In the late 1960s Marabastad became the playground of politicians (Jordaan & Loots. 2000:4). During those years, Figure 47: The temple found in Marabastad is a tourist atbaction. Marabastad had mainly three groupings, namely Indians, Blacks and Coloureds. Holm, Jordaan and associates were However, in the apartheid era, the requested to undertake an urban design inhabitants were forced to move out of project for Marabastad, in order to bring the area, to newlyestablished Indian, some form of improvement to the area. Black and Coloured townships on the Together with a public participation periphery of the city. In the 1970s and programme they were tasked to 1980s Marabastad became virtually redevelop areas in Marabastad with the desolate, exposed and abandoned - 'the public and private support backing them. step child of all authorities (national, Since Marabastad is situated on the provincial and local)" (Jordaan & Loots. boundary of the Pretoria CBD, 2000:4). In the 1990s, new interest was undertaking a regeneration programme shown in Marabastad - neglect became would be ideal for the community of inexcusable. A Local Agenda 21 Marabastad. In 2000 there were 2000 Programme and Integrated Strategic squatters in the area, living in appalling Development Framework were compiled. circumstances that resulted in an area of Marabastad is referred to as Pretoria's degradation of social injustice, neglect District Six (A suburb in Cape Town and physical decay of Marabastad. The where coloured people were forcefully fact that it is only ten minutes walk from moved out in order to provide new the city centre means that improving housing opportunities for the whites). In these factors could lead to an integrated the apartheid years little or no money was city with great potential. given to the Marabastad area for maintenance. This 'small city' soon In the present case study, it was of great started to fall apart, creating honible importance that the community itself circumstances for its residents. chose representatives (these were agenda. This agenda was then discussed treated as actors in the process, not as with the various role-players in the formal beneficiaries). This was possible to meetings, and formulated minutes were achieve for the community, since the then sent to the community via the inhabitants of Marabastad had resided in community representatives. Therefore it the area for many years, and have is clear that community input was already clear established leaders from abundant in the regeneration programme. various associations such as churches The ideas of 'getting to know' realised the and other sectors of civil society. community's perception and visa-versa, so that equal levels of understanding of Holm, Jordaan and associates held four the community and the future potential of initial meetings in the area, to establish Marabastad could be realised together. set social structures in the region, so that the respective leaders could be contacted Undertaking urban design and to participate in the urban design process regeneration with community participation (Jordaan & Loots. 20045). This led to the can lead to the formation of ideal living adoption of a 'getting to know' method. space. However, not utilising the Holm, Jordaan and associates undertook community demands and desires can be various formal and informal meetings with disastrous to urban design, and can the leaders of the area to establish the ultimately lead to failure of regeneration needs that arose in the region. This was attempt. Surely, whether land use of vital importance for the urban design of management is undertaken (as in the last Marabastad, as in this manner they got to statement), or whether housing provision know the community, as well as the and township establishment is opportunity to 'get to know' the positive undertaken, Kenyon's statement holds and weak points of the environment. true. He stated that the ideal for planning Many informal meetings were arranged, and provision for a community is to have since this made the leaders more community participation from the initial comfortable and confident in the process. point of process (1983:21). However, it must be noted that the forms of From the process of 'getting to know' via participation between community the informal meetings, the community development and urban design or issues that were raised were put on the regeneration differ substantially. It remains true however, that whatever the plays between various group leaders process, the affected community needs to occurring daily and impacting on be given a chance to give their processes. Yet, it still has a vibrancy propositions and actions that will affect brought about by formal and informal, them in the future. legal and illegal, positive and negative activities competing for attention. The final project that Holm, Jordaan and associates conducted for the region has One of the projects that received thus far taken up a period of more than attention in the finalisation stage is the three years, and is currently still not upgrading of informal trading stands. In completed. Their plan was to raise the past there was no political backing for awareness on the Local Agenda 21 in Marabastad, but since the political game Marabastad and to compile a technical changed, it received more backing. With report. This has been accomplished, this backing more funds were allocated however in 2002 more detailed projects and since then the pavements have been where undertaken to implement upgraded. "This gave the residents a sustainable cleaning up campaigns in the sense of belonging and pride, one of the region. This resulted in a variety of chain comerstones of stabilising a reaction activities that were initiated in the community"." area. Many national governments are The outcome of this project is not yet fully attempting to suppress or eradicate the determined. The reason for this is that informal sector such as street trading. several factors had influenced the South Africa is constantly faced with process. Land claims were lodged street traders that are unwillingly moved against certain sites in Marabastad, thus to 'modemised' stalls. These stalls are making it difficult for the developers to go rented to traders. After a few weeks the ahead with a project. traders are back again at their old spots since there is no clientele where they Progress is being made on addressing were located. As with the Marabastad the land claims. However, Marabastad is case study one of the projects that was still characterised by derelict built planned was the building of formal trade structures and vacant land, with power stalls. These worked since they were located on the same spot were trading control. The used to take place. layout of South African cities The modemist thoughts of Le Corbusier shows the and Gropuis had a major influence on policies of the Rex 'Martienssen, (Meyer & Oranje. previous white 2000:3), who studied Town Planning at the University of Witwatersrand. He also Figure 48: Walter Gropuis was the starter of the Bauhaus movement, which based art and met Le Corbusier in 1934 that influenced architecture M ~racticalitv. him to believe that reconstnrction was the government to express and perpetuate solution to urban problems. Le racial inequality. The zoning of Durban Corbusiefs Voisin Plan (sponsored by a into physically distinct, segregated racial Voisin Aircraft manufacturer) was areas and the establishment of Soweto developed for Paris and included the for the 'armed' relocation of the non-white demolition of various historic buildings. population from Johannesburg were all He believed that the centres of cities attempts to implement the commodity of must be decongested by increasing their apartheid (Mazumder. 2000). The density, the circulation must be improved segregation of race, class and religion and the amount of open space must be can also be seen in the Hindu caste increased. Although Martienssen and his system and the city of Kerrnan. followers asked for intensive redevelopment, nothing really took place. 5.31 NATURAL BOUNDARIES Under the influence of modemism, Martienssen and his followers believed that there was no solution for the existing "The disastrous convergence of class and problems and that cities had to be racial segregation transformed America's completely redesigned in the form of urban landscape into 'the dual' city. "At 'machines' for the age they lived in. the top are the most educated and Although nothing happened it left a mark affluent white and bottom poorest black. on South African planning. The next social agenda should not be to build a great society, but merely to build

Cities can be segregated through various this one together" (Hanington. 2000:8). aspects such as race, religion and Railways are the classic examples of 5.41 THE PRESENCE OF SLUMS borders, so much so that became known as social borders and develop the other- 5.4.11 SLUMS side-of-the-track syndrome. The place that is next to the railroads is worst of all. According to Jacobs (1977:286) a 'slum The Berlin Wall is probably one of the is defined as an area, which because of most classic examples of borders. As the nature of its social environment, can mentioned earlier the effect of the wall be proved to create problems and was tremendous on the urban pathologies". Slums are considered to be envimnment, but projects are taking one of the problems of the modem urban place in order to work against these world and are normally associated with problems. high crime rates and low income among its residents. These problems seem to Some borders serve some advantages reinforce each other since they repeat since they intensify the city and give a themselves. clear sharp city form. The water barriers of San Francisco and Manhattan have Le Corbusier's aims for the Radiant city both had this effect (Jacobs. 1979:276). were that the city centres had to be However, because of barriers a vacuum decongested (Relph. 1989:71). He is created on the edge of a 'dark earie' believed this since high congestion place, this starts to grow and businesses results in high unemployment, low move away into the opposite direction income housing and crime. If migration (Jacobs. 1979:273-274). The solution to happens over. a long time the city can this is that pollution concentration is to be adapt to the changes, but migration in made deliberately high near to the South Africa is and was rapid. With borders and the blocks close to the reference to Nigeria, in particular, the borders should be short. This will declining economic circumstances in the introduce new street and feature old and rural areas have continued to push new buildings (Jacobs. 1979:283). This people (mostly unskilled and would however only introduce more unemployable) to urban centres which streets to be patrolled and more comers themselves are already overburdened to smuggle something. (Aderinto et al. 2002:l). Maintaining the basic standard of services will pose a great challenge for conventional service policies, since it is their area; however, it delivery methods. According to is possible to intervene through physical Sandercock (1999:56) migration also change. changes economic, demographic and social structure, thus reshaping the city. It Research carried out in several major should be emphasised, however, that South African cities found that crime urban growth is not bad: it is inevitable. affects different people and parts of the Aberinto et al state (2002:l) that it is the city differently. This finding has important inability to manage the growth that makes implications both for the planning and the the city unsustainable. prioritisation of design interventions (Coulson et al. 2002:3). Analysis of crime The link that must be broken in slums is statistics as well as qualitative interviews that between cause and effect. Too many found that 'the poorer inhabitants of the people move out of slums too fast and city are generally most at risk of violent too many people think of doing so. The crime although they also experience a reason for wanting to leave is that people significant proportion of property crimes. do not want to live in horrible Suburban residents are more likely to be circumstances, hence they leave for a victimised by property crime and better environment. experience comparatively low levels of violence (Ibid: 14). 5.5) CRIME AND PLACE

New Haven's Oak Street One of the aims of urban regeneration strategies is to reduce crime. Local In 1957 Oak Street was considered as authorities consequently introduce Connecticut's worst slum. It included the policies to reduce crime. Coulson et al commercial stretch known as Legion (2002:2) note that evidence of local crime Avenue and residential areas. It was prevention strategies in South Africa is considered as 'hard core cancer', that rarely noted and how this role is fulfilled is had to be removed (Gurwitt. 2000). The not spelt out in current local development area was also characterised by plans. The issue of crime is thus being segregation through race and has thus ignored. The police are assumed as tumed into Ground Zero for urban being the implementers of anticrime renewal to take place. The building of a highway through urban centres and the expansion for Yale University) were not creation of inadequate retail centres developed for the community, but for made urban regeneration negative since political gain. The result of the the regeneration programme scattered regeneration programme was that New the residents to an unfamiliar world. The Haven is losing valuable investment renewal that took place was not up to the opporlunities. Being a catch-22 situation, standards of the urban regeneration the community was living in horrible conditions, with no basic services. The local authority felt obliged to do something about the circumstances and announced an urban regeneration project. The 'vibrant' community, however, believes that as long as they live in their community they will survive? This creates a tense situation, because if the renewal project fails, (as was the case) the blame is put on the local Figure 49: The Oak street neighbourhccd was authority. Until today, reunions are held to demolished in !he late 1950s. process stated by the members and gave remember the past of Oak Street's urban regeneration negative connections. community. It is then a question of what Due to this and many other disasters in makes a community, the buildings or the urban regeneration, the belief that people. demolishing large tracts of old buildings and relocating massive numbers of the Ironically, a (good) thing that happened working class and poor urban residents due to the urban regeneration project was has been discredited as an approach to that of Wooster Square. A highway was build sustainable cities. planned to be built through Wooster Square, but the residents resisted this The changes that took place in New attempt. The community rehabilitated Haven were masterful, but not thoughtful. buildings, planted trees, created parks The 'grand plans' that were developed and is today a catalyst for further (highway connection, company buildings, development in New Haven. The lessons high-rise market apartments and some learnt from the Oak Street renewal programme is that what seemed as a be 'unslummed', but pmblems will arise in good suitable project at present but may trying to accomodate the existing not be that way in the future. Before inhabitants of that area. projects are to be implemented the sustainability of the desired project must There is an urban myth that if we had be investigated upon and Jacobs (1977: enough money to spend we could wipe 300-301) adds that successful out all the slums, reverse decay, solve all unslumming means that the people who the urban pmblems and even find a live there would have an attachment to solution to traffic pmblems. But look at the slum to stay there, if it is practical for what we build; did we not build the slums them to do so. with the 'wish-money'?

One of the most important aspects in urban areas is that of an environmentally sustainable environment. The following chapter will investigate the ideal of a green utopia. Figure 50: Wwster Square in the winter. 1

5.61 CONCLUSION

South Africa used apartheid as a way of achieving its utopias. South Africa is now trying to reach a practical utopia where these problems that were created in the past are being corrected. Many people will argue that the problem of cities started since the city's establishment, hence the argument that these cities need to be demolished, as is suggested by Le Corbusier's Voisin plan. Others will argue that certain parts of the city need to CHAPTER 6 6.1 THE GREEN CITY emphasises what is seen, while the image itself is being tested against the filtered perceptual input in a constant interacting process. Thus the image of a given reality may vary significantly 6.11 INTRODUCTION between different observers".

Dereliction, eyesores, underused and The environmental image can be contaminated land are both the explained through the following symptoms and causes of problems in components: identity, structure and urban areas. These problems usually meaning. Individuality is one of the key arise as a consequence of inadequate components of the envimnment, where policies, population loss, loss of as image require identity from other employment and economic deprivation. components, thus it must have its own They in tum complete the circle by image. The meaning of an envimnment is contributing to low levels of investment important to the observer, whether from the private sector. practical or emotional. The structure of an envimnment is that the image must The environment has different meanings include the spatial or pattern relation of to different people. A dam may be seen the object to the observer and to other as a symbol of tranquillity and to others it objects. In an adequate environment may invoke fear. Various factors these components all connect. therefore influence one's attitude towards one's environment. The image of the In the following sections the role of urban environment is a result of a two-way regeneration in urban sprawl, open process between the observer and the spaces and the environment is environment. According to Lynch investigated. (19756) "the environment suggests 6.21 THE ENVIRONMENT distinction and relation, and the observer - with great flexibility and in the light of People are dependent on the natural his own purposes - selects, organises environment for meeting all their basic and endows with meaning what he sees. needs (e.g. air), and therefore the The image so developed now limits and interactions between people and the air, noise and water pollution, causing environment cannot be separated people to move out. (Department of Environment Affairs 1999)x. 6.2.11 POLLUTION IN URBAN

According to Fulton (1996:20) New AREAS Urbanism is seeking to redefine the South Africa faces enormous challenges nature of the metropolis by reintroducing in addressing these issues. Not only is 'traditional notions' of neighbourhood there a need to solve the environmental design and fitting those ideas into a problems created by previous variety and suburban settings. New generations, such as pollution, but the Urbanism also comes as a reaction to future needs of all the people in the conventional suburban planning as it had country need to be met through a system been practised during the 1940s. The that will be economically and New Urbanists also blame the subutt~s environmentally sustainable. for increasing congestion on mads, lack In South African cities and urban areas, of meaningful civic life, loss of open water pollution problems are particularly space, limited opportunities and few severe because urban rivers have been options for the individual without a car. built and engineered for the purpose of canying storm water away quickly from Wright's idea of a green utopia (such as developed areas. According to Douglas the Broadacre city) was neighboumoods (1998) it is common practise to canalise surrounded by green belts. Usonia (USA) is an example of the proposed ideal city. It is characterised by low density and a wide democratic landscape (Relph. 1989). Access to the nature would be everywhere and would be maintained. Relph's whole approach was based on this fore-going assumption. Years later the ozone layer is getting thinner, pollution happens daily and more Figure 51: Notice boards like these are becoming regularity by rivers in South Africa. frequently. Urban areas are inundated by I I urban rivers. This removes the rivet's about 5 percent per annum, the fastest natural capacity for self-purification, the rate in the world and accordingly Africa's water quality deteriorates, and problems urban population will jump from 138 accumulate along the whole length of the million in 1990 to 500 million in 2020, river. The receiving water body when African cities with a population of downstream, which could be the sea, a more than one million will accommodate lake, or another river, therefore has to almost 200 million people (Sen. 2002:15). absorb the entire pollution load from the Water management and pollution are the urban area. most critical issues affecting water access today. This is affirmed by UN Secretary- General Kofi Annan during World Water Storm water is also one of the polluting Day, 22 May, 2002, when he stated that: agents that damage the urban "Even where supplies are plentiful, they environment physically. Storm water are increasingly at risk from pollution and drains collect and channel the water from rising demand""! There is thus a all non-porous surfaces, such as continuous threat on water supply, pavements and tarred roads, within a whether through illegal dumping or catchment. Storm water flow depends on erosion. rainfall, and the first Rows following a dry

spell oflen contain high levels of Sustainability in this new millennium will pollutants, such as heavy metals be largely defined in cities, which are the (particularly lead), oil residues, nutrients, centres of political power, public opinion and pathogenic (diseasecausing) micro- and the engines of economic growth and organisms, such as viruses, bacteria and technological innovation. protozoa, from faecal material

(Department of Environmental Affairs: Air pollution is an increasingly vital Durban)d. The latter is a problem environmental problem in Africa. particularly with water coming from Emissions of sulphur dioxide have been informal settlements lacking adequate rising steadily as industrialisation occurs. sanitation. Projections indicate that potentially outsized increases in emissions may Overall, Africa, formerly regarded as the occur during the next twenty to fifty years rural continent, is urbanizing at a rate of if current development patterns persist. If this happens, the impacts which have environmental services, as well as been experienced in Europe this century increasing the amount of waste and will become increasingly apparent in pollution that is generated (Department of parts of Africa during the next century Environmental Affairs and Tourism. (Sei. 2002)xm 1999)". There has also been an enormous movement of people to urban Air pollution in urban centres in Southem areas, both from rural areas and from Africa has been linked to poor health and other countries. This concentrates the Sei (2002)X" beliefs that household and pressures on the environment, and can industrial energy consumption across the lead to problems of sanitation, pollution continent is predicted to increase by over and crime, directly affecting human health 300 percent during the next fifty years. and quality of life.

As already mentioned, political, economic Changes in values and beliefs have also and social inequities of the past have contributed to environmental change in resulted in high poverty levels, high levels South Africa. As people move away from of illiteracy and unemployment, and rural areas into urban areas, they lose distorted patterns of resource use and their connection with nature, and forget waste generation. Political reforms afler the importance of maintaining 1994 aimed to redress these inequities, environmental services such as water and to improve quality of life among all resources. South Africans. These reforms take Harare, Zimbabwe cognisance of environmental issues in terms of the capacity of the environment to meet basic needs, and worked In an effort to control air pollution, the City together with sustainable development of Harare has carried out an extensive guidelines. The rapid growth rate of the programme in most parts where the level population is however one of the of pollution is high, resulting in a drawbacks that will have an influence on decrease in atmospheric pollution sustainable development strategies. The throughout. The air pollution is the result South African population is growing, and of the smoke from fuel burning more people result in a greater demand appliances, burning of refuse in both on the natural resources and residential and industrial areas. incineration of waste and vehicle emissions (Zindi. 2002). Causes from dust from cement-manufacturing companies, base mineral grinding, tobacco processing, concrete premixing and detergent manufacturing as well as smells from abattoirs and the municipal Figure 52: Harare, Zimbabwe dumpsites was the reason for the implementation of the programme.

Routine monitoring of ambient levels of suspended particulate matter, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide was carried out but a lack of transport resulted in a delay for follow ups. Although the city Figure 53: First sb-eet in Harare. Urban areas in Zimbabwe needed to work against the health department raised objections pollulon of fuel and fires. against the high pollution rates, the The project was started and 'some air- ministry did not respond, resulting in the monitoring equipment has also been situatiin remaining uncorrected (Zindi. bought, but is yet to be handed over 2002). pending staff training on how to use it' (Zindi. 2002). However, Danida, launched an environmental support project. The Kiarnbiu, Kenva project focused on air pollution control, institutional capacity building for data collection and analysis, assessment of Kiambiu is a relatively new slum on the the ambient air quality situation in the outskirts of Nairobi, Kenya. Most residents have lived here for less than ten city, impact assessment of the public health situation and the associated years. The majority are young, in their twenties and thirties, and most, arrived economic and social costs and public with only one thing in mind: to find a job awareness to change the residents' air pollution perception and behaviour. in the city (Sen. 2002:16). By Nairobi standards, Kiambiu is a relatively "healthy" slum and its 15,000 residents This should ease congestion experienced live in small houses with potted plants and improve water and sanitation that adom almost every doorway. It is facilities in the area. also one of the few slums in Nairobi Johannesbum. South Africa which has community-managed toilets and showers, thanks to a non Johannesburg is a city constantly in a governmental organisation (NGO) called stage of attempting a rebirth - first from Maji na Ufanisi. gold mining then apartheid and now from its own transformation. According to Paton (2002) the city even has its own demolition man - a council official who is responsible for bringing down bad buildings, bad public toilets, and bad places in bad parks. The demolition man takes inner-city buildings whose owners Figure 54: An aerial photograph of Kiambiu, Kenva. have been dispossessed by tenants who live illegally and dangerously, in squalid Sen (2002:16) explained that the water conditions. He also 'reclaimed' the city's and sanitation was used as a parks by imploding public toilets that have concentration point of community become criminal headquarters. development activities in the area. Once Hillbmw, the highdensity flatland in the people organised around an essential centre of the city, of Johannesburg, is a need such as water, they would organise shocking example of environmental around for other important reasons (e.g. degradation. Hillbrow stands astride a crime) as well. The community not only continental divide: the rocky ridge that manages and maintains the facilities, but runs from east to west through the city. is also working on improving other basic Rain that falls on the north side of the services in the slum. ridge flows into the Jukskei River and ends up in the Indian Ocean, while rain Public toilets and showers were built that that falls to its south, flows into the Klip are rented out. Because of the project's River, and ends up on the other side of popularity, additiinal toilets and showers were built on the other side of the slum. the continent, in the Atlantic (Paton. dump nearby - one of many around 2002). Soweto. Adding to the problem of sewage spillage is that people here have The city's rivers are in bad shape. There chemical toilets which fill up quickly and are unacceptable levels of bacteria bush toileting is common. 'It is here that because sewage is constantly spilling into the link between poverty and the the rivers as a result of damaged environment is so obvious' (Paton. 2002). sewerage pipes. Two of Johannesburg's best-known outdoor recreation spaces, The plan to rehabilitate the Klipspruit will Zoo Lake and Bruma Lake, which feed mean moving communities like these to into the Jukskei, have been found to safer ground, a R50-million upgrade of have' unacceptable' levels of bacteria. the sewerage system, restoring the river banks for recreation purposes, and the Bruma Lake, built as a scenic backdrop harvesting of reeds, which will be used to a restaurant complex in the early for craft production (Paton. 2002). The 1990s and fed by storm water, has people who live nearby hate the reeds become an environmental disaster. which crowd the wet areas as they are Clogged with silt and devoid of natural notorious havens for criminals. But the fauna and flora, the water smells and reeds help purify the water as it flows out council officials are puzzling over how to of the city. revive it (Beeld. 2002). Johannesburg's history as a mining town Adding to the problem is the demand for has also had a disastrous effect on the housing that is not met leading to people rivers - 200 mine dumps scar the city in a squatting anywhere, even on the banks band from east to west across its middle. of rivers. Klipspruit in Soweto river bed is The chemicals from these dumps and the clogged with 3m-high reeds, unnaturally "slimes dams" which are now mostly dry, tall because of the high nutrient content leak downwards when it rains, polluting of the water. The banks are covered with underground water and rivers. refuse washed down from Soweto's streets into the storm water drains. The In spite of its contaminated rivers, drain is clogged with debris and, perhaps Johannesburg's tap water is because it already looks like a dump, acknowledged to be excellent - better people have started an informal rubbish than that in many European capitals. The raw water requires only conventional Thomas Maltus believed that there will purification. not be enough food for the world to eat

Emissions from coal burning pose a serious environmental threat, but not directly to most areas of Johannesburg. The quality of the air in the metropole depends on where you live. Despite a vast number of new electricity connections in townships, the preferred form of energy for heating and cooking in Figure 55: Trafk is considered as one of the problems created by urban sprawl. homes is still coal. During winter, Soweto but he did not take into account what the and areas like it lie under a blanket of effect of technology would be (i.e. grey smoke (Paton. 2002). genetically modified food). Bongaarts As the clean-up begins, there is a sense (1994:18) is of the opinion that due to the that, after a period of uncertainty, and fast growth of the population two camps perhaps even crisis, Johannesburg has a have emerged. The environmentalists recovery plan. The city council has an believe that there is a catastrophe in the array of new policies. Urban sprawl will making and their solution is to intensify be contained; cheap, bad housing will no agriculture. Urban sprawl borders that longer be built; rivers will be cleaned; bad cannot be developed beyond buildings will be knocked down and consequently result. If this is not done playgrounds reestablished. there will be a collapse under the weight of future demand. Optimists believe that enough food can already be produced and technology will further increase food 6.31 SPRAWL production.

A sprained ankle results from sudden 6.3.11 URBAN SPRAWL DEFINED overst~tchingof an ankle ligament.

The history of urban sprawl is, as some The growth of the population in the future thinkers argue, the result of the industrial is one that can have an influence on the revolution that resulted in people living urban setting and its growth. Although more than lOkm out of the nearest city. and utilities must be stretched much The motorcar also enabled people to live further to serve the same number of more than the usual walking distance people than they do in the city. Behrens away from their work (Kaczynski. et al (1992:3) adds that the great 1998:45). distances over which public services must be conducted results in excessive Traditional neighbourhoods that operating costs. consisted of diverse communities built on a foundation of needs, developed as self- To increase population density could lead sufficient towns, villages or cities. Urban to more traffic congestion, exacerbating sprawl, on the other hand, is an air pollution levels and potentially causing 'outgrowth' of distribution, and critics more areas to fail to meet prescribed believe that sprawl produces traffic clean air goals. Another important problems, heightens and promotes environmental objection to environmental damage and promotes suburbanization, the potential loss of social inequality and isolation (Bridghan. open space, overlooks the fact that 2002)"'. However, Jacobs (1979:352) limiting development often accelerates states that traffic arteries, along with the loss of open space inside urban parking lots, filling stations and drive-in areas. To overcome the shortage of land, theatres are instruments of 'city developers eventually do projects on odd- destruction'. shaped parcels and other land that would ordinarily have remained vacant lots and 6.3.21 THE COST OF SPRAWL: A the equivalent of mini-parks. MULTIFACTOR PROBLEM

Suburban sprawl can have negative Behrens et a1 (1992:3) note that in both effects on suburbs, cities, the economy quantitative and qualitative terms the and the environment and is seen as a growth outward is unnecessary and multifactor problem, which could extend causes excessive costs. beyond the borders of a country. Sprawl, also draws taxes and people and money away from the inner city, resulting in cities declining. The low density housing in the suburbs drain the infrastructure. Roads 6.3.3) REACTIONS TO URBAN these fears in the local SPRAWL neighbouhoods.

Although the cost of urban sprawl is still an open book there are ways of working Behrens, et al, (1992:4) state that it has against the effect of urban sprawl, been argued locally, as in other parts of whether positive or negative. Staley the world, that one of the actions (1999) believes that the following actions necessary to reduce these costs is to can prevent urban sprawl: direct future urban growth inward. The track record of attempts to compact cities Educate others: talk to family reveals that the process is highly complex members, co-workers, and will cause a structureless neighbours, and members of environment. religious groups about urban sprawl and the effects thereof. Buffalo. USA

Support conservation areas: As Buffalo's suburbs have grown, Buffalo Demand that your local has become more and more racially politicians cease granting segregated - creating the 4th most building permits and start segregated metropolitan area in America. conserving vacant or farm land. As of the 1990 US Census, 85 per cent of Demand that the state set up minorities (92 per cent of them Blacks) conservation areas in the and 71 per cent of low-income families in suburbs to prevent further sprawl Erie County resided in the city (Wright. (and which may not yet have any Undated). Advocates of urban sprawl groups organised to fight the state that where people live, there will be sprawl). impacts on their everyday lives such as access to schools or employment Work for charter schools, home opportunities. rule, and community policing. It seems as if the bureaucracies of 'If steps are not taken now to curb large city governments sprawl, urbanisation will consume so oftentimes do not respond to much farmland that the United States may run out of enough agricultural land to feed itself in the 21st century and, for the first time in the nation's history, become a net importer of food"wii.

As in the case of urban areas in South Africa (such as the Pretoria east - west situation) communities have become more and more polarized between the haves and have-nots that resulted in an increasing level of socioeconomic and racial segregation.

Portland, USA

Portland has become a city that many use as the highest model of proactive sprawl-reduction. Efforts there began in 1973 with Oregon's landmark urban growth boundary law (Ball. 2002). This Figure 56 and 57: Buffalo is known for its racial segregation and law requires each municipality in the state development, however, preventive are taken against it. to establish a line beyond which urbanisation could not extend. Urban development is encouraged within the boundary, but only rural-type development is allowed outside. "It sometimes seems as if the whole country is looking to Portland as a role model for 21st century urban development" (Carlisle. 1999), because of the success of its urban sprawl projects.

A regional planning agency in Portland, called Metro, has been given the Figure 58 and 59: Portland, USA is one of the cities with the highest authority to regulate growth in cities. The aim of Metro is to accommodate 700,000 to 1.1 million new residents within its Requiring owners of shopping existing Urban Growth Boundary by and office complexes to reduce radically increasing the residential parking space by ten per cent densities in existing neighbourhoods. and eventually charge for Metro's anti-sprawl campaign includes parking; the following initiatives: Banning new shopping malls and Establishing an Urban Growth stores: Boundary beyond which little or Subsidising small shops in no development will be allowed; mixed-use areas and ; Imposing highly restrictive zoning Instituting "traffic calming" within the Urban Growth measures, such as reducing the Boundary which requires number of lanes on major streets, landowners who are allowed to to reduce roadway capacities build at all to only construct (Carlisle. 1999). buildings with high residential densities that increase In a reaction of the anti-sprawl controls, congestion; housing prices have soared in Portland. The city went from being one of the Increasing highway capacity by nation's most affordable cities to one of no more than 13 per cent, even the five or six least affordable. as the region's population grows Proponents of Portland blame these by 75 per cent, in the 40-year rising costs on Portland's booming period; economy (Carlisle. 1999). Spending most of the region's Many of the anti-sprawl regulations federal and local transportation imposed to improve environmental quality money not on mads but on a actually had the opposite results. Such light-rail mass transit system congestion is not only inconvenient even though the system will cany because it increases commuters' time on no more than two per cent of the the road, but it is also unhealthy for the area's daily commuters; environment. The more time that is spent on the road, the more automobile emissions there will be (O'Toole. 6.41 SMART GROWTH 1999)"". Indeed, cities with the highest densities also have the highest smog South African landscapes are rapidly ratings (Ridenour. 1999). being absorbed by urban growth, and there seems to be a tendency1 movement Durbanville. South Africa to work against these developments that grow into the surrounding landscapes. An influx of residents and new There are various forms of these businesses to Durbanville has forced movements such as establishing an municipal officials to take strict measures urban edge (Tunnard & Pushkarev. so that the central business district can 1963). People throughout South Africa cope better with the growing demand for are choosing to live away from houses and basic services from the commercial areas, enjoying the private public (Lund. 2001)X". Over the last 10 spaces afforded by single-family homes years hundreds of families have moved to set back from streets and the mobility and Durbanville because of inadequate accessibility offered by the private motor housing and crime in the Cape Town vechile (Tucille. 2002)xxi. Behrens, et al, CBD, causing problems with roads and (1992:4) state that an appropriate form of services. Already residents complain that urban growth should provide people with on Saturdays, and particularly at the end access to income opportunities and of each month, the Cape Town CBD has facilities, as well as shelter and services. turned into a "nightmarehcene, with It is also critical that urban growth is hordes of people crowding the sidewalks sustainable and derives the maximum and traffic backing up for hours (Lund. benefits from public and private 2001)". investments.

People had been moving to the Northem Suburbs, such as Durbanville, to be New Urbanists believe that closer to their place of work, since more neighbourhoods should be diverse in use work is available there. and population, communities should be designed for the pedestrian as well as for cars, cities and towns should be shaped by universally accessible public spaces, and existing urban centres and towns should be restored instead of abandoned on a community's physical infrastructure (Bridgham. 2002)nii. Farr (2002) states in the belief community design can create that Smart Growth is not just about or influence of particular social patterns economic expansion and city marketing, (Fulton. 1996:20). New Urbanists (Fulton. but it rather seeks to bring together 19965) also believe that the following sustainable environmental practises, actions need to be taken in order to accessible public transport provision, ensure a more sustainable environment: investment in jobs and equitable housing policies. This is an integrated strategy for Scale - replicate compactness, post-apartheid urban reconstruction. small scale, diversity, but difficult According to Ball (2002) the three major economic conditions require goals of the Smart Growth Initiative are: large scale production; Transportation - reduce to determine how and where to dependence on motors; and grow; Planning and codes - state to improve the quality of life for all codes that perpetuate suburbia's citizens - smart Growth car orientated nature. programmes focus on improving quality of life by preserving and What is most disturbing about the enhancing neighbouhoods, crusade against urban sprawl is that anti- protecting environmental quality, sprawl activists portray their agenda of improving accessibility and "smart-growth"initiatives as "pro- mobility, and strengthening the suburban"t0 receptive voters concerned economy; and about improving the quality of life in their to enhance the tax base - Smart communities. In reality, anti-sprawl Growth seeks to build and policies are profoundly anti-suburban. In enhance the tax base through cities such as Portland and Buffalo, strategic investments, efficient where aggressive anti-sprawl policies use of public funds, and regional have been implemented, government partnerships. planners have deliberately tried to increase traffic congestion, not diminish In essence New Urbanism strives for a it, and have tried to force people to live in kind of utopian social ideal that focuses smaller houses in more crowded urban- like neighbourhoods. To these activists, was present in Assyrian settlements. suburbs are the cause of sprawl, and the Public open spaces played an important only way to stop sprawl is to dissuade role in the life of classical Greece, for people from moving to the suburbs. The instance the agora (marketplace), which campaign against urban sprawl is was the heart of the urban activity (Yates. perilously close to a campaign against 1979:6). In Roman times, gardens were the American Dream. merely for the privilege of nobles, whereas most medieval towns had an 6.5) OPEN SPACES agriculture base with cultivated lands enclosed within the city walls, which also Open spaces, irrespective of their origin formed important public spaces (Yates. or function are scattered throughout most 1979:9). Evidentially, parks were urban areas generally without the benefit developed for aesthetic and social of pre-planning (Yates. 1979:4). They are purposes. in fact the result of pressure created by demands of the urban population, higher According to Hough (198414) parks densities and the absence of open space originated in the late seventeenth century policies. Open space according to Young as private residential squares at a time (HNRE. 1997:20) is space, which is when some cities in Britain were closely connected with the total urban becoming attractive places to live in for environment and the daily life of its users. the upper class. Examples are the Open space will now be dealt with in famous Bloomsbury garden squares of terms of its history, needs, functions, London and the crescents of Bath. These classification, standards, typical problems were all created in the conviction that and management. nature should be brought to the city to improve the health of the people. Then 6.5.1) HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF with the introduction of the Royal Parks in OPENSPACES London, Olmsteads Central Park in New York, the Boston Commons and Mount According to Yates (1979:6), the Town Royal Park in Montreal the notion that Square (which started as a space among parks would improve the appearance of buildings) fulfilled one of the first cities were realised (Hough. 1984:15). In functions of a public meeting place, which this period, the social function of parks was replaced, and parks became useful physical appearance and economic only for their image. development. The quest for control over elements of urban life, its disorder and According to Chadwick, the Renaissance chaos imprinted upon the major Park of the 1600s (prevalent in France), 'tentacles' of urban planning, from was followed in the 1700s by the English Garden City to the City Beautihrl to the Park landscape, whereas public parks in City Efficient and then Modernistic City, Victorian England were only established followed by post modernist New in the 1800s (as in Yates. 1979:9). Urbanism. The Garden city was an According to Yates (1979:9) parks only attempt to physically eradicate slums. became abundant in American cities by Nunn (2001) further adds that its aim was the middle of the 18m century, following to relocate the poor to an unspoilt the park movement. Sitte (1889:26) landscape, and to control regional land referred to inner parks of the city as use and economic development. sanitary greens and saw them as a way of ensuring health within a city. In 1963 there was much controversy over a book, 'The Death and Life of Great In the early 1900s Howard proposed a American Cities' written by Jane Jacobs. highly integrated and comprehensive Jacobs made an onslaught on town theoretical open space system and both planners and naming them the worst of Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright all people in the world. In the book she believed open space to be the remedy for made some valid points, such as the all that was wrong in the modem city presence of diversity within the city. She (Yates. 1979:15) By 1960 planners in based her 'theory' on that fact that people Britain adopted a green belt policy, which must have pride within their entailed the search for amenity, the neighbourhood. People will get pride if protection of agricultural land and the their neighbourhood is safe and regulation of urban growth (Yates. environmentally clean. l979:15). Howard was called an advocate for low Nunn (2001)miii believes that the history density, when in fact his Garden City was of planning is rooted in efforts to control denser than London (at that time), and sanitary conditions, human behaviour, that he wanted to move the people to the Garden City in order for his idea to work dead and for the consolation of the living" when in fact he dreamed of voluntary gave birth to the "rural" cemetery self-governing. According to Jacobs movement. It also inspired the Garden (1979:7) Howard managed to build two City Movement's visionary and such garden cities, Letchworth and revolutionary notion that municipalities Welwyn, and many satellite towns based provide the space and create park on the principles of garden cities were environments in the city. built. Many of the modemist thinkers such as Sir Patrick Geddes, Lewis Mumford, In South Africa, the value of "green belts" Clarence Stein, Henry Wright and or large areas of protected countryside Catherine Bauer soon adopted these which are preserved in the form of areas ideas of parks to be a requirement for of outstanding natural beauty and healthy living. national parks, have only recently been realised. This was due to the fact that Historically, Chicago's expanding South Africa, felt it did not have land metropolis grew within a natural garden; shortage problems and hence did not its citizens built vertically while chiselling require permanent green belt restrictions away at existing green spaces. At the (Yates. 1979:15). turn of the last century however new ideas began emerging about the It is evident that there has always been a relationship between the venerated future vision for more open spaces. But, country and the tolerated cities. Planners people do not use city space just who faced an increasingly industrial and because it is there and because city mercantile world began thinking of ways planners and designers wish they could. to bring the country to the city, in the form There is, however, a need for open of parks. spaces.

6.5.21 NEED FOR OPEN SPACES Ironically, the mother of urban parks is Boston's Mt. Auburn Cemetery, founded in 1831 by members of the newly- Many people (especially in developed organised Massachusetts Horticultural countries) believe that parks are places of Society. The "tranquil, natural setting for relaxation and recreation. In the third the burial and commemoration of the world (and most developing countries) that is not always the case. Many view it and recreational needs of the community. as an unsafe area, others view it as home In town non-built spaces are as important (for the homeless), and many view it as as buildings. being there merely for aesthetical reasons. 6.5.31 FUNCTIONS OF OPEN SPACE

According to the Human Resource programme (1997:20) the value of open Lynch states 'urban parks should offer space is fourfold: opportunities for choice, stimulus contrast, social experimentation,

As a structuring element within orientation and envimnmental education the urban environment, creating (Kepes. 1972:109). However, according an urban image; to Hough (1984:l) the city's open spaces As a common ground, public have key envimnmental functions too. space for urban communities; For instance, the importance of envimnmental education in the city, so 0 As an ecological conservation zone; and that biophysical systems that influence it (and are influenced by it) are understood. 0 As an extension of private open space, as well as an extension of Cooper (1990: 6-10) postulates that open a personal resource base spaces also have socioeconomic (especially of value in high- benefits, in that they provide for the density, resource inefficient satisfaction of people: settlements). Social needs;

Urban spaces form an essential part of Security needs; urban infrastructure with benefits such as Pedestrian and cyclist safety; reducing pollution, precipitation run-off; The pursuit of individuality; and providing educational, recreational, The improvement of residential aesthetic and physiological benefits; as areas; and well as absorbing noise; and providing The enhancement of commercial conservation areas for local indigenous land values. flora and fauna. Thus soft open spaces address far more than just the aesthetic Furthermore, according to Jacobs fine mesh of open spaces, distributed (1990:lO) parks and open spaces have evenly over the whole city, is more an ecological function in that the life effective in climatic control than reliance essential for natural biochemical cycles on a few large ones. Linked networks of is maintained within them. Open spaces small parks are therefore more effective are also zoned as public space in order to in dimatic control than reliance on a few conserve the natural fauna and flora of large ones. Thus linked networks of small the area, in which case it has a parks are more effective. Open spaces conservational function. In line with the also create an environment of high quality conservational function, open spaces as well as individuality, which also have a protective function. Open characterises a city aesthetically (Jacobs. spaces can also serve as collection 1990:lO). Greening the urban points for floodwater as well as areas of environment is yet another function close instability not ideal for development to the aesthetic function and Cooper (Jacobs. 1990:lO). Cooper (1990:4) is of (1990:2) states that parks are the opinion that open spaces, if correctly increasingly becoming important for positioned, can serve as drainage providing a stopgap against the diverse corridors which aid in the removal of effects which modem industry and polluted water and air. Furthermore, open technology have on the environment. Yet, space can be used for gardens and open spaces can also be used as play nurseries as well as for agricultural parks, parks for picnics, camping, functions (Jacobs. 1990:lO). botanical gardens, as well as sociological and historical areas adding to cultural Parks serve as 'lungs' for cities, places value and leisure values of open spaces for social concourse, where people could (Jacobs. 1990:lO). Lastly, public spaces relax and breathe air that had been structure the city, and can link the city cleansed and refreshed by trees (Carlisle. elements with one another (Jacobs. 1999). Jacobs (1990:lO) also contends 1990:10), such as spaces between that public open spaces serve as a buildings. source of clean air, which replaces polluted air from the city. Parks can Jordaan (Department of Environmental therefore be seen as the 'green lungs' of Affairs. 1994:1), is of the opinion that the city. Hough (1984:17) states that a urban open spaces can, via productive them. Even though a vast amount of utilisation, be seen as sources of: knowledge about nature in the city exists, Income and nutrition; little has been applied to moulding parks Energy; within the city. Spim (1984:~)views the Community development; earth as a planet of life, and when viewed Land use management; and from space, it is a sphere of blues and Therapeutic relaxation. greens. However, when viewed closer up, the city is a granite garden, largely Having provided the various functions of unrecognised and neglected (Spim. open spaces, the problems concerning 1984:~). Parks in the city must be open spaces will follow. cultivated, like a garden, rather than ignored or subdued. However, city, dwellers have cherished isolated natural 6.5.41 OPEN SPACE PROBLEMS features and have sought to incorporate those features into their physical According to Spim (1984:1), many of the surroundings. It thus appears as if those, problems with open space lie simply in who introduced nature into the civic the form of growth, which is then followed landscape in the form of parks, merely by other problems such as maintenance sought to create a small piece of utopia and management. Urbanisation proceeds where they lived (Spim. 1984:2). by increasing the density within and Unfortunately, when trying to create this extending the periphery, always at the utopia, the focus was on creating delight, expense of open space. As a result - and often the underlying natural process unlike other facilities, open space is most was ignored. Hence, modem technology abundant where people are few. has alienated humans from the natural world, and created the perception that the Spim (1984:l) furthermore states that, city existed separately from nature rather "nature pervades the city, forging bonds than within it. between the city and the air, earth, water and living organisms within and around Young (1994:3) states that in South it". However such bond seldom exists, African cities, the traditional balance since many cities have neglected and between public and private open space rarely exploited the natural forces within has been rendered to be insignificant. The cost of maintaining parks is becoming clear that overall strategy for increasingly beyond the means of many our cities that brings social and city administrators particularly in South environmental objectives together with Africa (a developing country). Rather than horticulture and economics is urgently being socially beneficial these spaces needed if the concept of sustainability is frequently become unsightly, unpleasant to be realized. and dangerous baniers to be avoided. Thus the importance of sustainable open It is, however, important to supply parks space management should not be not on the basis of quantity but on the neglected. According to Spies, et al, basis of quality to ensure that (1994: 4) the problems regarding urban sustainability and flexibility are taken into open space need to be addressed by a consideration, so that problems and responsible management hierarchy, potential problems can be eliminated. operating in collaboration with urban Perhaps many of the problems with open communities to develop strategies and spaces lie within the management of implement programmes to the benefit of open spaces, and having provided a all communities. However, the challenge review on open spaces, further does not end here. Open space areas investigation into the management of and facilities must be managed in a sustainable open spaces will now be manner that ensures the most effective dealt with. utilisation of resources. This implies the dual responsibility of developing and 6.5.51 SUSTAINABLE OPEN SPACE protecting open spaces to address MANAGEMENT current and future needs with close integration between government and The idea that quantity and quality of the respective communities in this process. earth's resources are scarce relative to demand is not new. Nor is the notion that Town Centre Park, Sunderland people ought to be involved in solutions for the planning and management of Dirty dark, dangerous, noisy, nasty and parks. Traditionally management of open noxious. That is the "nature"of a city, spaces was done by the state or local right? And Nature - with a capital "Nu- is authority; however, it is increasingly something else and somewhere else. Or can a city be clean, fresh, green, quiet, not being empty and the surroundings of and healthy? Can urban citizens find the park also allow other uses to be nature and a healthy natural environment incorporated into the park such as the close to home? What is and where is pedestrians flow to the shopping mall and nature in a city? leisure centre. It is thus important to place a park or green area in a location suitable This park, also known as the 'Green' is for it and not just anywhere where there one of the most enjoyable areas in Town is open space. Centre Park. On the site there were first houses followed by a parking lot. It The role that design can play in (safer) seemed more sustainable to develop the parks is usually underestimated. The area into a park. Being centrally located Protection of Public Space (PPS)"" this attractive park became popular and foundation believes that in order to create busy. Visually this site compliments its safer parks for the public to enjoy the surroundings. following criteria must be met:

People benefit from the park all year and The park must not be isolated the pedestrians make use of the park's from other uses or pedestrian walkways as through the nearby car activity; parks and shops to the leisure centre, The layout must be legible; bus station and main shopping areas a Create an active edge and (Jurue. 1990:33). The overall response to visibility should be taken into the project has been good, with everyone account; agreeing that the visual enhancement Ample access; has been secured. The low cost of the The park should be well lit; and quality and its location is clearly The park should have its own appropriate and commensurate with the character, that fits in with the benefits derived by people living and surrounding area. working in Sunderland (Jurue. 1990:34). The park was also successful due to the uses on the site, such as the church and houses. This leads to a continuous pedestrian flow that ensures the park for 6.51 CONCLUSION sprawl might be seen as anti- establishment, the impact needs to be Antisprawl initiatives are inaccurately investigated before any attempts are portrayed as efforts to improve the quality made of rectifying the situation. of suburban living by reducing congestion. Yet, the deliberate goal of As part of the image of a city, whether anti-sprawl activists, such as New green or dangerous, a city can improve Urbanist planners, is to deliberately its image by 'decorating' it. The following promote policies that prevent traffic chapter will investigate the concept of congestion and force people to live in decorating. crowded cities. Since high density urban areas almost always have the worst air pollution, the likely result of a federally- financed campaign to restrict growth to less healthy urban areas in the name of protecting undeveloped open space would be to worsen the quality of the nation's environment.

During the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg, 2002, it was interesting to note that nobody mentioned the population problem and how that could attribute to unsustainable development.

The form of the modem city is market- driven. Architects do not decide: developers do. The role of the public as a whole in determining the configuration of urban development is the central issue in the current World Trade Centre redevelopment controversy. Although CHAPTER 7 7.1 THE PRETTY CITY

7.11 INTRODUCTION

Picasso was asked by Major Richard Daley to design a larger than life sculpture for the new Civic Centre Plaza in Chicago, United States of America Figure 60: Dedication of Me Picasso sculpture, (USA). In 1963, the first major August 1967. construction of the building began at this I the artist's death on April 8, 1973. The site in the heart of Chicago's Loop; two resolution read: "Pablo Picasso became a years later, the first occupants moved into permanent part of Chicago, forever tied to the 31-story Civic Centre. the city he admired but never saw, in a country he never visited, on August 15, Just as the Daley Centre anchors the 1967. It was on that day that the Picasso Loop, the plaza itself is anchored by the sculpture in the Civic Centre Plaza was famous 162-ton Pablo Picasso statue. Art unveiled; it has become a part of scholars have suggested that the statue Chicago, and so has its creator Picasso" is either a portrait of Picasso's wife at the (Walters. 1980:4). time or his Afghan dog fmm different angles. A city is a work of art, fitted to human purposes - Lynch. Picasso, who refused to accept payment for his work, designed a 42-inch model of The idea of art as a solution for urban the sculpture that he presented as a "ifi problems is not always seen as a solution to the people of Chicago" (Walters. and is in many cases overlooked or just 1980:4). Mayor Richard J. Daley and merely seen as a decorating tool. This City Council members honoured Picasso Chapter will introduce the mle that public during a council meeting one month after art and other art forms that can contribute to urban regeneration. The influence of space (1969) suggests that human ancient cities on today's form as well as mental structure is used as a model for art movements such as the City Beautiful aesthetic analysis. Bachelard refers to movement is drawn upon. Those days Jung who divided the mind into three nobody was concerned with city planning levels namely the conscious, personal as an art; they only saw it as a technical unconscious that is uniquely human and process (Sitte. 1889:85). collective. The other level is collective unconscious that contains archetypes It must be mentioned that this chapter which are analogous to instincts and deals with art in its true form, something serve as the biological underpinnings for for the eye to see. Art in this chapter aesthetic behaviour. 'Cities are the abyss should be viewed as decorative. Although of human species", wrote JeanJacques this is against the basic principles of art, a Rousseau in 1762, expressing a well- difference should be established belween developed hatred toward urban chapter 7 and chapter 8 that deal with environments that many people today still culture in urban areas. feel. But cities have equally inspired delight and a deep nostalgia over the centuries. 7.21 PUBLIC ART

The traditional urban form surrounded by Public art has been increasingly its buildings is no longer as it was. Scott advocated on the basis of a series of (1996) notes that old civic monuments supposed contributions to urban seem to be camouflaged by city grit, regeneration since the 1980s. A wide pigeon droppings, and graffiti. Yet, now range of advocators claimed that public and again they are brought back to life, art can help people develop a sense of through restoration efforts, physical individual identity, develop senses of relocation... and public controversy. place, contribute to civic identity, promote community needs, tackle social There are various reasons why public art exclusion, possess educational value and is important such as to introduce it into promote social change (Andrews. the built environment accordingly. Works 2001:lO). Gaston Bachelard (in of art can make a positive contribution to Bourassa. 1989:290) in his poetics of the built environment by giving new or refurbished buildings a unique identity. relaxed spaces, and promotes a This will help to create a sense of place, more public tourist atmosphere". add to the character of a neighbourhood Public art is no longer defined simply as and promote the image of the city murals, monuments, or memorials , (Sheffield City Council. 1992:l). It also (Wilcox. 1982). The definition of public art gives an opportunity to developers to 'put addresses the field as both a product and something back' into the community and a process. Public art includes events, for local people to become involved in the performances, temporary installations, design of their city. It is also a means of projected images and interactive street providing commissions for local theatres. These are often "place-specific" professional artists and craftspeople activities or installations responding to whose skills are underused and it is elements or characteristics found in the particularly important to give vigorous surrounding location, such as its history, encouragement to providing works of art physical environment, audiences, or when considerable development is taking current social concerns. Public art is also place (Sheffield City Council. 1992:l). a creative exercise or experiment, Aston (1986) states that public art is exploring relationships among various important to any urban area for the audiences and various disciplines. Artists, following reasons: designers, community organisers, arts administrators, and site stakeholders "art as part of the environment work toward shared goals pertaining to spells environmental broad (or specific) themes or subjects. improvement. It means According to Wilcox (1982) public art has revitalisation that in tum creates the potential to reach audiences and interest. It provides a human engage partners in ways that traditional touch and engages people in art forms simply cannot. conversation: Public art has a range of interlocking art helps investment since it is a benefits to the community and the sign of a place being alive and surrounding areas: not barren; and Improvement to the urban fabric - art content in cities and Art content will humanise, environments help produce more imaginatively stimulate, enhance, concerns and environment invite participation, and promote (Alston. 1986) creative involvement with the environment, providing a medium 7.3) THE HISTORY IN THE CITY of expression by the community in relation to its own identity. It studied historical plans will also improve the role of the of ciCes to inboduce his public in the urban context since artistic ideas for cities. art works let people identify themselves in the surrounding Camillo Sitte (1889) environment; proposed urban Increase appreciation - Public art design based on increases the opportunity for the analysis of historic appreciation of public places, plans. His favourite models were enhances civic awareness and medieval and Baroque cities whose community identity; streets were broken up by monuments, squares and other visual obstacles. In his Tapping Resources - There are book, City Planning According to Artistic increased employment Principles, he investigated the idea of opportunities, new challenges for reintroducing art as in earlier cities into artists and crafts people, but also then modem day cities. He views for the young andlor unemployed aesthetics of cities as embracing in community schemes. It should heterogeneity over the reductive planning be recognised within the City that systems like the grid, triangle and the a great number of artists have a radial plan and campaigns organic potential contribution to make; instead of ordered arrangement of and buildings, landmarks and monuments. Improving the Area of Cultural The significance of an open place in the Debate - Art becomes an area of middle of the city has become different in interaction. It becomes less of a today's views of plazas. Sitte (1889:5) separate area of people's lives, notes that plaza's, years ago, seldom had more integral to everyday great festivities and they see less and existing precedents. He looked at plazas, less daily use. streets and monuments:

'In the field of city planning the limitation Plaza -the centre should be kept on artistry of arrangement have, to be free and the shape should relate sure, narrowed greatly in our day. Today to surrounding buildings and such a masterpiece of city planning as landmarks to create views; the Acropolis of Athens is simply Public squares - should have unthinkable. That is, at the moment clear boundaries and distinct impossible. 'It is above all the enormous uses; size to which our larger cities are growing Streets - should not be seen as that has shattered the framework of a means from one end to another traditional artistic forms at every point. but a place in themselves. Sitte Everything tends towards the constant (1889:45) believes that it should repetition of identical motifs is enough to not continue infinitely but should dull our senses to such an extent that be well defined and have clear only the most powerful effects can still monumental terminations and make an impression . This cannot be that the continuity of streets must altered, the city planner must, like the be kept to ensure that the street architect, invent a scale appropriate for is desirable; and the modem city of millions" (Le Corbusier. Monuments - can take the form 1947:106). of statues and landmarks or they can be interesting or important Sitte (1889:160) believes that many buildings. It is also advocated attempts have been made to revive that the shape and size should ancient city planning with its forum-like properly relate to the buildings. public squares. Painters and architects relish the idea of restoring ancient plazas Jane Jacobs (1979:396) believes that if a and the numerous beautiful vistas. Sitte street is a long repetition nothing can be (1889:6) looked back to ancient cities for done and see it as a pitfall. Jacobs aesthetic answers to the problems of (1961:396) further adds that it will contemporary planning. He attempted to become boring if all city streets are to extract universals of city design from have visual interruptions and that there should be a way around or through ever seen abandonment to the interruptions. Streets provide the principal 'barbarians' in time of peace (Rostmn. visual scenes in cities. However too many 2002:33) - 'the skyscrapers are still streets present a profound and confusing there, but the people who gave them life contradiction. They make a visual and prosperity have gone, driven out by announcement that this is an intense life hordes of squatters, beggars and illegal and that into its composition go many traders'. In a recent article Ann Bemstein different things. But if one gets a street (2002:ll) notes that Johannesburg or that goes on and on one cannot get the Joeys must be a national priority. It is not idea of a visual announcement saying a normal old South African town anymore endless (Jacobs. 1979:392). Impersonal but a metropolis with two CBDs. She also city streets made space for anonymous states that Joeys is playing the cards, people, and this is not a matter of which are dealt to her, great. There is aesthetic quality not of a mystical high population and crime and the emotional effect in architectural scale budget, to improve on this, is being cut (Jacobs. 1979:67). When talking about a year afler year. The Bank City beautiful city, we can presume that the development that was initiated to revive street is interesting, if the streets are dull the CBD in Johannesburg was seen as most likely the city will be dull. Streets are the answer to the demanding problems. the way to a city's soul and they are However, according to Clive Chirpkin, importance. writer of Johannesburg Style, no thought was given to the surrounding buildings. Johannesburg Plaza's seems to be the answer to many open spaces in South Africa, where there Johannesburg is a city that has always is a space open it will be developed into a had bad press. Boer leader and plaza. This was also the case with Bank president, Paul Kruger referred to City. However, in the winter the Johannesburg as the 'great whore of enormous pools do not contribute to a Babylon' (Chirpkin). Olive Schreiner warmer climate, this then is against the (Chirpkin) felt the whole city was a hell. A purpose of the plaza of attracting people. correspondent of the Daily Mail said that Jacobs (1979:399) states that buildings he saw cities abandonment in war, but should rather be put in an existing city, Johannesburg was the first city he had than to develop cultural or civic projects. As an example she pleaded that Bank hill suggesting low-key government. An Cities should not be developed since they impressive art gallery, 'the national library are dead and do not create enough and the courts of justice make up one diversity. side of the grand triangle. Under Hitler, Nazi Berlin was destined to become the ultimate City Beautiful. Planning was 7.41 CITY BEAUTIFUL concerned with triumphant monumental MOVEMENT buildings". Stalin brought it to Moscow and the 'wedding cake' architecture and The City Beautiful Movement developed wide boulevard seen today reflect his in response to conditions in American phalansteries. As an urban planning cities at the tum of the 20th century. movement, City Beautiful concentrated Inspired by the radiating boulevards, on grand beauty and ignored community public squares and plazas, and housing, schools and sanitation. neoclassical architecture of European cities during the Renaissance, the Daniel Bumham's aim was to establish a movement was conceived as an antidote beauty that would be present to do its to crowded housing conditions, traffic pure and noble work among people congestion, the lack of open space, and forever. "Make no little plans for they inadequate infrastructure. It may promote have no power to stir men's blood' personal mobility and negatively affect (Relph. 1989). Zoning was used as a accessibility, its effects are at least means of excluding unwanted groups localised. "The view of community held by from a neighbourhood and while the long, proponents of City Beautiful was not the straight, right avenues may have local, organic one shared by most of the connected distant points for the mobile, other planners. It was a grand scale view crossing from one side to the other on which had more in common with the foot or even by motor vehicle was so philosophies of totalitarian leaders" (Anon hazardous that it would serve as an 2001:108). effective banier (Mumford. 1968). Some people viewed the movement as a way to Canberra can be seen as a successful make the rich more elite through legibility. example of the City Beautiful movement. Its new government half buried into the The aim of the movement was city 7.4.11 MUNICIPAL ART monumental and the schemes were The municipal art movement was drawn up for systems of Baroque comprised of decorative art and small- boulevards, which came to nothing. The scale adornment and included sculpture, result of this was 'centre monumental' - murals, stained glass used on building the city builds its civic centre along facades and interiors and required boulevards, thus creating empty spaces cooperation between artists and (Jacobs. 197934). The grand architects. The state of the urban fabric boulevards, originally introduced by was a major contributor to the quality of Ebenezer Howard, was one of the major the art. characteristics of the movement. 7.4.21 CIVIC IMPROVEMENT On the other side of the coin the attitude towards public art is not that 'pretty'. In 1848, Andrew Jackson Downing, an Jacobs (1979:56) believes that the City English landscape gardening aficionado, Beautiful movement is irrelevant. Jacobs called upon urbanites to improve their (1979:56) states that from the beginning domiciles by establishing rural to the end, from Howard to Bumham to improvements, such as tree plantings and the latest amendment on urban renewal flower beds (Peterson. 1976:416). Village law, the entire concoction is irrelevant to improvements societies resulted after the workings of the city. Unstudied, Downing published several books and unexpected cities have served as magazine articles promoting his ideal. sacrificial victims (1979:35). Peterson Stockbridge had been a neglected (1976:415) states that The City Beautiful Berkshire mountain town with rutted Movement embraced Classicall streets, treeless roadsides, an untended Renaissance architecture and cemetery and an unkempt commons. But monumental planning, but it was also a after the 'Downing treatment' Stockbridge complex cultural movement that went became, by the 1870s, a showplace with beyond building arts and urban design. It neat, well-shaded gravel sidewalks had 3 concepts: municipal art, civic running between graded and paved improvement and outdoor art. streets and manicured lawns. It became a summer mountain vacation spot for wealthy urbanites. The success story spread throughout and by the 1900s there were dozens of community associations aimed at improving their environment.

7.4.31 OUTDOOR ART

The American Park and Outdoor Art Figure 62: Olmsted designed various Association begun in 1897 championed outdoor areas which were actively implemented during the City Beautiful the third neglected element of the City movement. Beautiful, outdoor art and the cultivation 20th century. Its impact was felt of beautiful landscapes in great city parks throughout urban America. Its major (Peterson. 1976:416). Landscape elements included wide, tree-lined architects, park superintendents and boulevards, emerald parks, monumental commissioners and laymen were inspired buildings, winding madways, attractive by Frederick Law Olmsted's park designs. lampposts, well paved streets, and, in These men met annually and encouraged some cities, dazzling civic centres. "proper" principles of park development, Neoclassical or the flamboyant Beaux landscaping of factory grounds, school Arts architecture was the preferred style yards, railroad-station sites, and city for buildings of the City Beautiful streets. They rallied against billboards Movement. Generally stated, City and pleaded for state parks and forest Beautiful advocates sought to improve preservation. They emphasised their city through beautification, which piecemeal, practical projects. would have a number of effects:

The City Beautiful Movement grew out of 1) Social ills would be swept away, as the landscape architect Frederick Law beauty of the city would inspire civic Olmstead's graceful designs in the late loyalty and moral rectitude in the nineteenth century, for example, New impoverished;

York's Central Park. It was also a 2) American cities would be brought to reaction to the pell-mell, unplanned cultural parity with their European growth of American cities. The movement reached its peak in the first decade of the competitors through the use of the which buildings, neighbourhoods and European Beaux-Arts idiom; and districts are designed has a direct impact on the urban experience. Design 3) a more inviting city centre still would principles will improve the basis for not bring the upper classes back to live, successful development; these in turn but certainly to work and spend money in impact upon the urban form by promoting the urban areas (University of Virginia. more compact, mixed and integrated 2000). neighbourhoods (Oc. 2000: 364).

The City Beautiful Movement fell short of Philip Cox (1995:20-25) makes the its lobgoals, never transforming any city following argument: "in the feverish on a truly grand scale. It was nonetheless rebuilding of our cities during the last 50 an important aesthetic force in American years and in particular the last 20, little cities during the early decades of the 20th has happened in terms of creating urban century-one that influenced the creation spaces reinforcing our cities through the of civic plazas, monuments, and public kinds of architectural expression that art that are now recognisable as would make them better. In fact the characteristic of their time. reverse is true: ...where there was consciousness of streetscape, vista and 7.51 URBAN DESIGN space, landscape and civic treatment, we now has a refusal to acknowledge the Good urban design involves two major very principles which are the basic activities. According to Hegvold ingredients of cities". As with many other (1995:191) the stewardship of the urban cities world-wide, change has taken fabric, in particular those parts of the place. This can raise the question of the urban environment on which the reuse of fine heritage but also offer new community places value and the sensitive opportunities; it is whether it is done in intervention in this environment with the that manner that asks the questions. development of new works. In order for Urban design is thus important because people to move back to the inner-cities, cities are the greatest expression of the safe and pleasant cities must be created inhabitants' culture and they and they need to be marketed properly to communicate their values and sophisticated consumers. The way in aspirations. and groups to create a shared commonsense or mutually accepted The Powerhouse was the first power framework for experiencing a place. Such station to be built in Brisbane. The maps of meaning are not limited to purely renewal that took place created a vibrant spatial information but incorporate many new culture hub, public access link to the different experiences and personal riverside promenade. perceptions gathered from many different sources. This results in the creation of a Community consultation and promotion is hierarchy of social representations, which the cornerstone of the Brisbane City together make up the characteristics of Council (BCC. 2002). 'This programme an environment and ultimately help to allows the local community to have a say provide the identity of a place in the planning process and promotes the (Wansborough & Mageean. 2000:181). benefits of innercity living to the wider Oc (2000:364) states that successful community. It is crucial in this type of urban renewal is design-led and adds project to ensure that the local community that promoting sustainable lifestyles and are kept informed and have direct input social inclusion in our towns and cities not only during the planning stage, but on depends on design of the physical an ongoing basis. To ensure that this environment. The ecological significance took place the Brisbane City Council of urban design is to modify the natural developed a Community Action Network. environment quality of the built (CAN) Community Action Network also environment so that aspects of the ensured that urban renewal and natural environment are still visible. redevelopment processes underway in Urban design is also making it possible New Farm and the surrounding suburbs for urban areas to have a 'social and take into account social issues and cultural' identity (Velibeyogly. 1999). concerns. The New farm development entails a park for the people and place The natural landscape must be taken into names that tell a suburban tale". account. Imagine what Venice would be without water? In modem city planning Urban landscape is the result of a social the relationship between the built-up and representation in which meaning is the open spaces is exactly reversed. constructed or 'mapped' by individuals Formerly the empty spaces (street plazas) were a unified entity of shape objects because landscapes contain calculated for their impact; today building elements of both art and nature and they lots are laid out as regularly-shaped are also inextricably bound up with closed forms, and what is left between everyday experience. The problem is them become streets and plazas (Sitte. then to extend the scope of aesthetics to 188956). include landscapes (Bourassa. 1989:291). The discourses of post The post modem approach to urban modernism in planning can be divided design allows for a greater appreciation into aesthetic, philosophical and social- of traditional urban processes and the historical assertions. context for new development. It is about the restoration of the spatial discipline of Organic architecture is a reinterpretation the traditional city through such things as of nature's principles as they had been streets and squares. In conjunction with filtered through the intelligent minds of the ethos of conservation, this has men and women who could then build resulted in an increase in the importance forms which are more natural than nature of local and historic context, with a itself. There must be respect for the greater respect for uniqueness of harmonious relationship between the particular places and concem for the design and the function of the building continuity of their particular traditions. (Elman. 2001). Urban landscapes do not Post modemism is about sense and themselves generate violence; everything place, the local and the particular depends on how they are seen and how (Wansborough & Mageean. 2000:181). they are mentally represented to the people who live in them (Louw & Bekker. The aesthetic object of architecture and 1996:15). Urban design according to planning is neither environment (broadly) Lynch (1975:511) is the imaginable nor building (narrow). Building is creation of possible form intended to unsuitable because it ignores the achieve some human purpose whether important relationship between stlucture social, economical, aesthetic or technical. and context. Landscape is a much better word. Philosophers have tended to focus Bamett (1986) believes that the problem on discrete objects of areas. This with city design is that there is only a excludes landscapes as aesthetical focus on the work of an individual artist, as though they are artefacts when one instead must look at it as a whole. An example is the Chrysler-building, which does not seem to fit in with its surroundings.

Design must be based on a wider field than that of architecture of office buildings Figure 64: A public art sculphire done by JT Young. and schools, if one is to create a man- Title Pegs. Washington. made landscape that one can be proud England the riverfront was revitalised with of. The problem with the Chrysler-building parklands, playgrounds and sculptures, is that it is the architect's taste which may but some of the residents believed that go out of fashion fast or that the taste of this space could be used for something the surrounding areas does not fit with else like housing and that the downtown the building (Tunnard & Pushkarev. (that is in need of regeneration) had to be 1963:~). renewed (Deziel. 1999:26). Le-an is the concept based on seeing through feeling. 7.61 THE ARTIST IN THE CITY Modemist planning is the child of enlightenment a point in history when According to Fleming (1995:18) artists humanity puts its own reason to use represent their world as they themselves without subjecting itself to any authority, it see it. The artist's work becomes a is humanity's passage to adult status reflection of this time from a particular (Sandercock. 1998:61) point of view. Sitte (1889:105) states that regardless of how painful this may be to When one deals with cities, one is not sensitive souls, the practical artist should dealing with life at its most complex and not let himself be guided by sentimental intense. Because this is so, there is a impulses, because no artistic (malerisch) basic aesthetic limitation on what can be planning could be a thorough or lasting done with cities: a 'city cannot be a work success unless it complied with living of art' (Jacobs. 1979:387). conditions. This ideal is however difficult to reach since there is no universally acceptable style of art. In Windsor, SOD0 Urban art corridor

The art corridor is located in SOD0 business district, Seattle. It is recognised by low-rise warehouses and several landmarks. A corridor filled with colour and creativity. The vacant spaces are replaced by trees, mini parks contribute to the public art canvas. This is the beacon of community pride and an opportunity for artists and the youth. It is also a positive example for creating a sense of place by transforming urban blight into urban art.

Former industrial cities with contracting economies and decreasing populations, Figure 65 and 66: Proposed SOD0 Urban Art such as Sheffield and Birmingham are corridor's southern gateway. increasingly being forced to look towards consciousness, as a way to improve the the national tourist and international environment and to raise public conference markets. It is here that some consciousness; as a way to reinforce of the most interesting alliances between local identity and enhance civic pride urban renewal, place promotion and (Hall. 199657). Image has proven to be a public art emerge. In urban design terms, precious commodity in the post-industrial most of these schemes involve the economy where capital, in the form of making or re-making of urban place. They business and tourist investment, is ever are a positive re-statement by the face of more discerning and footloose (Hall. decentralised industrial activity and 1996:57). services (Hall. 199656).

The development of a public art strategy was seen as a way to improve the environment and to raise public Blue Camt

"Blue Carpet is an innovative project to create a new public square in the city centre of Newcastle upon Tyne. It has been designed and is being realised by Thomas Heatherwick working in collaboration with a team of the City Council's design professionals. His concept unifies the disparate architectural elements of the square with a shimmering cobalt blue carpet which has apparently dropped from the sky over the existing surface of the city. The project integrates street furniture, fibre optic lighting, a new public staircase and mature trees. The artist's original approach to the design of the square, emphasising function and materials, has demanded new solutions. Partnershi~s have been formed with manufacturers, craftspeople and Blue carpet project and figure 123 is the end academics to create new materials and new technical solutions for the paving public and private sector organisations surface and other elements (New Castle with a presence or interest in the New Upon Tyre. 2002). The carpet unifies an Bridge Street area to take forward the area of disparate architecture and visual idea. clutter and will appear to float on a sea of light which is visible where bollards and The true connoisseurs of art feel at once other street furniture pierce the carpet that great art as a source of experience surface. The project was conceived from not essentially different from the the outset as a collaborative enterprise experience of everyday life ...is to miss with local businesses, and the City the very essence of it, the thing that Council drew together a consortium of makes art as important as science or even religion, yet sets it apart as an (1979:386) states that art is needed in autonomous creative function of a the arrangements of cities as well as in typically human mind. It is however the other realms of life, to help explain correct to emphasise the uniquely human life, to show meaning, to illuminate the creative aspects of art, but the concept relationship between the life that teach of excludes the everyday landscape as an us and the life outside us. Art is needed aesthetic object (Bourassa. 1989:291). most, perhaps, to reassure us of our own No art is independent of its companion humanity. Although art and life are art. According to Fleming (1995:20) intelwoven, they are not the same thing. architecture finds its natural ally in Confusion between them is, in part, why sculpture as embellishment that relieves efforts at city design are so disappointing. that strict functionalism of a structure. It is important in arriving at better design Structures can also provide focal points strategies and tactics to clear up of interest and give meaning to a building. confusion.

Louis Sullivan's slogan: form follows According to the New Castle upon Tyre function, became the mantra of modem (2002) Council the following must be architecture. Wright changed this phrase there to ensure sustainable public art: to form and function are one - using nature as his integration (Elman. 2001). Ambience - light, sound, conceal, Aesthetic failures are not in the 'pure' reveal. design problems, but rather in those Spirit - character, movement, areas which are generally considered sense of place, integration and 'non-design' and hence are left to intersection with existing and decision makers who fail to take aesthetic proposed urban fabric. values into account (Tunnard & Elements wind, rain, light, Pushkarev. 1963:~). - shadow.

Although art is used as a tool to work Landscape - indigenous to against decay it is limited by the material introduced. used. Jacobs (1979:386) believes that Features - vistas, pathways, the conclusion of life and art can be seen gateways, bridges and transition. as taxidermy, stuffed dead cities. Jacobs Function - walkways, shelters, Eduardo Villa is a well known sculpter in seating, platforms, arcades. South AFrica. One of his projects was the Knot, a 10m high cylinder sculpture (von Detail - surfaces, patterns, Maltritz. 1986:ll). It was made for the textures. Historical, social, Civic Centre Plaza in Cape Town. The ideological references. Knot takes into account the surrounding Artwork sites - intimate to large buildings, the civic centre and the Nico scale individual works: Malan theatre, and unites them through environmentallsite specific works: the symbol of the knot. Completed in features, fixture and fittings, 1981 this is one of the most brutal ironwork, paving. sculpture works in South Africa.

Functional criteria - provide pedestrian priority while accommodating cycle paths and service or emergency vehicle access.

Weather conditions - removal of snow, steps. Maintenance; allowance for ease of maintenance, repair, cleaning.

Statues, temples and pieces of music are according to Fleming (1995:19) indicators of the way sensitive members of a society imagine, dream, think, feel and communicate. Thus a building is not a I Figure 69: The Knot by E. Villa. mere pile of sticks and stones, steel and I glass, no matter how interesting the 7.6.1) GRAFFITI shapes these buildings may assume. It is a created environment, a form of action Graffiti is usually seen as the medium for some social activity. through which the oppressed youth can voice their message. The true art of graffiti is not a statement of love for another person but a political, health or crime message. Presented as "vandalism" and "anti-social" by the mainstream media, graffiti is associated with cliched ideas about social decay, troubled teens and general "immorality." Figure 70: Arbst unknown. Location: Boma Ave, Orange Gmve

Steyn (2002) believes that today, the 7.6.21 HISTORICAL BUILDINGS most important factor influencing the production of graffiti is that its creators - Architectural preservation began as an the modem graffiti artists - are conscious expression of liberal conscience. Some of the wall as a medium. The public street people think that it is heroic to save is arguably the most democratic of historic buildings and thereby also solve forums. It is one that is open as a media the problems of decaying cities. From this tool for all the groups oppressed and one can see preservationists are being marginalised by capitalist society. accused of being 'elitist' who use the excuse of histrionic preservation as a way Authorities are opposed to graffiti since to hold out the unwanted poor. But a they believe that graffiti is extremely back-lash to this is that today most difficult to censor, police or control and is preservationist groups are focused on therefore one of the most honest of buildings located in poorer media, unpolluted by the standard neighbouhoods (Schneider. 2001:257 contingencies of capitalism: funding, and Jacobs. 1979). Historic preservation markets, state approval and the like. is then seen as one of the many legal Graffiti as a form recognizes no techniques to restrict bulk housing zones constraints is free from both censorship (Tunnard & Pushkarev. 1963: 427). and authorial control. Yet graffiti can give colour to a brown, overexposed wall. Preservationists need to be more aware Although it is believed that graffiti has no of their impact on low income meaning, it usually means for the artist communities in the future. Schneider something. (2001:257) argues that through monumentalism (that neglects the histories of the low income), aestheticism 7.71 CONCLUSION (government by the taste of the dominant socioeconomic class) and revitalisation Three little pigs, the story we are told (affordable housing and local economic from an early age. They went out and development) they can focus on low built themselves houses, like humans do. communities, then the community can be They built twice, but did not feel safe. proud and create awareness also among Finally, the third time they felt safe, and the lower income groups in the they stayed. The lesson learned from this community. is that it was not the material used to build the house but their surroundings Fener and Balat in Istanbul's faith district and the way it fits in with the are among the Turkish city's oldest surroundings. An igloo would not be neighbourhoods. Under the surface there sustainable in the Kalahari Desert, just as is a unique and potentially beautiful urban a hut would not be sustainable in landscape. The aim of the regeneration is Antarctica. This forced them to build to recreate a viable community while stronger, beautiful cities. protecting the district's cultural heritage. Buildings will be refurbished and restored We live in a geometrical world; can we go to provide residents with decent back to the donkey's way to achieve accommodation. The view of the public better aesthetic beauty? (Le Corbusier. towards the regeneration is positive, but 1947). Projects that can be patched on the process is not up to date (Williams. the city, that will be woven in, and 2000:22). A problem exists that the strengthen the surrounding areas are gentrification of historical centres is a needed. well-known phenomenon: a neighbouhood is restored to its former Whether historic or contemporary, glory, becomes a chic address and prices figurative or abstract, monumental or soar, forcing low income eamers out. It is human-scale, permanent or temporary, thus essential to encourage the urban or rural, useful or useless, public permanent use of buildings since their art is a metaphor for our time and place. abandonment is the main cause for decay (Alho. 1995:385). The view towards art as a strategy for urban renewal is still not receiving the attention it requires in South Africa. If something is worth protecting, it will be protected, depending on the view of the individual. The question of crime being reduced through 'making things beautiful' does not always give the correct answer. The essence of urban regeneration is to revive something, giving it a facelift and in that sense art in urban places will draw on that. However, the problem with art in South Africa is vandalism, as stated earlier, many art works were either stolen or sprayed on. It is then the duty of the community or the municipality to strike back and repair or replace it. CHAPTER 8 8.1 THE CULTURE CITY was ripe," said Mashele. Sibuyi refused and got into a fistfight with the girl's brother. While they were fighting the girl's father arrived and allegedly gave his son a homemade knife. Sibuyi was stabbed in the chest and died. Most villagers only 8.11 INTRODUCTION heard about the stabbing the following day when they gathered to bury a 14-year School in chaos over 'witch' - Riot old pupil, Shady Mabunda, who hanged Hlatshwayo, Sunday Sun. 1 April 2003. himself with an electric cord on February 17. Another pupil also died after suffering Concerned parents in a rural Limpopo from swollen genitals for two months. village are raising money to hire a specialist sangoma from Swaziland to After months another fight flared up at the sniff out a 'witch' accused of cursing local school -this time between two girls. high school pupils. Families in Justica village in Bushbuckridge are paying five Pupils and teachers then marched to a rand towards the fund and pupils at local induna, Joseph Ngonyama, to ask Madlala High School are boycotting what should be done. He confirmed that classes until the 'witch' is found. 'We about 200 families had to contribute five have vowed not to retum to class unless rand each to appoint a female Swazi the witch is pointed out and removed sangoma. Meanwhile the provincial from the school or the village", said education department is to launch an Madlala student representatives' council investigation at the school - and a police president Moses Mashele. The boycott probe is undelway. In reference to the began on Monday after the latest in a newspaper article is a reminder of the series of "mysterious" deaths at the different cultures that exist in South Africa school. Ntobeni Sibuyi, 16, was allegedly and throughout the world. Readers of the stabbed by a classmate about a week article may view this as a real problem ago after he refused to buy a mango from concerning the pupils of the schools, the suspect's sister. "The girl insisted that others may just laugh it off, depending on Sibuyi buy the fruit because he had which side of the spectrum one is. It bruised it when he squeezed it to see if it depends on one's culture. Just as this article may be laughed off, so are other socially transmitted behaviour and it people's cultures ignored and down- includes the ideas, values, and customs played. In this chapter the importance of of gmups of people. Giddens (1996:31) culture and its effect on urban adds further that "culture consists of the regeneration will be investigated. values the members of a given group hold, the norms they follow and the material goods they create. Values are 8.21 DEFINING CULTURE abstract ideas while norms are definite principles or rules which people are Culture is negotiated and contested expected to observe". between different social gmups; therefore it follows that the nature of the built According to Hugo (2002) culture can be environment is a result of many different defined as 'the shared patterns of forces and cannot be ascribed to a single behaviours and interactions, cognitive cause (Wansborough & Mageean. 2000). constructs, behavioural norms, The importance of studying urban life lies expectations and affective understanding not only in the many cities and urban that are leamed through a process of societies that exist today, but also in their socialisation. These shared pattems increasing significance for the future identify the members of a culture group (Cousins & Nagpaul. 1979:4). A while also distinguishing those of another "cosmopolis is a journey of coming to gmup."Giddens (1996:31) also adds that terms with difference and connection with culture refers to the ways of life of the the cultural" and is thus important for members of a society, or of gmups within future development (Sandercock. 1995. a society. It includes how they dress, their 4). There are various reasons for marriage, customs and family life, their reshaping the city. The age of migration pattems of work, religious ceremonies in the 1980s brought new people to the and leisure pursuits. It also covers the urban scene, they who are looking for goods they create and which become work, and thus bringing new culture to the meaningful for them - bows and arrows, city (Sandercock. 1995:4). Culture is also plough factories and machines, based upon "people's ideas and values". computers, books and dwellings. According to Schaefer and Lamm Multiculturalism refers to "different cultural (1995:62) culture is the totality of leamed, pattems found among different gmups of people in a particular country or region. "Culture functions as lenses of perception The difference between multiculturalism - it influences how people view and cultural diversity must be themselves and their envimnment. distinguished". Although "cultural diversity" is often used as a synonym for Culture serves as motivation - multiculturalism; it actually refers to what people respond to as differences between different cultural incentives or disincentives for groups in a specific envimnment, for certain patterns of behaviour is a example, multiple groups within a defined phenomenon which is greatly envimnment, such as a workplace or influenced by culture. township (Hugo. 2002:3). Culture provides a standard of judgment. What is right or wrong, 8.2.11 UNlVERSlAL CULTURES what is virtuous or evil, what is beautiful or ugly are all greatly Through the diversity of different cultures conditioned by culture. there are some common features. Where Culture forms the basis of socio- these are found in many societies, they economic stratification. Rank, are called cultural universals. Overall caste, and class are all there is no culture without a language or a form of communication (Giddens. profoundly conditioned, if not created, by culture. I996:Ki). Culture is a means of communication - it provides all 8.31 THE SOUTH AFRICAN sorts of nuances in CULTURAL ORIENTATION communication and intimation. In his address at the African Renaissance But above all culture provides conference (Address at the African language in the literal sense of Renaissance conference in London, the legacy of words and lexicon. November 1999), Mazrui emphasised Culture defines and influences that culture is relevant for development in production and consumption. all spheres of society because of seven Cultures differ widely in key functions: productivity, not only in Africa but the world as a whole. Culture is a basis of identity - it is comprehend the legacy of the past, which crucial in defining the "wewe"and is sensitive to the needs of the future, "theyhnd marking the frontiers and which is increasingly aware of its of solidarity". global context: This is the positive interpretation of modernisation. Ministers call for investment and not Development of indigenous skills and handouts. African culture is central to this values are at the core of the African process of reducing dependency in the Renaissance. dialectic of modernisation. In any multicultural society learning about It is now widely accepted that "diversity" culture can be an exciting and creative is an appropriate goal for society. But process involving different people from what does this dictum actually mean? different cultures. But South Africa's Racial integration is a valid objective, but history can provoke anxiety because of that is something very different from what the painful realities and the ongoing the advocates of "diversity" seek. interactions with the content that there 8-41THE CITY AND URBAN LIFE are diverse cultural realities (Hugo. 2002:5). It is thus important, especially in The city is a home to a diversity of urban areas where there is a people, and it should therefore provide a concentration of culture, to promote and 'sewice' to its inhabitants. Sandercock investigate the different cultures and build (1995:15) identified three roles that the on them. city can portray to its inhabitants. The city of memory proclaims that the loss of When one faces the developmental memory leads to the loss of identity. Thus challenges of the future, one must urban landscapes are seen as understand that for South Africa 'storehouses' for individual and collective "development"inevitably means soul memories. Another role that the city "modernisation", but without dependency should play is to provide pleasure to its on a legacy of foreign aid, resources and inhabitants. The city must also provide for products. As Mazrui points out, the diversity that exists between people. "modernisation is change that is compatible with the present stage of human knowledge, which seeks to The poor quality of the public realm and and representations characteristic of or in the built environment is directly related to the interest of a class. the poor quality of the social life of a city 8.51 POST MODERNISM and so should provide the moral, social, psychological and economic stimulus for A characteristic of a post modem city is an attempt to revive the social life of cities that there is a shift away from (Wansborough & Mageean. 2000). comprehensive redevelopment projects. According to Castells (197793) 'urban According Healy, et al, (1992:177) urban culture' ...is neither a concept nor a renewal is planning of urban fragments, theory. It is ...a myth ...(which) ...p rovides flagship schemes, self contained the key-words of an ideology of waterfront development and cultural modernity, assimilated, in an ethnocentric quarters. These are flagships known as way, to the social forms of liberal 'islands' of renewal and they act as highly capitalism ... it suggests the hypothesis of visible symbols of urban renewal and are a production of social content (the urban) thus regarded as vital ingredients for the by a trans-historical form (the city) ...(but) place-making process. The cultural the city creates nothing... The link context places flagships in the arena of between space, the urban and a certain 'post modem culture'. According to Smyth system of behaviour regarded as typical (19946) flagships can be seen as both of 'urban culture' has no other foundation an important expression of that culture, than an ideological one ...From this point even more so when the planning and of view, the problem of the definition (or architecture is post modem and an redefinition) of the urban does not even important contributor to that fragment. arise ....Such a tendency helps to The post modem city is much more reinforce the strategic role of urbanism as imageconscious and culturally self a political ideology and as a professional conscious, it is both a centre of cultural practice (Castells. 1977: 83, 89, 90, 431, consumption and general consumption" 441,463). (Healy et al. 1992:177). A trend that had an influence on restructuring was that of 'Ideological' in this context has to be post modemist differentiation of lifestyles. understood as a system of ideas, which People seek diversities in cultural groups. justifies or legitimates the subordination of one group by another, i.e. knowledge "These is a demand for diversity in cities" Culture should provide city governors (Healy et al. 1992:6-7). with the necessaly impetus and inspiration for urban renewal by linking it to urban design, the sense of place can 8.61 CULTURAL REGENERATION be developed in the built environment. Culture can be used to express the During the past years cultural policies individual identities, character and have become an important component of uniqueness of its people and is able to economic and physical regeneration contribute to the development of a sense strategies (Bianchini. 1993:l). Cultural of place. The Guggenheim-Bilbao regeneration is seen as a means of museum is one of the major focal points restoring and improving the quality of of the redevelopment programme and urban life through the enhancement and architectural renaissance currently development of the unique characteristics underway in Bilbao. The image is of a place and its people (Wansbomugh improving but it is questionable whether & Mageean. 2000). There has been a the city is attrackting more money (Plaza. growth in different cultures in the world. 1999:589). The use of culture in the Globalisation &rtainly contributed to the regeneration of post-industrial cities is fact that people are open to more issues linked to urban design through the and cultural activities. Wansborough & process of creating what is known as the Mageean (2000) believe that it is also entrepreneurial city. The major economic due to the change in countries allowing restructuring that occurred with the shift for more borders to be crossed and to be from Fordist to post-fordist modes of discovered. For example, South Africa, production has resulted in changes in the where political views have changed. way cities are being governed with the Culture should be seen as a process as new urban politics being characterised by well as a product, a way of life as well as a concem with the extent to which a city a mode of consumption. Culture is an is able to attract jobs and investment in expression of certain meanings and an increasingly competiting global market values not only in art and learning but (Wansborough & Mageean. 2000). also in ordinary and institutional behaviour (Williams 1981 in Wansborough & Mageean. 2000). 8.6.11 THE CONTRIBUTION OF cultural life (Brisbane City Council. 2002). CULTURAL REGENERATION The benefits of urban regeneration as seen from this project are: Cultural regeneration can help generate other activities attracting people into an 0 Sustainable and responsible area. Art programmes have been shown development; to contribute to enhance social cohesion 0 Diverse residential envimnment; and local image; reducing offending A revitalised economic behaviour; building privatelpublic sector envimnment; partnerships; promoting interest in the Enhanced environment; and local environment; developing self- Improvement of transport and confidence; enhancing organisational other mobility options. capacity; supporting independence and exploring visions of the future (Landry, Growing awareness of these limitations Green, Natarasso & Bianchin. 1996). has recently encouraged people to look Cultural regeneration: more closely at the connection between can be used as a basis for urban regeneration and cultural activity evening economy; and begin to change the focus of their can be a critical mass which response. makes an area work, both socially and economy; Artists and cultural organisations have can help to create urban living always contributed to the vitality and place; and character of cities such as The Knot by E create identity of the city da Villa. In the United States, since the (Wansbomugh & Mageean. late 1960s, it has been shown that artists 2000). can contribute to urban regeneration, often through the creation of studios and New Fan, Brisbane 'cultural quarters' in rundown central districts (Landry et al. 1996). The use of Powerhouse projects is a $17 million cultural activity to fuel urban regeneration conversion of the Powerhouse in in Britain was principally economic in Brisbane into a major arts and leisure conception and purpose. Its credibility precinct that will further boost the area's was given a significant boost by a Policy Studies Institute survey, The Economic was also promoted where arts Importance of the Arts in Britain (1988) organisations have taken a lead in which presented the arts as employer of developing people's interest in the local 500,000 people and the fourth biggest environment. Investment in the area was invisible export eamer (Landry et al. also promoted because of the building of 1996). The redevelopment of Liverpool private and public sector partnerships. docks, which included the 'Tate of the North', a maritime museum and television 8.71 SPORT RENEWAL studio, was a high-profile cultural regeneration initiative which set the tone Cities around the world are renewing for the 1980s. Major cities like Glasgow, themselves by constructing huge multi- Manchester and Birmingham put in place purpose stadiums with adjacent athletic cultural development strategies and facilities. Work has begun on one such committed millions of pounds to them complex. Sport city in Manchester, (Tate. 2002). England serves as a catalyst for urban regeneration (Manchester City Council. Culture programmes that have been 2000:178). effective in Britain showed certain advantages towards the community. According to the Leicester City Council Landry et al (1996) state that culture (2001), leisure can contribute significantly programmes enhance social cohesion to urban regeneration projects by: through festivals that brings the people together. It also improved the local image "attracting and facilitating public of the area since the promotion of arts and private investment in new events has changed the way places are leisure facilities to satisfy demand perceived-or caused them to be for increased participation; perceived in the first place. Offending enabling or implementing behaviour has also been reduced since a schemes that provide new number of agencies were able to show facilities for public participation in change in the young people as a result of Leisure either directly or indirectly the work, and cost-effective results when in partnership with other set against the cost of car crime and providers; burglary. Interest in the local environment ensuring that the local regeneration initiatives. There were, communities are engaged with however, a range of difficulties with the the development and way these forums operated, including: management of facilities; lacking a sense of purpose; not being ensuring that local people have integrated into decision-making the skills and experience to structures; and a lack of accountability. compete for the jobs that such investment creates; Youth involvement in urban regeneration increasing educational initiatives has largely been promoted by attainment; and professionals and politicians rather than attracting international, national community activists (Fitzpatrick, et al,. or regional events which have 1998:45). The explicit rationale for youth visitor potential and which will involvement was usually to give young contribute directly to the growth people a 'voice' in the regeneration in the tourism economy". process. However, objectives relating to the selfdevelopment of young people Leisure is also a significant provider and the sustainability of regeneration of employment opportunities and is were also apparent. Community particularly attractive to the younger representatives were often supportive of population. Employment in the leisure youth involvement on the basis that sector generally is currently growing young people were 'the next generation' whilst more traditional employment of community leaders. There was a range sectors are in decline. It therefore of mechanisms for involving young offers significant potential to reduce people in regeneration initiatives, but by unemployment rates, particularly far the most common structure for amongst young people. securing their participation was youth forums (see below). Fitzpatrick, et al, 8.7.11 INCLUDING THE YOUTH (1998:45) proposed other methods. They are: In a study by Fitzpatrick et al (1998:45) they found that youth forums were the 0 Consultation techniques, e.g. most common mechanism used to youth surveys, youth facilitate youth involvement in conferences and focus group their "double disadvantage". Young discussions; people are more likely to be affected by, Joint management initiatives, e.g. unemployment, lower wages, reduced youth involvement in the benefit entitlement, higher levels of management of specific projects, homelessness, increased health risks or youth delegates on (drugs and mental health), lower rates of partnership boards and educational attainment, greater risks of community forums; and being a victim of crime and political Youth controlled projects, e.g. marginalisation (Coalter. 2000:37). In young people were given such circumstances Fitzpatrick, (et al. delegated power over a project 1998:7), who examined how six United or budget, or developed a project Kingdom urban regeneration initiatives on their own initiative. dealt with youth, found that: "leisure was central to the quality of life of young These foregoing mechanisms have both people, as a key source of friendship, strengths and weaknesses and youth networks and self-identity, particularly in involvement seemed to be most the absence of work, full-time education effectively achieved by a combination of or family responsibilities". methods, so that young people had a range of channels through which to However, according to Coalter, et al, influence the regeneration process. (2000:40) for those living in deprived areas, access to 'leisure' was regarded The acknowledged salience of sports for as expensive, too far away from their many young people (especially males) locality, or not open at weekends (youth has meant that provision of sporting clubs) or did not appeal to young women opportunities has become an important (youth clubs). The importance of leisure element in many urban regeneration is illustrated by the fact that relevant projects, largely aimed at reducing youth leisure opportunities were easily the most crime (in some case studies part of a frequently mentioned requirement among 'community safety' programme). More young people, compared to training and generally young people are targeted in qualifications which were the highest urban regeneration schemes because of priority for adult policy makers and what Fitzpatrick, et al, (1998) refer to as providers (Fitzpatrick, et al,. 1998). Coalter, et al, (2000) notes that although 8.81 CONCLUSION some provision is made in the belief that young people (and others) in deprived The cornerstone of all modem areas have the same right to spotting urbanisation is absolute respect for the opportunities as other sections of the freedom of the individual" - Le Corbusier community, Fitzpatiick, et al, (1998:9) 8 June 1930. suggest that the underlying motivations were usually instrumental - "sports and Should a landmark or historic building be arts projects provided 'something to do', destroyed in the name of renewal? but were largely driven by concerns over (Wansbomugh & Mageean. 2000). It improving young people's skills and would be necessary to rethink what the orientation towards work", or were regenerative potential of cultural policy provided because they were diversionary can be. Urban regeneration is a and aimed at young people at risk of composite concept, surrounding offending. From this perspective the economic, environmental, social, cultural, salience of sport for many young people symbolic and political dimensions. permits it to be used as a medium to Cultural policies, in order to be truly reach at-risk youth (Cmmpton and Witt, regenerative, should have a positive 1997). impact on all of them. City marketing in the future could be a carnival of cultural Fitzpatrick, et al, (1988:E) also emphasise production and of its applications to the the importance of an integrated, development of a modem economy. developmental approach. In their analysis of urban regeneration projects they found In conclusion, a cultural planning that some of the projects most attractive perspective rooted in an understanding of to young people were those which were: local cultural resources and of cities as "designed to increase young people's cultural entities -as places where people self-confidence and improve their skills talk, meet and share ideas - could help through sport, arts and culture ... these planners access the needs of the were highly attractive to young people community and certify cultural pluralism. and had the advantage of developing The following chapter will investigate transferable as well as specialist skillsn, what the role of landmarks in a city is and how urban regeneration can be implemented through city marketing strategies. CHAPTER 9 9.1 THE LANDMARK CITY but in the future noae can afford not to build it' (Lefcowitz. 2001).

The purpose of skyscrapers, according to Le Corbusiets writings about the radiant city (Ville Radieuse) is:

9.11 INTRODUCTION 'To decongest the centre of traffic in the city by increasing the Once upon a time a zoo was located next population density in order to to a large farm. It came to pass one day diminish internal distances. A that an ostrich in the zoo laid an egg, only contradictory postulate, though to see it roll beneath the fence and into now imperative, and at least the chicken yard next door. When the made miraculously possible by rooster saw the monstrous egg he called the advent of the skyscraper; and his hens together. "Ladies, he said, I do To bring better living conditions not mean to complain, but I thought you and a light-filled atmosphere to ought to see what the competition is places where everything at the doing"" ... moment is rottenness, filth, 9.21 LANDMARKING THE CITY milling crowds, decay and demoralization; and

"Monuments - why always the biggest? I 0 To provide a sublime expression do this to restore to each individual of this century's strength, thus to German his self-respect. Adolph Hitler bring back to the sky". 1939""'. These were however the ideals of Le Le Corbusiets fantasy, a 'radiant city' Corbusier and for a time it would work. filled with rows of glass-and-steel One of the reasons for people leaving skyscrapers built on a symmetrical grid of urban areas is to own their own piece of streets, was matched in sheer chutzpah land and to have privacy. Thus it is by F.L. Wright's proposal to build a 528 important to note that the demand for storey building called 'Mile-High' in 'skyscrapers' is not that big. Skyscrapers Illinois. 'No-one can afford to build it now, was originally an American phenomenon, it has become an international symbol of prestige. Currently the tallest building is the 1 454 feet tall Petmnas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia (Lefcowih: 2001). Skyscrapers are in fact so tied up with business that they have become a demonstration of the meaning of progress and the foremost symbol of capitalism (Ralph. 1989: 34). However, there are several myths surrounding skyscrapers. These are:

Higher densities equal

skyscrapers. Although Le Figure 71: The Eiffel Tower is one of the most known landmarks throughout the Corbusier's radiant city was a clear example of this myth, Technology can fix it. With the Warshaw (2001) believes that the invention of the lift, buildings American illusion of high density higher than three storeys comes from their skyscrapers. In seemed reasonable but this reality the average densities of could lead to other unwanted most American cities are low, actions. Hall (1975) states that taking account of the sprawling humans must leam to think the suburbs where most Americans unthinkable about how we build, live. An example of this is the plan and live. Washington DC, a Manhattan area where the planned modem city has little or highest population densities are few skyscrapers (Warshaw. in the areas where there are no 2001); skyscrapers; Skyscrapers are acceptable if Modem cities cannot do without they look attractive. To build a skyscrapers. The Paris skyline is building that will be one of the oldest in the world, acknowledged through the years and yet there are very few to come is difficult. Some skyscrapers; buildings may seem right at that time, but they would not buildings can also contribute to a building necessarily be so for the years to being a landmark (Jacobs. 1979: 400). come; and The Victoria and Alfred Waterfront in Regeneration means bigger Cape Town would not be that popular if it buildings. Warshaw (2001) states were not for Table Mountain and the that previous efforts at post-war cosmopolitan surroundings of different regeneration produced many of cultures. The image of the city is the large scale mistakes we now conceptual more than it is purely revile or are seeking to rectify or perceptual and landmarks tend to be redevelop. Some made the error collaborative conshctions of architects of replacing solid, street oriented and urbanites, the products of collective urban buildings with compounds memory and personal experience (Wirth- and cul-de-sacs that tumed their Nesher. l998:ll2). Imageability is the backs on the city, fragmenting it, quality in a physical object which gives it making it more impermeable and a high probability of evoking a strong dangerous. This did, however, image to any given observer (Lynch. not work since the integration 1975:9). For many people the with the surroundings was not Voortrekker museum is an example of investigated, and they protruded freedom, while for others it is an element like a sore thumb. The Chrysler of oppression. Landmarks can provide building is a good example. some advantages to urban areas:

Landmarks are prime orientation 9.31 THE MEANING OF A LANDMARK clues - some buildings depend on size for their distinction to

The Eiffel Tower can be seen as the provide good orientation service quintessential tourist landmark, as it and visual interest for people at a belongs to the universal language of distance (Jacobs. 1979: 399). travel (Wirth-Nesher. 1998: 112). Jacobs (1979:401) also states Different things can serve as landmarks, that the sight of the activity and provided that they are special in their own the intensity of land use stay context and that the surrounding important while the absence of any visual climax or dignifying object says unimportance. The occasionally moves (streets, labelling of an object in the walkways). For many people cityscape as a landmark is itself a these are the predominant 'reading', an imparting of value elements in their image. People and meaning to a sign within an observe the city while moving ideological framework" (Wirth- through it, and along these paths Nesher. 1998: 113); the other environmental elements Emphasise diversity - for are arranged and related"; intimate landmarks, distinction of 2. Edges - linear element, not use and a statement about the usedlconsidered as paths by the importance of differences are of observer. They are boundaries the essence (Jacobs. 1979: 400); between two phases, shores Make areas important and invite maybe barriers; the newcomer to the city (Jacobs. 3. Districts - Medium to large 1979:397). Wirth-Nesher sections of the city, recognised (1998:112) states that as having two dimensional landscapes are read against the extents, having a common knowledge of more familiar identifying character. Exterior places, as tourist and the reference visible from the immigrant attempt to familiarise outside; themselves with a new place by 4. Nodes - are strategic spots in a translating it into their own terms. city into which an observer can enter and which are the foci to The city is made up of different elements and from which a person is that contribute to the form of that city. travelling. These may be Jacobs (1979:390) states that a city's junctions, crossings, structure consists of uses, secrets and concentrations which will gain diversities. Physical elements of city their importance from being the images that contribute to physical form condensation of some use or include: physical character. Concentration nodes are thus the focus of a 1. "Paths - channels among which district: and the observer customarily or 5. Landmarks - buildings, attracting successful city's legibilities is determined the visitor's eye. It can also be by the relative ease with which city mountains such as the case with dwellers acquire a mental map, primarily Table Mountain in Cape Town through the availability of visual (Lynch. 1975: 47-48). landmarks, whether accepted or not.

An ualv landmark The Renaissance Centre. Detroit. The El Borg Hotel in Cairo has received "The environment is an assembly of many negative reviews. 'It is an natural and built features, many of which intellectual insult and it destroys the have become rich in symbolic dignity of Cairo's skyline' (Raafat. importance. The 'icons' are features 2001:lO). But this hotel, though it may be invested with values that confirm our ugly, succeeded in becoming a landmark, sense of order and identity. The 'aliens' and people can orientate themselves with threaten the icons and hence our the landmark and the legibility is clear to investment in the icons values. The the citizen. Legibility is defined by the threats may take the form of extinction, Brisbane City Council (2002) as the as when landmark buildings are visual clarity of a city scape, thus the demolished to make way for office ease with which city's parts can be towers, or contamination as billboards are recognised and be organised into a strewn along scene vistas" - John Castoniswi (1989). Detroit has suffered more than most American cities. The central business district has been deserted for the suburbs. The Renaissance centre was built in the downtown area to bring back life. It was built for the Ford Motor Company next to the river. This created a landmark, but did nothing to the area; or to genuine renewal, partly due to the design (Hunt. Figure 72: The El Borg hotel in Cairo. Many I residents believe that this building destroys I 2001:28). According to Lynch (1977) the dignity of Cairo's skyline. I Figure 73: A popular waterfront destination in example, be nothing without the actors. Australia with a sb-ong mix of leisure activities.

Thus a clear image is a useful basis for idea of recreating the past. Breen, et al, individual growth. (1994:17) states that tourism also gets boosted by it because of the new-found attraction of waterfronts. 9.41 WATERFRONT DEVELOPMENTS Today almost any city with a water Urban waterfronts have undergone cycles frontage is doing something about of change over the decades, where the revitalising its waterfront. This process latest pattern is to convert major areas of does not include only port cities but also industrial, shipping and transportation lakes (Hoyle. 2000:395), rivers, dams and uses to more public endeavours. Breen, in some cases swimming pools (the failed et al, (1994:lO) note that waterfronts Zambezi Waterfront in Pretoria). represent the water's edge in cities and towns of all sizes. The water body may The Albert Dock be a river, lake, ocean or canal. A number of factors led cities to begin to The Albert Dock opened in 1846 it soon discover and seize the opportunities became a treasure house of precious presented by water tracts. It serves as an cargoes from all over the world, which is environmental cleanup, due to various a truly stunning architectural triumph.. environmental movements and policies, Today redevelopment, costing in excess thus introducing of the culture of of El00 million, has transformed it into prese~ation and the post-modemistic one of Liverpool's busiest and most cosmopolitan centres and a top heritage attraction (The Albert Dock Company. beachfront, particularly along the 2001). southem stretches which are in a state of deterioration as a public The redevelopment scheme has created amenity; and new galleries, provides more space for 0 To serve as a primary catalyst to education activities and events and has urban regeneration. improved visitor facilities. There is a new auditorium, seminar rooms, hospitality Another waterfront is also to be built, rooms and corporate entertainment claiming that they are the first to be facilities. There are also dedicated situated near the docks and is known as information areas for visitors to leam Wilson's Wharf development (Durban more about the work and artists on show Metropolitan Council. 2003). This all (Tate. 2003) seems to be too much for one place since waterfronts require a huge catchment uShaka Island Proiect area. Maybe the success of the Victoria and Alfred Waterfront is the catalyst for A new waterfront development project is other wanting-to-be waterfronts. But what being built in South Africa. This time it is must be remembered is that Cape Town in Durban. This is the second time, since has a global landmark, Table Mountain, the previous one was just an attraction for Durban does not. crime and shady businesses. The aims of the uShaka project, according to the 9.51 CITY MARKETING Durban Metro Coucil(2003) is:

While the marketing of urban places has To increase tourist arrivals to been practiced since the nineteenth Durban; century (Ward. 1998), the "importance To inject additional revenue into and intensity of this activity has increased the local economy; in the last thirty years as urban places To rejuvenate the Point, which have found themselves in an increasingly has become a neglected competitive environment" (Wamaby et al. precinct; 2001). Competition for residents, inward To explore the linkages between investment and tourism revenues at the theme park and Durban's various spatial scales has intensified (e.g. this commodified culture and are being Kotler, et a/., 1993,1999; Ward, 1998; produced as commodities to be marketed van den Berg and Braun. 1999). This has rather than as vessels for society" - led to a number of significant implications (Holcomb. 1999). The objectives of for the organisation and management of marketing the city according to Holcomb urban places as public sector (1999) are to: administrations have had to modify their traditional modus operandi and share Raise the competitive position of responsibility for the management of the city; urban place with a wider range of Attract inward investment; and (especially private sector) stakeholders. Improve image and well-being of Another significant implication is the the population application of marketing principles to urban places as they seek to develop Hall (1996) believes that to 'ensure any some form of competitive advantage that level of sustained investment, and hence is as sustainable as possible in order to economic survival, it has become compete more effectively in these new essential that individual cities assert conditions. This expansion of activities themselves through the creation of has been mirrored by academic interest unique urban identities". South African in the marketing of urban places, cities have been introduced to this ideal. particularly in the disciplines of Great examples are Cape Town geography, political theory and sociology, promoting itself as the Mother City or where there is a consensus that Johannesburg as the City of Gold. The marketing principles are applicable (with purpose of marketing a city, according to modification) to urban places (e.g. Smyth (1994:2) is to create strategies to Ashworth and Voogd. 1990; Kotler et a/., promote an area or the entire city for 1993). Van den Berg and Braun state certain activities and in some cases to that, 'cities can leam from the marketing sell parts of the city for living, consuming experiences of the business community, and productive activities. The process of but at the same time need to find their city marketing begs the question of what own strategies and develop a tailor-made do we want to see, in other words what approach that suits their purposes' (1999: concepts or ideas would involve the 998)." ...cities have entered the realm of public to make the marketing process PUBLIC SECTOR MAKERS PUBLIC1 PRIVATE LOCAL AUTHORITY INNERCITY ECONOMIC I PRIVATE SECTOR COALITION PLANNING I REGIONAL TOURISM MARKETING DEVELOPMEN URBAN AGENCIES T AGENCIES DEVELOPMENT PROPERTY OTHER PUBLIC TRUST DEVELOPERS ARCHITECTS AND DESIGNERS I . BUSINESSES I

Source: Healy et al. 1992:176

Figure 74: Public and Private sector involvement in city marketing.

successful. City marketing is a process There are several agencies involved in while in its early stages it has no clear marketing the city. The partnerships end in sight and the form that it will take between public and private are of great will be influenced by events happening in importance. (See figure 74). The public the future. sector should promote the city through their various departments of which tourism is the most important. The private 9.5.11 THE IMPORTANCE OF MARKETING sector should also create public private partnerships and should thus involve businessmen and designers. Holcomb "Marketing plays a particularly important (1999) notes that tourism's role in urban role in urban tourism" (Holcomb, 1999). regeneration: creates a 'virtuous circle of Since the beginning of time cities have growth': additional visitors + improved competed for resources, activities and image = economic development + residents. In South Africa that can be increased confidence, environmental seen in for example, Pretoria versus improvement, more visitors, a further Johannesburg over the issue of whose enhanced image, inter aha. city is the most liveable. Cities compete not just locally but globally, and they 'The very name "Johannesburg" paints a therefore need a comparative advantage dark picture. A dry industrial city flagged over the others. by ugly mine dumps, a legacy from when --

KEY DECISION KEY DECISION MAKERS/ CORPORATE MAKERS RELOCATIONS INFORMATION

BUSINESS BUSINESS GENERAL RELOCATION INFORMATION

WORKERS FFAAMILY IMAGE BUILDING AND AND FRIENDS OF RAISING AWARENESS

Source: Healy etal. 1992:170

Figure 75: Internal and external involvement in city marketing. the golddiggers swept into town and we perceive the external environment plundered the earth for its riches. A city and react to ir. Holcomb (1999) adds that with an unhappy history of segregation 'mental processing' of the information that and bnrtality, of injustice and strife. A city the world emits our senses can only take notorious for one of the highest crime on board a small amount of information rates in the world. So feeling like lambs to and thmugh cognitive processes create a the slaughter we anived with our small mental image of a place, including key son expecting the worst, but got the best' significant objects used to signify - Claire Nonish 2003. feelingsla state of mind. Images are transmitted thmugh the communication The connection between image and process, e.g. by advertising, direct marketing is one of the most important in marketing (mail), personal selling, public the city marketing field. What would Paris relationships (visits, e.g. gymnasts and be without the Eiffel Tower, or London ballet from Russia, visiting musicians without the Big Ben? Environmental from Vienna). psychology is one of the key factors. According to Gold, et al, (1994) Gold, et al, (1994) state that cities should 'environmental psychology is the promote their 'enduring images': Some conceptual basis of place imagely, how cities have greater comparative advantage and a clear image, e.g. Paris: new technologies) to represent and romance; Venice: culture; Las Vegas: promote cleaner environments, better night life; Sydney: sports, Barcelona: communities, and socioeconomic architecture. Others are less fortunate, or progress, yet images may also serve to even have a negative image to mask or perpetuate existing inequalities. overcome. Images may be promoted in service of some broad "public good,"but they are The word image can mean many things. also subject to extreme manipulation by An image can be a physical likeness, and market forces that resist any such wider it can be a mental representation, or even efforts to plan (King. 1996). As Ward and a symbolic and metaphorical Gold put it, Economical instability, embodiment. The term imaging as it is restructuring and an acceleration of the understood here involves actors and international mobility of capital have actions concerned with transforming all of caused many regions to lose the these kinds of meanings. City imaging, in traditional sources of employment that this sense, is the process of constructing gave them their primary identity. At the visually-based narratives about the same time, individual national potential of places. This mediaenriched governments have retreated from their image-building process involves not only former interventionist strategies. Taken place-based and form-based visions but together, these forces have fragmented also strategies for economic opportunity the traditional planning approach as the and environmental stewardship. Place main agency shaping and managing the promotion transcends economic- processes of spatial change and left a grounded efforts to attract new vacant policy niche within which local investment; it is also a strategy for promotional activity has flowered (Ward reinforcing (or reconstructing) city image and Gold. 1994: 8). (King. 1996). As such, it always matters who builds these images, for which In the marketing process there should be reasons, and for whom. Image-building several groups that play an important efforts encompass not only changes to role, targeted (figure 75). The internal the built environment but also encode group represent the community, or the broad conceptual orientations; image- small town. The external group represent making is about finding new ways (and the city close to the area. The two groups are dependent on each other, without the Los Anaeles big city the 'rumours' of the small town's treasures nobody would know of their "The Los Angeles city officials are existence. The media must help to raise increasingly tuming to marketing awareness of the town in the town and consultants to assist them in repackaging the bigger city. The aim of marketing a and selling a city's image. This resulted in city according to Smyth (1994:21) is to a marketing-led approach to city advertise the city as having a competitive promotion, embracing techniques and edge for inward investment; to create the strategies adapted from the world of demand therefore and to offer the product marketing, rather than merely surrounding areas as one of the potential promoting a location. The new wave of locations within the city itself. image campaigns are characterised by complex marketing strategies based on Flagship development has been cited as an audit of the city's strengths, something significant. They are high weaknesses, opportunities and profile developments that play an competitions linked into a comprehensive influential and catalytic role in urban economic development programme" regeneration, which can be justified if (Healy, et al,. 1992:175). they attract other investments (Bianchini, et al,. 1992). According to Smyth (19945) City officials and several business owners flagship developments compromise the are dedicated to the regeneration of the following elements: first it is a Cape Town central city by developing, "development in its own right, which may managing and promoting it as a premier or may not be self-sustaining; secondly, a international destination for business, marshalling point for future investment, retail, entertainment and developmentlinvestment and lastly, leisure. Their aim is the improvement of marketing tools for an area or city". the urban environment, while marketing Another role that flagships invest in is the the central city of Cape Town as a exploration and development of globally competitive city with a truly world- marketing concepts for a project and thus class product offering (Relph.1989:2). for a city. When designing the marketing process (figure 76) it is important to weigh the pros and constraints with each other. in which the company is Those will be determined by the demand headquartered); and and the strategy to be followed. Cape Focus on cities rather than Town Global competiviness is about: countries (Farr. 20025)

urce: de Lanae et al. (2001)

I Figure 76: The markebng process

International and national According to a recent survey, undertook perception about the Central by Researches Market Decisions, more business district; Capetonians than ever are shopping, Increase in safety and cleaning banking and wanting to live in the Cape services; central business district. This is mainly Establishing central improvement due to an improved environment for retail districts, thus the taking of trade by increasing both security and product to water; cleansing through the City Improvement Changing in trends such as Districts and marketing initiatives desegregation (major (Weaver. 2002). multinational companies deciding that certain core functions could be conducted in cities there than 9.61 GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT marketing' is needed to accentuate the specific characteristics of urban places. The shared vision that many seek but rarely find belongs not only to the local The characteristics of urban places (as a area of a specific port city or a familiar 'product' comprising a holistic entity urban waterfront but to the global developed from a set of contributory environment we all share (Hoyle. elements), and their management, mean 2000:395). Cities prosper not by copying that marketing is conducted through a imported schematic models, but by complex, interlocking web of formal and playing to their own historical strengths ... informal relationships between various today's policy-makers would do far better agencies responsible for these individual to leam some lessons in fostering civic product elements (e.g. retail provision, pride from what one Victorian author tourism, inward investment etc.). The termed 'the age of great cities' (Hunt. involvement of both public and private 2000:33). A city should be like itself. sector urban stakeholders is crucial. Every city has differences, from its Indeed, such joint working may be a history, to its site and so on. These are precondition for marketing agencies' important. One of the most dismal things ability to attract funding for their activities is when you go to a city and it is like from various national and supranational twelve other you have seen (Steigerwald. funding regimes. However, the building of 2001:48). Cities are made up of a consensus between stakeholders with complex mix of physical, economic and potentially very different outlooks, social resources. A successful business organisational cultures, modus operandi, sector is only one element, thus a viable and methods of evaluating performance business community in a city does not in order to plan and implement marketing mean that everybody is provided for. activities is a factor that most for-profit organisations would not have to contend with. The potential for tension and conflict 9.71 CONCLUSION is very real, and various examples of tensions were provided by respondents. As stated previously, there is a degree of Another crucial factor is the financial consensus that a 'special type of imperative. This impact critically on the ability of agencies to plan and implement marketing programmes. Investigation of these implications is an area that has been unduly neglected by management, yet the potential scope for research is huge, and is set to grow as place marketing continues to become an increasingly important activity for many urban places. CHAPTER 10 10.1 THE ECONOMIC CITY targeted to siteslzones and expressed via projectslenterprises (Healy et al. 1992: 18)

Wilheim (2002) states that South Africa is a place and a "context in which it is possible to make or remake a living, to 10.11 INTRODUCTION gmw both economically and socially". The Mayivuka project was one of the pilot People believe that if they solve the projects to 'resuscitate' Johannesburg 'problem' of traffic, the city problems (Radebe. 1999). Radebe (1999) added would be solved, but there are many that the economy impacts on every more economic and social concerns to a aspect of human life and is thus having a city than just the traffic (Jacobs. 1979). major impact on urban regeneration. One of the most important factors in Flagships are seen as one of the projects 'keeping the city alive' is that of money. to commit economic regeneration. This Money makes the world go round. The however is only mirages. The dream of instruments involved in economic flagships in the centre of town, where all regeneration are those that of local the money goes, but when you get there, economic development, urban agriculture there is nothing going on, as was seen in and enterprise zones. Cities do not the case of the proposed Pretoria lake automatically generate diversity just by development. "The economic activity level existing; they generate it because of the is influenced by the changing patterns of various efficient economic pools of use demands from occupiers in a region (user that they form (Jacobs. 1979:160). demand), thus developing new demands or different demands" (Healy et al. 10.21 ECONOMIC 1992:6).- REGENERATION Galeshewe, Kimberly

The urban regeneration strategies that Galeshewe is one of the 'labour exist throughout the world is targeted to reservoirs' created by the apartheid locallurban economies, via property regime. This area is located within the development, through private enterprises area of the Sol Plaatje Municipality (Kimberley) and has the common traits of renewing Galeshewe, the implementation 'townships' in South Africa. The principles process has to be peopledriven. The for the development summed up by the community can contribute in ensuring the Galeshewe regeneration force is to: sustainability of their urban environment, the policing of their streets and in the "Create effective participation provision of labour during construction of and integration into the urban specific projects. A sense of ownership fabric and society of Sol Plaatje, and pride need to fostered, through to ensure economic and social involvement of the community in activities for the upliftment of establishing a pleasant urban society; environment. To create economic areas that Creating sustainable local districts allow for wealth creation, increases levels of safety such as local employment and skilled people active in their daily lives that keep occupations; streets safe. Local districts promote To create social and safety through community and not safety psychological characteristics through isolation. This is a much more includes privacy, a sense of sustainable method of achieving the goal place, ownership and pride; and of a secure living environment. This security promotes confidence to To create an environment that developers to invest, making Galeshewe allows society to be caught within more sustainable. A contribution to the a 'future time orientation' or an quality and safety of the environment can ability to plan for the future in the be made by facing buildings towards the knowledge that their present day street. A vital component of public safety living conditions will improve" is the level of activity on the street as well (van der Molen, et al,. 2002). as directly adjacent to where people walk.

Streets are vibrant when they are Van der Molen et al (2002) futher add interesting and safe. They are safer when that no implementation would be possible people inside can watch over those if the local community were not involved. outside. They are more safe when those To achieve any level of success in outside feel some contact with people in the adjacent building. The ground floors the innercity, attracting other business to of buildings should be active with come as well, thus filling the gap. entrances and windows opening directly onto the street. If buildings have a It is believed that crime is a reaction to positive relationship with the street, with unemployment, this is however the start activity at ground floor, the public realm is of a cycle because crime creates made active and therefore safer. unemployment. In the 1980s Miami suffered a sharp decline in investment 10.31 CRIME AND ECONOMIES when the crime rate caused many residents to relocate outside the city. This "City centres need more than shoppers called for something to be done (Lewis. and leisure visitors, they need residents 1999:62). Today, due to the success of to make them safe, vibrant areas, and the economic regeneration programme, this can be achieved if people can be people are flocking back. persuaded that central inner cities are

attractive places in which to live and Less crime means safer evening hours work. This is the challenge" (Oc. and, as a result more time for activities 2000:364). Many social scientists have ranging from summer camps to sewing thought that alleviating poverty will classes or just the traditional shopping alleviate crime. However, in the early 21* and thus contributing to the economy century, this thesis stands on shaky (Lehrer. 2000:91). Lehrer (2000:91) also ground since it is a controversial issue believes that in neighbouhoods and many people do not acknowledge community organizations provide more the link between poverty and crime seivices when crime decreases. Safer (Lehrer. 2000:91). Lehrer states that neighbouhoods enable residents to nearly half of innercity entrepreneurs spend more time participating in believed perceptions of crime kept community activities to focus on issues business out of the inner city, while other than crime. In addition people with around a quarter cited crime itself as a middleclass values feel their position major consideration. From this one can strengthened when crime rates fall. assume that if crime falls, the new profit seeking businesses would come back to Alexandra, Gautenq current levels at the end of the 7 year period. According to Mkhalali (2002) it will be achieved through: The Alexandra Renewal Project seeks to fundamentally upgrade living conditions "Increasing operational and human development potential within equipment and human Alexandra by substantially reducing resource capacity for the levels of unemployment through local police and emergency economic development initiatives. The se~ices; project will also create a clean and Supporting the establishment healthy environment through service of an effective metropolitan provision (Mkhalali. 2000). The Alexandra policing presence in the Renewal Project seeks to stimulate Alexandra area; incomegenerating opportunities for the economically active population of Reviewing and if necessary Alexandra, so as to reduce supporting the upgrading of unemployment by 20 per cent or more the criminal justice system's within 7 years. In this way it is envisaged capacities in relation to the that poverty in the area will be Alexandra area; substantially reduced through local Reviewing and upgrading the economic development initiatives such as disaster management plan; adult training classes and better community involvement in improvement Enhancing community projects. It is also the aim of the project to involvement in safety and work against the crime in the area security; through funds generated through the Undertaking an education economic projects. campaign to encourage a

The Alexandra Renewal Project seeks to respect for life and support of create a safe and secure environment the policing services and with sufficient policing, criminal justice emergency services; and and emergency services equipment and capacity, so that rates of serious crime and violence are at least 50% below the Providing sensitive and in and around the domes, for example sufficient victim support plant vegetables. They always try to services" create a positive and innovative approach to housing homeless people. Dome Villaae. Los Anaeles

Initiated by Ted Hayes, Justiceville was born in January 1985 during the time of a conservative controlled Federal govemment. It began as a shantytown in the heart of Central City East, (Skid Row) that was kept tidy and organised by 74 or 75 residents of men, women, children, of ethnic diversity. The Dome Village resulted because of the difficulties of finding appropriate housing and not sleeping on the streets. Figure 77: The Dome Village is built on an unused parking lot with temporary house structures on it. I The architectural structure of Dome Village is a powerful visual statement forcing all who see it to confront The Blue IQ is a multi-billion rand inhumanity. Dome Village offers a initiative of the Gauteng provincial structural alternative for homeless govemment to invest in "economic people. The domes, built with funds infrastructure development in identified donated by the public are used as a mega-projects in the areas of tourism, stabilizing tool to provide affordable technology, transport and high value- transitional housing which is non- added manufacturing" (Johannesburg threatening to the chronic homeless City Council. 2003). The majority of these person or to the neighbouring projects are located in Johannesburg, community. The domes are maintained and the rest in Midrand and Pretoria. by a team of people living there, they also serve as a selection panel that approves new residents. The residents must work The result of the strategies of the Blue IQ formerly disadvantaged South Africans project is to promote the Gauteng (Johannesburg City Council. 2003) province as a true technology haven. The strategies are aimed at:

creating high value-added manufacturing - a shifl away from heavy industries to smart industries;

enabling Gauteng to be the smart Figure 78: Battery Park is seen as an example province of South Africa thus of waterfront developments. This well planned - development sewed as a save haven for creating an environment where businesses can thrive; and Batterv Park. New York developing Gauteng's service

sector - uplifling the financial The land was originally an open area establishments. reserved for the batteries of cannon used to protect the city - first by the Dutch, Several projects are proposed and some later by the English and eventually by have already started. The upgrading of Americans, thus the name Battery Park. Kliptown and the Johannesburg Unusually, and significantly, the master International Airport are just huo of them. plan focuses on public places. "The aim In seeking to attract private sector has been to 'create' another business partners for its projects, Blue IQ neighbourhood in the New York is especially aware of the need to recruit vernacular, and afler the collapse of the empowerment business entities for World Trade Centre, this was even more participation. Blue IQ recognises that the substantiated" (Hunt. 2001). Battery Park success of the programme as a whole was developed on a cleared site and also and of the individual projects will to a creating a waterfront. The once run down large extent be determined by the level of area was successfully regenerated, and commitment to small and medium also served as a haven for businesses enterprises managed and controlled by during the 9-11 attacks. The rubble from the Twin Towers was also used to problems of the poor, and especially the complete the Battery City Project. worsening conditions of the urban poor; increasing urbanisation, (Fao. 2003) especially in the developing world; 10.41 URBAN AGRICULTURE recognition of non-market values produced by enjoyment of gardening and 'Urban agriculture' is often viewed as an attractive surroundings; and concerns oxymoron. The city displaces agricultural about environmental pollution and health land; it does not create it or so risks posed by food production in the conventional wisdom would suggest. Yet, cities. 'Peri-urban agriculture has also in cities around the world, 'urban been the focus of distinct interests: those agriculture and a city's role in supporting concerned with preserving farmland, it, has gained new prominence" (Wekerle. especially in the developed world; and 2002:17). Urban agriculture, in one form also those interested in community self- or another is a fairly common feature in sufficiency and sustainable agriculture" urban areas around the world. It fulfils a (Nugent. 1997:l). variety of roles, being a basic "element of survival in some cities and an important "Urban"agriculture, as used here, refers form of recreation in others" (Greenhow. to small areas (e.g. vacant plots, 1994) gardens, verges, balconies, containers) within the city for growing crops and

International bodies are advocating raising small livestock or milk cows for bringing agriculture back into towns and ownconsumption or sale in cities, because urban agriculture can neighbourhood markets. "Peri-urban" improve food security, regenerate the environment and strengthen the urban economies. Urban farming in modem African cities is largely unrecognised and unassisted and in some places banned because of hygiene (Fao. 2003). Several factors have brought attention to the Figure 78: A moftop Garden in Toronto. existence of urban and peri-urban Awareness is created by the public through communitv education and media awareness. agriculture in recent years: the persistent agriculture, as used here, refers to farm The negative views of urban agriculture units close to town which operate are that the environment steadily intensive semi- or fully commercial farms degrades owing to the waste which is not to grow vegetables and other horticulture, managed efficiently. Constraints of waste raise chickens and other livestock, and reuse urban farming is that health is produce milk and eggs (Fao. 2003). critical and the official attitudes (Okpala. roof to^ Garden Toronto 1999:21). In Dares-Salaam urban farming is the largest employer in the city. This organisation aims to create a rooftop In Lusaka, Zambia, urban farming is so gardening culture in Metropolitan Toronto effective that the city has been described through public, education, community as the 'world capital of urban cultivation' action and media awareness. The group (Okpala. 1999:21). is made up of landscape architects, designers, engineers and urban planners (Fao. 2003). The group are committed to Contributions of urban agriculture are that making Toronto's environment a greener it has the potential to provide many and healthier place to live through benefits to cities such as income supporting urban food production generation and environmental improving air quality increasing bird enhancement (Greenhow. 1994). Thus habitats and promoting diverse use of the ecosystem benefits from "hydrologic space. To this end they partner with systems, biodiversity and air quality that community groups such as schools food can replace some of what the urban security organisations, fledging systems destroy" (Nugent. 1997:4). enterprises and public housing initiatives Urban agriculture also promotes to help design build and maintain rooftop sustainable development by reducing the gardens. The group involve the public by vulnerability of the world's urban producing a map of moftop gardens in populations to global ecological change Toronto and then conduct tours of the (Rees. 1997). City farming improves the urban rooftop landscape and maintain a aesthetics of the city by increasing the list of professionals with expertise in 'green spaces' in an otherwise concrete building rooftop gardens (Fairholm. J. landscape and also provides recreational 1998). opportunities for those who work the land (Nugent. 1997). The youth are involved in the process and many unemployment contaminated. There is also ecological issues can be solved, the youth will see a degradation (soil depletion, potential better quality of life and not tum to the groundwater contamination). Financial streets. The solution to youth problems is issues such as the infrastructure W 0 R K. They acquire self-esteem, stay requirements or retooling of existing busy, feel useful, leam self-discipline and systems (Fao. 2003). earn money. Gardening has been found by San Antonio, Texas to be the most 10.51 LOCAL ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT effective solution to the youth gang problem. It is much more effective than In the early 1980s, in response to sports. Records show that afler students growing problems of unemployment are involved in gardening that their school caused by economic restmcturing and attendance, morale and grades improve. industrial decline in old industrial areas, a Gang activity decreases sharply in number of United Kingdom local neighbourhoods where the youth are authorities, in London, the West Midlands engaged in gardening. Mini-ranching will and Yorkshire especially, began to initiate be even more effective with some youth new Local Economic Development and it can be done in the city initiatives (Geddes. 1999). (Hargesheimer. 2000). It is possible, through urban agriculture, to restore In many poor areas, the promotion of organic nutrients to the soil and continue community economic development has to utilize them to produce the food assumed increasing importance as a needed for urban consumption. By complementary strategy to mainstream reusing waste to increase local food Local Economic Development policies production, cities move towards a (Macfarlane, 1997). The promotion of co- measure of sustainability (Nelson, 1996: operatives and community enterprise, 14). Other contributions of urban credit unions, intermediate labour market agriculture can be income to the schemes, local exchange and trading producers and the employment of of low- systems and support for informal skilled or unemployed residents. economic activity are seen by some as steps towards a more significant 'third Urban Agriculture has inherent health sector' or 'social economy' distinct from risks in that drinking water become either the public or private sectors" (Bauhaus Dessau Foundation. 1996). In In her book 'World Class: Thriving Locally particular, comrnunity businesses have in the Global Economy', Harvard been established to provide services Professor Moss Kantor (12) notes how: such as housing renovation and "..increasingly, the daily skirmishes of environmental improvements in globalisation are being played out not at depressed neighbourhoods, thus creating international summit conferences or in local employment while meeting needs. conglomerate boardrooms, but in local town halls and small business conference Shearman (19985) states that in the rooms. A new wave of social concerns context of globalisation and international and a growing desire for comrnunity spirit markets, locality and 'place' are assuming have come in the wake of economic increasing not diminishing significance. change. Once focused primarily on the The following key factors must be competitiveness of large business achieved in realising competitiveness: corporations, leaders are more and more Concepts, Competences, Connections, concerned about the strength of Community, Creativity, Culture, Content, communities and the competitiveness of Capital, Capacity and Courtesy" (the 12 cities, states and regions." Cs as stated by Shearman. 1998). Communities are important but they must Globalisation, Kanter suggests, offers be open to new people and ideas, and unprecedented opportunities on the local find a way too of reconciling differing level - to rejuvenate old businesses and interests, needs, values and lifestyles. grow new ones, to create new jobs-to This is a point which will be explored revitalise communities and to develop the when looking at the 10 'Cs'. 'The cosmopolitan towns and cities of the economic activity of land and property future. This process though is a two-way development is ultimately locked into this street. At the very least, businesses must contemporary dialectic between become more actively involved in their globalising and localising forces" (Healy, communities, and communities must et al,. 1992:6). actively develop those amenities and resources that will encourage global businesses to feel at home - and to stay there. South Africa's return to the global economy in the 1990s has exposed its society and space economy to the twin corporations, Americanisation and forces of globalism and localism. The gradual cultural homogenisation, simultaneous democratisation of our globalisation has come to affect all society has sanctioned previously nations on earth to a greater or lesser unknown levels of public participation in degree. However, whilst the notion of planning and development. One of the national borders has become more fluid, most obvious manifestations of these in many instances the notion of the changes is the rise in prominence of the 'localness' of social, class and concept known as 'local economic employment issues and conflicts has Development' or Local Economic drawn increased support (Massey, 1991). Development (Nel. 2000:148). Although Local Economic Development is a difficult Local Economic Development is concept to define, Local Economic mediated in South Africa and elsewhere Development - type ideas are now by local crises and opportunities. In cities, enshrined in the national Constitution and according to Rogerson (1997), Local various important policy documents in Economic Development can develop South Africa, including the along four distinctive lines: Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) and the Local cities as centres of production, Government White Paper. Hence Local i.e. the promotion of business Economic Development is progressively and manufacturing, featuring in the actions of community and cities as centres of consumption, nongovernmental organizations and in i.e. the promotion of leisure, the sanctioning and support of Local tourism and recreation activities,

Economic Development by provincial and 0 cities as centres of information national. processing and decision making, i.e. corporate headquarters, high- Globalisation has been relentlessly on the technology and information march, particularly after the 'historical industry, and divide' of the 1970s (Martin,1988). cities as centres for govemment Together with the associated ever surplus, i.e, centres which seek expanding hold of multi-national govemment investment and functions to drive their local catalyse and support local economies. initiatives.

Four variants of Local Economic It is, however, important not to focus only Development currently feature in South at one end of the spectrum. People do Africa (Nel, 1998): not have to be poor or unemployed to aim projects at them. There is a huge Formal local govemment advantage that can be taken from the initiatives, which parallel technology and industrial sector. The traditional westem thinking and, money that is generated from them can to a large degree, overlap with then be ploughed back in the community, government thinking on the topic thus making it more sustainable over the as detailed in its Local long run. Government White Paper. Eastem Belfast Community-basedlsmall town initiatives which often develop as Many government-inspired initiatives and a result of nongovernmental fiscal incentives aimed at encouraging organisation facilitation and urban regeneration have resulted in 'top support. Overlap with the down' imposed solutions. These include government's Rural Development Urban Development Corporations which, Framework (Republic of South in spite of being successful in many AfricaSA, 1997) is evident. respects, can be criticised for failing to Section 21 development provide local residents with the types of corporations, i.e, companies that employment and facilities which they promote local development within require (Syms. 2000). Another example a selected spatial area, but 'not may be seen as Enterprise Zones. Some for gain'. of these, for example London Docklands, 'Topdown' Local Economic produced an over supply of office Development in which accommodation which could only be tilled govemment, usually at the through the developers agreeing to provincial level, andlor various accept responsibility for the existing lease national organisations attempt to of the tenants they tempted out of linkages, important functions in our urban existing office locations. environments which require a redefinition of responsibility and urban quality.

Community led regeneration, on the other Currently, we are in a destructive cycle - hand, seeks to identify the needs of the infrastructure does not evolve due to local community and to involve the inadequatelmismanagement of funds, community in the regeneration process, congestion increases, the public adopting a 'bottom-up' approach. This is environment visibly declines, illegal of particular importance in areas which activity proliferates in this decayed are unattractive to conventional environment, local govemment has developers, perhaps because they suffer insufficient resources to tackle these from extreme social deprivation or, in the issues, private sector tries but gives up case of Belfast, sectarian violence. In because of delays. Nothing but slow such situations private sector developers erosion and degradation takes place, may be unwilling to become involved in threatening values and the cities' rates regeneration even with government base. All this ultimately ends up as Poor subsidies. City.

10.61 CONCLUSION

If one wants to improve the regional environments we must also improve ourselves, that is, we must change our minds and alter our objectives, advancing from a money economy to a life economy: in many matters we must acquire new values, new sensitivities and new interests (Mumford. 1968:13).

Improvement Districts provide a chance to find local solutions by making places safer, cleaner and more vibrant, empowering people and improving CHAPTER 11 11.1 CONCLUSIONS Thmugh the case studies it was shown that:

Several negative changes have been occuning in South Africa in recent years; due to a lack of South African 11.I] INTRODUCTION identity, it was found that there needs to be to be a coherent The objective of this study was to identity and image for city investigate possible strategies for urban centres; regeneration by using theory and case there is a need for development studies to determine how they could be that insures a positive impact on implemented in South Africa. Several important public sites, as public factors that affect the sustainability of places were found to be the urban areas have been identified and the catalyst for urban social and relevance on South African urban areas economic life; was investigated. It is within the context South Africa's urban areas need of this study that the following strategies to retain its position as a major are recommended for urban regeneration focus of the regional economy in South Africa. and invite the global arena of 11.21 SUMMARY OF ISSUES technology into its urban areas; IDENTIFIED it was identified that the marketing influence of other cities The results of the literature study, case and non-urban areas has study reviews and investigation into become increasingly competitive; South African urban areas were drawn the city must maintain the ability together in a series of key issues to be to offer a high quality of life to its addressed by the strategies. These are residents and sustain it without set out below, firstly as contextual issues, urban decay taking place; followed by strengths, weaknesses and city centres lack social and constraints. cultural activities and therefore need to develop a sense of 11.3.21 THE ROLE OF PUBLIC place; and PARTICIPATION IN SOUTH AFRICA development should be based on

sustainable principles. The idea behind public participation is that it creates the feeling of working together for the good of the community 11.31 THEMES IN URBAN thus a feeling of "ubuntu". It is based on REGENERATION STRATEGIES a bottom up approach that includes all spheres of government and the public. In 11.3.1] ACKNOWLEDGING THE Europe and America the process is CITY implemented with great success. In South Africa the process has not yet been what Gften when travelling into South African it should be. Although public participation urban areas no notification is given to the has been introduced to the public, not effect that a viewer may be entering an much awareness is created among the urban area. Although it can be seen by publics and where there should be the change of the landscape, it is not participation, there is little. widely celebrated. By recognising where gateways into the central area exist or The problem in South Africa is that the should be created, development and idea behind public participation is noble, physical re-structuring can be but taking into account its history and encouraged. Gateway components such status quo, it is not working. Due to the as celebrated entrances, landmarks such current educational differences between as waterfalls should aim to: provide people in the South African society, identity and meaning to the anival communication gaps often develop experience (clearly crossing a threshold between the public and the of scale), exhibit an intensity of the developerlgovernment. The academic desired activity and exploit the role of view on public participation is that it is a bridges, structures and architecture to necessity, and the answer to public provide a distinctive focus or transition integration, yet due to cultural differences that reinforces the identity of the city. in South Africa it is not always practical because of the conflicting issues adding 11.3.31 TARGETING THE to the problems of illiteracy. CULTURAL MARKET

The goals of the people involved Culture is the shared values of a (govemment and public) are also not community as manifested by its lifestyle, always the same and can cause conflict. habits and activities, which evolved over The government may see something that generations. South Africa, as with any is necessary and consider it to be the other country in the world, has a variety right initiative, whilst, the public may not of cultures. Various attempts have been necessarily buy in to that process. This made to introduce the public to other can delay the process or even cause it to cultures and to respect them. However, to fall apart resulting in the combine different cultures and enforce developerlgovemment doing what they them on people is a route less taken. As originally wanted to do in any case, or stated earlier, culture is passed from one just abandoning the proposed project or generation to another. Culture cannot be idea. It must, however, be noted that this changed overnight. Yet, there is no need can also take place the other way around for separate development strategies, because the government is not always rather develop places that cater for each right. individual. This may be a difficult process, but South Africa needs to develop a An effort should be made to implement South African identity, with which public participation in the process of everybody can identify because at this urban regeneration, but only to an extent. stage there is no common identity. It should be remembered that illiteracy is

an important fact in the South African Plato argued that there are three classes society, especially at grassroots levels (bronze, silver and gold) in a society and and that it has to be taken into account that this cannot be changed. It has been when projects and ideas are implemented argued throughout this study that a in such communities. change in the urban environment or on the factors affecting it, creates problems such as urban decay or violence in the urban environment. South Africa must accept the fact that there are classes and transportation links need to be that the phenomenon will be with us for a established between areas that provide long time to come. All efforts should be employment and areas that offer made to improve the situation. However, employment. The city must be viewed as it is the role of planners to identify the a house and all its rooms need to be different cultures that exist in our society developed. It does not help if it is cold and promotes each and everyone's outside and one mom's window cannot identity to develop a framework in which close. To improve the low-income areas' every citizen's culture is identified and infrastructure or its transportation links to respected. It is part of the planner's duty the other areas of the house is vital. to include these different identities in the Nothing can be gained by ignoring certain entire urban fabric. areas. Rather improve conditions in such areas and improve accessibility to them Community development is one of the in order to improve their inhabitants' duties of the planner in South Africa general living conditions. because it is important for sustainable development. Due to the country's history 11.3.51 ENRICHING THE PUBLIC the education and social structures were REALM not up to the required standard for all communities which caused the widening of the gap between rich and poor. It is up High quality development has the to every citizen of South Africa to strive to potential to add value to its surrounding close this gap by standing with their areas by virtue of views, openness and communities and thus promoting general amenities they provide (added community development. value). However, in South Africa this does not get the full attention it deserves. 11.3.41 RESCUE INFRASTRUCTURE This 'added value' from such an important townscape development The legacy of apartheid lefl a physical relationship is underplayed in urban mark on South Africa's towns and cities. parks, for example, where buildings turn Townships are placed on the outskirts of their backs on the areas. The building cities that usually house the poor and should invite the park as well as its where employment is hard to find. Better visitors to broaden their urban The Reserve Bank, Table Mountain and experience. the Durban Golden Mile.

11.3.61 LANDMARKING URBAN AREAS

Figure 80: Durban's Golden Mile is not to the standard it is set to ba. New developments around the mile will, however contribute to the scenic beauty of the area. I

As already mentioned, landmarks are an important component of a city's identity and provide a means of recognition, orientation and navigation to the visitor and inhabitant alike. This is sometimes referred to as the city's 'legibility' (how the Pretoria's best assets, however, high crime is a threat to the possible tourist. The SAPD plays city is read by people on the ground) and forms an important part of what 11.3.71 DECORATE! determines its legibility. The recognition and enhancement of landmarks or The role of art (decoration) should be buildings should be explored to reflect seen as a major attribute to any urban both their historic role and perceptual area. Art should not be seen as importance within the city. In South something that certain classes enjoy and Africa, landmarks are especially in need it should be used as way to integrate of attention. Examples of these are the different cultures. By and large, public art Union Building, Voortrekker Monument, has never really enjoyed a special University of South Africa, Ponti Tower, significance amongst South Africans. Public art is very often vandalised. The public needs to be sensitised to case studies were identified in these appreciate the role that art can play in chapters to distinguish possible strategies civic improvement and the creation of an to assist the urban regeneration process identity for the city. In essence, public art in South Africa. Through the use of must be made public. Developments several strategies a prac-topia can be should be more focused in including art reached. It must be mentioned that a as a vital element in any regeneration utopia will in essence never be achieved, process. Artists of the surrounding areas but strategies can be used in climbing the should be involved in public art processes steps towards an utopian society. There since the money given for their work is are six elements to a complete prac- ploughed back into the area. When topia. applying art elements to urban areas it is 11.4.11 THE FRAGMENTED CITY thus important that it is universal to the area and not making the urban area foreign to its inhabitants. To forget about the past and move onto the future is one of the most difficult goals to achieve in the process in reconciliation 11.41 UTOPIAN STRATEGIES under all circumstances even, more so in South Africa. South Africa is a country To reach the ideal modem South African trying to find its own identity while trying prac-topia is not as simple as it seems, to gain international recognition. since the desired utopia for the individual Proposed strategies for urban citizen will never be completely achieved regeneration include: in the collective domain. However, it was an important objective of this study to 0 promoting the establishment of a identify those strategic elements of the urban regeneration pmcess that could true culturally acceptable South help creating economically, socially, African identity by integrating the environmentally and institutionally attributes of all the cultures into sustainable urban areas in South Africa. one; 0 developing a comprehensive

This study is based on several achievable urban regeneration plan for all utopias such as the fragmented city, the urban areas in South Africa by green city and the culture city. Several not considering some areas more without sufficient action. To solve the important than others; problems action must be taken. establishing an Urban Task 11.4.21 THE GREEN CITY Force network, similar to those found in England and Australia; placing more emphasis on urban Green areas are the lungs of urban regeneration policies and areas. They are the communication legislation; facilitator of social networks - or so they investigating the potential of should be. In South Africa this is not the urban regeneration legislation case. Green areas are often not well and its potential outcome; and maintained, usually frequented by developing set regulations for prostitutes, drug pushers and other slum areas and setting up dangerous elements. Strategies for preventive measures such as urban regeneration include: economic and social programs to prevent further decay in urban re-implementing the boulevard areas. idea of Howard wherever possible in urban areas

The positive impact of urban regeneration surrounded by concrete towers to is not widely acknowledged in South bring life (green) back to the city; Africa and more investigation is needed implementing park regeneration in this area. In 1999 at a conference at programmes to focus on parks in the Carlton Centre in Johannesburg, Jeff urban areas and identifying their Radebe, Minister of Public Enterprises in needs and advertising their South Africa spoke of the positive effects usefulness; of urban regeneration and reasons for it. establish a 'park police' force to Two years later, decay set in in this patrol parks; centre which was taken over by drug reinforcing connections to lords. Possible action is currently being existing open spaces in urban considered to restore the centre to its areas; former glory. This is, however, a clear making people understand that example of South Africa's dilemma, safety is one of the most solving urban problems through words important aspects of sustainable open spaces and that attention visitors during holiday seasons. However, should be given to this aspect by many inhabitants may see their city as at all levels of government; being pretty, although outsiders may not treating parks as ecological share similar sentiments. Inhabitants of a conservation zones; and city must feel that their surrounding areas identifying valuable open spaces are as they want it. Strategies for urban and establishing an natural edge regeneration include: around them, ensuring that no potentially degrading applying the South African development takes place on identities to art features; them. developing urban design criteria that will promote the social and The potential positive influence of open cultural well-being of the area spaces in urban areas has yet to be and thus promoting it as a discovered in South Africa. At the destination as well; moment, parks are oflen regarded as establishing projects that will potential development sites. The assist upcoming artists to romanticism of green areas that had explore the urban fabric; existed in the past is gone. Parks seem to setting measures in implementing have become areas of concern and a sustainable historic places of money wasting for the preservation of buildings; government. It is important that the promoting the graffiti landscape; usefulness of green areas in the city improving the image of art in needs to be rediscovered. public places; and implementing sustainable programmes for art that include 11.4.31 THE PRETTY CITY the feelings and values of its inhabitants. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder. Generally there are only a few cities in Good design is difficult to achieve, but the world that are regarded as beautiful. achieving sustainable good design is They are oflen promoted as tourist even more difficult. It is up to authorities destinations and are widely frequented by to acknowledge that design can help ensuring that the local regenerate urban areas and that art can communities are engaged with play an influential role in the process. the development and management of facilities; defining a hierarchy and network 11.4.41 THE CULTURAL ClTY of public spaces; promoting improved connections The diversity of South Africa's cultures with potential flagships; hold both positive and negative potential ensuring that local people have consequences. It is however, important, the skills and experience to that more emphasis is placed on the compete for the jobs that such positive side of the diversity. Strategies investments create; and for urban regeneration include: attracting international, national or regional events which have acknowledging all cultures in visitor potential and which will South Africa and implementing contribute directly to growth in programmes in promoting these tourism. cultures;

establishing universal cultures for To identify the South African universal South Africa; culture is not easy, but it is attainable. developing youth controlled The influence of the improvement of projects such as art projects or urban culture can contribute to an educational fares; evening urban economy thus bringing reinventing the icons of the past back life to the city afler dark, by creating to include the new generation of cultural zones or using existing areas South Africa; such as parks. attracting investment in new leisure facilities to satisfy demand 11.4.5] THE LANDMARK ClTY for increased participation; enabling schemes that provide Marketing the city is one of the most new facilities for public important activities that can happen in a participation in leisure activities; city. The result of marketing can influence other aspects of the city positively too. Effective marketing could create better investment opportunities that can improve the vitality of the city and create employment opportunities. Cities, in many instances contain symbols of historic importance. Such symbols should selve as reminders of past mistakes and as encouragement for future achievements. It is thus important to market these places in the most effeciive manner possible. Strategies for urban regeneration include:

building confidence in urban areas through marketing strategies; developing physical landmarks (art or open spaces) that will attract investment opportunities and tourism; Figure 82, 83 8 84: The different skylines of Johannesburg needs to promoting the skyline of urban be promoted to tourist, since it is a areas to attract investment and of the city (e.g. main mutes and tourism; skyline impacts), potential high developing programmes to value locations, such as enhance the image and legibility waterfronts and areas of urban areas and its citizens; overlooking the parks and searching for appropriate locations which provide or locations for new landmark reinforce local character and features or buildings. These identity; could include main points of establishing sustainable flagship arrival or orientation, areas which projects in all urban areas; and generate or contribute to street level activity, sites which assist raising the competitiveness possibility of better employment position of the city through for urban residents;

several awareness programs enhancing communify such as city marketing through involvement in safety and different media types. security;

Several agencies could be involved in creating incentives for technology marketing the city. Publiclprivate companies to work in urban partnerships are of great importance in areas; this regard. It must be realised that the focus on all areas for possible city is stationary and is dependent on development such as technology; moving elements such as moving vehicles and people. The public sector creating effective participation should promote the city through their and integration into the urban various departments of which tourism is fabric and society to ensure the most important in this regard. The economic and social activities for private sector should also create the upliflment of society; and publiclprivate partnerships and should creating economic areas that thus involve businessmen and designers. allow for wealth creation,

11.4.61 THE ECONOMIC CITY employment, skilled occupations and opportunities.

Money makes the world go round. With City centres need more than shoppers the presence of programmes aimed at and leisure visitors, they need residents improving economic conditions it can be to make them safe and vibrant. This can used to solve the problems of urban be achieved if people could be areas. However, money will not help if it persuaded that city centres are attractive is not spent wisely. The spending culture places in which to live and work. This of South Africa's government needs to be seems to be one of the most important straightened and revisited. Strategies for challenges planners are facing in South urban regeneration include: Africa today. improving existing educational programs to increase the 11.51 CONCLUSION manage it requires the dedication of every inhabitant. Yes, a city has nine lives, and it reinvents itself constantly. But when will the nine lives of South Africa be finished? Are there enough lives left, whilst there are no promises that the urban utopia would ever be achieved?

One can plan for a better future. Whilst the lessons that are learned in our urban areas serve as stark reminders of mistakes and achievements in the past, one should use whatever good there is to dispel the bad. Placing more emphasis on urban regeneration is part of this challenge.

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Figure 13: Reconstruction and Development Pmgrarnrne 1995.

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Figure 34: Cities of To-morrow, by E. Howard

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Figure 37: Website: www.scoMhckler.com

Figure 38: Website: www.probe1t.enclopaedia.comIc5.htm

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Figure 52: Website: www.fiedonia.edu

Figure 53: Website: internet.co.zwl!zifemlHarare%2Otour.htm

Figure 54: Website: web.mit.edulupgrading.html

Figure 55: www.pritchettcaltoons.com

Figure 56: Website: www.oktec.com

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Figure 74: Healy et al. 1993.

Figure 75: Healy et al. 1993.

Figure 76: De Lange et al. 2001.

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Figure 82: www.stoessel.ch/southernnafrica.htm END NOTES

' As in Cronje 2002 Gmup Areas Act " Here ahknown as the RDP Mabin & Smit 1997:216 and UDF 1997 Development Facilitation Act 107 of 1995 "urce: Discussion of The Radiant City by A.C Bridgham " (Hiiman. 1933)

"i Jeff Radebe. 1999. G. Jordaan. 2002 www.ngo.grida.nolsoesaln~08rlissuesI~~:iaIhndex .htm Uwww.sacoast.~wz.ac~azleducationIresour&env ironmentalfacts fi in Sen. 2002:15 fii www.york.ac.uklinstlsei ~ www.york.ac.uklinstlsei w www.ngo.grida.no/soe~alnsoerli~~~es/~~:iaIlindex .htm www.sirs.org.com

*i Statement by Al Gore (then Vice President) in Wright, undated - www.ti.org/autowar.html 4 Nov 2001. Sunday Times 4 Nov 2001. Sunday Times

"i www.free-market.net "www.sirs,org,com

"i www.ctheory.nev$xt-file?pick292 "www.pps.org nv Story extracted from Parker (1999:12] - In Hall. (19901. -AS in Schneider (2001: 2571